Climamed'13 Congres Oct 10 Proceedings

CONTENTS
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

I

0007-THE INFLUENCE OF OCCUPANTS BEHAVIOUR IN A HIGH PERFORMING
BUILDING. ....................................................................................................................................................... 1-9
Valentina Fabi
1
, Simona DOca
1
, Tiziana Buso
1
and Stefano Corgnati
2

0012-AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON PRESSURE DROP
CHARACTERISTICS OF ALUMINUM FLEXIBLE AIR DUCT
UNDERCOMPRESSION AND BENDING EFFECTS-II ........................................................................ 10-18
Atilla Bykolu
1
, mit Ar
2
and Betl Bakaya
3

0014-CASE STUDY: A NET ZERO ENERGY BUILDING BASED ON HEAT PUMP
TECHNOLOGY ............................................................................................................................................ 19-27
Bart Van Reeth
1
, Hiroshi Aihara
1

0019-CLIMAMED 2013 NET ZERO ENERGY USE IN BUILDINGS .................................................. 28-35
Lawrence Chee, -Ahmet Akcakaya, Cevat Erdogan

0020-HYBRID HVAC SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT OPTIMIZATION IN NET-ZERO
ENERGY BUILDINGS ................................................................................................................................ 36-48
Birol Klk, Fellow ASHRAE

0021-TESTING A SIMPLIFIED BUILDING ENERGY SIMULATION PROGRAM VIA
BUILDING ENERGY SIMULATION TEST (BESTEST) ..................................................................... 49-57
Glden Gken Akkurt
1
, Cem Doan ahin
1
, SavaTakan
1
, Zeynep Durmu Arsan
1

0024-INCLUDING THE BUILDING ENERGY PERFORMANCE CONSULTANCY TO
THE INTEGRATED BUILDING DESIGN PROCESS: THE INDUSTRIAL
BUILDING CASE STUDY IN TURKEY ................................................................................................... 58-64
Alpay Akguc
1
, Gozde Gali
1
and A. Zerrin Yilmaz
2

0025-USING ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING IN HARMONY WITH NATURAL LIGHTING
THROUGH AN OFFICE BUILDING EXAMPLE ................................................................................... 65-71
Gzde Gali1, Alpay Akg1 and A. Zerrin Ylmaz2

0026-FROM HIGH PERFORMING BUILDINGS TO NEARLY ZERO ENERGY
BUILDINGS: POTENTIAL OF AN EXISTING OFFICE BUILDING ................................................. 72-81
Cristina Becchio
1
, Stefano Paolo Corgnati
1
Valentina Monetti
1
and Enrico Fabrizio
2

0028-INSTRUCTIONS FOR PREPARING THE FULL PAPER TO CLIMAMED 2013
CONGRESS NET ZERO ENERGY USE IN BUILDINGS (TIMES NEW ROMAN
BOLD 14 PT, STYLE: TITLE)
EVALUATION, IN TERMS OF SOLAR HEAT
GAINS, OF THE EFFECTS OF COURTYARD BUILDING SHAPES ON
MICROCLIMATE ACCORDING TO DIFFERENT CLIMATIC REGIONS ..................................... 82-91
Enes Yaa
1
,

0030-IGH PERFORMANCE BUILDING SKIN. FROM LOW-ENERGY TO NET ZERO
ENERGY BUILDINGS. ............................................................................................................................ 92-101
Fabiana Cambiaso
1
, Matteo Varioli Pietrasanta
2

0031-ENERGY PERFORMANCE AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF THE
NATIONAL CENTER OF COSTUME SCENE (NCCS) IN MOULINS
(FRANCE) -AVERAGE 2007-2011 ......................................................................................................... 102-106
J.Naveteur
#1
, A.Rousset
*2
, V.Foray
#3

CONTENTS
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

II

0032-MUREAUX ADMINISTRATIVE SITE THE FIRST HQE CERTIFIED
OPERATION IN FRANCE: 7 YEARS LATER... ................................................................................. 107-113
J.Naveteur
#1
, S.Barrois
*2
, G.Aumont
#3

0036-NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION OF FLOW PATTERNS AND THERMAL
COMFORT IN AIR-CONDITIONED LECTURE ROOMS USING STEADY
AND UNSTEADY TECHNIQUES ......................................................................................................... 114-128
Taher M. Abou-Deif
1
, Essam E. Khalil
2

0038-AIR FLOW REGIMES AND THERMAL COMFORT IN A LIVING ROOM ....................... 129-141
Essam E. Khalil ,EsmailM.El-Bialy,and Taher M.Aboudeif

0042-EFFECT OF CITY VENTILATION ON URBAN HEAT ISLAND IN URBAN
AREAS:A PARAMETRIC STUDY ........................................................................................................ 142-150
Aya Glten
1
, U.Teoman Aksoy
2
and Hakan F. ztop
3

0043-CFD SIMULATIONS OF CHEVRON TYPE PLATE HEAT EXCHANGERS AND
VALIDATION WITH EXPERIMENTAL DATA ................................................................................ 151-158
Ece Ozkaya
1
, Yasin Genc
1
, Selin Aradag
1
and Sadik Kakac
1

0046-ENERGY EFFICIENT DATA CENTERS WITH SPECIALIZED
SIMULATION TOOLS ............................................................................................................................ 159-167
Can zcan
1

0048-INVESTIGATION OF THERMAL COMFORT INSIDE A FURNISHED
OFFICE ROOM ACCORDING TO VELOCITY-TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS ..................... 168-176
Firat Karasahin
1
, Tamer Calisir
2
and Senol Baskaya
2

0049-ECONOMICAL ANALYSIS OF HEAT RECOVERY VENTILATION FOR
DIFFERENT CLIMATE CONDITIONS IN TURKEY ....................................................................... 177-184
smail Hakk Tavman
1
, Cihan angarl
2

0054-INDOOR AIR CONCENTRATIONS OF SYNTHETIC MUSK COMPOUNDS
AND THEIR FRACTIONATION BETWEEN GAS AND PARTICULATE
PHASES IN A UNIVERSITY CAFETERIA ......................................................................................... 185-189
idem zcan, Aysun Sofuoglu, Sait C. Sofuoglu

0056-NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF NATURAL VENTILATION IN A
LIVING SPACE FOR DIFFERENT SPACE ORGANIZATION ....................................................... 190-198
Gven
1
, Murat akan
2
and Glten Maniolu
3

0057-MODELING ZERO ENERGY BUILDING: TECHNICAL AND ECONOMICAL
OPTIMIZATION ...................................................................................................................................... 199-208
Maria Ferrara
1-2
, Joseph Virgone
1
, Enrico Fabrizio
3
, Frdrik Kuznik
1
, Marco Filippi
2

0060-APPLICABILITY OF ONE-DIMENSIONAL RC-MODELSWITH
SHORTTIME-STEPFOR RADIANT SYSTEMS IN ENERGY BUILDING
SIMULATION PROGRAMS .................................................................................................................. 209-216
Ismael Rodrguez Maestre, Enrique ngel Rodrguez Jara, Juan Luis Foncubierta Blzquez, Francisco, Jos
Snchez De La Flor

0064-THE EFFECT OF USING RELIEF DAMPER IN STAIRCASE PRESSURIZATION
AS A PART OF POSITIVE VENTILATION SYSTEMS ................................................................... 217-223
Bra Hepgzel
1

