PETE 4052 Well Testing Spring 2002

Lecture 6 Equations for Single-Phase Porous Media lo! e"ruar# 22

Equations for Single-Phase Porous Media Flow
Outline
0$ S#nopsis
%$ The &onser'ation Equation
2$ (se of )arc#*s La! in the &onser'ation Equation
+$ The &ase of S,all and &onstant &o,pressi"ilit#
4$ The Linear )iffusi'it# Equation
5$ )i,ensionless -aria"les
6$ .ther &oordinate S#ste,s and /otation
0$ )iscussion
Related reading
&raft et al$1 Sections 0$5-0$61 p$ 2+%-2+4$
)a2e3 Sections 5$%-5$41 p$ %+%-%+4$
Earlougher3 Sections 2$%-2$+1 p$ 4-6$
5orne1 p$ +5$
Matthe!s and 6ussel3 Sections 2$%-2$+1 p$ 4-0$
6.0 Synopsis
The flo! of a single1 co,pressi"le fluid through porous1 per,ea"le roc2 can "e descri"ed using a
partial differential equation 2no!n as the diffusi'it# equation$ Modified for,s of the diffusi'it#
equation can "e used to descri"e gas flo!$ 7 si,ilar equation can "e deri'ed for ,ultiphase flo!
as !ell1 and that equation is the "asis for reser'oir si,ulation$ &learl#1 the diffusi'it# equation is
at the 'er# heart of reser'oir engineering and an intuiti'e understanding of this equation is
essential to all !ho !ould do reser'oir engineering$
Key Concepts
Mass conser'ation
(se of constituti'e equations for 'elocit# and densit#
The for, of the lineari8ed diffusi'it# equation
7ssu,ptions in the lineari8ed diffusi'it# equation
)i,ensionless 'aria"les
)efinitions of stead#1 pseudostead#1 and transient flo!
6adius of in'estigation
)iffusi'it#
6.1 The onser!ation Equation
Man# ph#sical s#ste,s 9 ranging fro, solar collectors to ri'er deltas to flo! in reser'oirs 9 can
"e anal#8ed using the principle of conser'ation$ This principle is closel# related to the idea of a
control 'olu,e in ther,od#na,ics: it is "ased on the idea that the a,ount of ;stuff< =energ#1
,ass1 !hate'er> entering1 lea'ing1 created1 and destro#ed in a gi'en 'olu,e ,ust "e "alanced$
We !ill deri'e the conser'ation equation for a radial flo! geo,etr#1 "ecause this geo,etr# is
especiall# useful for !ell testing and inflo! anal#sis$ We could do it for an# geo,etr# !e chose$
Page % of %%
PETE 4052 Well Testing Spring 2002
Lecture 6 Equations for Single-Phase Porous Media lo! e"ruar# 22

Page 2 of %%
PETE 4052 Well Testing Spring 2002
Lecture 6 Equations for Single-Phase Porous Media lo! e"ruar# 22
&onsider a c#lindrical shell of radius r and thic2ness r =igure 6$%>$
The ,ass "alance for this shell is
r r and r "et!een on 7ccu,ulati r> r at out =lo! - r> at in =lo! + +
Let us consider each of the ter,s in Eqn$ =6$%> in turn3
lo! in at r3
( ) t r u rh > = 2 Ti,e )ensit# -el$ l Superficia 7rea ?nflo! Mass
=6$2a>
lo! out at r@r3 ( ) [ ] t r r u h r r + + > = 2 $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$2">
7ccu,ulation3 ( ) ( )
t t t
rh r rh r
+
2 2 $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$2c>
&o,"ining Eqns$ =6$%> and =6$2>1
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
t t t o o
rh r rh r t r r hu r r t r u rh + +
+
2 2 > = 2 > = 2 =6$+a>
)i'iding "# t rh 2 1
( ) ( )
t
r r
r
r r r r u r r r r ru
t t t o o

+ + +
+
> = > = > = > = > =
$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$+">
?f !e ta2e the li,it as r and t go to 8ero1 then !e get1
( )
t
r u r
r

