09 Pavement Selection

DelDOT Road Design Manual
July 2011 Pavement Selection 9-1

Chapter Nine
PAVEMENT SELECTION

This chapter discusses the general criteria,
procedures and responsibilities for structural
design of highway pavements. In addition there
is information given on the various types of
pavements, pavement rehabilitation techniques,
and other factors that enter into pavement design
and final pavement selection.
For the purposes of uniform and consistent
design practices, the Department has adopted the
criteria and procedures as set forth in the
AASHTO Guide for Design of Pavement Struc-
tures 1993. This chapter briefly reviews the con-
cepts and criteria used. Reference should be
made to the AASHTO Guide for more detailed
information on design procedures, if needed.
The design procedures include the determina-
tion of total thickness of the pavement structure
as well as the thickness of the individual com-
ponents using input parameters specified in the
DARWIN 3.01 computer program. Provision is
made for the design of equivalent alternate
pavement sections, with the selection primarily a
function of availability of materials, comparative
costs, constructibility, and availability to traffic.
The discussion and explanatory material pre-
sented here are intended to give the designer a
general understanding of pavement design con-
cepts, alternative paving treatments, and a basic
understanding of the information contained in a
soil survey and pavement design report.
9.1 DESIGN RESPONSIBILITY
The design of pavement structures has some
jointly shared responsibilities between the Mate-
rials and Research (M&R) Section and the re-
sponsible Project Development section. Howev-
er, the primary responsibility for structural de-
sign and final recommended pavement sections
is that of the M&R Section.
9.1.1 SOIL SURVEY/PAVEMENT
EVALUATION REQUEST
There are several elements in the design
process that need to be accomplished before a
pavement section recommendation can be re-
quested from the M&R Section. The project
handoff package will describe the project scope.
If the intent is to construct new pavement or re-
place the existing pavement then a soil survey,
pavement design and pavement type recommen-
dation will have to be requested.
The following should be available when re-
questing borings for a soil survey from Del-
DOTs Geotechnical Engineer and/or corings of
the existing pavement from DelDOTs Pavement
Design Engineer:
preliminary surveys,

Pavement Selection 9-2 July 2011

survey plans with the location of the investi-
gation, including the road name and state
maintenance road number, and any prede-
termined locations marked,
existing right-of-way verified,
Right-of-entry to trespass, if needed,
Purpose of the investigation in order to de-
termine what pertinent information is re-
quired from the cores or the borings.
If a boring is required, the depth of the bor-
ing. If the designer is unsure of depth to
sample, contact the Geotechnical Engineer
for guidance.
Coring and boring requests are typically
processed within 30 days. If a coring and boring
request is received simultaneously, they will be
processed concurrently. If the boring request is
received after the coring request has been com-
pleted, it will be treated as a different request
and will be processed within 30 days of receipt.
For a pavement design, the following infor-
mation is required with the request:
Design year traffic data (AADT)
Design year truck percentages
Weight group pattern of trucks
Directional split
Existing pavement structure (if applicable)
Subsurface investigation report (if applica-
ble)
Description of any existing pavement dete-
rioration
Copies of any existing corings, borings, or sub-
surface condition reports should be provided to
the Pavement Design Engineer when sending the
pavement design request. The Pavement Design
Engineer may elect to have additional corings,
borings, or other investigations performed to
ensure the existing conditions are known and
considered when performing the pavement de-
sign. All information, including the design, will
be forwarded to the designer.
For projects designed by a consultant, the de-
sign consultants must:
Develop the subsurface investigation plan to
have drilling and inspection services pro-
vided under their direction.
Notify the DelDOT Project Manager of the
scope of the subsurface investigation plan
and provide a boring plan sheet(s) to the
Department. The DelDOT Project Manager
will forward the boring plan to the Materials
& Research (M&R) Geotechnical Engineer
Specify to M&R what soil testing is re-
quested.
Inform the Geotechnical Engineer at least 24
hours in advance when drilling and soil
sampling is to begin and provide the name
and phone number of the consultant who is
to receive the M&R soil test information.
Arrange to have the soil samples and copies
of the field logs brought to the M&R lab
within 24 hours after obtaining samples.
The Geotechnical Engineer shall:
Perform, or arrange for, all soil testing re-
quired for the project as requested by the de-
sign consultant.
Furnish completed boring logs and laborato-
ry test summaries to the design consultant
with a copy to the DelDOT Project Manag-
er.
Provide the DelDOT Project Manager regu-
lar weekly updates on the progress of the
drilling/testing programs.
Inform the DelDOT Project Manager when
problems arise and when the testing pro-
grams are completed.
Many projects are initiated with the intent of
extending the service life of the existing pave-
ment section. Rather than rebuilding the entire
pavement, improvements are made in the riding
quality, skid resistance and limited structural
improvements through various rehabilitation
methods. For projects of this type a pavement

evaluation is requested. A pavement evaluation
includes an extensive pavement survey noting
pavement conditions, drainage and major dis-
tress problems. The initial evaluation will de-
termine which rehabilitation method(s) should
be considered. Based upon the alternatives being
considered, it may be necessary to conduct de-
tailed measuring and testing, including coring
and sampling, and accurately determining struc-
tural clearances to any overhead structures. The
final report received by the designer will contain
most if not all this collected field data and will
include the recommended rehabilitation method.
Much of the field data collected can be a very
valuable tool in designing the project.

9.1.2 SOIL AND PAVEMENT DESIGN
REPORT
The M&R Section performs the soil sampling
and pavement coring. This field data is tested in
the laboratory and the results documented in the
form of a Soil Survey. This report includes the
soil profile data summary showing the sample
location, depth, soil profile description, soil
classification and any remarks. The soil samples
are tested and a summary of this analysis is in-
cluded in the report.
Based upon the subgrade soil characteristics,
the report may provide recommendations for
muck excavation, limits of special fill, need for
underdrains, grade adjustments, embankment
construction, the use of geotextiles or other spe-
cial construction considerations.
An important part of the report is the pave-
ment design portion. Using the AASHTO Guide,
the soil survey data, and past experience, the
recommended pavement type and thickness by
components is included in the report. Pavement
sections for shoulders and turn lanes are also
included.
The report may provide an alternate design
including at least one rigid pavement and one or
more flexible alternatives. Project Development
and M&R will meet and mutually agree on
which pavement to use on the project. If neces-
sary, the M&R Section may perform an econom-
ic and life cycle cost analysis or other studies in
making the final determination and recommen-
dation for pavement type and section. For many
projects, only one pavement design recommen-
dation is made.
The Soil and Pavement Design Report should
be evaluated thoroughly and considered as the
design progresses. In the design process signifi-
cant changes in the proposed profile or align-
ment can dramatically affect the pavement de-
sign and need to be discussed with M&R, per-
haps even before such decisions are finalized. In
addition the proposed construction sequencing,
methods of construction and maintenance of
traffic plan can dramatically affect whether the
recommended pavement materials can be placed
in a timely manner and meet the in-place per-
formance quality necessary for the intended ser-
vice life.
9.1.3 PAVEMENT SELECTION
As mentioned in Section 9.1.2, there may be
several choices of structurally equivalent pave-
ments. The choice of pavement, particularly on
reconstruction and new construction is a major
decision and needs to be approved prior to pro-
ceeding with the design.
The factors considered in making the final
decision on pavement type are quite varied from
empirical to subjective and may include several
of all of the following:
Project scopeas initiated,
Cost to construct or rehabilitate the pave-
ment,
Available project funding,
Construction sequencing as it relates to con-
trolling through and local traffic,
Construction sequencing as it relates to serv-
ing commercial areas,


Construction sequencing as it relates to
maintaining quality control of pavement
construction,
Availability of work areas for the paving
equipment,
Projected future traffic control and other
costs to perform maintenance, restoration or
rehabilitation
Minimum desirable service life,
Performance of similar pavements under
similar soil conditions and traffic loadings,
Geotechnical design problems created by the
depth of pavement structure, which could
increase drainage costs,
Effect on underground utilities, and
Effect on existing vertical clearances.
9.2 PAVEMENT TERMINOLOGY
The pavement section is treated as a structur-
al element consisting of several different mate-
rials of varying depths and supporting strengths.
Knowledge of the following definitions and the
terminology as shown on Figure 9-1 is needed to
understand the pavement design and rehabilita-
tion concepts in this chapter.
Base Coursethe layer or layers of speci-
fied or select material of designed thickness
placed on a subgrade to support a surface
course
Bituminous ConcreteA designed combi-
nation of dense graded mineral aggregate fil-
ler and bituminous cement mixed in a cen-
tral plant, laid and compacted while hot.
Bonded OverlayAn overlay of concrete
placed over a Portland cement concrete
pavement.
Flexible PavementA pavement structure
of bituminous concrete that distributes loads
to the subgrade and depends on a firm con-
tinuous subgrade, aggregate interlock, par-
ticle friction, and cohesion for stability.
GrindingPatterns cut into a concrete pave-
ment with closely spaced diamond blades to
restore pavement smoothness and skid resis-
tance.
GroovingPatterns cut in asphalt or concrete
pavements to promote surface drainage to
reduce wet weather hydroplaning.
Micro-SurfacingA polymer modified cold-
mix paving system consisting of a mixture
of dense-graded aggregate, asphalt emul-
sion, water, and mineral fillers.
Modulus of Subgrade Reaction (k)A value
used in rigid pavement design that is the ra-
tio of the load in pounds per square inch [in
kilograms per square mm] on a loaded area
of the subgrade or subbase divided by the
deflection in inches [mm] of the subgrade
soil or subbase, psi/in [kPa]. Typically, k is
adjusted for potential loss of support due to
subbase erosion.
Open Graded MixA special mix, con-
taining aggregate that resists polishing,
placed on the surface course to drain surface
water, improve skid resistance, and reduce
hydroplaning.
Rigid PavementA pavement structure that
distributes loads to the subgrade, having as
one course a Portland cement concrete slab
of relatively high bending resistance.
Pavement MillingThe use of carbide cut-
ting teeth mounted on a rotary drum to chip
off as much 3 to 4 inches [75 to 100 mm] of
asphalt concrete surface.
Pavement StructureA combination of
subbase, base course and surface course
placed on a subgrade to support the traffic
load and distribute it to the roadbed
RecyclingSalvaging and processing por-
tions of existing pavement for use in con-
struction of new pavement structures.
Resilient Modulus (M
R
)A measure of the
essential properties of untreated subgrade
soils through determination of dynamic elas-
tic modulus under conditions that represent a