CONTENTS
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

III

0065-THE EFFECTS OF SET-POINTS AND DEAD-BANDS OF THE HVAC
SYSTEM ON THE ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND OCCUPANT
THERMAL COMFORT .......................................................................................................................... 224-232
Ongun Berk Kazanci, Bjarne W. Olesen
1

0066-A DIRECT NUMERICAL INTEGRATION (DNI) METHOD TO OBTAIN
WALL THERMAL RESPONSE FACTORS ........................................................................................ 233-241
Fernando Varela
1
, Santiago Aroca
2

0072-APPLYING TEARING TECHNIQUES TO IMPROVE BUILDING
SIMULATION CPU TIMES ................................................................................................................... 242-249
Juan L. Foncubierta Blzquez
1
, Ismael Rodrguez Maestre
1
, Juan Fco. Coronel Toro
2
, Paloma R. Cubillas
Fernndez
1

0077-ENERGY EFFICIENT HEATING OF BUILDING .................................................................... 250-270
Ahmet CAN
1
, Selin ENGN
2
and Dervi ZKAN
3

0078-EXPERIMENTAL PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF PCM THERMAL
STORAGE IN A PANEL RADIATOR .................................................................................................. 271-278
Trkan OK ERKEK
1
, Ali GNGR
1

0081-A GREEN MUSEUM FOR OTTOMAN ARTEFACTS ............................................................. 279-286
Jan G Holmberg
1
, Bengt Kylsberg
2

0082-EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF HYDROTHERMAL
CHARACTERISTICS AND FLOW MALDISTRIBUTION FOR A GASKETED
PLATE HEAT .......................................................................................................................................... 287-295
Cagin Gulenoglu
1*
, Selin Aradag
1
, Nilay Sezer Uzol
1
, Sadik Kakac
1

0084-APPLYING ENERGY STORAGE IN BUILDINGS OF THE FUTURE ................................. 296-303
Fariborz HAGHIGHAT, Ph.D., P.Eng., Fellow ASHRAE, Fellow ISIAQ
Professor

0087-NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE PERFORMANCE OF A TYPICAL
CONDENSER ............................................................................................................................................ 304-312
L. Berrin Erbay
1
, Haluk Ylmaz
2

0089-NUMERICAL STUDY OF SMOKE DISTRIBUTION IN A HIGH-RISE
BUILDING WITH ATRIUM ................................................................................................................. 313-321
Feyza ebi
1
, Yakup Erhan Bke
2

0092-DEVELOPMENT OF AN ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY FOR LOW ENERGY
RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS DEVELOPMENT IN NORTH OF MOROCCO ............................... 322-331
Romani Zaid
1,2
, Abdeslam Draoui
1
,
and Francis Allard
2

0095-SORPTION TECHNOLOGY IN VENTILATION AND AIR-CONDITIONING
SYSTEMS .................................................................................................................................................. 332-333

0099-DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS USING PEM TYPE FUEL CELLS ......................................... 334-340
Semih Kurular
1
,Melike Glbahe
2
,Mustafa Kemal Sevindir
3
and Ahmet Yurtseven
4

0100-OPTIMAL CONTROL METHOD FOR A HEAT SOURCE SYSTEM
CONSISTING OF CENTRIFUGAL CHILLERS ................................................................................. 341-349
Satoshi Nikaido
1
, Kenji Ueda
1
and Takaaki Miura
1

CONTENTS
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

IV

0101-THE EFFECT OF CHANGING THE DESIGN PARAMETER AND USING VSD
CHILLERS ON THE ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND PROJECT ECONOMIC,
CASE STUDY FOR A PROJECT UNDER DESIGN. .......................................................................... 350-357
Eng. Rafik Tharwat
1
, Eng. M.O. Khalil
1
and Eng. Mohamed Alaa
1

0103-IMPACT OF MOISTURE BUFFERING ON INDOOR CLIMATE FOR
MECHANICALLY VENTILATED OFFICES ..................................................................................... 358-366
Amos Ronzino
1
, Maximilian Neusser
2
, Paul Wegerer
2
, Thomas Bednar
2
, Vincenzo Corrado
1

0109-SEASONAL EFFICIENCY, THE NEW ENERGY LABEL OF
AIR CONDITIONERS AND HOW TO COMPARE PRODUCTS ..................................................... 367-377
Dr. Anda YAKUT
1

0110-HEAT TRANSFER ANALYSIS OF THE ADSORBENT BED OF A
THERMAL WAVE CYCLE USING SILICA GEL .............................................................................. 378-386
Ahmet alar
1
, Cemil Yamal
2

0111-PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF A SOLAR ASSISTED HVAC
SYSTEM FOR A MEDIUM-SIZED OFFICE BUILDING IN LARNACA,
NORTH CYPRUS ..................................................................................................................................... 387-396
zgr Bayer
1
,Doan Mert Gldiken
2

0114-A SIMPLIFIED HOURLY MODEL FOR ENERGY CHARACTERISATION OF
TRANSPARENT ACTIVE FAADES. A COMPARISON BETWEEN SIMULATION
RESULTS AND MONITORED DATA .................................................................................................. 397-405
Lorenza Bianco, Ylenia Cascone, Alice Gorrino, Vincenzo Corrado, Valentina Serra

0123-A SIMPLIFIED CALCULATION METHODOLOGY FOR CONTROLLED
NATURAL VENTILATION ................................................................................................................... 406-414
Tobias Schulze
1
, Ursula Eicker
2
and Zerrin Aye Ylmaz
1

0129-THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF COLD
BUILDINGS DURING THE HEATING UP PERIOD ......................................................................... 415-421
Mehmet Emin ARICI
1
and Birkut GLER
2

0132-CONTRIBUTION TO THE THERMAL RENOVATION OF OLD
BUILDINGS: NUMERICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH FOR
CHARACTERIZING A DOUBLE WINDOW ...................................................................................... 423-429
Mohamed El Mankibi
1
, Richard Cantin
1
, Riccardo Issoglio
1
,

0133-A SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF THE SHADING FACTOR FOR BUILDING
ENERGY PERFORMANCE ................................................................................................................... 430-438
Ylenia Cascone
1
, Alfonso Capozzoli
1
, Vincenzo Corrado
1
and Valentina Serra
1

0135-PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS AND ADVANCED EXPERIMENTAL DEVICE
TO IMPROVE MOROCCAN PUBLIC BUILDINGS ENERGY EFFICIENCY ............................. 439-448
Nezha Elbied
1
, Mohamed El Mankibi
2
, Zineb Benmoussa
1
, Abdellah Bouhouche
1,
Abdelouahab Bakadiri
1,
Nour
Eddine Mahfoud
1
, Amine Elkahhak
1
, Ricardo Issoglio
2
.