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$4>
Equation =6$4> is the conser'ation equation in radial coordinates$ ?t states that the su, of the
partial differential deri'ati'es in r and t is 8ero$ This is also 2no!n as a di'ergence equation: all
conser'ation equations =for an# quantit#1 in an# coordinate s#ste,> can "e eApressed in a for,
'er# si,ilar to Equation 6$4$
Page + of %%
Figure 6.1 Radial control volume. The area of the outer face is ( )h r r + 2 . The volume of the shell
is exactly ( ) [ ]h r r r
2 2
+ . If r is small, this is approximately equal to rh r 2 . The pore
volume can e computed simply y multiplying y the porosity.
PETE 4052 Well Testing Spring 2002
Lecture 6 Equations for Single-Phase Porous Media lo! e"ruar# 22
This equation ,ust "e ,anipulated further to "e useful3 it includes dependent 'aria"les 1 1 and
u1 !hereas !e reall# !ant an equation in p onl#$ We !ill use constituti'e equations for these
quantities to get the desired equation$
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PETE 4052 Well Testing Spring 2002
Lecture 6 Equations for Single-Phase Porous Media lo! e"ruar# 22
6." #se of $ar%y&s 'aw in the onser!ation Equation
We !ill "egin "# using the differential for, of )arc#*s La! in the conser'ation equation$ ?n
differential for,1 )arc#*s La! is
r
p k
u

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$5>
Su"stituting Eqn$ =6$5a> into the conser'ation equation BEqn$ =6$4>C1
t r
p k
r
r r
t
r
r
p k
r
r

1
]
1

,
_

1
]
1

,
_

%
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$6>
This gets us closer to the desired for,1 "ut the densit# and porosit# still ,ust "e handled$
6.( The ase of S)all and onstant o)pressi*ility
We !ill assu,e that the densit# and porosit# are eAponential functions of pressure3
[ ]
R o R
p p c p = eAp > = $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$0a
[ ]
R f R
p p c p = eAp > =
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$0">
!here
p
c
o

%
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$Da>
and
p
c
f

%
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$D">
Su"stituting Eqns$ =6$0> into Eqn$ =6$6>1
[ ] [ ] [ ] { }
R f R R o R R o R
p p c p p c
t r
p k
p p c r
r r

1
]
1

,
_

= eAp = eAp = eAp

%

=6$4a>
EApanding the left-hand side of Eqn =6$4a>1
[ ]
[ ] { } [ ]
[ ] [ ]

'

,
_

+
,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

,
_

1
]
1

,
_

r
p k
r
r r
p k
r c
r
p k
r
r
p p c
r
p k
r
r
p
p p c c
r
p k
r
r
p p c p p c
r r
p k
r
r
p k
p p c r
r
o
R o R R o o R
R o R R o R
R o R

2
= eAp = eAp
= eAp = eAp
= eAp
$$$$$$$=6$4">
Si,ilarl#1 eApanding the right-hand side of Eqn$ =6$4a>1
[ ] [ ] { }
( ) [ ] [ ] { }
t
p
c c
t
p
p p c p p c c c
p p c p p c
t
f
R f R o f o R R
R f R R o R

> =
= eAp = eAp
= eAp = eAp
0

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$4c>
Page 5 of %%
PETE 4052 Well Testing Spring 2002
Lecture 6 Equations for Single-Phase Porous Media lo! e"ruar# 22
6eco,"ining Eqns$ =6$4"> and =6$4c>1
t
p
c
r
p k
r
r r r
p k
c
t
p
c c
r
p k
r
r r r
p k
c
t
p
c c
r
p k
r
r r
p k
r c
r
t o
f o
f o

,
_

+
,
_

,
_

,
_

+
,
_

,
_

'

,
_

+
,
_

,
_

%
> =
%
> =
2
0
2
0
2
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$%0>
!here
> =
0 f t
c c c +
$ or s#ste,s !ith connate !ater andEor i,,o"ile gas1 the definition of
total co,pressi"ilit# can "e eAtended to "e
g g w w o o f t
c S c S c S c c + + +
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$%%>
/otice that the onl# dependent 'aria"le is no! pressure: ho!e'er1 the porosit# is still a function
of pressure$
6.+ The 'ineari,ed $iffusi!ity Equation
7lthough Equation =6$%0> is in pressure1 it is nonlinear$ ?t is 'er# difficult to sol'e nonlinear
partial differential equations1 and !e therefore see2 a si,plified1 linear for, to !or2 !ith$
The nonlinearit# co,es fro, t!o different sources$
The gradient-squared ter,3
2

