22- The Age of Nation States

I. The Crimean War (1853 1856)

This was caused by Russian desire to extend influence over the Ottoman Empire.
1) They had oversight of Orthodox Christians, which was threatened by French RCC and 2) They
wanted to extend control over the Ottoman Moldavia and Walachia. The Empire declared war on
Russian in 1853. March 28, 1854, France and Britain allied with the Ottomans against Russia (to
prevent Mediterranean expansion etc) Austria/Prussia stayed neutral. Both sides were ill equipped and
poorly commanded, and the war was one of the 1
st
to be covered by media. September 1855, both
sides moved for an end after the Russian fall at Sevastopol.
A. Peace Settlement and Long Term Results
The Treaty of Paris ended with 1) Surrender of Russian territory at the Danube River 2)
recognition of a neutral Black Sea 3) renouncement of the Russian claims of protection over
the Orthodox Ottomans and 4) the withdrawal from Moldavia and Walachia. The Crimean
War shattered the Concert of Europe. After the suppression in 1848, no one was worried
about revolutions. Thus the 25 years after the Crimean War was filled with political
adventurism. The Ottomans underwent major reform.
II. Reforms in the Ottoman Empire
The Napoleonic attacks sparked a need for reform. The Hatti Sharif of Gulhane attempted to
reorganize the empires administration and military along European lines. This began the Tanzimat era
of the Empire (meaning reorganization). The biggest part of the reform was civil equality regardless of
religion. Now, Muslims and non-Muslims could trade easier with each other. Hatti Humayun
explicitly spelled out the rights of non-Muslims; it gave them equal obligation to military service and
equal opportunity for state employment and admission to schools. It abolished torture. For the 1
st
time, the Ottomans sought to copy European legal and military institutions with liberalism. This was
done to gain loyalty with the Christians in the Empire. The goal was Ottoman citizens, not religious
members. Reform was difficult in areas independent of Istanbul (especially when rulers wouldnt
cooperate). The tensions and growing nationalism prevented the Empire from genuine political
strength and stability. Many disagreed with the European infiltration.
III. Italian Unification
Nationalists had a common goal to unite the Italian city-states.
A. Romantic Republicans
Carbonari (charcoal burners) were ineffective. Giuseppe Mazzini became the most important
nationalist leader in Europe and brought new fervor to the cause. In 1831, he created Young
Italy Society to get Austria out of Italy and then create an Italian Republic. Him and his buddy,
Giuseppe Garibaldi, revolted against the Roman Republic and because they spent so much
time in exile, they were known across the Continent and in the US. Most of the Italian people
wanted to kick out the Austrians but were afraid of a unified republic. By 1860, it became a
constitutional monarchy, nation-state. Count Camillo Cavour made it possible.
B. Cavours Policy
Piedmont was the buffer (restored by the Congress of Vienna) between France and Austria.
Cavour became the Prime Minister of Piedmont. He was originally a conservative but turned
moderately liberal later on in life. He invested in railroads, reformed agriculture on his estates,
and edited a newspaper; thus he became very rich. He was influenced by all the new ideas
coming out (nationalism, enlightenment, classical economics, and utilitarianism). He was
starkly against republicanism. Cavour used Garibaldi for fighting, Mazzini for publishing, and
Victor Emmanuel II as king to unite Italy away from French and Austrian control. Cavour
realized that material and economic bonds would unite Italians better than romantic yearnings.
The Nationalist Society was created to create loyalty to Italy from varieties of nationalist
viewpoints. He saw France as the only way to officially get rid of Austria from the peninsula.
1. French Sympathies
Cavour used his brilliance to impress the diplomats at the Paris Conventions ending
the Crimean War. He represented a moderate liberal, monarchist alternative to both
republicanism and reactionary absolutism in Italy. Cavour and Napoleon III (France)
met at Plombieres, Southern France plotting to provoke war in
Italy to defeat the Austrians. (Treaty in December 1858 to confirm)
2. War with Austria
Austria and Piedmont relations were tense. Piedmont over- reacted and soon France
rushed in as an ally to provoke war with Austria. While they defeated Austria, many
revolutions began breaking out in the Papal States. France ended the war July 11,
Cavour felt betrayed, but Austria was out of most of N Italy.
3. Garibaldis Campaign
Garibaldi led troops inland to conquer Naples. Cavour sent troops down to confront
him. On their way, they conquered all the Papal States (except the area around Rome
bc of the pope). In the end, Garibaldi agreed with nationalism over his own
republicanism and France gained Nice and Savoy, both of which spoke French. Naples
and Sicily joined the Italian kingdom.
C. The New Italian State
The Piedmont had not so much united as conquered Italy. Many began to resist. Northern and
Southern economies and societies were incompatible. North held the urban working class
(industrialization) while the South held the landholders and peasants (rural). The government wasnt
set up to deal with this. The arrangements didnt foster parliamentary life and transformismo
developed. Bribery could now transform political opponents into government supporters, making
it corrupt. They still werent united completely without Venetia and Rome. (Venetia was gained
when they allied with Prussia in the Austro-Prussian war) The desire of the Italian nationalists to
liberate Italia irredenta unredeemed Italy was much of the reason why Italy sided with the allies
against Germany and Austria in WWI.
IV. German Unification
This was the most important political development I Europe between 1848 and
1914. The German Confederation (dev at Congress of Vienna) had 39 states, the strongest of which