0136-THE NEED FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY FOR TURKEY AND THE LATEST
DEVELOPMENTS IN HEAT PUMPS .................................................................................................. 449-457
Turgay Yay
1
, Muhammed Mehdi Tayz
2

CONTENTS
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

V

0137-VALIDATION OF THE STOCHASTIC MODELS TO GENERATE ACTUAL
OCCUPANCY BEHAVIOR SCHEDULES FOR ACCURATE PREDICTION OF
ENERGY CONSUMPTION .................................................................................................................... 458-466
GUERNOUTI Sihem
1
, LE GUEN Solenn
2
, El MANKIBI Mohamed
3
and HUMBERT Myriam
1

0140-COMPUTATIONAL INVESTIGATION OF TURBULENT AIR FLOW IN A
VENTILATED ROOM ............................................................................................................................ 467-474
Hfz Arda Ersan
1
and Erhan Pulat
2

142-ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF CLIMATIC ZONES IN TURKEY
WITH REGARD TO THE ENERGY LABELLING FOR AIR CONDITIONERS .......................... 474-485
H. Toros
*
, A. Deniz
*
, S. ncecik
*
and U. Sertan
**

0143-THE INFLUENCE OF THERMAL BRIDGES ON THE BUILDING
ENERGY PERFORMANCE ................................................................................................................... 486-494
Alfonso Capozzoli
1
, Alice Gorrino
1
, Vincenzo Corrado
1
, Nunzio Cotrufo
2
and Roberto Sora
3

0146-DESIGN AND VERIFICATION OF A ZERO ENERGY BUILDING:
EVALUATION OF REAL ENERGY PERFORMANCE AND COMPARISON
WITH A TAILORED CALCULATION ................................................................................................ 495-503
Alfonso Capozzoli
1
, Luca Berra
2
, Roberto Russo
3
and Vincenzo Corrado
1

0152-SECURING THERMAL COMFORT IN MODERN OFFICE BUILDINGS .......................... 504-510
Assoc. Prof. Dipl. Ing. Mria Budiakov, PhD.

0153-ENERGY PERFORMANCE OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS: FROM ENERGY
CERTIFICATES TO BENCHMARKING ............................................................................................ 511-519
Lusa Dias-Pereira
1
, Hermano Bernardo
2
and Manuel Gameiro da Silva
1

0154-PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS AND OPTIMIZATION OF LOW
TEMPERATURE ORGANIC RANKINE CYCLE SCENARIOS ...................................................... 520-530
Mustafa z and Atilla Bykolu
1

0156-A STUDY ON PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF VAPOR
COMPRESSION-ADSORPTION HYBRID REFRIGERATION CYCLE ........................................ 531-539
Gamze Gediz Ilis
1
, Gizem Arslan
2
, Moghtada Mobedi
2
, and Semra lk
3

0158-EXERGETIC PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF A BUILDING
WITH A SOLAR-ASSISTED HEAT PUMP USING ROOF-INTEGRATED
SOLAR COLLECTORS .......................................................................................................................... 540-548
Arif Hepbasli
1,*
and M. Tolga Balta
2

0159-HUMIDIFICATION SYSTEMS THAT SAVE ENERGY AND REDUCE
CO
2
EMISSIONS ...................................................................................................................................... 549-553
Marc Briers

0160-MODELLING AND DESIGN OF A HYBRID SOLAR + MICRO-COGENERATION
SYSTEM FOR WATER HEATING ....................................................................................................... 554-562
Jos M. Cejudo Lpez, Francisco Fernndez Hernndez, Fernando Domnguez Muoz, Antonio Carrillo Andrs

0161-MODEL OF DESICANT VENTILATED FAADE FOR OUTDOOR AIR
CONDITIONING VENTILATION ........................................................................................................ 563-571

CONTENTS
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

VI

0162-ANALYSIS OF THE OVERHEATING AND STAGNATION PROBLEMS OF
SOLAR THERMAL INSTALLATIONS ............................................................................................... 572-580
Francisco J. Aguilar
1
, Pedro V. Quiles
1
and Simn Aledo
2

0166-ENHANCEMENT OF FLAT PLATE SOLAR COLLECTOR PERFORMANCE
THROUGH THE USE OF WIRE-COIL INSERTS ............................................................................. 581-587
Alberto Garca, Ruth Herrero Martn and Jos Prez Garca

0167-OPERATION AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF A HYBRID AIR
CONDITIONER SIMULTANEOUSLY CONNECTED TO THE GRID
AND TO PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS .................................................................................................. 588-596
Pedro V. Quiles
1
, Francisco J. Aguilar
1
and Simn Aledo
2

0168-IMPLEMENTATION OF THE EUROPEAN DIRECTIVE ON ENERGY
CERTIFICATION IN SPAIN ................................................................................................................. 597-603
Julio Cano Guillamn

0172-RESEARCH ON THE CONDENSATE CARRYOVER PHENOMENA IN
FINNED-TUBE EVAPORATOR OF AN AUTONOMOUS UNIT ..................................................... 604-611
Miguel Zamora
1
, Natividad Molero
1
, Jos Miguel Corbern
2
, Emilio Navarro
2

0174-CAPABILITIES OF A SOLAR HEAT PUMP FOR DOMESTIC HOT
WATER PRODUCTION IN A MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE ...................................................... 612-620
Jos Antonio Fdez. Bentez
1
, Carlos Corrochano
1
, Adriana Ortiz
1
, Javier Muoz
1
, Diego Fernndez
2
, Juan
Antonio Mardomingo2.
0177-SOLAR PHOTO-HEAT VOLTAIC AND THERMAL (PHVT) SYSTEM
IN SLOW CITIES ..................................................................................................................................... 621-630
Birol Klk and Levent olak

0178-IS CO
2
A GOOD MEASURE FOR INDOOR AIR QUALITY AND VENTILATION? ......... 631-638
Bjarne W. Olesen

0179-FIELD EVALUATION OF THE PERFORMANCE OF A RADIANT
HEATING/COOLING CEILING PANEL SYSTEM .......................................................................... 639-647
Rongling LI
1
*, Togo Yoshidomi
1
, Ryozo Ooka
2
, Bjarne W. Olesen
3

0181-STUDY OF CHILDREN EXPOSURE TO PARTICULATE MATTER INDOOR
AIR INSCHOOL CLASSROOMS .......................................................................................................... 648-655
J.M.Garcia
1
, R. Cerdeira
1
, N. Tavares
1
, L.M.R. Coelho
1
, M.G. Carvalho
2,3

0182-NEW EUROPEAN ENERGY EFFICIENCY LABELING STANDARDS
FOR AIR HANDLING UNITS ................................................................................................................ 656-662
Handan ncl zgen

0184-AN APPROACH FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND SUSTAINABILITY IN
EMERGENCY ARCHITECTURE: EVALUATION OF POST-DISASTER
SHELTERS IN TURKEY ........................................................................................................................ 663-670
Santiago Brusadin Viola

0185-BUILDING PERFORMANCE OF THE GREEN CERTIFIED
BUILDINGS:A CASE STUDY IN TURKEY AND IN THE NETHERLANDS
FOR EVALUATING GREEN BUILDING CERTIFICATION PRACTICES .................................. 671-679
zden Demir
1
(Author)

CONTENTS
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

VII

0187-FEASIBILITY OF HVAC SYSTEMS IN TERMS OF ENERGY ............................................. 680-688
Ahmet Arsoy, C. Demirkesen, E. Poyraz, S. Kotrk and S. Kaaran

POSTERS

0009-INCREASING THE ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF A 600 BED HOSPITAL BY
ADJUSTING BOILER ROOM MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL ................................................. 690-707
J. San Jos Alonso
1
, F. Castro Ruiz
1
, J.M. Villafruela Espina
1
and J.C. Fraile Marinero
2

0015-POST OCCUPANCY EVALUATION OF DAYLIGHTING IN UNIVERSITY
CLASSROOMS IN CONSTANTINE (ALGERIA): OBJECTIVE AND
SUBJECTIVE ASSESSMENT ................................................................................................................ 708-715
Sarah Benharkat
1
and Djamila Rouag-Saffidine
2