reasonable simulation of the physical condi-
tions and stress states of subgrade materials
beneath flexible pavements subjected to
moving loads.
Roadbed MaterialThe material below the
subgrade in cuts and embankments and in
embankment foundations, extending to such
depth as affects the support of the pavement
structure.
RoadbedThe graded portion of a highway
between top and side slopes prepared as a
foundation for the pavement structure and
shoulders.
Select MaterialA suitable native ma-
terial obtained from a specified source such
as a particular roadway cut or borrow area
having specified characteristics to be used
for a specific purpose.
SubbaseThe layer or layers of speci-
fied or select material of designed thickness
placed on a subgrade to support a base
course (or in the case of rigid pavements, the
Portland cement concrete slab).
SubgradeThe top surface of a roadbed soil
upon which the pavement structure and
shoulders are constructed.
SuperpaveAn asphalt pavement with a la-
boratory design mix that provides superior
performance.
Surface CourseOne or more layers of a
pavement structure designed to accommo-
date the traffic load, the top layer of which
resists skidding, traffic abrasion, and the dis-
integrating effects of climate. The top layer
of flexible pavements is sometimes called
wearing course.
Ultra-Thin-WhitetoppingAn overlay of
concrete less than 4 inches [100 mm] thick
placed over an asphalt base, usually 2 to 3.5
inches [50 to 90 mm].
WhitetoppingA concrete overlay of an
asphalt pavement of 4 inches [100 mm] or
more.
9.3 PAVEMENT DESIGN
FACTORS
Pavement design methodology for both new
pavements or rehabilitation of existing pave-
ments consider several, if not all, of the follow-
ing factors:
Pavement design life,
Pavement performance,
Traffic volume and vehicle class,
Roadbed soil,
Materials of construction,
Temperature changes,
Drainage,
Reliability,
Life-cycle costs, and
Shoulder design


Figure 9-1
Pavement Terminology


Of these factors, the most influential factors
in determining a pavements required structural
strength are the characteristics of the underlying
roadbed material, the projected traffic volumes
and the percentage and weight of vehicles in the
traffic mix using the facility over the expected
design life of the pavement. The following sec-
tions briefly discuss the factors considered.
9.3.1 PAVEMENT DESIGN LIFE
Each pavement design has a selected design
life. Roadway cross section elements and other
components of the project such as the pavement
structure are expected to remain structurally
sound for a designated period of time defined as
design life. Although the roadway cross section
may become operationally obsolete or the
pavement distressed and in need of restoration or
rehabilitation, they have not reached the end of
their design life but rather have reach the end of
a condition defined as service life. Not until they
need complete replacement are they considered
to have reached the end of their design life.
9.3.2 PAVEMENT PERFORMANCE
The goal of a pavement design is to produce
a pavement that when placed will perform func-
tionally and structurally while maintaining its
safety characteristics for at least the selected
service life.
Functional performance of a pavement identi-
fies how well a pavement will serve the user.
The characteristics identified are riding comfort
and ride quality. This concept is called servicea-
bilty-perfomance and provides a means to meas-
ure functional performance. In the pavement
design procedure, this factor is expressed in
terms of the present serviceability index (PSI).
PSI is a measurement of roughness and distress
of a pavement during the service life of a pave-
ment. Therefore, a reliable method of measuring
roughness and maintaining and updating histori-
cal performance data is an integral part of pave-
ment design. The major factors influencing the
loss of serviceability are traffic, age, and envi-
ronment.
The structural performance of a pavement re-
lates to its physical condition; including occur-
rence of cracking, faulting, raveling, or other
conditions which would adversely affect the
load-carrying capability of the pavement or
would require maintenance.
A pavements safety performance primarily
relates to its ability to provide adequate skid re-
sistance during its service-life but also can be
affected by its ability to maintain a smooth and
rut free surface. Age, traffic, physical properties
of materials used to construct the pavement and
environmental conditions influence a pave-
ments safety performance.
9.3.3 TRAFFIC
Traffic volumes using a facility, in particular
the number and weight class of trucks, is a major
factor in determining how strong a pavement
structure must be. In the design procedure, traf-
fic data is reduced into axle loads, axle configu-
ration, and number of applications of these
loads. The result is a design number representing
the damage done to the pavement caused by the
effect a single axle carrying a load on the pave-
ment over its design-life. For the design calcula-
tions, traffic data is converted into 18-kip [80
kN] equivalent single axle loads or ESALs.
Since it is one of the more important design con-
siderations, accurate traffic data will ensure that
a pavements design life will be attained and the
pavement sections selected will not be over or
under designed.
9.3.4 ROADBED SOIL
The pavement structure rests on a graded and
compacted roadbed either of suitable natural
material or on specified imported material. The
roadbed soil has measurable material characte-
ristics that are used in the pavement design. This
measurement is defined as a soils resilient
modulus (M
R
) and is a measure of the elastic


property of soil. The resilient modulus is used
directly for designing flexible pavements but
must be converted to a modulus of subgrade
reaction (k-value) for the design of rigid pave-
ments or composite pavements. The resilient
modulus is also a soil property used in analyzing
multilayered material systems for predicting
roughness, cracking, faulting, rutting, and other
potential distresses.
The value of a roadbeds resilient modulus is
dependent on how well the roadbed soil is
placed in conformance with the specified com-
paction parameters. For most projects, the ma-
terial is to be placed in accordance with the
Standard Specifications with no special treat-
ment. However, the Soil and Pavement Design
Report may indicate that there is anticipated dif-
ficulty with the existing roadbed soil meeting
the design M
R
value. For soils that are exces-
sively expansive the report may recommend
these soils be covered by select material suffi-
ciently deep enough to reduce or eliminate the
expansive affect of the natural material. Other
solutions may include the adding of an admix-
ture to reduce the water content or the use of a
geotextile.
One of the more difficult soils encountered
on projects are those having a large organic con-
tent. These materials are extremely compressi-
ble, unstable and frequently non-uniform in
properties and depth. These soils are the most
complicated and expensive to deal with in order
to provide an adequate roadbed. Small, shallow
or localized deposits are most often excavated
and replaced with suitable material. Deeper and
more expansive areas involve more detailed geo-
technical design, more complicated construction
techniques and costs. Treatments other than
complete removal are more time dependent al-
lowing for the slow consolidation and removal
of excess moisture. Methods available include
surcharge embankments for preconsolidation of
the underlying material usually involving sand
drains which allow the water to rise to the sur-
face and be removed. The M&R Section is re-
sponsible for identifying and designing the most
economical method treating this type of problem
area.
Underdrains (a system of perforated pipes to
collect and transmit the water to an outfall site)
are recommended for use on all roadway
projects to adequately address drainage and re-
moving water from the roadbed. If site condi-
tions indicate that underdrains may not be re-
quired, contact the M&R Section to initiate fur-
ther investigation.
The soil and pavement condition survey will
normally identify roadbed drainage problem
areas or soils highly susceptible to expansion or
loss of strength with increase in water content.
When either of these conditions exist, the M&R
Section may recommend additional work and/or
materials to address the existing conditions.
Another type of material encountered in con-
structing roadbeds is classified as cohesionless
(sandy) soil and is much more difficult for the
contractor to place and compact; it is readily
displaced under the load of the equipment. To
stabilize this type of soil it may be necessary to
blend granular material or add a suitable admix-
ture. Wet clay soils may also be encountered.
Because of high moisture content this type of
soil is unstable and cannot be compacted. Long
periods of dry weather and exposure to the air
are required to reduce the water content. To re-
duce the time necessary to reuse these materials,
the recommendation may be to add a suitable
admixture that hastens drying or cover the area
with a more suitable select material. Removing
the material and replacing it with suitable ma-
terial allowing construction to continue is an
option. The material may be used in areas that
dont require compaction or moved to an availa-
ble site for air-drying and reuse at a later time.
9.3.5 PAVING MATERIALS
Depending upon materials that comprise a
pavement, the pavement structure is identified as
either a flexible or rigid pavement. Combining
these two types of paving materials in a pave-
ment structure as a subbase or surface course
results in a composite pavement.

9.3.5.1 FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
Flexible pavements consist of a prepared
roadbed with a subbase of graded aggregate or
bituminous concrete and a bituminous concrete
base with a surface course. Properly preparing a
uniform roadbed compacted to the prescribed
density is especially important for providing the
design support value necessary for flexible
pavement to perform as designed.
The subbase course usually consists of a
compacted layer of granular material or an un-
treated graded aggregate. If additional support
strength is needed or the roadbed soil is ques-
tionable either of these materials may be treated
with an admixture. In some instances, the sub-
base may be recommended to be a freely drain-
ing-highly permeable material to provide a
means for water to migrate from under the
pavement structure to the side slopes or to an
underdrain system. The subbase also prevents
intrusion of fine-grained roadbed soils into the
base course, minimizes the damaging affects of
frost action, and provides a working platform for
construction equipment.
The base course is a specified depth of bitu-
minous concrete that is primarily designed to
provide the structural strength needed to support
and distribute the projected traffic loads.
The surface course is a bituminous concrete
mixture placed as the upper course and is usual-
ly constructed on a base course. The surface
course provides some structural strength. How-
ever, the major functions of the surface course
are to provide a smooth riding surface that res-
ists distress, minimizes the amount of water that
may penetrate the lower more porous layers,
provides and maintains its skid resistance for
selected service life. To meet these require-
ments, the surface course mix must have the op-
timum gradation of aggregate and percent of
bituminous binder to prevent raveling, provide
durability, resist fracture, and remain stable un-
der traffic use and adverse climate changes.
9.3.5.2 RIGID PAVEMENTS
Rigid pavements consist of a prepared
roadbed, a layer of subbase material and a Port-
land cement concrete pavement slab. The sub-
base may be either stabilized or unstablized. Al-
though concrete pavements can span failed sub-
grade and subbase areas easier than flexible
pavements, they are still susceptible to damage
and failure from excessive moisture in the sup-
port structure.
The subbase of a rigid pavement structure
consists of one or more compacted layers of
granular or stabilized material placed between
the roadbed and the rigid slab. The subbase
functions to:
Provide uniform, stable, and permanent sup-
port,
Increase the modulus of subgrade reaction,
Minimize the damaging effects of frost ac-
tion,
Prevent pumping of fine-grained soils at
joints, cracks, and edges of the rigid slabs,
and
Provide a working platform for construction
equipment.
The pavement slab is composed of Portland
cement concrete, longitudinal tie steel, load
transfer devices between slabs, and joint sealing
materials.
J oint sealing is a critical element in the long-
term performance of a rigid pavement. Proper
joint sealing prevents infiltration of water under
the slab that reduces the support strength of the
subgrade and reduces pumping action between
slabs caused by the transfer of moving traffic
loads between joints. The vertical movement of
the slabs eventually erodes the subgrade material
through any unsealed joints allowing a slab to
break or settle.
There are two types of joint sealants in use,
liquid sealants and preformed elastomeric seals.
Liquid sealants include a wide variety of mate-
rials including hot-poured rubber, elastomeric
compounds, and polymers. The materials are


