1

Spring 2014
Instructor: Kai Sun


ECE 422/522
Power System Operations &
Planning/Power Systems Analysis II :

7 - Transient Stability
2
Transient Stability
The ability of the power system to maintain synchronism
when subjected to a severe transient disturbance such as
a fault on transmission facilities, loss generation, or loss of
a large load.
The system response to such disturbances involves large
excursions of generator rotor angles, power flows, bus voltages,
and other system variables.
Stability is influenced by the nonlinear characteristics of the system
If the resulting angular separation between the machines in the
system remains within certain bounds, the system maintains
synchronism.
If loss of synchronism because of transient instability occurs, it will
usually be evident within 2-3 seconds of the initial disturbances
3
Single-Machine Infinite Bus (SMIB) System
P
e
= =P
max
sin
P
max
=EE
B
/X
T
Swing Equation:
2
max
2
0
2
sin
m e m
H d
P P P P
dt

= =
P
m
= P
e

The rotor will accelerate if P
m
increases,
or P
e
decreases due to, e.g., a
contingency on the transmission path
P
a
is called Accelerating Power
4
Power Angle Relationship
Question: What if both
circuits are out of service?
P
e
= =P
max
sin
5
P
a

r

a >0 =
0
,


b 0 =
r, max
,

c <0 =
0
, =
max
,


Response to a step change in P
m
Consider a sudden increase in P
m
: P
m0
P
m1
.
New equilibrium point b satisfying P
e
(
1
)=P
m1
a b: Due to the rotors inertia, cannot jump
from
0
to
1
, so P
a
=P
m1
-P
e
(
0
)>0 and
r

increases from
0
. When b is reached, P
a
=0 but

r
>
0
, so continues to increase.
b c: >
1
and P
a
<0, so
r
decreases until c.
At c,
r
=
0
and

reaches the peak value
max
.
c: At c, the rotor starts to decelerate (since
P
a
<0) with
r
<
0
and decreases.
With all resistances (damping) neglected, and

r
oscillate around the new equilibrium point b
with a constant amplitude.

2
max
2
0
2
sin
a m e m
H d
P P P P P
dt

= = =
6
Equal-Area Criterion (EAC)
If
max
exists where d/dt=0:
(Note: all losses are neglected)
Moment of inertia in p.u.
(Kundurs Page 131)
2
0
( )
r m e
P P d
H

^ =
]
2
0
2
0
2
( )
2
r m e
H
P P d

^ =
]
max
0
max
2
0
1
( )
2
r
m e
J P P d

=
1
^

( )
]
1 max
0 1
( ) ( )
m e e m
P P d P P d


=
] ]
1 2
=|area | |area | 0 A A =
At
max
,
r
=0 and
the integral=0
7
Equal-Area Criterion (EAC): The stability is maintained only if a decelerating area
|A
2
| the accelerating area |A
1
| can be located above P
m
(before d, i.e. the
Unstable Equilibrium Point or UEP).













If |A
2
|<|A
1
|, will continue increasing at UEP (since
r
>
0
), so it will lose stability.
For the case with a step change in P
m
, P
m
or the new P
m
does matter for
transient stability.
UEP
SEP
8
1 max
0 1
1 0 max max max 1
( ) sin sin ( )
m m
P P d P d P


=
] ]
Following a step change P
m0
P
m
, solve the transient stability limit of P
m
:
Assume | A
1
|=| A
2
|:
max 0 max 0 max
( ) (cos cos )
m
P P =
max 0 max max 0
( )sin cos cos =
Transient stability limit for a step change of P
m
At the UEP,
max max
sin
m
P P =
1 max
=
UEP
SEP
max max
sin
m
P P =
Solve
max
to calculate the transient
stability limit for a step change of P
m
:
Question: Can we increase P
m
beyond that transient limit (with P
m
<P
max
)?
0 max 1 0 max max 1 max
(cos cos ) (cos cos )
m m
P P P P =
9
The nonlinear function form:
Select an initial estimate:
Calculate iterative solutions by the N-R algorithm:



Give a solution when a specific accuracy is reached, i.e.

max 0 max max 0
( )sin cos cos =
max 0
( ) cos f c = =
( )
max
/ 2
k
< <
( )
max
( ) ( )
( ) max max
max
( ) ( )
max 0 max
max
( ) ( )
where
( )cos
k
k k
k
k k
c f c f
df
d