0017-BENEFITS AND WELL-BEING PERCEIVED IN SHADE BY PEDESTRIAN
IN VEGETATED URBAN SPACE IN PERIODS OF HEAT STRESS .............................................. 716-724
Samira Louafi ep Bellara
1
, Saliha Abdou
1

0037-DESIGN AND ANLYSIS OF A BANK N ANTALYA BY SOLAR ASISTED
ABSOBTION AIR CONDITIONING .................................................................................................... 725-735
Eskiehir Osmangazi University Mechanical Engineering Department Eskiehir

0085-ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF RESIDENTIAL AIR CONDITIONERS / SEASONAL
EFFICIENCY ............................................................................................................................................ 736-742
Ugur Sertan

0097-INVESTIGATION OF HEAT TRANSFER AUGMENTATION IN A TUBE
WITH DIFFERENT MODIFIED TWISTED TAPE INSERTS UNDER THE SAME
CONDITIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 743-752
Gokhan Gurlek
*
, Necdet Ozbalta

0098-COOLING SYSTEM OF EDDY CURRENT BRAKE SYSTEM AND WASTE
HEAT RECOVERY ................................................................................................................................. 753-759
Melike GLBAHE
1
, SemihKURULAR
1
,M.Onur GLBAHE
2
, Mustafa Kemal SEVNDR
1

0107-ENERGY CONSERVATION MEASURES IN LEED HOSPITAL AIR
CONDITIONING SYSTEM ................................................................................................................... 760-765
Prof. Hari Sankar Dalal

0119-THEORETICAL STUDY OF THE PERFORMANCES OF A THERMO
CHEMICAL HEAT STORAGE BED .................................................................................................... 766-774
Syntia Metchueng Kamdem
1, 2
, Kvyn Johannes
2
, Frdric Kuznik
2
, Hassan Bouia
1
, Jean Jacques Roux
2

0120-A COMPARISON IN TERMS OF COP VALUES OFREFRIGERANTS
USED IN HVAC ........................................................................................................................................ 775-781
Alian Gnl
1
,M. Kemal Sevindir
2
, Esen ztrk
3

0147-THE STUDY OF ALTERNATIVE REFRIGERANT GAS R152A AS MOBILE AIR
CONDITIONING REFRIGERANT REPLACEMENTS ..................................................................... 782-790
Kadir Bilen
1
, Ahmet Tahir Kalkm
2
, Ismail Solmu
1

CONTENTS
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

VIII

0180-A STUDY ON THE OPTIMUM INSULATION THICKNESS AND ENERGY
SAVINGS OF A RADIANT HEATING PANEL MOUNTED WALL FOR VARIOUS
PARAMETERS ......................................................................................................................................... 791-797
B.Burak Kanbur
1,2
, S.Ozgur Atayilmaz
2
, Aliihsan Koca
1,2
, Zafer Gemici
1
and Ismail Teke
2

CLIMAMED VII. Mediterranean Congress of Climatization, Istanbul, 3-4 October, 2013
TURKISH SOCIETY OF HVAC & SANITARY ENGINEERS
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

1

THE INFLUENCE OF OCCUPANTS BEHAVIOUR IN A HIGH
PERFORMING BUILDING.

Valentina Fabi
1
, Simona DOca
1
, Tiziana Buso
1
and Stefano Corgnati
2

1
Politecnico di Torino, Italy

Corresponding email: stefano.corgnati@polito.it

SUMMARY

Green buildings are now at the forefront of building research and climate change mitigation
scenarios. The successful delivery of green buildings requires balancing energy and resource
efficiency while providing a comfortable and healthy environment. Since the success of a
high-performance building (HPB) depends on how it is designed, built, and managed,
occupant comfort and behaviour can have a significant impact on the green building
performance. Individual occupants and the choices they make (opening and closing windows,
turning up and down the thermostats, etc.) directly affect the amount of energy used in every
type of building. This paper focuses on the possible profiles of occupant behavior and their
resulting effects on energy consumption in a high performing building. Stochastic profiles of
window opening and indoor temperature preferences were implemented in a dynamic building
energy simulation tool. The study mainly addresses at the evaluation of the impact of
probabilistic occupants profiles on energy consumption in HPB comparing the obtained
results with a regular deterministic use of the building energy simulation tool.

INTRODUCTION

High-performance buildings are designed to save water and energy, reduce waste, improve air
quality, and increase occupant health and productivity. They represent a holistic approach to
building design that considers all aspects of the built environment as part of a system. High
performance buildings maximize operational energy savings; improve comfort, health, and
safety of occupants and visitors; and limit detrimental effects on the environment. Starting
with a series of energy efficient projects that are reaping meaningful energy and cost savings
along with important associated benefits, buildings like the Federal Courthouse in Denver, a
new U.S. Environmental Protection Agency facility in North Carolina, or the Natural
Resources Defense Council in New York City, boast numerous value-added features known
as green, sustainable, make them high performance. From project outset, these building
owners, designers, and contractors actively committed to maximizing operational energy
savings, providing healthy interiors, and limiting the detrimental environmental impacts of the
buildings construction and operation. As a consequence, they have also leveraged some
compelling side benefits. The building occupants enjoy an improved sense of health and well-
being that can be attributed to improved daylighting, quality high-efficiency lighting, and
better indoor air. Some of these building owners have reported tangible increases in worker
productivity. The most important parts of that system are the building occupants. Without
occupants' support of a building's high-performance attributes, even the most well designed
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

2

building can fail to measure up to its high-performance potential. Research shows that if
occupants don't act in a way that supports design intent, performance standards can be
compromised.

Although occupants are critical to the success of a high-performing building, they are often
the missing piece of the sustainability puzzle because of the complexity in addressing human
behaviour. Building simulation tools are based on heat transfer and thermodynamic equations,
and typically model human actions (operation of lights, blinds and windows) basing on
predefined fixed schedules or predefined rules (the window always open if the indoor
temperature exceeds a certain limit). These tools often reproduce building dynamics using
numerical approximations of equations modelling only deterministic (fully predictable and
repeatable) behaviours. Models of human behaviour are on the other hand based on statistical
algorithms that predict the probability of an action or event. For example, to face this topic,
different assumptions to model the occupants window-opening behaviour are made in
literature: assumptions are the defined schedule window opening based on occupancy or the
expectation that window opening to be controlled by temperatures, humidity, wind, rain or to
produce an established airflow rate, supposing the occupants use the windows to achieve the
design ventilation rates [1]. These assumptions do not necessarily represent the occupants
actual behaviour and for this reason, it is necessary to use algorithms for users interactions
with the building control systems based on field investigations in real buildings. This paper
focuses on the a probabilistic simulation of occupant behavior and their resulting effects on
energy consumption in a selected high performing building. Stochastic profiles of window
opening and indoor temperature preferences were implemented in a dynamic building energy
simulation tool for the assessment of the impact of probabilistic occupants profiles on energy
consumption in HPB. The evaluation is carried on by comparing the obtained results of the
probabilistic occupant profiles with a regular deterministic use of the building energy
simulation tool.