placed in the joint in a liquid form and allowed
to set. Preformed seals are extruded neoprene
seals having internal webs that exert an outward
force against the joint face. The size is deter-
mined by the amount of joint movement antic-
ipated.
Transverse joints are needed in a rigid slab to
form cracks at desired locations that can be con-
trolled and sealed. J oints can be keyed, butted or
tied. Transverse joints are sawed or formed to a
depth of one quarter to one third the slab thick-
ness. Timing the saw cutting operation to the
curing of the concrete is critical.
Load transfer devices are used between slabs
and usually consist of smooth round steel do-
wels. The dowels should distribute the load
stresses without over stressing the concrete sur-
rounding it, offer little restraint to longitudinal
movement of the joint, be mechanically stable
under the loads and load frequencies expected
during the design period, and should be resistant
to corrosion from moisture and road salts.
Materials used in the design of shoulders can
be either flexible or rigid. Differences in materi-
al types and the subbase combined with unex-
pected wheel loads along the pavement edge can
cause joint problems. With proper care and at-
tention, this potential problem can be mini-
mized. Solutions include widening the full depth
pavement slab, using tied concrete shoulders,
properly sealing the joint, and ensuring compa-
tibility between subbase materials.
9.3.6 TEMPERATURE CHANGES
Temperature changes affect (1) the creep
properties of asphalt concrete, (2) thermal-
induce stresses in asphalt concrete, (3) contrac-
tion and expansion in Portland cement concrete,
and (4) freezing and thawing of the roadbed soil.
Temperature differences between the top and
bottom of concrete slabs create uneven stresses
on the slab and can be of concern. Temperature
and a poorly drained pavement structure or sub-
grade, although normally not a concern in Dela-
ware, can combine to create freeze-thaw cycles
that rapidly deteriorate the pavement.
9.3.7 DRAINAGE
Keeping the pavement subgrade and soilbed
dry is a major design consideration. Excessive
moisture combined with increasing traffic and
load applications will inevitably lead to prema-
ture pavement distress. Water can enter the
pavement structure from many directions includ-
ing a permeable pavement surface, unsealed or
poorly sealed joints, surface cracks, high water
tables, and even local springs. If water is trapped
within the pavement structure, pavement per-
formance will be affected through loss of sup-
port due to erosion of any granular material and
loss of material strength.
Addressing the problem areas that allow wa-
ter to enter the pavement structure is difficult to
prevent and expensive to correct. In fact it is a
shared responsibility. The pavement designer
should recommend pavement designs that use
dense non-permeable surface courses to reduce
surface infiltration, specify underlying material
courses that freely drain, and a pavement struc-
ture that is strong enough to resist the effects of
the traffic loads and water. The roadway design-
er must ensure proper pavement crown, draina-
ble grade lines, proper ditching and other ade-
quate drainage systems to remove water quickly.
9.3.8 RELIABILITY
Reliability is a method to determine the prob-
ability that a particular pavement design will
perform as desired during its design life. In se-
lecting the appropriate level of reliability, the
pavement designer relates the projected level of
usage to the risks involved if a thinner pavement
section is recommended.
For facilities with higher importance to the
transportation system a pavement design consid-
ers the traffic disruption caused by closing or
restricting traffic flow due to higher levels of
distress, maintenance, and rehabilitation asso-
ciated with an inadequate or a marginal initial

pavement structure. For lesser facilities, it may
be perfectly acceptable and even economical to
use a reduced thickness.
9.3.9 LIFE-CYCLE COSTS
Life-cycle costs are costs and benefits that
accrue during a pavements complete life cycle.
These costs include the initial construction costs,
maintenance costs, rehabilitation costs, resurfac-
ing costs, maintenance of traffic costs, salvage
or residual value and user costs.
As a part of the pavement selection decision,
particularly when more than one pavement de-
sign or rehabilitation procedure is proposed, an
economic comparison may be needed. Two me-
thods are detailed in the ASSHTO Guide to de-
termine life cycle cost comparisons, net present
worth and equivalent uniform annual cost. Whi-
chever method is used, it is essential that the
analysis periods be of equal length.
9.3.10 SHOULDER DESIGN
The inclusion of a shoulder adjacent to the
main pavement structure improves pavement
performance. The AASHTO guide does not pro-
vide a design method for determining the shoul-
der section. The M&R Section recommends a
shoulder section that is compatible with the pro-
posed mainline pavement section, has good con-
structibility and has performed well in the past.
Shoulders are usually designed to carry 10 per-
cent of the projected Average Daily Traffic
(ADT).
9.4 DESIGN FOR NEW
CONSTRUCTION OR
RECONSTRUCTION
Constructing a pavement section is one of the
most costly items on new construction and re-
construction projects. In making a selection on
the type of pavement to construct it is usually
necessary to analyze alternate pavement types
and combinations of various support materials.
In performing the analyses, the AASHTO pro-
cedure requires the pavement designer to pro-
vide input in several categories:
Design variables,
Performance criteria,
Material properties for structural design,
Structural characteristics, and
Reinforcement variables.
9.4.1 DESIGN VARIABLES
A set of design criteria is established for each
project including the pavements expected ser-
vice life (performance period) and projected de-
sign life (replacement). The traffic projection for
the cumulative expected 18-kip [80 kN] equiva-
lent single axle loads (ESAL) during the analy-
sis is determined. The level of reliability is se-
lected and any detrimental environmental factors
identified. There is a heirachy of application of
these variables with the most important road-
ways assigned the most stringent and detrimen-
tal values to a pavements performance.
9.4.2 PERFORMANCE CRITERIA
Performance of a pavement is measured by
its serviceability to the expected users. The con-
cept is to design a pavement, which at the end of
the proposed performance period will still have a
predefined minimum level of serviceability
(PSI). The terminal level of serviceability is se-
lected based on the lowest index the user will
tolerate, or as defined in a pavement manage-
ment strategy before rehabilitation, resurfacing
or reconstruction becomes necessary. DelDOT
typically uses a terminal PSI of 2.5 or 3.0, which
varies based on functional classification and use.
9.4.3 MATERIAL PROPERTIES FOR
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
For the design of flexible pavements, roadbed
materials are characterized based on their effec-
tive elasticity or resilient modulus, M
R
. Their


resilient modulus is determined for periods of
stress and moisture conditions simulated for the
primary moisture season.
For rigid pavement designs, an effective
modulus of subgrade reaction (k-value) is devel-
oped. The k-value is directly proportional to
roadbed soil resilient modulus. However, the
effective design k-value is also dependent upon
the effects of the characteristics of the subbase.
Another important input is the compressive
strength of the materials composing the pave-
ment structure. In the design of rigid pavements,
the modulus of rupture (flexural strength) is de-
termined using the mean value as tested at 28
days. This value is specified in the Standard
Specifications and verified as being consistently
met or exceeded through laboratory records.
In flexible pavement design, the layer coeffi-
cient method is used. Each structural layer is
assigned a layer coefficient value which is the
relationship between the Structural Number
(SN) and thickness of the layer. (See Section
9.5.5.) It is an empirical means to represent the
relative ability of the material to function as a
structural component of the pavement.
9.4.4 PAVEMENT STRUCTURAL
CHARACTERISTICS
Drainage is an important element in the ulti-
mate performance of all pavements. The design-
er assigns a factor that represents the expected
quality of a projects drainage system to minim-
ize moisture intrusion into the pavement struc-
ture.
For flexible pavements, the layer coefficients
are modified to reflect the expected quality of
drainage and percent of time during the year the
pavement structure would normally be exposed
to moisture levels approaching saturation.
For rigid pavement design, the level of drai-
nage is addressed through the use of a drainage
coefficient. This coefficient represents the quali-
ty and effectiveness of drainage systems and the
percent of time during the year the pavement
structure would be subjected to moisture levels
approaching saturation.
For rigid pavements, another structural factor
used is its load transfer ability. Rigid pavements
have the ability to distribute loads across discon-
tinuities, such as joints or cracks and small voids
under the slab. Load transfer devices, aggregate
interlock, and the presence of tied longitudinal
joints and concrete shoulders influence this val-
ue.
Another structural factor applied to rigid
pavement designs is a loss of support value. This
factor accounts for the potential loss of support
arising from subbase erosion and/or differential
vertical movement.
9.4.5 REINFORCEMENT VARIABLES
Rigid pavements may be reinforced with
joints, unreinforced with joints or continuously
reinforced with no joints. The steel reinforce-
ment is used to control transverse cracking.
J oint spacing is particularly important in the
performance of plain jointed pavement. The
spacing is usually much closer than in reinforced
pavements to control cracks due to temperature
and moisture enduced stresses. The slab spacing
selected must also minimize joint movement
thus protecting the aggregate interlock value of
the joint. DelDOT has a standard spacing of 20
feet [6 m] for 12 inch [305 mm] Portland cement
concrete pavement. (See the Standard Construc-
tion Details.)
9.5 STRUCTURAL DESIGN FOR
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
A flexible pavement structure may consist of
three layers, designated as a subbase course, a
base course, and a surface course. A flexible
pavement system distributes the load by particle-
to-particle-contact by interlocking, friction, and
cohesion through its thickness. The surface