^ = =

( 1) ( ) ( )
max max max
k k k

= ^
( 1) ( )
max max
k k

_
Solve
max
by the Newton-Raphson method

10
Response to a three-phase fault
P
e
= =P
max
sin
P
e,during fault
<<P
e,

post-fault
P
e,post-fault
<P
e,pre-fault
for a permanent fault (cleared by tripping the fault circuit)
or P
e, post-fault
=P
e,pre-fault
for a temporary fault
11
Stable
Unstable
12
Critical Clearing Angle (CCA)
Saadats Sec.11.6 (Example 11.5)
Consider a simple case
A three-phase fault at the sending end
P
e,

during fault
=0 if all resistances are
neglected
Critical Clearing Angle
c




|A
1
| |A
2
|
Integrating both sides:

max
0
m max m
( sin )
c
c
P d P P d


=
] ]
( )
0 max max max
(cos cos ) ( )
m c c m c
P P P =
max max
max
cos ( ) cos
m
c c
P
P
=
0 0
max
( ) cos
m
c
P
P
=
=-
0
13
Critical Clearing Time (CCT)
Solve the CCT from the CCA:
Since P
e, during fault
=0 for this case, during the fault:
2
2
0
2
m
H d
P
dt

=
0 0
0
2 2
t
m m
d
P dt P t
dt H H

= =
]
2
0
0
4
m
P t
H

=
0
0
4 ( )
c
c
m
H
t
P

=
14
(pre-fault)
(post-fault) P
3max
(fault-on) P
2max
For a more general case: P
e
(during fault)>0
( )
0
max
3ma 0 2max x m max
sin ( sn ) i
c
c
m c c
P P P P d d

=
] ]
m max 3max max 2max 0
3max 2max
( ) cos cos
cos
c
c
P P P
P P

P
3max
P
2max
A
1


A
2


A
3

s
(
u
)
|A
1
| =V
ke
(
c
), the kinetic energy at
c





|A
1
|+|A
3
| =V(
c
)=V
ke
(
c
)+V
pe
(
c
), total energy at
c

|A
2
|+|A
3
| =V
pe
(
u
)=V
cr
, i.e. the largest potential energy
If and only if V(
c
)V
cr
(i.e. |A
1
||A
2
|), the generator is stable
15
Factors influencing transient stability
How heavily the generator is loaded.
The generator output during the fault. This depends on the fault
location and type
The fault-clearing time
The post-fault transmission system reactance
The generator reactance. A lower reactance increases peak power
and reduces initial rotor angle.
The generator inertia. The higher the inertia, the slower the rate of
change in angle. This reduces the kinetic energy gained during fault;
i.e. the accelerating area A
1
is reduced.
The generator internal voltage magnitude (E). This depends on the
field excitation
The infinite bus voltage magnitude E
B
How heavily the generator is loaded.
The generator output during the fault. This depends on the fault
location and type
The fault-clearing time
The post-fault transmission system reactance
The generator reactance. A lower reactance increases peak power
and reduces initial rotor angle.
The generator inertia. The higher the inertia, the slower the rate of
change in angle. This reduces the kinetic energy gained during fault;
i.e. the accelerating area A
1
is reduced.
The generator internal voltage magnitude (E). This depends on the
field excitation
The infinite bus voltage magnitude E
B


16
EAC for a Two-Machine System
Two interconnected machines respectively with H
1
and H
2
The system can be reduced to an equivalent SMIB system



2
1 0 0
1 1 1
2
1 1
( )
2 2
m e a
d
P P P
dt H H

= =
2
2 0 0
2 2 2
2
2 2
( )
2 2
m e a
d
P P P
dt H H

= =
2 2 2
12 1 2 0 1 1
2 2 2
1 2
( )
2
a a
d d d P P
dt dt dt H H

= =
2
1 2 12 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2
2
0 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
2
=
a a m m e e
H H d H P H P H P H P H P H P
H H dt H H H H H H

=

12,max
12,0
0
m,12 ,12
12
( ) 0
e
P P d
H

=
]
2
12 12
,12 ,12
2
0
2
m e
H d
P P
dt

=
P
e12
P
m12

12

12,max

12,0
17
Single Machine Equivalent Method (EEAC or SIME) [1]-[3]
Based on generator trajectories obtained from time-domain simulations, split all
generators into two groups (fixed or dynamic) and build a 2-machine equivalent
and consequently a single machine equivalent, such that EAC can be applied.