PROBABILISTIC APPROACH

A way to consider the importance of occupant behaviour in the energy simulations is explored
in this work. A probabilistic approach is adopted in the simulations in order to investigate
how user patterns probabilistically defined, influence energy consumptions of a high
performing building, improving accuracy of calculated energy performance in buildings
simulation tools. The goal is to determinate how occupant behavioural patterns describing
user interaction with the set-points controls and with windows opening affect the building
energy performance prediction.
A high performing building has been chosen as case study for the evaluation of energy
performances: it has been simulated as deterministic first in order to compare the results once
the probabilistic profiles has been implemented in the building energy simulation software as
well. Based on a previous research [2] the information about occupants interactions with
controls (windows and thermostatic radiator valves) are set. Through the statistical software
R, it was possible to determinate the most window opening behavior and temperature set-
point preferences influencing factors within indoor climate variables and outdoor weather
conditions. Occupant profiles were assessed on the base of the frequency of the interactions
with controls, and named as active, medium or passive users. The probability of opening or
closing the windows and turning up and down the heating set-point was interfered by
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

3

logistical regression. Three different user behavioural patterns according to window opening
and closing behavior and three other different user behavioural patterns according to the
heating set-point changes were defined. They have been implemented in IDA ICE (Indoor
Climate and Energy) [3] was used and the equation describing the probability of user
interacting with the control of the indoor environmental quality. The event taking place is
integrated in the program. To be able to compare energy calculations results, simulations were
conducted maintaining constant: location, building construction and thermal zone heating
settings. Moreover a probabilistic distribution, instead that a single value, was preferred as a
representation of energy consumptions. To do this, distribution curves were calculated with
the use of twenty different lists of random numbers to associate to both the probability of
opening and closing the windows. Beside energy consumptions, also indoor climate quality of
the built environment needs to be taken into account and air change rates represented.
Probabilistic distributions of ventilation losses are evaluated for different user types.

The probabilistic model
In order to assess the influence of occupant behavior on building energy performances, this
work uses the results of a field monitoring campaign in Danish dwelling (Andersen et al.,
2011), containing both indoor and outdoor environmental variables and occupants control
interactions. In this study the results of statistical data analysis carried on in other studies [4;
5] are applied as probabilistic input for the building energy simulations. Window opening and
closing and set-point dependency on indoor and outdoor environment were deduced by means
of logistic regression with interaction between variables accordingly to the following
equation:

=a +b
1
x
1
+b
2
x
2
+ +b
n
x
n
+c
12
x
1
x
2
+c
13
x
1
x
3
+ (1)

A model that predicts the degree of opening and the size of the set-point change was inferred
using linear regression. The results provide the possibility of defining behavioural models of
window and radiator thermostatic valves use to be implemented in simulation tool for energy
simulations.

SIMULATIONS
The aim of this study is to switch from a deterministic approach of building energy simulation
toward a probabilistic one that takes into account the occupants presence and interactions with
the building and systems. In particular the attention focuses on the interaction between users
and window opening behavior and set-point preferences. Results of the statistical analysis
provide the possibility of defining behavioural models to be implemented in simulation tool
for energy simulations.

The reference building: The Solaire
In order to investigate the effect of occupants behaviours both on energy consumption and
indoor climate quality simulations were ran in a residential high performing building: first it
was simulated to evaluate the building energy performance in using schedules and set-points
predefined (deterministic reference building).
The chose case study is named The Solaire (figure 1, left). The Solaire at 20 River Terrace
is a 27-story, 293-unit, glass-and-brick residential tower in Battery Park City, a planned
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

4

residential and commercial neighborhood built on landfill bordering the west side of New
York City's financial district and directly adjacent to the site of the former World Trade
Center. It is the first building designed in accordance with new environmental guidelines
instituted in 2000 by the Battery Park City Authority (BPCA), the government entity that has
overseen the development of Battery Park City since 1969.

Figure 1. The Solaire building in New York (left) and the simulated thermal zone (right).

The Solaire was designed to consume 35% less energy, reduce peak demand for electricity by
65%, and require 50% less potable water than a conventional, residential high-rise building.
An integrated array of photovoltaic panels generates 5% of the building's energy at peak
loading. The building incorporates an advanced HVAC system, fueled by natural gas and free
of ozone-depleting refrigerants. Multi-level humidification and ventilation systems supply
filtered fresh air to each residential unit. Daylighting was maximized and balanced with the
thermal envelope. High-performance casement windows were used throughout. An on-site
black water treatment and reuse system supplies the cooling tower and the building's toilets
with water. More details on the case study could be found in [6].
In order to investigate the effect of occupants behaviours both on energy consumption and
indoor climate quality, simulations were ran firstly in a typical dwelling of the residential
building (figure 1, right). The dwelling area is 85m
2
, consisting of a bedroom, a living room
and a kitchen. The external wall is facing west, the window area is 4.6 m
2
both in the bedroom
and in the living room. The thermo physical properties of the opaque components are resumed
in table 1. The transparent component has argon fill and its solar and thermal characteristics
are: U value: 2.5 W/(m
2
K); solar transmittance, T=0.376; SHGH, g=0.72.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

5

Table 1. Thermophysical properties of the opaque components
Material
U-value
(W/m
2
)
Thickness
(cm)
Thermal conductivity
(W/(m K))
Density
(kg/m
3
)
Specific heat capacity
(J/(kg K))
External wall
Gypsum plaster
Waterproof barrier
Mineral wool
Concrete
Gap
Brick
0.6
2
0.2
10
15
1
12
1
0.2
0.06
2
1
1
1200
20
20
550
1
1800
900
1000
1030
105
1000
840
Internal wall
Gypsum plaster
Brick
Gypsum plaster
1.8
0.02
0.12
0.02
1
0.036
1
1200
1200
1200

900
100
900

Internal ceiling
Paving material
Light concrete
Mineral wool
Concrete
Gypsum plaster
0.38
2
4
8.5
31
2
0.22
1.83
0.06
0.13
1

850
2000
20
600
1200

2400
1000
1030
1000
900
External floor
Plastic covering
Concrete
Mineral wool
Waterproof barrier
Concrete
Mineral wool
Gypsum plaster
0.25
18
5
12
0.2
25
6
0.2
0.13
1.83
0.06
0.2
1
0.04
1
680
2000
20
20
550
150
900
1700
1000
1030
1000
105
1030
900

As internal heat gain, one person was considered present with a house-living schedule at an
activity level of 70W/m
2
(metabolic activity of 1.2 met). The lighting schedule is connected to
the people presence. Furthermore, the light in the room, with an emitted 50W per unit, is
automatically switching on if the minimum work plane illuminance is lower than 100 Lux
based on the study of the Lightswitch-2002 (Reinhart, 2004); the light, is automatically
switched off at an illuminance level of 500 Lux. The location used for the simulation is New
York USA and the meteorological data refers to the New York Meteorological Whether
Station.