were Prussia and Austria. The Zollverein allowed them to trade with one another as well as railways
linking economies. Prussia wanted to unite itself better after the revolutions of 1840 and William I
began doing so first through enlarging his army. For two years the monarch and Parliament were
deadlocked.
A. Bismarck
Otto von Bismarck was of Junker heritage, educated, and making an impression from his
position in his provincial diet. The king turned to him because of his obvious interest in a
united Germany. William I appointed him as Prime Minister. In politics, he was a pragmatic
and put more trust in power and action than ideas. He wanted peace, but was unafraid to lead
Prussia into war (3 of them to be exact). In order to gain popular support for the monarch and
army, he looked to unite Germany through conservative institutions (allowing him to
outflank the Prussian liberals).
1. The Danish War (1864)
Bismarck wanted a kleindeutsch, or small Germany, not using all German-speaking
states. Schleswig-Holstein gave him a handle for the policy. Bismarck had Prussia ally
with Austria and easily defeat Denmark in 1864. It strengthened Bismarcks political
hand and he was thus able to maneuver Austria into war with Prussia. He
gained Russian sympathy by helping suppress a Polish revolt. Napoleon III agreed to
stay neutral, and he promised Italy they could have Venetia if they attacked Austria in
defense of Prussia. Now, he only had to provoke a war.
2. The Austro-Prussian War (1866)
With things tense over the ownership of Schleswig and Holstein, Bismarck ordered the
Prussian forces to be as obnoxious as possible towards the Austrians. Bismarck jumped
at the first slight chance to go to war, the Seven Weeks War (summer, 1866) led to
Austrias defeat at Koniggratz in Bohemia. Austria got out easy, turning Venetia over
to France, who then turned it over to the Italians. Prussia thus established itself as the
only major power among the German states.
3. The North German Confederation
1876 brought the annexation of many states and the deposition of their rulers. North
German Confederation was founded (Germany north of Main River). The legislature
had the federal council (Bundesrat) and the lower house (Reichstag). Bismarck
embraced the democratic franchise sensing the peasants would vote for conservatives.
Germany became a military monarchy. Nationalism proved to be the most attractive
over the liberalist split in the Prussian Parliament. Bismarck had crushed the Prussian
liberals
by making the monarchy and the army the most popular institutions in the
country. He was a genius.
B. The Franco-Prussian War and the German Empire (1870-1871) Bismarck now sought to
complete unification by annexing the southern states. Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-
Sigmaringen was asked to become ruler in Spain. This immediately worried the French who
kindly tried to work things out with William I. Basically Benedetti (ambassador to Prussia)
asked William for assurance that he would tolerate no future Spanish candidacy for Leopold.
William refused but said he would further consider the question. Bismarck wanted war with
France, so he released a tweaked version of a telegram to himself from William I, implying the
king had insulted France. This angered France who attacked Prussia. Perfect, now the
Southern states would unite with the Northern Confederation and spank up on the French.
September 1, they defeated French AND captured Napoleon III. Earlier they used the Hall of
Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles to request William to accept the title of German Emperor.
The German Empire was now proclaimed and Bismarck succeeded! This was a blow to
liberalism because it was created through conservatism. They were strong militarily and
economically, as well as being rich in natural resources and holding talented citizens. This
emergence forced France and Austria to change (because too much conservatism would be
bad). France returned to republican government while the Habsburgs came to terms with their
Magyar subjects.
V. France: from Liberal Empire to the Third Republic
Napoleon III was supported by the army, property owners, the French Catholic Church, peasants and
businesspeople. They approved the security he ensured for property, his protection of the pope, and his
economic program. He began to relax all his laws fro 1850 onward. This (and his compliance to a
liberal constitution) sought to shore up domestic support, compensating for his lack of foreign policy.
They had lost control in Italian unification, let things grow uncontrollably in a Mexican expedition,
but finally the governments last attempt towards foreign policy was with the Franco-Prussian war.
The second empire was over and Paris was soon under siege (by Germans) wishing for an overdue
peace.
A. The Paris Commune
Adolphe Thiers was given executive power and negotiated the Treaty of Frankfurt with
Germany. Parisians resented him (and the monarchist National Assembly) and elected the
Paris Commune intended to administer to Paris separately from the rest of Paris. The National
Assembly answered by surrounding Paris with an army, bombarding the city and breaking
through its defenses killing about 20,000 inhabitants, all within two months. The Commune
was dominated by petty bourgeois members, rooting in Blanquis and Proudhons anarchism
rather than Marxs class conflict. The National Assembly thereby destroyed the particularistic
political tendencies of Paris and every other French community.
B. The Third Republic
The National Assembly was backed into a form of republican government against their will.
Thiers was removed from office and replaced by
Marshal Patrice MacMahon who was expected to prepare for a monarchist restoration. The
National Assembly was unable to find a king and thus regularized a political system, adopting a
law that provided for a Chamber of Deputies elected by universal male suffrage, a Senate
chosen indirectly, and a president elected by the two legislative houses. When MacMahon
resigned, republicans controlled the national government despite lingering opposition from the