1. Y. Xue, et al, "A Simple Direct Method for Fast Transient Stability Assessment of Large Power Systems". IEEE Trans. on PWRS,
PWRS3: 400412, 1988.
2. Y. Xue, et al, "Extended Equal-Area Criterion Revisited". IEEE Trans. on PWRS, PWRS7: 10101022,1992.
3. M. Pavella, et al, Transient Stability of Power Systems: a Unified Approach to Assessment and Control, Kluwer, 2000.
18
Some examples from [3]

19
Methods for Transient Stability Analysis
Analyzing a systems transient stability following a given
contingency
Time-domain simulation:
At present, the most practical available method of transient stability
analysis is time-domain simulation in which the nonlinear differential
equations are solved by using step-by-step numerical integration
techniques.
Direct methods:
Those methods determine stability without explicitly solving the
system differential equations. The methods are based on Lyapunovs
second method, define a Transient Energy Function (TEF) as a
possible Lyapunov function, and compare the TEF to a critical
energy V
cr
to judge stability
EAC is a direct method for a SMIB or two-machine system

20
Numerical Integration Methods
The differential equations to be solved in power system stability analysis are
nonlinear ODEs (ordinary differential equations) with known initial values
x=x
0
and t=t
0



where x is the state vector of n dependent variables and t is the independent
variable (time). Our objective is to solve x as a function of t
Explicit Methods
In these methods, the value of x at any value of t is computed from the
knowledge of the values of x from only the previous time steps, e.g. Euler
method and R-K methods
Implicit Methods
These methods use interpolation functions (involving future time steps)
for the expression under the integral, e.g. the Trapezoidal Rule
( , ) =
x
x
d
f t
dt
21
Euler Method
The Euler method is equivalent to using the first two
terms of the Taylor series expansion for x around the
point (x
0
, t
0
), referred to as a first-order method (error is
on the order of t
2
)
Approximate the curve at x=x
0
and t=t
0
by its tangent






At step i+1


The standard Euler method results in inaccuracies
because it uses the derivative only at the beginning of the
interval as though it applied throughout the interval
0
0 0
( , )
x
f
d
x
x
t
t
d
=
( , ) =
dx
f x t
dt
0
0 0 1
x
x
dx
x x t
t
x
d
= + = +
0
x
dx
d
x
t
t
1 +
= +
i
i i
x
dx
x x t
dt
t
0
t
1

x
0

t
x
1

x(t
1
)
22
Modified Euler (ME) Method
Modified Euler method consists of two steps:
(a) Predictor step:



The derivative at the end of the t is estimated using x
1
p





(b) Corrector step:


It is a second-order method (error is on the order of t
3
)
0
1
0
p
x
dx
x
dt
t x = +
1
1
1
( , )
p
x
p
f x
dx
t
t
d
=
0
1
1
0
2
p
x x
c
dx dx
dt dt
x x t
+
= +
1
1
2
p
i
i
i
x x
c
i
dx dx
dt dt
x x t
+
+
+
= +
t
0
t
1

x
0

t
x
1
p


x
1
c
x

(t
1
)
( , ) =
dx
f x t
dt
Slope at the beginning of t
Estimated slope at the end of t
Step size t must be small enough to obtain a reasonably accurate solution, but at the
same time, large enough to avoid the numerical instability with the computer, e.g.
increasing round-off errors.

23
Runge-Kutta (R-K) Methods
General formula of the 2
nd
order R-K method:
(error is on the order of t
3
)









General formula of the 4
th
order R-K method:
(error is on the order of t
5
)



1 1 1 2 2 i i
x x a k a k
+
= + +
1
( , )
i i
k f x t t =
2
1
( , )
i i
k f x k t t t = + +
1 0 1 1 2 2
x x a k a k = + +
0 1 0
( , ) x k f t t =
0 1 2 0
( , ) f x k t t t k + + =
The ME method is a special case
with a
1
=a
2
=1/2, ==1
t
0
t
1

x
0

t
x
0
+k
1

( , ) =
dx
f x t
dt
x(t
1
)
At Step i+1:
1 1 2 3 4
1
( 2 2 )
6
i i
x x k k k k
+
= + + + +
1
( , )
i i
k f x t t =
1
2
( , )
2 2
i i
k t
k f x t t

= + +
2
3
( , )
2 2
i i
k t
k f x t t

= + +
4 3
( , )
i i
k f x k t t t = + +
24
Numerical Stability of Explicit Integration Methods
Numerical stability is related to the stiffness of the set of differential equations
representing the system

The stiffness is measured by the ratio of the largest to smallest time constant,
or more precisely by |
max
/
min
| of the linearized system.