course usually consists of a binder course and a
surface course.
The concept of all pavement design proce-
dures is to determine the required structural
thickness based on the projected traffic loading.
Using this as a basis, the most economical and
constructable combination of materials is deter-
mined. For flexible pavements, this consists of
determining the required thickness of the pave-
ments subbase, base, and surface courses.
9.5.1 SUBBASE COURSE
The subbase course is the portion of the flex-
ible pavement structure between the subgrade
and the base course. The subbase insulates the
base and surface courses from frost penetration,
provides a drainage medium, and a layer resis-
tant to erosion and erosion of fine material into
the subgrade. The subbase usually consists of a
compacted layer of granular material, which
may be either treated or untreated. Subbase ma-
terials are either a Soil Cement Base Course,
Graded Aggregate Base Coarse or Borrow Type
A.
This course has a less stringent specification
requirement for strength, plasticity, and grada-
tion. If roadbed materials are of high quality, the
pavement design report may recommend that the
subbase layer be omitted. If the roadbed mate-
rials are relatively poor quality, the design pro-
cedure will indicate that a substantial thickness
of pavement is required. In this case, alternate
designs are usually provided with and without
the use of a subbase. The selection of an alter-
nate may then be made on the basis of availabili-
ty and relative costs of materials suitable for the
base and subbase. By using less expensive mate-
rials in the lower layer of a flexible pavement
structure, the use of a subbase course is often the
most economical solution to construction of
pavements over poor roadbeds.
9.5.2 BASE COURSE
The base course is the portion of the flexible
pavement structure immediately beneath the sur-
face course. The base course is the primary load-
spreading layer. It has to be strong enough to
withstand the shear stresses produced by the
wheel loads, and be incompressible and rigid
enough to distribute the load over the underlying
materials.
Base course material typically consists of a
Graded Aggregate Base Course or Bituminous
Concrete Base Course. A graded aggregate base
course may be crushed stone, crushed slag,
crushed or uncrushed gravel and sand, or other
combinations of these materials. These materials
may also be used treated with suitable stabilizing
admixtures such as Portland cement or asphalt.
Base course specifications are generally more
stringent than for subbase materials in require-
ments for strength, plasticity, and gradation.
9.5.3 SURFACE COURSE
The surface course of a flexible pavement
consists of a wearing course and a binder course
which are mixtures of mineral aggregates and
bituminous materials, placed as the upper
courses and usually constructed on a base
course. In addition to providing a portion of the
pavement structural support, the surface course
must also be designed to resist the abrasive
forces of traffic and weather. They are designed
to be dense enough to minimize surface water
penetrating the pavement. The proper aggregate
selection will provide a non-polishing-skid-
resistant surface, resist rutting and provide a
smooth and uniform riding surface. The success
of a surface course depends to a considerable
degree on obtaining a laboratory mixture with
the optimum gradation of aggregate and percent
of bituminous binder. Open graded mixtures that
provide good surface drainage and skid-
resistance are available for use on high-speed,
high-traffic facilities.


9.5.4 STRUCTURAL NUMBER (SN)
The structural number is an abstract number
expressing the structural strength of pavement
required for a given combination of the effective
resilient modulus, M
R
, of the roadbed soils, the
total equivalent 18-kip [80 kN] single-axle loads
(ESALS), the design serviceability loss, and the
standard deviation and reliability factors. The
AASHTO Guide provides a nomograph for de-
termining this value. The required SN must be
converted to an actual thickness of surfacing,
base and subbase by means of appropriate layer
coefficients representing the relative strength of
the material to be used for each layer.
A design equation is used to solve for the to-
tal required SN for the entire pavement struc-
ture. By solving the equation with the effective
resilient modulus value representative of the
roadbed soil, an SN for the entire pavement
structure is obtained represented by the general
equation:
SN =a
1
D
1
+a
2
D
2
m
2
+a
3
D
3
m
3
Where:
a
1
, a
2
, a
3
=layer coefficients representatives
of surface, base, and subbase course, respective-
ly;
D
1
, D
2
, D
3
=actual thickness, in inches [mm],
of surface, base and subbase courses, respective-
ly (Open-graded surface courses are excluded
from this calculation.) and,
m
2
, m
3
=drainage factors modifying base and
subbase layer coefficients.
The nomograph allows the pavement design-
er to determine the SN and provides a means
through assigning a reliability factor (R) to in-
corporate some degree of certainty into the va-
lidity of the design process. In addition, it allows
for assigning a standard deviation factor, which
accounts for the variance in the projected traffic
capacities and their reliability.
The SN equation does not have a single solu-
tion since many combinations of layer thickness
will satisfy the equation. However, the pavement
designer must use past experience, consider cost
effectiveness and construction and maintenance
constraints in order to avoid an impractical de-
sign.
The design procedure allows for doing a life
cycle cost analysis based upon planned rehabili-
tation. This allows the designer to analyze the
tradeoffs between thickness designs of the initial
pavement structure and any subsequent overlays.
The procedure allows for considering the ad-
verse effects of changing environmental condi-
tions. The objective is to perform an iterative
process to determine when the combined servi-
ceability loss due to traffic and environment
reaches the terminal level.
9.5.5 LAYER COEFFICIENTS
The layer coefficient expresses the empirical
relationship between the SN and thickness, and
is a measure of the relative ability of the material
to function as a structural component of the total
pavement structure.
To design a flexible alternative, the structural
number over the roadbed soil is computed. Then,
the structural numbers for the subbase and the
base layers are determined. Using the differenc-
es between these values, the maximum thickness
of any layer can be computed.
The SN for any combination of courses is de-
termined with the design equation, the layer
coefficients and the proposed thickness of each
course. Alternate designs can be prepared by
varying the thickness. The computed SN should
equal or exceed the required SN determined
from the nomographs in the AASHTO Guide.
The layer coefficients per 1 in [25 mm] of
material have been established for various types
and classes of flexible pavement, base course,
and subbase.


Figure 9-2
Layer Coefficients
Material Type Layer Coefficient
Type C Surface Mix 0.40
Type B Binder
Course
0.40
Bituminous Con-
crete Base Course
0.32
Soil Cement 0.20
Graded Aggregate
Base Course
0.14
Select Borrow 0.08
9.5.6 MINIMUM LIFT THICKNESS
Although the equations allow for a great
number of thickness variations, there are the
practicalities of constructing and maintaining a
facility, which must be considered. Depending
upon the material being placed, there are mini-
mum and maximum limits in the placement
depth that are practical for the available equip-
ment to compact and are economical.
Minimum lift thickness for hot-mix is rec-
ommended to be three times the nominal aggre-
gate size in the mix. Figure 9-3 shows the prac-
tical maximum and minimum lift thickness
(compacted) that are to be applied to the mate-
rials normally used in constructing a flexible
pavement section.
9.5.7 TEMPORARY PAVEMENTS
It is not practical to attempt to follow the
formalized AASHTO procedures for design of
temporary pavements such as needed for detours
during construction. Variations in speed and
ease of placement as well as the anticipated re-
quired service life of the detour significantly
affect the economic justification for the structur-
al design.
When temporary pavements are needed de-
signers should closely coordinate with the M&R
Section in the development of a practical pave-
ment design based on knowledge of local condi-
tions and engineering judgment.
Figure 9-3
Lift Thickness

Type of
Material

Minimum
Lift Thickness

Maximum
Lift Thick-
ness
Type C
Surface Mix
(9.5 mm)
1-inches
[30 mm]
2 inches
[50 mm]
Type B
Binder/Base
2-inches
[60 mm]
3 inches
[75 mm]
Bituminous
Concrete
Base Course
3 inches
[75 mm]
6 inches
[150 mm]
Graded
Aggregate
Base Course
4 inches
[100 mm]
8 inches
[200 mm]
Soil Cement 4 inches
[100 mm]
6 inches
[150 mm]
Select
Borrow
4 inches
[100 mm]
8 inches
[200 mm]
Open Graded 1 inch
[25 mm]
1 inch
[25 mm]
9.6 DESIGN FOR RIGID
PAVEMENTS
Rigid pavements consist of a Portland cement
concrete slab on a subbase course. The design
procedure consists of developing an effective
modulus of subgrade reaction based on subbase
treatment and thickness, determine the slab
thickness, allowing for any stage construction,
adjusting for adverse environmental conditions,
determining type of joints, joint sealant, and the
required reinforcement.


9.6.1 SUBBASEEFFECTIVE MODULUS
OF SUBGRADE REACTION
Before the slab thickness can be determined,
it is necessary to determine the strength (mod-
ulus), of the material on which the slab will be
supported. This is done by determining an effec-
tive modulus of subgrade reaction (k), of the
soilbed and subbase.
The effective k-value is dependent upon sev-
eral factors including the roadbed soil resilient
modulus, the type of subbase, the thickness of
subbase, the potential of loss of support due to
erosion of the subgrade and in northern New
Castle County whether there is rock underlying
the proposed pavement.
The subbase used in a rigid pavement struc-
ture consists of one or more compacted layers of
granular material, graded aggregate or a stabi-
lized material such as bituminous concrete. This
material is placed between the subgrade and the
rigid pavement. The subbase provides several
very important functions:
* Provides uniform, stable and permanent
support,
* Increases the effective modulus of sub-
grade reaction (k),
* Prevents pumping of fine-grained soils at
joints, cracks and edges of the pavement,
* Reduces cracking and faulting, and
* Provides a working platform for construc-
tion equipment, especially the paver.
9.6.2 PAVEMENT SLAB THICKNESS
After developing the effective k-value the
process of selecting the optimum slab and sub-
base thickness can begin. Past experience, eco-
nomics, equipment limitations, ease of construc-
tion, and other subjective factors influence the
final recommended section(s).
The AASHTO Guide provides a nomograph
which provides the slab thickness based on in-
putting the k-value, the estimated future traffic,
the reliability factor to be achieved, the standard
deviation, the design serviceability loss, the con-
crete elastic modulus, the concrete modulus of
rupture, the load transfer coefficient, and the
drainage coefficient.
9.6.3 JOINTS
J oints are a very important part in assuring a
rigid pavement will perform as intended. They
allow for the stresses created by the expansion
and contraction of the concrete during curing
and during seasonal temperature changes. They
also are used to facilitate construction.
The Departments Standard Construction De-
tails for Construction provide details for locating
and constructing the required rigid pavement
joints. The following is a general discussion on
the need, use and treatment of joints.
9.6.3.1 JOINT TYPES
The three types of joints used in constructing
a rigid pavement are expansion, contraction and
construction. Expansion joints provide space for
the pavement to expand, preventing buckling of
the slabs.
Contraction or weakened plane (dummy)
joints provide relief for the tensile stresses
caused by the effects of temperature, moisture
and friction. Without these joints to control
cracking, the slabs would crack randomly.
Construction joints are required to facilitate
construction. Although used at the end of a
days pour, they are particularly dictated by the
width of the paving machine and the pavement
thickness.
J oints may be developed by sawing, forming,
or with inserts. When sawing joints, timing is
very important to prevent uncontrolled cracking
and will vary during the day depending upon the
slab temperature, curing conditions, and the
concrete mix.