church, wealthy families, and part of the army. The political structure was stronger than many
suspected, surviving challenges, several scandal, and allowing new ministers to replace those
whose corruption was exposed.
C. The Dreyfus Affair
December 22, 1894, Captain Alfred Dreyfus was found guilty of passing secret information to
the German army. He was exiled to Devils Island, but when more stuff was leaked to the
German army, the file was re- opened, and evidence of forgery was found. It became public
and many were anti-Dreyfus; however, Emile Zola published an article contending that the
army had denied due process to Dreyfus and suppressed or even forged the evidence. He was
one of many that began to demand a new trial for Dreyfus (who was, by-the-way, a Jew). In
August 1898, further evidence of forgery came to light and the officer responsible for it
committed suicide in jail. The president of France immediately pardoned Dreyfus again when a
new military trial convicted him for the second
time. This case divided France as no other case had since the Paris
Commune. Te radicals, republicans, and socialists realized they had to ally and support
republican institutions to achieve their goals. Still, political, religious, and racial divisions
continued to divide the Third Republic until Frances defeat by Germany in 1940.
I. The Habsburg Empire
i. The Habsburgs response to the revolts of 1848 -1849 had been to reassert absolutism.
ii. Emperor Francis Joseph reacted to event but hardly ever commanded them
iii. In the 1850s his ministers tried to force a centralized administration on the .,empire
1. It was a military and bureaucratic regime dominated by German- speaking
Austrians
iv. Vienna government abolished internal tariffs in the empire v. It divided
Hungary into military districts.
B. Formation of the Dual Monarchy
i. 1860 Francis Joseph issued the October diploma
1. Created a federation among the states and provinces of the empire
2. Loyal diet dominated by the landed classes
3. Single imperial parliament
4. Magyar nobility of Hungary rejected the plan ii. Then in
1861 the emperor issued the February Patent
1. Set up an entirely different form of government
2. Established a bicameral imperial parliament or Reichsrat, with and upper and
lower chamber. Upper chamber elected by emperor and the later by an
indirect election.
3. Magyar nobility still refused the political dominance in the empire to
German-speaking Austrians
4. Regardless of the disagreement the February Patent ruled Austria until 1918
5. When the Reichsrat was not in session the emperor could simply rule by decree
without having anyones permission first.
ii. Once the Prussians defeated Austria in 1866, Austria was excluded from German
affairs.
iv. Now Francis Joseph had to make an agreement that appealed to the
Magyars.
v. With the Ausgleich of 1867, or compromise.
1. This transformed the Habsburg Empire into a dual monarchy known as
Austria-Hungary
vi. Francis Joseph crowned king of Hungary in 1867
C. Unrest of nationalities
i. In Hungary the political loyalty was based on nationality, because Hungary had been
recognized as a distinct part of the monarchy on the basis of nationalism.
ii. The Reichsrat was one of the two legislative bodies in Germany under the Weimar
constitution, the other one being the Reichstag
iii. Legislative of Germany Reichsrat
iv. In 1907 Joseph introduced universal male suffrage in Austria, but this didnt
eliminate the Reichsrat.
v. Language became the single most important factor in defining a nation. (Nationalism
became stronger during the last quarter of the 19
th
century because of the language
defining a nation)
vi. Both the Croats and the Poles wanted an independent state in union with their fellow
nationals who lived outside their empire.
vii. Nationality problems struck all four great central and eastern European empires
1. German
2. Russian
3. Austrian
4. Ottoman
II. Russia: Emancipated and Revolutionary Stirrings
A. Reforms of Alexander II
i. Alexander II instituted the most extensive restructuring of Russian society and
administration since Peter the Greatii. He imposed reforms from the top iii.
Abolition of Serfdom
1. Unlike the rest of Europe, Russia still had serfdom. Russian landlords had serfs
and had little recourse against their landlords.
2. In March 1856(end of the Crimean War) Alexander II decided/ wanted to
abolish serfdom if Russia was to remain in great power.
3. They serfdom as not efficient because there was always a threat
of the serfs and those serfs that served in the Crimean War fought badly.
4. Finally in 1861 it was serfdom was abolished.
5. This was not completely good for the serfs. They got more rights but they did
not receive free title to their land. So they had to pay their landlords off little by
little.
6. After the Japanese defeated Russia in 1905 the government completed the
process of emancipation by canceling the remaining debts.
iv. Reform of Local Government and the Judicial System.
1. The abolition of serfdom required the reorganization of local government
and the judicial system.
2. Nobility giver a larger role in local administration through a system of
provincial and county zemstvos, or councils, organized in 1864
a. Were to oversee local matters (education,. Road repairs)
3. New courts were both more efficient and less corrupt than the old system.
v. Military Reform
1. Government reformed the army.
2. Russia had the largest army on the Continent, even though it wasnt good
during the Crimean war
3. Soldiers that served normally served for about 25 years
4. All males were forced to military service after 20 years of age.
vi. Repression in Poland
1. Polish nationalists attempted to overthrow Russian dominance
2. And the Russian army once again shut down the rebellion.
3. In 1864 Alexander II emancipated the Polish serfs to punish the politically
restive Polish nobility.
4. Russian law, language, and administration were imposed on all areas of Polish
life. Poland was treated like a Russian province
5. Alexander became known as the Tsar Liberator
6. Russia became a police state because there was an attempt to killAlexander