RESULTS

The deterministic approach
At first, the aim was to calibrate the thermal zone in order to obtain the energy consumption
provided by the designers case study in terms of energy for heating, cooling, electricity and
water for domestic usage. Starting from the Battery Park Guide Line and the ASHRAE 62.2
standard indications the following factors were changed: indoor temperature (from 20C-24C
to 22C-25C), air flow (from 0.35-7 L/sm to 1.5 - 7 L/sm), relative humidity (from 30%-
50% to 20%-40%) and boiler efficiency (from 0.8 to 0.6).
These simulations are ran in the deterministic standard way that is the common in nowadays
approaches. In doing so, evidently, results are calculated on the base of schedules assumptions
decided a priori that describe occupancy presence, lighting or equipment: the obtained results
of these deterministic simulations are given in Table 1:

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

6

Table 1. Energy consumption for space heating, cooling, lighting and domestic hot water
usage for the simulated thermal zone

Heating
(kWh/m
2
)
Cooling
(kWh/m
2
)
Lighting
(kWh/m
2
)
DHW
(kWh/m
2
)
Calibrated thermal zone 193 64 15 28

The probabilistic approach
A probabilistic approach is adopted to investigate how probabilistic user patterns influence
indoor environmental quality and energy consumptions improving accuracy of calculated
energy performance in buildings simulation tools. The goal is to determinate user behavioural
pattern describing users interaction with the controls and in particular with window opening
and thermostatic radiator valves. In the occupancy schedule the occupant is considered as
always present but since window and heating control are probabilistic in nature, they dont
follow maximum and/or minimum set-point controller. The probability of interacting with
windows and adjusting the temperature set-point was calculated based on the logistic
regression previously described. Specifically, three behavioural patterns were simulated
(Active, Medium and Passive users both for windows use and thermostat set-point adjustment
for a total of 9 implemented models). IDA Indoor Climate and Energy, as most simulation
programs, is deterministic in nature. Therefore there is a need to translate the probability of an
occurring event in a deterministic signal. A way to solve this problem is to compare the given
probability to a random number to determine if the event takes place or not. [7;8]As the given
probability is the probability of opening the window and switching up/down the thermostatic
radiator valves in the next ten minutes, the comparison was made with a random number that
change every ten minutes.

Results
Switching from the deterministic simulation to a probabilistic approach, high variation in
energy consumption could be highlighted. In particular, three probabilistic scenarios have
been simulated, to evaluate the influence of probabilistic window opening and thermostat set-
point adjustment separately before to implement both the probabilistic controls in IDA ICE.
The main results are here presented.

Influence of window opening and closing
At first, only the probabilistic control on windows has been implemented, maintaining
constant the indoor temperature set point at 20C. The 3 users typologies have been
simulated 10 times and the obtained results compared to the deterministic scenario, in terms
of space heating and cooling energy demand. When implementing behavioural patterns, a
significant difference can be appreciated on energy demands for the three different cases. The
results displayed in Table 3, show a big discrepancy in heating energy demand with the active
users, reaching an increase of about 36% respect to the deterministic standard model. The gap
is less in case of space cooling energy demand, consisting of 2.2% maximum increase of
medium user typology implementation.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

7

Table 3. Energy consumption for space heating and cooling, for the simulated users
typologies and the deterministic standard model.
Uxer typex Heutlng energy JemunJ (kWh,m
2
) Coollng energy JemunJ (kWh,m
2
)
Active Suu 6S
Medium 198 66
Passive 2u9 64
Deterministic standard 19S 64

Influence of set point thermostat
The second scenario is represented by the implementation of the probabilistic control of
thermostat set-point, maintaining deterministic the control on windows. The 3 users
typologies have been simulated 10 times as well and the obtained results compared with the
deterministic scenario in terms of space heating energy demand, as well.
Energy consumption doesnt linearly increase accordingly to occupants frequency of
interaction with set-point controller (Figure 2). The figure shows the trend of the 10
probabilistic simulations: the maximum variation respect to the standard detrministic model
is about 6% with passive users. An high discrepancy has been obtained in terms of interaction
with thermostat set-point: active users change it more frequently and it results in a wide
temperatures range (from 19C to 26C), while the medium and passive user types interact
less frequently, in particular with the passive user temperatures ranged between 20-23C, and
for the most of the time the temperature is 22.5C.

Figure 2. The simulated thermal zone.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

8

Figure 3. The simulated heating set-point preferences.

Influence of window opening/closing and set point thermostat
In the third scenario, the control both on window and on thermostat are implemented. Since
windows not necessarily comply in the reality with the same thermostat behavioural pattern
profile nine different user models were implemented, according to occupant behavioural
patterns. The results of the simulations are represented in Figure 4 in terms of requirements
for space heating and cooling. The maximum variation with the deterministic model is about
36%, while the maximum variation between the different implemented models is about 40%
between active model for windows opening and active model for the thermostat control. In the
case of space cooling energy demand, the gap between the deterministic and the probabilistic
control on windows and thermostat fall at 8%.

Figure 4. Influence of window opening and set-point thermostat: heating delivered energy
CONCLUSIONS

The main goal of this research was to estimate the impact of user control on high performing
buildings based on a probabilistic approach. For this purpose, a simulation study on the
effects of occupant interactions with windows and the heating control on energy demands has
been conducted in a typical dwelling of a residential high performing building. At first, a
deterministic approach used nowadays in simulation programs has been applied. Secondly,
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

9

the probability of opening and closing the windows and switching up/down the set-point
temperature on the TRV has been predicted for three different users models for window
opening and three for heating set-point preferences (they are named active, medium and
passive for both the controls) and implemented in a dynamic building energy simulation
software. Three different simulation scenarios are represented, displaying a progressive
augmentation in variability. Findings demonstrated that predefined heating set-point
preferences and air change rates used as assumption in building energy simulation are far
away from actual occupants preferences in buildings. Results of the study highlight
significant influences of occupant behaviour on the building energy demands. Energy
consumption in the simulated high performing building in which occupants personal control
is performed by probabilistic functions, raised up to 36% in comparison to the high
performing building where the occupants interaction with the controls is regulated in a
deterministic way by fixed schedules. The performed study highlights how not to consider
humans interactions with the building and control systems will necessarily lead designers and
modellers to an undestimation of the building energy performances.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was carried out as a part of an international collaboration within the IEA ECBCS
project Annex 53. Moreover, authors wants to thank the Competence Center of Telecom Italia
in Polytechnic of Turin for fully supporting the activity.

REFERENCES

1. Rijal HB, Tuohy P, Humphreys MA, Nicol J F. Using results from field surveys to predict the
effect of open windows on thermal comfort and energy use in buildings. Energy and Buildings
39 (2007) 823-836.
2. Andersen RV, Olesen BW, Toftum J . Long term monitoring of occupant behaviour and indoor
environment in Danish dwelling. Submitted to International J ournal of Building and
Environment, May 2009.
3. IDA ICE 4, Manual version: 4.0. EQUA Simulation AB (September 2009).
4. Fabi V., Andersen RV., Corgnati SP., Olesen BW. A methodology for modelling energy-
related human behaviour: Application to window opening behaviour in residential buildings.
Building Simulation J ournal, 2013, DOI information: 10.1007/s12273-013-0119-6.
5. Fabi, V., Andersen RV., Corgnati SP. Influence of Occupants Heating set-point preferences
on Indoor Environmental Quality and Heating Demand in Residential Buildings, HVAC&R
Research J ournal DOI information:10.1080/10789669.2013.789372.
6. ASHRAE - High Performing Building Magazine, Issue: Sumer 2008.
7. Newsham G, Mahdavi A, Beausoleil-Morrison I, Lightswitch: a stochastic model for predicting
ofce lighting energy consumption, in: Right Light Three, Proceedings of the Third European
Conference on Energy Efcient Lighting, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK, (1995), pp. 6066.
8. Reinhart CF. Lightswitch-2002: a model for manual and automated control of electric lighting
and blinds. Solar Energy 77 (2004) 15-28.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