Stiffness in a transient stability simulation increases with modeling more
details (more small time constants are concerned).

Explicit integration methods have weak stability numerically; with stiff
systems, the solution blows up unless a small step size is used. Even after the
fast modes die out, small time steps continue to be required to maintain
numerical stability
25
Implicit Methods
Implicit methods use interpolation functions for the expression under the
integral. Interpolation implies the function must pass through the yet
unknown points at t
1
The simplest implicit integration method is the Trapezoidal Rule method.
It uses linear interpolation.
The stiffness of the system being analyzed affects accuracy but not
numerical stability. With larger time steps, high frequency modes and fast
transients are filtered out, and the solutions for the slower modes is still
accurate. For example, for the Trapezoidal rule, only dynamic modes
faster than f(x
n
,t
n
) and f(x
n+1
,t
n+1
) are neglected.
t
0

t
1

f(x
0
,t
0
)
f(x
1
,t
1
)
t
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 0
1
0 0 1 1
1 1

2
n+ n n n n+ n+
x = x +
t
x = x + f x ,t +
t
f x ,t
f x ,
+ f x
t
,t



( ) ( )
1
1 n+1
2
n
p
n n n n
t
x x f x ,t + f x ,t
+
+

= +

Compared to ME method:
A
B
x(t
1
)=x(t
0
)+|A|+|B|
f
26
Kundurs Example 13.1

27
28
29
Overall System Equations
The overall system equations are expressed in the general form
comprising a set of first-order differential equations (dynamic
devices) and a set of algebraic equations (devices and network)


where
x state vector of the system
V bus voltage vector
I current injection vector
Y
N
node admittance matrix. It is constant except for changes introduced by
network-switching operations; symmetrical except for dissymmetry
introduced by phase-shifting transformers (Kundurs Sec. 6.2.3)


DE
AE
N
x = f(x, V)
I(x, V) = Y V

30
Solution of the Equations
Schemes for the solution of equations DE and AE are
characterized by the following factors
The manner of interface between the DE and AE. Either a
partitioned approach or a simultaneous approach may be used
The integration method, i.e. an implicit method or explicit method,
used to solve the DE.
The method used to solve the AE (power flow analysis), e.g. the
Newton-Raphson method.

Most commercialized power system simulation programs
provide the Modified Euler, 2
nd
order R-K, 4
th
order R-K
and Trapezoidal Rule methods
31
A Simplified Model for Multi-Machine Systems
Consider these classic simplifying assumptions:
Each synchronous machine is represented by a voltage source E with
constant magnitude |E| behind X
d
(neglecting armature resistances, the effect
of saliency and the changes in flux linkages)
The mechanical rotor angle of each machine coincides with the angle of E
The governors actions are neglected and the input powers P
mi
are assumed to
remain constant during the entire period of simulation
Using the pre-fault bus voltages, all loads are converted to equivalent
admittances to ground. Those admittances are assumed to remain constant
(constant impedance load models)
Damping or asynchronous powers are ignored.
Machines belonging to the same station swing together and are said to be
coherent. A group of coherent machines is represented by one equivalent
machine


32
Solve the initial power flow and determine the initial bus voltage phasors V
i
.
Terminal currents I
i
of m generators prior to disturbance are calculated by their
terminal voltages V
i
and power outputs S
i
, and then used to calculate E
i




All loads are converted to equivalent admittances:


To include voltages behind X
di
, add m internal generator buses to the n-bus
power system network to form a n+m bus network (ground as the reference for
voltages):



X
d1

X
d2

X
dm

E
1

E
2

E
m

Y
bus nxn


reduce
bus m m
Y
33
Node voltage equation with ground as reference






I
bus
is the vector of the injected bus currents
V
bus
is the vector of bus voltages measured from the reference node
Y
bus
is the bus admittance matrix :
Y
ii
(diagonal element) is the sum of admittances connected to bus i
Y
ij
(off-diagonal element) equals the negative of the admittance between
buses i and j
Compared to the Y
bus
for power flow analysis, additional m internal
generator nodes are added and Y
ii
(in) is modified to include the load
admittance at node i

34
To simplify the analysis, all nodes other than the generator internal nodes are
eliminated as follows
I
1
I
2
I
m
where
where
ij
is the angle of Y
ij
2

0
needs to be updated whenever the
network is changed.
35
Homework #6
Saadats 11.14-11.17, due on 4/24 (Thur)