II B. Revolutionaries
i. Alexander Herzen (1812- 1870) published the newspaper call The Bell
1. He set forth reformist positions.
ii. Coming from ideas of Herzen and other radicals some students reformed a
revolutionary movement known as populism
1. Sought social revolution based on the communal life of the
Russian peasants
iii. The chief radical society was called Land and Freedom
iv. In the 1870s many Russian men and women took their revolutionary message to the
countryside. They tried to live with the peasants and gain their trust and to tell them of
their role in the coming revolution
1. Peasants didnt trust them and turned some of them over to the police.
2. 1887-1878 about 200 students were tried. Tsar refused to pardon those students
given heavier sentences because he favored heavy penalties for all people
involved in revolutionary activity.
v. Revolutionaries agreed that the tsarist regime must be attacked directly and thus
adopted a policy of terrorism.
vi. 1878 Vera Zasulich attempted to assassinate the military governor of Saint Petersburg
1. The government cleared her of the murder because the governor had a
reputation for brutality. (this pushed terrorism along)
vii. 1879 Land and Freedom split into two groups
1. One group was for educating the peasants (soon disbanded) 2. The other group,
The Peoples Will, fought to overthrow the autocracy.

3. Willing to die for their cause

4. They decided to attempt to assassinate the tsar. Several attempts failed but
finally on March 1, 1881 a guy threw a bomb and killed Alexander II

viii.Then Alexander III came into power, grandson of Nicholas I
1. Sought to roll back his fathers reforms
2. Favored centralized bureaucracy over the zemstvos.
3. Strengthened the secret police
4. Increased censorship fo the press
5. Confirmed all the evils that the revolutionaries saw as inherent in autocratic
government.
6. Autocracy could not survive the pressures of the 20
th
century (Nicholas II found
out)