9.6.3.2 JOINT GEOMETRY
J oint geometry refers to the spacing and
layout of the joints.
Transverse and longitudinal contraction joint
spacing is dependent upon local conditions of
materials (coarse aggregate type) and the envi-
ronment, whereas expansion and construction
joints are dependent on layout and construction
methods.
Contraction joints are spaced to prevent in-
termediate natural cracking due to thermal
changes and subbase friction created by the
movement of the slabs. The type of joint sealant
and slab thickness affects their spacing.
Expansion joints are usually used at struc-
tures and where pavement types change. They
are expensive, complex to construct, and have
not performed well in the past. Therefore, they
are used only where absolutely necessary.
The spacing of construction joints is a func-
tion of the daily construction activities and
equipment. They are used when equipment
breaks down and at the end of the days pour.
Longitudinal construction joints are placed at
lane edges to maximize pavement smoothness
and minimize load transfer problems
The width of the joint is a function of the slab
length, movement due to opening and closing by
temperature cycles and concrete shrinkage.
More movement expected at the joint affects the
quality and cost of the joint sealant used.
The depth of a joint is selected to ensure that
the slab will crack where intended.
9.6.4 REINFORCEMENT DESIGN
Concrete pavements inherently crack. De-
pending upon the slab length and depth selected,
it may be necessary to provide steel reinforce-
ment within the pavement slab. The purpose of
the reinforcement is not to prevent cracking but
to control the crack width. Excessive cracking
allows for moisture intrusion into the subgrade
which is the leading cause for distress in the
slab.
Stresses leading to cracking are temperature
and moisture related contraction of the slab.
These stresses are resisted by the subbase as
friction and shear between it and the slab. The
result is tensile stresses that are minimum at the
mid-point of the slab. To resist these stresses and
limit the crack width, reinforcement is installed.
The AASHTO Guide provides methods for de-
signing the necessary reinforcement for both
jointed reinforced concrete pavement and conti-
nuously reinforced concrete pavements.
9.7 PAVEMENT DESIGN FOR
REHABILITATION OF
EXISTING PAVEMENTS
9.7.1 REHABILITATION CONCEPTS
Bituminous concrete pavements deteriorate
because of climatic conditions, age, and traffic.
Transverse and longitudinal shrinkage stresses
occur due to temperature changes. Over time,
material problems can develop causing surface
problems with stripping, raveling, weathering
and bleeding of the asphalt. Repeated traffic
loadings eventually cause fatigue cracking al-
lowing moisture into the subbase causing loss of
subgrade support leading to pavement cracking
or failure.
For composite pavements with both concrete
and asphalt as components of the pavement
structure, the most prominent problem is reflec-
tive cracking from joints and cracks in the con-
crete base. This is caused by a combination of
underlying slab movement due to temperature
changes and heavy loads crossing the joints and
cracks. The primary resulting distress is spalling
of the asphalt as well of the concrete if severe
enough.
Concrete pavements react differently depend-
ing whether or not they are reinforced. Over
time and load applications each reacts different-


ly. The only reinforcement in non-reinforced
pavements is tie bars across the longitudinal
joints to keep the slab from separating and do-
wels at the transverse joints to transfer loads
across the joints. If dowels are not used, the de-
sign depends only upon aggregate interlock to
transfer these loads. With loss of subgrade sup-
port, cracking of the slab can occur at almost
any location. However, more common problems
occur at joints. Once the joints are no longer free
to move, spalling, buckling, and random slab
cracking can result. If joint sealant is lost, ag-
gregate interlock is lost, or cracks become too
wide, pumping of the subgrade within the travel
lane and the shoulder can occur. This leads to
erosion of support material and faulting and
cracking
Reinforced concrete pavements perform
much like non-reinforced pavements. They
usually have longer joint spacing and internal
reinforcement to resist the larger tensile stresses.
There are fewer joints to relieve stresses; when
their free movement is restricted, rapid faulting
of the pavement can occur. In addition, normal
shrinkage, thermal curl, and load applications
cause cracks in the slab that over time grow in
width, allowing moisture and road salt to infil-
trate. Corrosion of the reinforcing mesh occurs.
As the loads are repeated, pumping begins lead-
ing to faulting and spalling of the pavement.
Continuously reinforced concrete pavements
deteriorate under heavy truck loading and are
also adversely affect by moisture under the slab.
This type of pavement is more complicated to
construct and deterioration will occur due to in-
adequate consolidation, poor vertical steel
placement, and inadequate steel overlap.
Because of the need to maintain the pavement
systems now in place, several rehabilitation
strategies have been developed to address the
various problems that may affect a pavement's
performance. The objective is to extend the
pavements service life. The alternative methods
of rehabilitating a pavement range from a simple
overlay to complete removal and replacement.
When developing a rehabilitation strategy a
combination of the following alternatives are
considered:
1. Resurfacing to provide structural capacity
and/or serviceability either using concrete or
asphalt,
2. Replacing or restoring malfunctioning
joints,
3. Pavement subsealing prior to resurfacing or
as a part of concrete restoration,
4. Grinding rigid pavements to restore smooth-
ness.
5. Removing and replacing deteriorated mate-
rials,
6. Reworking or strengthening bases and sub-
ases,
7. Recycling existing material,
8. Improving the subdrainage or adding under-
drains,
9. J oint and crack sealing,
10. Full depth pavement repair,
11. Partial depth pavement repair, and
12. Cracking and seating.
M&R and other team members develop the
most effective strategy through a detailed pave-
ment evaluation. This evaluation is normally
prepared as a part of the Departments long term
pavement rehabilitation program and will be a
part of the project initiation data. The three steps
for determining the preferred strategy are to (1)
determine the cause of the pavement distress, (2)
develop a list of possible solutions that cure and
hopefully prevent reoccurrence, and (3) recom-
mend the preferred solution. The preferred solu-
tion includes an analysis of funding, traffic con-
trol problems, minimum desirable service life,
utility conflicts, clearances to overhead struc-
tures, available materials and equipment, con-
tructibility, future maintenance and reliability
based on past performance.

9.7.2 TYPES OF DISTRESS
Although furnished at the project initiation
stage, each project usually will have a project
scoping meeting and preliminary field review
prior to beginning detailed design. The field re-
view will include checking the pavement for
condition and any damage that may have oc-
curred since the last pavement survey to confirm
the proposed strategy is still valid. The follow-
ing discussion is a brief description of the vari-
ous conditions the designer may observe de-
pending upon the type of pavement being eva-
luated.
9.7.2.1 ASPHALT PAVEMENTS
Asphalt pavements usually have the follow-
ing major distress conditions: (1) alligator or
fatigue cracking, (2) longitudinal and transverse
cracking, (3) depressions, and (4) rutting.
Alligator or fatigue cracking is caused by re-
peated traffic loadings. They are a series of in-
terconnecting cracks caused by fatigue failure of
the bituminous concrete surface. The crack starts
at the bottom of the asphalt surface or the stabi-
lized base due to high tensile stresses and propa-
gates to the surface as a longitudinal crack. After
repeated load applications, a network of these
cracks form that look like chicken wire or the
skin of an alligator. This type of cracking does
not occur in asphalt overlays over con-
creteonly in high load areas and is considered
a major structural distress. Pattern cracking not
in high load areas is called block cracking.
Longitudinal cracks are parallel to the pave-
ments centerline or paving laydown direction.
They may be caused by: (1) a poorly constructed
paving lane joint; (2) shrinkage of the bitumin-
ous concrete surface due to low temperatures or
hardening of the asphalt; or (3) a reflective crack
caused by cracks beneath the surface course,
including cracks in Portland cement concrete.
Transverse cracks are perpendicular to the
pavements centerline; they are caused by (2) or
(3) above and are not usually load-related.
Depressions are localized pavement surface
areas that are slightly lower than the surrounding
pavement. Depressions are most noticeable dur-
ing and after a rain. If deep and large enough,
depressions may cause hydroplaning or an un-
pleasant ride. Depressions may be initially built
into the pavement by the paving operation or as
a result of settling of the surface support struc-
ture.
Rutting is a surface depression in the wheel
paths. Usually, there is uplift along the sides of
rutted areas. Rutting is the result of permanent
consolidation or lateral movement of any of the
pavement layers or subgrade due to traffic loads.
Rutting may also occur because of plastic
movement of the asphalt due to high tempera-
tures, poor design mix or inadequate compaction
during construction.
In addition to the major distresses, the pave-
ment survey may indicate surface corrugation
areas, joint reflection cracking, lane and shoul-
der drop off, lane and shoulder separation, patch
deterioration, polished aggregate, potholes, rave-
ling, and weathering.
If necessary, the M&R Section may deter-
mine that field observations are not adequate or
need to be supplemented to identify underlying
problems. In that case nondestructive testing
(NDT) will be conducted. NDT is used to:
Evaluate the in-situ (in-place) structural ca-
pacity of the pavement,
Evaluate the capacity of joint and load trans-
fer, and
Detect the presence of voids under the
pavement.
9.7.2.2 CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
J ointed concrete pavement may have the fol-
lowing distresses: (1) pumping, (2) longitudinal
cracking, (3) spalling of transverse or longitu-
dinal joints, or (4) Alkali-Silica-Reactivity
(ASR).