10

AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON PRESSURE DROP
CHARACTERISTICS OF ALUMINUM FLEXIBLE AIR DUCT UNDER
COMPRESSION AND BENDING EFFECTS-II

Atilla Bykolu
1
, mit Ar
2
and Betl Bakaya
3

1
University of Gazi, Ankara
2
Koza-pek Tedarik Danmanlk A.., Ankara
3
AFS Boru Sanayi A.., Ankara

Corresponding email: abiyik@gazi.edu.tr

SUMMARY

In this study, the experiments were conducted for the determination of pressure drop
characteristics of the non-insulated aluminum-laminated flexible air duct at 8 inch (203 mm)
diameter under different compression and bending conditions. The experimental setup was
constructed prior to the instructions in ANSI/ASHRAE standard 1202008 and pressure loss
data were measured based on the methodology in the same standard. The experimental data
were processed using Power Law Model to form equations representing the pressure drop
behavior of the flexible duct. The local loss coefficients were calculated using regression
analysis for each bending condition. The results show that under compressed condition, the
pressure loss values through the flexible duct with a diameter of 8 inch could be predicted via
the empirical pressure loss equations derived using Power Law Model. The measured values
of pressure drop fall into the range of 3 and 168 Pa/m for compressed cases, and 1 and 243 Pa
for bended cases. The local loss coefficient varies between 0.10 and 1.6 depending on the
bending angle.

INTRODUCTION

Flexible air ducts have been used for applications of heating, ventilation, air conditioning and
refrigeration in commercial and residential buildings for years. Flexible rather than rigid air
ducts are preferred in many applications due to easiness of construction, applicability in
narrow and curved regions, low cost and similar reasons.

A flexible air duct is defined as an elastic structure reinforced with spiral steel wire wrapped
with a swathe which is formed by combining both metallic and/or non-metallic micron thin
layers. Flexible air ducts of different types have a wide range of applications according to its
purpose. A variety of solutions may be produced by adjusting the wire pitch and decreasing
the gradient/number of coil windings, formounting noise by wrapping an insulation material
around a perforated duct, formounting heat loss by wrapping an insulation material around
duct.

Flexible ducts are successfully applied on air discharge and circulation by allowing the duct
structure to bend and compress due to elastic structure. In this study, it was achieved to derive
empirical equations in guessing the pressure drop through several bended and compressed
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

11

conditions. By this way, it was possible to determine the required compression ratio, number
of turns and angle of bending to get minimum operational condition for a flexible duct
system.
LITERATURE SURVEY

As a result of detailed search on the subject, it was observed that there are limited numbers of
studies on pressure drop through non-metallic flexible air ducts. These studies are reviewed
according to historical development of the matter.

The first application of flexible ducts has been on circulation of air in coal mines. The flexible
ducts used in these early applications have been designed quite different than the
contemporary ones. The primary flexible ducts were produced on a mylar core and galvanized
metal helical structure by wrapping a flexible plastic at two turns per foot. The leakage
experiments on the early flexible ducts were performed by Harris [1] in 1958. He determined
leakage coefficients and porosity of the primary version of flexible ducts as a result of
experimental study on 25 different types of flexible ducts. However, he did not present any
information about the pressure drops through the ducts.

The second application in the open literature was a project [2] initiated by General American
Research Division (GARD) of General American Transportation Corporation (GATX) as a
result of contract with Stanford Research Institute for the Office of Civil Defense Department
of U.S. Army to design, fabricate, and test flexible plastic tubing and fittings which would
provide a system for handling ventilation air in fallout shelters when used with the shelter
ventilator. In this project, the tests were performed at volumetric flow rates between 1300 (37)
and 3100 (88) ft
3
/s (m
3
/s) to determine the pressure drop characteristics through the elbows
with 90
o
and polyethylene pipes at 20 inch (508 mm) diameter and 4 mil (0.1016 mm)
thickness.

Fully inflated 20-inch (508 mm) diameter plastic tubing has about three-quarters of the
pressure drop of sheet-metal duct. However, the last 50 feet (~15 m) of a plastic duct system,
which is not completely inflated, has 1-1/2 to 3 times the pressure drop per foot of fully
inflated plastic tubing. The result is that for duct systems over 100 feet (30.5 m) long the
pressure drops for sheet-metal and plastic tubing are approximately the same.

The earlier methods [3] for the design of duct systems did not include any procedure due to
determination of static pressure losses because it had been taken place to use modern flexible
ducts in residential buildings after 1965s. Besides, there was not any published work on the
determination of pressure losses through flexible ducts because there hadnt been any
development in duct design methods between the years of 1965 and 1995.

After this stagnant period of duct design methods, Air Conditioning Contractors of America
(ACCA) published Manual D [4] which includes a friction chart for flexible, spiral wire, helix
core ducts, but there are no references available to determine the source of the data included
within the chart. Manual D also includes static pressure loss charts for non-metallic flexible
duct, but does not include compression rate.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

12

A research on flexible ducts and their elbows was also conducted at Integrated Building and
Construction Solutions (IBACOS) for the Burt Hill project [5]. IBACOS researchers
measured the static pressure drop through straight run flexible duct, flexible duct elbows, and
triangular duct board plenum boxes. The straight run duct lengths of 25 ft were tested in fully
stretched condition and 10% compressed configurations for diameters of 6
"
, 8
"
, 10
"
, and 12
"
.
All testing was conducted with the duct fully supported. The results from the testing showed
an increase of pressure loss of 35% to 40% for the relaxed duct work over the fully stretched,
with the sheet metal duct experiencing the lowest pressure loss. It was also concluded that the
pressure losses associated with the relaxed flexible ductwork had been much greater than the
losses associated with the taut flexible ductwork.

Total pressure loss measurements were done in Abushakra and co-workers studies published
in 2001 [6], 2002 [7] and 2004 [8] for flexible ducts having compression ratio up to 30
percent. The tests were designed for the flexible duct applications in residential and
commercial facilities. The measurements were repeated for three different flexible duct sizes
and compression ratios.

The pressure drop through flexible ducts were experimentally investigated at six different
diameters, 6,8,10,12,14 and 16 inches, and five different compression ratios, 0, 4, 15, 30 and
45 percent, for ASHRAE by Culp [9] in 2011. The experiments were performed for the cases
where the sag is occurred through the core at joist and board supported conditions.

Weaver [10] studied the pressure losses in metallic and non-metallic flexible air ducts in
2011. The experiments were done in blow-through direction, under positive pressure in
flexible ducts at 6, 8, and 10 inch diameters. The pressure data obtained in this study had been
higher values than the ones in ACCA or ASHRAE.
DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM

In this study, the experiments were performed in blow-through direction, under positive
pressure to determine pressure loss characteristics of non-insulated aluminum layered flexible
air duct with 35 mm pitch, 10 inch (254 mm) diameter at four different compression ratios, 5,
15, 30, 45 percent, and in fully stretched condition at five different angles of bending, 15, 30,
45, 60 and 90 degrees.
EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP

An experimental setup was constructed in the research laboratory as presented in Fig. 1. As
shown from the figure, the experimental setup consists of four rigid ducts at 254 mm diameter
with 22D, 8D, 10D and 4D lengths, four piezometer rings, a flexible air duct with 25D
lengths, and a fan. The fan outlet and rigid duct were mounted by a cone-shaped reduction
element and rigid channels by a flange. An orifice is placed between the rigid ducts with 8D
and 22D length to measure pressure drop which is used in the calculation of mass flow rate of
the system.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

13

Figure 1. Schematic view of experimental setup

The piezometer rings having equally spaced four sampling holes are placed before and after
the orifice to measure pressure. Besides, two more piezometer rings are attached on the rigid
ducts connected to the flexible duct inlet and outlet sections to measure the pressure loss
through the flexible duct. The samples taken from the sampling holes are sent to pressure
transmitter via a single hose which is merged with two hoses from four sampling points. The
velocity and mass flow rate calculations were done based on the standard of ANSI/ASHRAE
120-2008 [11] using the orifice placed from the fan exit at 22D distance on the rigid duct. The
detailed information about piezometer ring and its connection types can be found in the same
standard.