,
_

,
_

r
p k
r c
o

The porosit# ter,3

t
p
c
t

?n ,an# s#ste,s1 the porosit# 'aries slo!l# and it can "e replaced "# it 'alue at the a'erage
pressure$ This is usuall# adequate$
The gradient-squared ter, is often s,all "ecause =%> the gradient is s,all and =2> the oil
co,pressi"ilit# !as assu,ed to "e s,all$ ?f these assu,ptions are ,ade =see discussion>1 then the
linearized diffusi'it# equation can "e !ritten as
t
p
c
r
p k
r
r r
t

,
_

%
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$%2a>
?f k/ is constant1
t
p
k
c
r
p
r
r r
t

,
_

%
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$%2">
This equation is very important! ?t !ill for, the "asis of our stud# of inflo! and pressure
transient anal#sis =or !ell testing>$
6.- $i)ensionless .aria*les
We used the concept of a di,ensionless 'aria"le !hen !e discussed the s2in factor$ We !ill
eAtend that discussion no! to "etter understand the lineari8ed diffusi'it# equation$ ?t see,s
sensi"le to ,a2e radius di,ensionless on the !ell"ore radius1
Page 6 of %%
PETE 4052 Well Testing Spring 2002
Lecture 6 Equations for Single-Phase Porous Media lo! e"ruar# 22
D w D
D
w D
w
D
r r r dr
dr
r
r r r
r
r
r

%
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$%+>
With this su"stitution1 the diffusi'it# equation is
t
p
r c
r
p k
r
r r
t
p
c
r
p
r
k
r r
r r r r
w t
D
D
D D
t
D w
D w
D w D w

,
_

,
_

2
%
% % %

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$%4>
This definition needs no unit con'ersions: it !or2s in consistent and field units$ ?f !e assu,e k
and are constant1
t
p
k
r c
r
p
r
r r
w t
D
D
D D

,
_

2
%
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$%5>
7s for our case !ith s2in1 !e !ill define the di,ensionless pressure as
> =
2
p p
B q
kh
p
i D

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$%6a>
in consistent units or
> =
0000D $ 0
p p
B q
kh
p
i D

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$%6">
in field units$ /o! the differential equation is
t
p
k
r c
r
p
r
r r
D w t
D
D
D
D D

,
_

2
%
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$%0>
=We can choose the definition of di,ensionless pressure prett# freel# "ecause p appears in all
ter,s in the equation: the reasons for this choice should "e clear fro, the for, of )arc#*s La!
and !e !ill discuss it ,ore later in the course>$ Fecause all other ter,s are di,ensionless1 the
definition of di,ensionless ti,e can "e deduced fro, Eqn$ =6$%0>3
2
w t
D
r c
kt
t

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$%Da>
in consistent units or
2
00026+0 $ 0
w t
D
r c
kt
t

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$%D">
in field units1 t is gi'en in hours 9 if it !ere in da#s1 the con'ersion factor is 24 ti,es larger$
.ur final1 di,ensionless for, of the equation is
D
D
D
D
D
D D
t
p
r
p
r
r r

,
_

%
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$%4>
This for, of the equation is si,pler than earlier for,s1 "ecause there are onl# 'aria"les and no
para,eters in it$ The ,ost i,portant thing a"out di,ensionless 'aria"les is the !a# the# scale the
solution$ 6egardless of the 'alues of para,eters such as k1 1 , ct1 q1 and so onG$the
dimensionless pressure at the same (rD,tD) is the same for all infinite-acting radial flow
problems.
Page 0 of %%
PETE 4052 Well Testing Spring 2002
Lecture 6 Equations for Single-Phase Porous Media lo! e"ruar# 22
More generall#1 if the appropriate scaling is used in "ounded or non-radial pro"le,s1 one can
define di,ensionless pressures that ha'e this sa,e propert# =for eAa,ple1 for a fractured !ell or
a !ell in the center of a square>$ We need not co,pute solutions for all different co,"inations of
para,eters 9 the di,ensionless solution is the scaled solution that can "e used for all of these
cases$
6.6 Other oordinate Syste)s and /otation
?n linear coordinates1 the diffusi'it# equation is
t
p
k
c
x
p
t

2
2
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$20>
or an# coordinate s#ste,1 one can !rite the diffusi'it# equation in ter,s of the di'ergence1
!hich so,e of #ou ,a# "e fa,iliar !ith
t
p
k
c
p
t