Pumping is the ejection of material through
joints or cracks, caused by the deflection of the
slab under moving traffic. In some poorly
drained pavements particularly in superelevated
sections, water may bleed through the joints and
cracks after a rain or continuously if large
amounts of water are present.
Longitudinal cracks are caused by a combina-
tion of heavy load repetition, locking of load
transfer devices, thermal and moisture stresses,
and curing shrinkage stresses. Cracks that are
spalling and/or faulting are considered a major
structural problem.
Spalling of cracks and joints is the cracking,
breaking or chipping of the slab edges within 2
ft (0.6 m) of the joint or crack. Spalling usually
does not extend the full depth of the slab, but
intersects the joint or crack at an angle. Spalling
is a result of one or a combination of the follow-
ing: (1) excessive stresses at poorly sealed or
cleaned joints and cracks which allow incom-
pressible material to accumulate preventing the
pavement from expanding, (2) disintegration of
the concrete, (3) weak concrete overstressed by
repeated loading, and (4) a poorly designed or
placed load transfer device.
Continuously reinforced concrete pavements
usually show punchout and patch distress. Pun-
chout is the loss of aggregate interlock between
closely spaced cracks. The cracks fault, spall and
under load applications the steel reinforcement
ruptures causing concrete pieces to punch down.
This type of distress is considered a major struc-
tural problem. Due to the difficulty in patching
continuously reinforced pavements the failure of
previously constructed patches can be antic-
ipated.
ASR is another type of distress commonly
found in Delaware. The pavements exhibiting
the most severe ASR were generally constructed
in the 1980s. ASR is the reaction between the
alkalis (sodium and potassium) in Portland ce-
ment and certain siliceous aggregates. The prod-
uct of this reaction is a thermodynamically me-
tastable. The gel in the presence of water ab-
sorbs it, and causes expansion and cracking of
the concrete. Once an ASR pavement has been
identified, one possible solution is to apply li-
thium treatments. Lithium treatment will not
repair the concrete, but will slow the further
progression of ASR. Normally the pavement
will have to be removed and replaced. Overlay-
ing ASR concrete with a standard hot-mix over-
lay may trap moisture in the slab and accelerate
the ASR causing premature failure of the over-
lay. However, hot-mix overlays with water
proofing properties may minimize further dete-
rioration for several years. M&R will recom-
mend the most suitable solution when encoun-
tering ASR pavements.
In addition, other pavement distresses that
may be observed in a field review are blow ups,
corner cracks, depressions, durability D crack-
ing, lane and shoulder drop-offs, lane and shoul-
der separation, patch deterioration, popouts, and
staining of the pavement due to subgrade drai-
nage problems.
Concrete pavements can also display rough-
ness caused by irregularities in the pavement
surface that adversely affect the ride quality,
safety, and vehicle maintenance costs. Rough-
ness is measurable based on the multi-frequency
of waves, wavelengths and amplitudes. Rough-
ness can be built into the pavement when con-
structed or develop over time due to traffic, cli-
mate, and other factors. Equipment is used to
measure the roughness and a profile developed
showing the vertical movement between the trai-
ler axle and body. The results are reported in
in/mile or m/km for the International Roughness
Index (IRI). The roughness survey identifies
areas where severe roughness exists and needs
correction. Data provided can be used in devel-
oping a PSI which estimates the users subjec-
tive assessment of the pavement condition. Sur-
veys taken before and after a project can be used
to document the benefits of the work to the trav-
eling public.

9.7.3 DRAINAGE SURVEY
As emphasized throughout this chapter, the
presence of moisture is a primary cause of dis-
tress or failure of all pavements. Therefore, a
drainage survey is an important component of
pavement evaluation. Moisture conditions are
caused externally by the climatic conditions and
internally by the properties of the materials
composing the pavement structure. The severity
of damage caused by excessive moisture will
influence the decision on which rehabilitation
strategy to select.
Since moisture problems can exist in any
layer of the pavement structure, more than visual
observations may be needed. Cores and even
nondestructive deflection testing may have to be
conducted. It is necessary to determine which
material is responsible for the moisture-related
damage and if an economical rehabilitation to
correct the problem is to be initiated. Not identi-
fying and correcting the problem could lead to a
failed project. A valuable tool in this evaluation
is the as-built plans.
In addition to determining if the pavement
structure is freely draining and moisture resis-
tant, the entire roadway section should be eva-
luated including:
1. Are the ditchlines free of standing water? If
not, how high does it stand and will it infil-
trate the pavement structure?
2. Are ditchlines and pavement edges clear of
the type of growth that would indicate ex-
cessive moisture?
3. After a rain, is water standing in the joints or
cracks. Is there pumping, is there standing
water adjacent to the pavement or on the
shoulder?
4. If there are drainage outlets including un-
derdrains, are the outlets clear, at the proper
elevation, and working?
5. Are drainage inlets clear and cross slopes
adequate to remove the water from the
pavement surface?
6. Are joint and crack sealants in good condi-
tion and preventing surface water infiltra-
tion?
7. Are there signs of pumping, such as pave-
ment discoloration or the presence of fine
material at joints or pavement edges?
Recommending drainage improvements to
the pavement structure can be a very expensive
item and should be carefully evaluated and do-
cumented.
9.7.4 RESTORATION
Restoration of a pavement includes the
work required to return the pavements level of
serviceability for a designated time period. Fre-
quently, some level of restoration is performed
prior to an overlay or resurfacing. Work under-
taken to restore pavements is quite varied and
includes:
Full-depth repair of jointed concrete pave-
ment
Full-depth repair of continuously reinforced
concrete pavement,
Patching with bituminous mixtures,
Partial-depth spall repair,
Slab stabilization and slab jacking,
Diamond Grinding, grooving and cold mil-
ling,
Pressure relief joints,
Load transfer restoration,
J oint and crack sealing,
Surface treatments,
Subdrainage, and
Shoulder improvements.

9.7.4.1 FULL-DEPTH REPAIR
One of the most expensive restoration alter-
natives used on all types of pavements is full-
depth repair. To limit the repair areas and the


potential of overruns, the specific distress or dis-
tresses to be addressed should be clearly estab-
lished both during the design and construction
phases. Depending upon the severity, distresses
that may lend themselves to full-depth repair are
blow-ups, corner breaks, durability D crack-
ing, ASR, excessive spalling, and loss of load
transfer. Intermediate working cracks may also
have to be repaired by full-depth replacement or
a working joint. Not addressing areas that need
full-depth repair prior to an overlay could result
in continued deterioration and premature failure
of the overlay.
The major considerations to ensure satisfac-
tory performance using this rehabilitation ap-
proach are:
1. J oint design,
2. Selection of the repair areas and their boun-
daries,
3. Preparation of the repair area,
4. Placement and finishing of the repair ma-
terial,
5. J oint sealing material and its installation,
and
6. Curing time and traffic control.
Usually the full-depth repair material is the
same as the adjacent pavement. However, fund-
ing, traffic control or other reasons may require
that concrete pavement be repaired with bitu-
minous material. Using materials of different
physical properties and characteristics can cause
several problems. Differentials in expansion and
contraction lead to pushing, shoving and hump-
ing requiring frequent milling to maintain ridea-
bility. The bituminous patch is more compressi-
ble and may allow excessive opening of remain-
ing joints in the concrete pavement resulting in
spalling, pumping, and faulting. In overlaying
the patched pavement, there may be an increase
in reflective cracking from the underlying joints
The patch design may not have an equivalent
structural strength. The difference in initial cost
and possible future maintenance problems may
not make using dissimilar materials the best so-
lution.
9.7.4.2 PARTIAL-DEPTH REPAIR
Some distresses within the upper third of the
slab in concrete pavements lend themselves to
partial-depth repairs. Partial-depth repairs may
or may not be more cost effective than full-depth
depending upon the size, location, number, ma-
terials used, lane closure time and production
limitations.
The distresses applicable to partial-depth re-
pair are:
1. Spalls due the use of certain types of joint
inserts,
2. Spalls caused by joint movement locking
due to failed sealant and subsequent intru-
sion of incompressible material,
3. Spalls caused by misplaced dowels or other
load transfer devices, and
4. Localized areas of scaling.
The M&R Section should be contacted for
details on partial-depth patches as they require
the use of better designs and construction tech-
niques to be successful.
9.7.4.3 SLAB STABILIZATION AND SLAB
JACKING
Although not that frequently used, voids un-
der pavements can be filled, restoring the sup-
port strength of the pavement structure. The loss
of support is caused by erosion of the subbase
and/or subgrade by pumping or, in severe cases,
movement of freely flowing water. Slab stabili-
zation does not increase a pavements structural
strength, correct depressions or faulting and oth-
er distresses.
A slab that has settled may be raised through
a process called slab jacking, also known as
mudjacking. This procedure which injects water-
soil-cement slurry (i.e. grout or mud) through
holes drilled into the pavement slab under high
pressure lifting the pavement back into its origi-