III. Great Britain: Toward Democracy
i. Great Britain symbolized the confident liberal state
ii. All classes shared belief in individualism and in competition. B. The Second
Reform Act (1867)
i. In 1866 Lord Russells Liberal ministry introduced a reform that a coalition of
traditional Conservatives antidemocratic Liberals defeated.
1. Russell resigned and the Conservative Lord Derby took over
ii. Conservative ministry, led by Benjamin Disraeli in the House of Commons
introduced another reform bill in 1867.

iii. A debate occurred and Disraeli accepted more and more amendments exceeding the
electorate beyond its limits. It allowed a ton more voters and that was a huge step
towards a democracy
iv. Conservative Party dominated British politics in the 20
th

century
v. In 1868 William Gladstone was elected the new prime minister.
1. Began as a Tory but over time became more liberal
2. Supported Robert peel, free trade, repeal of the Corn Laws, and efficient
administration.
3. His chancellor had lowered taxes and government expenditures.
4. Championed Italian nationalism
5. Opposed a new reform bill until the 1860s
6. 1866 became spokesperson in the House of Commons for the unsuccessful
liberal reform bill

C. Gladstones Great Ministry (1868-1874)
i. In 1871 purchases of officers commissions in the army was abolished
ii. Anglican religious requirements for the faculties of Oxford and
Cambridge universities were removed.

iii. The Ballot Act of 1872 introduced voting by secret ballots
iv. Education Act of 1870 (one of the most momentous)
1. Government assumed the responsibility for establishing and running
elementary schools (first time in British history)
v. Reforms mainly liberal

D. Disraeli in Office (1874-1880)
i. Disraeli came in office after Gladstone in 1874
ii. Gladstone and Disraeli differed on many issues
1. Gladstone looked to
a. individualism
b. free trade
c. competition to solve social problems
2. Disraeli believed in
a. Paternalistic legislation to protect the weak
b. Class antagonisms
iii. The Public Health Act of 1875
1. Consolidated previous legislation on sanitation
2. Re-affirmed the duty of the state to interfere with private property in order to
help protect health and physical well-being
iv. Artisan Dwelling Act of 1875
1. Government became actively involved in providing housing for the working
class

E. The Irish Question
i. The Irish question centered on the issue of home rule
ii. In 1884 a third reform act gave the vote to most male farm workers. iii. In the late
1860s Irish nationalists sought to achieve home rule for Ireland. (meaning the Irish
control of local government iv. Gladstone
1. In 1869 he disestablished the Church of Ireland, the Irish branch of the Anglican
church
2. In 1870 the liberal ministry sponsored a land act
a. It provided compensation to those Irish tenant farmers who were
evicted and loans for those who wished to purchase their land.
v. Land remained center of agitation
vi. In 1881 the second Gladstone ministry passed another Irish land act
1. It strengthened tenant rights
2. Also along with it was the Coercion Act
a. That restored law and order to Ireland
vii. In 1885 Parnell had a group of 85 Irish members of the House of
Commons put together in a tight party that voted as a bloc.
viii.In 1885 Gladstone announced his support of home rule for Ireland
ix. Parnell gave his votes to a liberal ministry
x. The home rule then split the liberal party
xi. In 1886 a group, Liberal Unionists joined together with the
Conservatives to defeat hime rule
xii. The new conservative ministry of Lord Salisbury
1. Attempted to reconcile the Irish to British rule through public works and administrative
reform.
xiii.1892 Gladstone returned to power
xiv.In 1903 the conservatives sponsored a land act that carried out the final transfer of
land to tenant ownership
xv. Ireland became a country of farms
xvi.1912 liberal ministry passed the third Home Rule Bill it had to pass the Commons
three times over the Lords veto to become law