2
$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$2%>
$is%ussion
Assumptions
The steps and assu,ptions used to deri'e the lineari8ed diffusi'it# equation are su,,ari8ed in
Ta"le 6$%1 "elo!3
The assu,ptions are 'er# i,portant to "e fa,iliar !ith$ Stud# this ta"leH ?n particular1 consider
the follo!ing3
The co,pressi"ilit# of gas ,a# not "e s,all or constant$ Thus1 this for, of the diffusi'it#
equation ,a# not "e accurate$ We !ill consider an alternati'e for,1 in real gas potential =or
pseudopressure> later in the course$
The assu,ption that the product of the co,pressi"ilit# ti,es the square of the gradient ter,
is s,all ,a# not "e 'alid =%> for gas or =2> near the !ell1 !here the gradients are high$ These
pro"le,s can also "e addressed using real gas potential$
(nconsolidated roc2s ,a# ha'e 'er# high pore co,pressi"ilities1 cf$ This can ,a2e the
equation nonlinear1 "ecause "oth and
t
p

depend on pressure$ This pro"le, is not sol'ed

using pseudopressure1 "ut ,a# "e reduced ="ut /.T eli,inated> using pseudoti,e$
The ,o"ilit# k/ ,a# not "e constant1 especiall# for gas or highl# co,pressi"le roc2s$ This
can introduce an additional nonlinearit#$ Pseudopressure corrects for the 'iscosit# 'ariation1
and can "e generali8ed to correct for per,ea"ilit# 'ar#ing !ith pressure$
The Steady-State Equation in Dimensionless Form
We pre'iousl# !rote )arc#*s La! as
Page D of %%
Eqn. Step Assumptions
6.! "onservation #quation h is constant$ radial geometry
6.6 "onstitutive #quation for velocity %arcy&s 'a( holds
6.11
"onstitutive #quation for density$ nonlinear
diffusivity equation
)orosity and fluid density are exponential
functions of pressure$ the pore and fluid
compressiility are constant
6.1*a %iffusivity #qn (ith variale +,
The product fluid compressiility times the
square of the gradient of pressure is small
6.1* 'ineari,ed diffusivity equation +, and are constant
Ta*le 6.1 $eri!ation of the 'ineari,ed $iffusi!ity Equation
PETE 4052 Well Testing Spring 2002
Lecture 6 Equations for Single-Phase Porous Media lo! e"ruar# 22
>> = > = =
> ln=
2
w
w
r p r p
r
r
B
kh
q

We can rearrange this to get

[ ] >> = = >> = =
2
> ln=
w i i
w
r p p r p p
B q
kh
r
r

and introduce the definitions of rD =Eqn$ 6$%+> and pD =Eqn$ 6$%6> to get
> % = > = > ln=
D D D D
p r p r
?f !e use a special definition of pD that is sensi"le for stead#-state s#ste,s =!here pw is constant>1
> =
2
w D
p p
B q
kh
p

Then the di,ensionless stead#-state equation is si,pl#
> ln= > =
D D D
r r p $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$22>
The di,ensionless for, is si,pler for stead# state s#ste,s1 as !ell$ 7s !e !ill see later1 !e can
get this equation "# sol'ing the lineari8ed diffusi'it# equation$
Diffusivity
The group
t
c
k

appears in the diffusi'it# equation in all coordinate s#ste,s$ ?t is 2no!n as the

diffusivity and is usuall# represented !ith the s#,"ol or ;eta<3
t
c
k

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$2+a>
or1 in field units1
1
]
1

hr
ft
00026+0 $ 0
2
t
c
k

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$2+">
The diffusi'it# is i,portant "ecause it controls the speed !ith !hich pressure infor,ation tra'els
through the reser'oir$ ?n general1 higher 'alues of ,ean ,ore rapid trans,ission of
infor,ation: #ou can see this "ecause the diffusi'it# is ,ultiplied "# t =and di'ided "# the square
of the !ell"ore radius> to get the di,ensionless ti,e$ Thus1 at sa,e dimensional ti,e a reser'oir
!ith higher diffusi'it# !ill ha'e a greater dimensionless ti,e 9 things happen faster$ ?ncreasing
per,ea"ilit# has the sa,e effect as decreasing an# of the other three para,eter =1 1 ct>$
&onsider !h#
5igher mobility1 k/ causes ,ore rapid pressure trans,ission
5igher porosit# and co,pressi"ilit# cause slo!er trans,ission =ct is also 2no!n as the
storativity>$
Some Basic Cases
Se'eral reser'oir s#ste,s of interest can "e classified "ased on the 'alue of the right-hand side of
Eqn$ 6$%43