nal profile is also used infrequently. A process
using expanding polyurethane foam may also be
used. Another alternative is the injection of a
flowable fill that consists of a mixture of fly ash
and water that expands and hardens as it dries
out. If not correctly done, all three of these me-
thods can crack the slab.
9.7.4.4 DIAMOND GRINDING, GROOVING
AND PAVEMENT MILLING
Diamond grinding is used to restore a con-
crete pavements smoothness using closely
spaced diamond-impregnated blades. Diamond
grinding is effective in: (1) removing joint and
crack faulting, (2) remove wheel path ruts, (3)
correct joint unevenness caused by slab war-
page, (4) removing areas of roughness and (5)
restoring transverse drainage. Diamond grinding
does not correct the problem that created the
distress and may have to be use in conjunction
with other rehabilitation techniques. Subsealing,
slabjacking, full-depth, and partial depth repairs
should be completed before grinding.
Grooving of concrete pavements is used to
reduce hydroplaning by improving surface drai-
nage and improving surface friction on curves or
polished aggregate surfaces.
Pavement milling is used to remove asphalt
surfaces as much as 3 to 4 inches [75 to 100
mm] in depth using carbide-cutting teeth
mounted on a rotary drum. If used on concrete
pavements, pavement milling leaves an extreme-
ly rough surface and spalled joints. Therefore,
unless an overlay is included in the work, it
should not be used on concrete.
Pavement milling is a very effective rehabili-
tation technique addressing several problems
including:
1. Restoring the curb line of asphalt pave-
ments,
2. Restoring cross slope and correcting inlet
drainage problems,
3. Improving the friction resistance of asphalt
pavements,
4. Removing asphalt overlays on concrete
pavements,
5. Providing a good bonding surface on con-
crete for overlaying,
6. Removing material as part of a recycling
project, and
7. Restoring pavement smoothness.
All three of these restoration techniques are
cost effective, relatively quick and proven to
perform well but do not improve the structural
integrity of the pavement.
9.7.4.5 PRESSURE RELIEF JOINTS
As concrete pavement ages, there can be a net
increase in its length. These increases can result
from: poorly sealed joints and cracks filled with
incompressible material, pumping of the base
material into the joints and cracks, or the use of
expansive or reactive aggregates in the initial
mix.
Because pressure relief joints can adversely
affect contraction joints, they are not usually
installed unless there are major blow-up prob-
lems or the pavement has expanded to the point
of shoving bridge abutments. These type of
joints provide no load transfer and are also sub-
ject to closing through the intrusion of incom-
pressibles, eventually becoming part of a pave-
ment distress problem.
Pressure relief joints are full-depth and full-
width saw cuts at mid-slab and are 2 to 4 inches
[50 to 100 mm] in width. The joint must be cut
across all lanes within the same time period to
relieve the compressive stresses and is usually
done at night under reduced traffic flow.
9.7.4.6 LOAD TRANSFER RESTORATION
Poor load transfer between joints can cause
spalling, rocking, pumping, faulting, and corner
breaks. Doweled joints are effective in providing


load transfer but under repeated load applica-
tions can work loose and lose this capability.
Whether or not joints and cracks have lost
their load transfer ability, is determined through
field observation and measurements conducted
in the cooler parts of the year or day. The Fall-
ing Weight Deflectomator (FWD) may be used
to test for load transfer capability at joints.
There are two techniques used to restore load
transfer, both of which require the installation of
dowels. Slots can be cut in the pavement, if the
adjacent pavement is sound, and the dowels in-
stalled. More frequently and, usually a better
alternative, load transfer is restored through full-
depth repair.
9.7.4.7 JOINT AND CRACK SEALING
One of the easiest, cost effective and proven
techniques in maintaining serviceability and res-
toring concrete and asphalt pavements is sealing
and resealing joints and cracks. Inadequate or
failed sealant allows free water and incompres-
sibles to enter the pavement structure causing
erosion of pavement support and blow-ups.
J oint sealants are constantly being improved
and may be field pouredself-leveling, hot-
poured, cold-poured, preformed compression
seals, or field-pourednonself-leveling sealants.
The performance of a sealant depends pri-
marily upon the proper preparation of the joint
to receive the sealant. The factors include the
shape of the reservoir created for the sealant, the
bonding ability of the sealant to the sidewalls,
the surface preparation, the cleanliness of the
surface, the dryness of the surface and the prop-
erties of the sealant. In addition, it is necessary
to predict the amount of movement expected in
the crack or joint to customize the type of sea-
lant to fit the distresses encountered and tech-
niques to be implemented.
Cracks occur randomly and are irregular in
dimension and direction. Usually cracks do not
experience the faulting and movement that hap-
pen at joints and sealing is not as tightly con-
trolled. If the field survey indicates the width of
cracks are large enough to cause large move-
ments, then the cracks are sealed and treated
similar to joints.
9.7.4.8 SURFACE TREATMENTS
The use of surface treatments or seal coats is
a very effective way to rehabilitate. The tech-
nique is to apply asphalt and/or aggregate to a
roadway surface at a depth of less than 1 inch
[25 mm].
Surface treatments are classified by their
composition and include:
Asphalt Chip Seal (Surface Treat-
ment)one or more applications of asphalt and
stone chips.
Open-Graded Friction Course the asphalt
and aggregate mix is designed to be freely flow-
ing to remove surface water thus reducing hy-
droplaning. In addition, it provides some im-
provement in skid resistance.
Micro Surfacinga process using a moving
pug mill which mixes latex rubber with an as-
phalt emulsion, aggregates and other additives
that is placed on the surface.
Slurry Seala diluted emulsion mixed with
a sand-size aggregate in a special mixer, and
squeegeed onto the pavement. The thickness is
usually less than one half inch [12 mm].
9.7.4.9 SUBDRAINAGE IMPROVEMENTS
The long-term presence of water within the
pavement structure is largely responsible, direct-
ly and indirectly, for many of the distress and
performance problems, which are found in the
pavement systems. A pavement survey and
evaluation includes a very detailed study of the
drainage and subdrainage within the entire
roadway cross section. Considerable design ef-
fort and cost are involved when correcting this

type of problem. Unless the rehabilitation pro-
gram involves complete pavement reconstruc-
tion, improvements are limited to design and
construction of longitudinal drains. Any modifi-
cations to or additions of transverse drains or
drainage blankets would be limited to projects
involving complete pavement replacement.
However, the addition of longitudinal perforated
underdrains to collect and outlet excess moisture
in the pavement structure is a feasible and cost
effective option.
9.7.4.10 SHOULDER IMPROVEMENTS
Shoulders are evaluated much like the main-
line pavement and are include in the distress
survey, drainage survey, traffic survey, structur-
al evaluation, and subgrade and materials evalu-
ation. Shoulders provide not only safer traffic
flow but also give lateral support for the main-
line pavement structure.
Shoulders can be rigid or flexible and distress
similar to mainline pavements. Many of the
same rehabilitation techniques are used. Review-
ing the existing cross section can be very valua-
ble. If the initial shoulder pavement design was
not compatible with the mainline pavement
structure, it may be a major contributor to its
failure.
Two of the most common problems which
occur are lane/shoulder joint separation which
allows water into the subbase, and blockage of
water draining out of the mainline subbase
which is usually of more granular and higher
quality. The material used in shoulder construc-
tion also may be of a different thickness. All of
these affect the interaction between the two
pavement structures.
Other distresses found in shoulders are pump-
ing, fatigue cracking, lane/shoulder drop-off,
frost heaving and differential shoulder support.
9.7.5 RECYCLING
Recycling is the term used to describe the
process, which uses existing pavement materials
to construct new pavements. The primary pur-
pose is to conserve natural resources. In some
cases, there may also be a net cost savings.
9.7.5.1 RECYCLING RIGID PAVEMENTS
Eventually, all pavements reach the end of
their useful and/or structural life and must be
reconstructed. This occurs when there is little or
no structural life left due to extensive cracking,
extensive slab settlement or heave, extensive
joint deterioration requiring excessive full-depth
repair, extensive concrete deterioration due to
poor durability, and failure to meet geometric
design standards.
Two methods of recycling are: to break the
pavement slabs into smaller sections and leave
them in place (rubblizing) as a base for resurfac-
ing; or to break and remove the pavement slabs
to an area for crushing and reuse. The crushed
pavement material may be reused as aggregate
in untreated dense graded aggregate bases for
Portland cement concrete surfacing, asphalt con-
crete surfacing, fill, filter material, and as a drai-
nage layer for edge drains.
Each method of recycling has its own cost
and feasibility studies that need to be conducted
before making a selection. Both methods involve
the use of vibratory, hydraulic, pneumatic, or
diesel chisels or hammers to demolish the exist-
ing pavement. Common factors to consider are:
is the resulting recycled material actually reusa-
ble; are the underlying soils adequate to support
an upgraded pavement; and are there shallow
utilities (older gas, water or sewer lines such as
vitrified clay or cast iron) that are sensitive to
the equipment pounding and vibration and may
rupture during the demolishing process.
The pavement may be demolished, removed,
crushed and used for other construction purpos-
es. This involves hauling the material to a crush-
ing plant and having an electromagnet remove
any reinforcement. The crushed material and
salvaged steel would be available for reuse. The
coarse-aggregate-sized particles resulting from
the crushing process have a good shape and an-


gularity, high absorption and may have a lower
specific gravity than virgin aggregates. For reuse
of this material the concerns are the possible
contaminants in the rubble including reinforcing
steel, dowel bars and baskets, admixtures, chem-
ical substances such as deicing salts, sea salt, oil,
joint sealant material and soil.
9.7.5.1.1 RUBBLIZATION
Rubblization is initially the most expensive
pavement recycling method, however, a selec-
tive use of it can be very effective in cost and
construction time.
When rubblizing plain or reinforced concrete
pavement, the rubble is leveled and left in place
as the base for a new pavement. Maintaining
traffic is a consideration as there must be enough
area for the equipment to operate as well as a
protective barrier. Even on a four lane facility
this will require a median shoulder strong
enough to temporarily carry full traffic loads or
possibly a detour.
The rubblized surface essentially remains at
the same elevation as the existing pavement.
Therefore, matching existing curbs, drainage
structures, intersecting roadways, and driveways
is more complicated and time consuming. In
addition, it may become difficult to meet height
standards for guardrail and other appurtenances,
as well as maintain vertical clearances for struc-
tures.
Rubblization is for total reconstruction. Rub-
blization reduces the structural value of a PCC
pavement to a stone base. It requires a thick
overlay, typically 11 inches [280 mm] of asphalt
or 10 to 12 inches [255 to 305 mm] of concrete.
It is a major reconstruction technique and there-
fore it should be used only when the pavement
has reached the end if its service life, as indi-
cated by severe deterioration, ASR, or severe
freeze and thaw damages, etc.
Rubblization can be used when other con-
crete pavement restoration methods will not
work. Thoroughly evaluate the existing condi-
tion of PCC pavements. Concrete pavement
restoration (CPR) techniques, such as diamond
grinding, patching or sealing, should be ruled
out before the use of rubblization is specified.
Pavement Management and M&R should be
consulted in the selection of reconstruc-
tion/restoration technique.
Rubblization cannot be used over a subgrade
demonstrating widespread instability or of poor
condition. Many concrete distresses result from
poor subgrade support conditions. Rubblizing a
pavement destroys the concrete slabs bridging
action, causing problems to become more pro-
nounced. The poor support condition could be
due to poor soils, poor drainage or high moisture
content. If the problem is widespread, rubbliza-
tion cannot be used. Thorough subgrade inves-
tigation is essential for the successful applica-
tion. Contact M&R for subgrade investigation.
Treat rubblized PCC pavement as a subbase.
Although rubblization provides the benefits of
an in-place recycle opportunity and an inter-
locked stone base, it has challenges as well. As
for all subbase materials, gradation and density
are two important factors, but the control of
these two factors is more difficult since it is in-
place recycling.
The pavement breaker may be powerful, but
as energy dissipates through the depth of the
slab, it produces smaller pieces at the top and
larger pieces at the bottom. A soft subgrade or
the reinforcement in the slab only compounds
the difference in sizes. The recommended re-
quirement is for the top pieces to be 3 maxi-
mum and 12 maximum at the bottom. Accep-
tance of a larger size will increase the probabili-
ty of future reflective cracking. A good density
is achieved through the interlocking and good
compaction.
With good control of gradation and density, it
is reasonable to expect a good fatigue resistance
performance of an asphalt overlay, which is a
major controlling factor for a flexible pavement
service life.

Rubblization is a balancing act. The size of
rubblized concrete can be controlled. A larger
size will provide a stronger support (thus a better
structural value), but it increases the likelihood
of reflective cracking (thus a reduced service
life). The designer needs to balance these two in
the pavement design. A long term performance
evaluation to validate this design value may be
necessary.
Install a drainage system. An adequate sub-
grade drainage system is essential for rubbliza-
tion and future performance of the pavement.
Rubblization cannot be successfully done over a
wet subgrade. The drainage system should be in
place at least two weeks prior to the rubbliza-
tion. In a special case, if the drainage system
cannot be installed prior to actual rubblization,
then a time limit should be specified to have the
drainage system installed immediately following
rubblization.
Use a test section, not a second pass of the
breaker. A second pass over a rubblized area
does not enhance the quality of rubblization, and
it could cause more damage. Test sections
should be done to calibrate all rubblization va-
riables (machine related-velocity, frequency,
pressure or force, shoe size and conditions re-
lated-concrete condition or state of distress,
thickness and subgrade conditions). The objec-
tive is to achieve the required sizes of rubbliza-
tion both at the top and bottom of the PCC
pavement for a good service life.
Selection of Rubblization Equipments and
Production Rates - Among the different types of
equipment for breaking the pavement, two fre-
quently used types are resonant pavement break-
ers (a low impact, low-amplitude, high frequen-
cy vibration to the slab) and multiple head
breakers (12 to 16 drop hammers mounted later-
ally in pairs with half of the hammers in a for-
ward row and the remainder diagonally offset in
a rear row). The multi-head breaker rubblizes a
full lane width in a single pass with a production
rate of about one lane mile per shift per day,
while a resonant breaker may take up to 20
passes for a full lane width with a production
rate of about miles per shift per day.
The multi-head breaker may cause damages
to the subgrade. the resonant breaker may pro-
duce concrete size too small at the top to meet
the design requirement. Unless the equipment
selection is specified on the plan, the specifica-
tion will allow the use of either breaker.
A concrete overlay can be used. Rubblization
was developed to eliminate reflective cracks in
the asphalt overlay. Engineers still have an op-
tion of using concrete overlay, considering cost,
service and construction time. Consult M&R for
pavement design options.
Soft spots need to be repaired. Original PCC
pavement could bridge the soft spot and this soft
spot will show up after rubblization. Any de-
pression one inch or greater in depth from the
immediate surrounding area should be examined
to see if it is due to poor underlying subgrade
before the application of filler aggregate as re-
quired by the specification. A bearing capacity
failure during rubblization could cause depres-
sion on one area and heave in other areas.
The repair of soft spots is necessary not only
for a long term performance of the pavement but
also for a good working platform for paving op-
erations.
Pavements with delamination type cracks
should not be rubblized. Horizontal cracks hind-
er the rubblization process by absorbing energy
and decreasing the effective depth of rubbliza-
tion.
Survey and set a new profile. Although rub-
blization does not significantly change the exist-
ing grade, simply specifying a few inches over
the existing grade may not be adequate. The
existing PCC pavement may not have adequate
cross slope, or it is distressed due to poor sub-
grade which might have resulted in an irregular
profile. Comparing survey results with the orig-
inal geometry could provide clues on distress or
subgrade conditions.


The design service life should be 20 years or
more; this should be noted on the plans. Rubbli-
zation with an overlay is major reconstruction.
It should not be used as a short-term fix.
9.7.5.2 SURFACE RECYCLING OF
BITUMINOUS PAVEMENTS
Surface recycling is the process that either
reworks or removes and replaces a limited por-
tion, usually about one inch [25 mm], of the as-
phalt surface. The distresses addressable through
this process include: raveling, flushing or bleed-
ing, low surface friction, weathering, poor drai-
nage profile, shallow rutting, minor corrugations
and block cracking. It may also be used to cor-
rect problems in the profile grade line.
The major advantage for selecting this reha-
bilitation method is the minimal amount of work
involved. There are two processes. The first is
hot surface recycling involving heating, scarify-
ing, remixing, and repaving recycled material.
Other surface recycling methods include hot
pavement removal using a heater-planer or cold
milling using a rotary drum equipped with close-
ly spaced carbide teeth.
The material to be reused has a rejuvenating
agent and soft asphalt added to restore the
pavement consistency, viscosity or penetration.
DelDOT does not typically use this method for
recycling surface courses.
9.7.5.3 IN-PLACE RECYCLING OF
In-place recycling is a process in which the
pavement surface is ripped up or pulverized to a
depth greater than 1 inch [25 mm]. The material
is cold worked and reused as an aggregate base.
The recycled material may be further streng-
thened by the addition of admixtures such as
asphalt, lime, cement or fly ash. The recycled
material will perform similar to new stabilized
material upgrading the structural capacity, cor-
recting surface distresses and mixture problems
in the asphalt pavement, and correcting base
course problems such as gradation, moisture and
density. Correction of profile grade problems
can be made with this material.
9.7.5.4 HOT-MIX RECYCLING OF
Hot-mix recycling is the process in which all
or some of the pavement structure is removed,
reduced to the required size, and mixed hot with
added asphalt cement at a central plant.
This process is used to correct surface rough-
ness, cracking, rutting, surface friction, raveling,
inadequate structure, and inadequate traffic ca-
pacity. It should be remembered that the under-
lying cause for structural inadequacy would not
be corrected using this process.
9.7.6 RESURFACING
The most common type of rehabilitation for
existing pavements is resurfacing. Resurfacing
can correct many common distresses and add
additional strength to the pavement structure.
Problems encountered with overlay projects
include inadequate thickness to correct surface
problems when the problem is actually structur-
al, inadequate repair of the deteriorated areas,
unanticipated increasing traffic loadings, and not
addressing reflective cracking.
9.7.6.1 TYPES OF OVERLAYS AND THEIR
FUNCTIONS
Overlays can be of asphalt or Portland ce-
ment concrete. There are several variations of
these overlay techniques, which are designed for
specific applications.
The most commonly used overlay is dense-
graded, hot-mixed asphalt concrete, which may
be used on existing asphalt or Portland cement
concrete pavements.
Portland cement concrete overlays are de-
signed specifically for the type of existing

pavement and may be unbonded, partially
bonded or fully bonded.
In analyzing overlay alternatives, the design-
er should look at how extensive are the proposed
pre-overlay repairs, structural adequacy of the
existing pavement, subdrainage, existing distress
conditions to be corrected, future traffic load-
ings, traffic control problems, clearances to
overhead structures, and overall costs.
Asphalt overlays of rigid pavements are used
both to correct surface problems and to improve
the structural strength. Thicknesses greater than
2.5 inches [65 mm] are needed to provide im-
provements in strength. The greater the overlay
thickness, the higher the possibility of rutting if
compaction is not controlled but a significant
reduction in reflective cracking can be expected.
Reflective cracking occurs in overlays due to
thermal cracks in flexible pavements and joints
in rigid pavements. Low temperatures, tempera-
ture cycles and traffic loads cause movement in
the existing pavement leading to stresses reflect-
ing through the overlay.
Another method to reduce reflective cracking
in asphalt overlays of rigid pavements is to frac-
ture the underlying slabs into pieces 2 to 3 feet
[600 to 1000 mm] in size. After cracking the
slab, a heavy roller is used to ensure the slabs
are fully seated before the asphalt overlay is
placed.
Reflective cracking leads to increased infil-
tration of water into the pavement structure that
rapidly deteriorates the overlay. This creates
potholes and other distresses. Treatments to mi-
nimize reflective cracking include the use of
reinforcing fabrics, stress-relieving interlayers of
rubber-asphalt with aggregate chips, crack-
arresting interlayers of large aggregate bitumin-
ous material to blunt the cracks, and extensive
pre-overlay repairs including determining exist-
ing joint and major crack locations, sealing them
and saw cutting after paving.
Portland cement concrete overlays of existing
rigid pavement may involve extensive pre-
overlay repairs, are more difficult to construct
and have added initial traffic control costs.
These overlays may be fully bonded, partially
bonded and unbonded.
Fully bonded concrete overlays require that
the existing pavement be in good condition and
that a complete and permanent bond be
achieved. Fully bonded overlays are thinner and
range from 2 to 4 inches [50 to 100 mm] in
thickness.
Partially bonded concrete overlays require
repair and/or replacement of damaged slabs.
Surface cleaning by sweeping and either water
blasting or sand blasting is necessary to achieve
as much bond as possible. These overlays are
usually between 5 to 7 inches [25 to 175 mm] in
thickness.
Unbonded concrete overlays are used to im-
prove the structural capacity of a rigid pavement
in poor condition. A bond breaking and leveling
course is placed between the existing pavement
and overlay to assure there is no bonding and to
absorb any movement in the base slab to prevent
cracking of the overlay. Unbonded overlays are
thicker and range from 8 to 10 inches [200 to
250 mm] in thickness.
All types of overlays normally require a fair-
ly detailed design analysis. The analysis in-
volves determining the initial construction and
pavement information, a pavement distress sur-
vey, existing layer properties, future traffic anal-
ysis, existing pavement subgrade properties,
overlay design properties, determining effective
structural capacity, future overlay structural ca-
pacity, desired remaining service-life, and re-
quired overlay thickness design.

09 Pavement Selection

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09 Pavement Selection

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DelDOT Road Design Manual

July 2011 Pavement Selection 9-1

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