D
D
t
p
Steady state, the pressure is not changing !ith ti,e

constant

D
D
t
p
Pseudosteady state, usuall# occurs !hen rate is changing slo!l# and
co,pressi"ilit# is nearl# constant$
Page 4 of %%
PETE 4052 Well Testing Spring 2002
Lecture 6 Equations for Single-Phase Porous Media lo! e"ruar# 22

> 1 =
D D
D
D
t r f
t
p

ransient flow!
!adius of "nvesti#ation
?n transient flo!1 the radius of in"estigation is a useful concept =5orne1 p$ +5>$ 7s !e !ill see
later1 that the solution of the partial differential equation predicts that there is an infinitesi,all#
s,all pressure change e'er#!here1 instantl#$ 5o!e'er1 fro, a ph#sical and practical point of
'ie!1 the pressure changes propagate ,ore slo!l#$ .ne definition of the radius of in'estigation is
that1 at an# ti,e1 it is the closest "oundar# that !ould ha'e had a detecta#le effect at the !ell$ or
an infinite-acting !ell1 this gi'es
t
c
kt
r
t
in"

0+ $ 0
0+ $ 0

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$24a>
With our pre'ious definition of t
D
1 Eqn$ =6$%D">1
D Din"
D w t
t
in"
t r
k
t r c
c
k
r
D $ %
00026+0 $ 0
0+ $ 0
2

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$24">
So,eti,es an alternati'e definition of di,ensionless ti,e is used1 "ased on area rather than
!ell"ore radius
$ c
kt
t
t
D$

00026+0 $ 0

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$25a>
or a !ell in the center of a circle1
2
5
2
%0 4+D $ D
00026+0 $ 0
e t e t
D$
r c
kt
r c
kt
t

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$25">
7s !e !ill see later1 "oundaries affect this s#ste, !hen % $ 0 >
D$
t so
2
5
%0 4+D $ D % $ 0
in" t
r c
kt

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$25c>
Sol'ing for rin"1
t
in" t
in"
c
kt
r c
kt
r

02D40 $ 0
%0 $ 0
%0 4+D $ D
2
5

$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$=6$26>
Eqn$ =6$26> is a"out the sa,e as Eqn$ =6$24a>1 !hich !as o"tained "# a ,uch ,ore co,plicated
anal#sis using deri'ati'es of Ireen*s functions$
7 couple of things are !orth noting3
We see =Eqn 6$24"> that diffusi'it# controls the radius of in'estigation$
6adius of in'estigation increases !ith the square-root of ti,e: this "eha'ior is characteristic
of solutions to the diffusi'it# equation$
The ti,e to in'estigate near-!ell regions is t#picall# too s,all to "e !ell-represented in data
=see "elo!>1 !hereas in lo!-per,ea"ilit# reser'oirs it ,a# ta2e a long ti,e to detect
"oundaries =see "elo!>$
Page %0 of %%
PETE 4052 Well Testing Spring 2002
Lecture 6 Equations for Single-Phase Porous Media lo! e"ruar# 22
EAa,ple %3 6adius in'estigated in one ,inute in a good-qualit# reser'oir$
7ssu,ing k J %00 ,d1 J 0$251 ct J %0%0
-6
Epsi1 J 0$D cp1 and t J %E60 hr1 rin" is
ft 20
> %0 %0 >= D $ 0 >= 25 $ 0 =
> 60 E % = %00
0+ $ 0
6

in"
r $ Thus1 e'en after % ,inute1 the part of the
reser'oir "eing in'estigated is far "e#ond the s2in region$ Well"ore !eirdness =storage and
te,perature transients on the pressure gauges> !ill usuall# o"scure these data$
EAa,ple 23 6adius in'estigated in % !ee2 in a lo!-per,ea"ilit#1 lo!-pressure gas reser'oir$
7ssu,ing k J 0$0%0 ,d1 J 0$051 ct J 200%0
-6
Epsi1 J 0$05 cp1 and t J %6D hr1 rin" is
ft 55
> %0 200 >= 05 $ 0 >= 05 $ 0 =
> %6D = 0%0 $ 0
0+ $ 0
6

in"
r $ So after one !ee21 onl# 55 feet ha'e "een
in'estigated$ Fecause such tight gas reser'oirs are usuall# co,pleted on large1 it is difficult to
detect "oundaries %00*s or %000*s of feet a!a#$
The difference in these t!o ti,e scales is solel# due to the differences in diffusi'it#1 $ EAa,ple
% is high-diffusi'it#1 eAa,ple 2 is lo!-diffusi'it#$
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