A maximum 4 kW powered, having rotational speed of maximum 3100 revolution per minute
(rpm), a trademark of S&P, BDB series, double input centrifugal fan was used in the
experiments. The pressure losses were measured by TESTO 350 from four piezometer rings
that are placed at the inlet and exit of flexible duct and orifice. An adjustable fan drive was
used to control the fan revolution.

The total length of the system including a 7.5 m length and 254 mm diameter flexible air duct
was reached to 24 m. The length of the flexible duct was selected as at least 25D based on the
standard of ANSI/ASHRAE 120-2008 [11]. According to the same standard, the
measurements were taken at a distance of minimum 11D from the bending location

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

The test system shown in Figure 1 is set up, the sample to be tested is connected to the system
and then the fan is started. The rotational velocity of the fan is controlled by variable fan drive
to reach the test flow rate. After obtaining the test flow rate, the fan is continued to run at the
same frequency for a while to reach the flow in a steady state. The measurements are started
to be taken after reaching the steady state. The pressure measurements are done from the four
points at the inlet/exit of the sample and the orifice by TESTO 350. The measurements are
repeated at the mass flow rate required by varying fan frequency. In addition to pressure
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

14

measurements, the temperature and humidity in the environment and at the inlet of the orifice
are measured and used in the calculations of mass flow rate.

The pictures of the experimental set-up and flexible ducts for different bending angles are
presented in Figures 2 (a) and (b). The views of flexible duct at fully stretched and bended
condition, and the pressure measurement connections are shown in Figure 2 (b) and (c).

Figure 2. (a) Experimental setup at bending angle of 60
o
for fully stretched condition, (b)
view from flexible channel at bending angle of 90
o
and (c) connections of pressure
measurement for fully stretched condition.

RESULTS

The results of this study are presented in four groups; pressure loss measurements, pressure
loss coefficient, pressure drop correction factor and empirical equations. In the first section,
the collected data from the experiments are presented in a logarithmic chart which includes all
the compressed cases. In the second section, after giving the definition of pressure loss
coefficient due to bending, the methodology followed in the calculations is introduced. The
advantage of using the pressure drop correction factor is supported with a figure. In the final
section, the empirical equations are produced to guess the pressure drop behavior of the ducts.

PRESSURE LOSS MEASUREMENTS
The pressure differenceis measured by sending the sample air from the four holes drilled on
the rigid duct with a distance of 90
o
at the inlet and outlet of the flexible duct to the pressure
transmitter. The experiments were done on a non-insulated aluminum flexible duct at 203 mm
diameter for four different compression case (5, 15, 30 and 45 %) at fully stretched condition.
The variation of pressure loss with mass flow rate is presented in Figure 3.

As shown in Figure 3, the pressure loss values obtained for fully stretched condition are
observed lower than the ones of compressed cases. As the compression ratio and volumetric
flow rate increase, it is observed that the pressure losses increase. Besides, the pressure loss
data obtained for the compression of 15 % is higher than the ones for the compression of
30%.

(a) (b) (c)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

15

Figure 3. Variation of pressure loss with volumetric flow rate for different compression ratios
(203 mm)

PRESSURE LOSS COEFFICIENT

The pressure losses measured and the pressure loss coefficients calculated for the bending
cases at a volumetric flow rate of between 300 and 2000 m
3
/h are presented in Table 1. The
pressure loss coefficient due to bending is defined as the ratio of the bending pressure loss to
the velocity pressure at the inlet of flexible duct. The detailed information for the calculation
of the pressure loss coefficient can be found in the standard of ANSI/ASHRAE 120-2008
[11]. As the bending angle increases, it is observed from Table 1 that the pressure loss
coefficient increases.

Table 1. Bending pressure losses and loss coefficient ranges
*
(203 mm, fully stretched)
Bending
angle
(degree)
Bending pressure
loss, P
bend
(Pa)
Pressure loss
coefficient, C
(-)
15 0.61-34.4 0.10-0.19
30
3.32-89.8 0.53-0.52
45
5.32-133.1 0.88-0.79
60
7.57-195.3 1.39-1.22
90
9.07-243.4 1.60-1.53
*
Corresponding values for range of volumetric flow rate of 300 and 2000 m
3
/h
0.1
1
10
100
1000
100 1000 10000
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

l
o
s
s

(
P
a
/
m
)

Volumetric flow rate (m
3
/h)
0%
5%
15%
30%
45%

d=203 mm
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

16

PRESSURE DROP CORRECTION FACTOR (PDCF)

The pressure loss correction factor is defined as the ratio of the pressure loss through
compressed flexible duct to the pressure loss through fully stretched flexible duct and is used
to guess the static pressure losses through flexible ducts. The variation of PDCF with the
volumetric flow rate is presented for four different compression ratios, 5, 15, 30 and 45
percent, in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Variation of PDCF with volumetric flow rate for different compression ratios
(203 mm fully stretched)

It is clearly shown from Figure 4 that as volumetric flow rate increases PDCF increases for all
cases and compression ratio increases PDCF increases except for the compression ratio of 15
percent which has higher pressure drop values for the ones of compression ratio of 30 percent.

EMPIRICAL EQUATIONS

Power Law model is used for equation fitting based on the experimental data and its structure
has the form of
b
ax y = . The pressure loss per unit length in Pa/m was predicted via Power
Law model for volumetric flow rates in unit of SI, m
3
/h. Power Law coefficients at each
compression case are produced and presented in Table 2 for volumetric flow rates in the range
of 300 and 2000 m
3
/h. The error is defined as the ratio of the difference between calculated
and measured values to the measured value. As shown in Table 2, the minimum error was
obtained for the compressed condition of %30 when compared to the other compressed
conditions. The condition when the maximum error has occurred at a value of -10 % was
obtained for the compressed condition of %45.
It was observed that the accuracy of the empirical equations used in guessing the pressure
drop through flexible ducts is dependent on the flow rate of air. When the data are examined
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
8.00
9.00
300 400 500 600 700 800
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

D
r
o
p

C
o
r
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

F
a
c
t
o
r
,

P
D
C
F

Volumetric flow rate (m
3
/h)
5%
15%
30%
45%
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

17

for errors occurred in all cases, the maximum error in power law model is found as -10 % in
the range of 300 and 600 m
3
/h; -8 % in the range of 600 and 1500 m
3
/h; -5 % in the range of
1500 and 2000 m
3
/h.

Table 2. Power Law coefficients and maximum error values corresponding to compression
conditions (203 mm)
POWER LAW
PARAMETER
COUPLE, (Y -
X)
COMPRESSION
CONDITION (%)
POWER LAW (
b
ax y = )
MAXIMUM
ERROR
(%)
COEFFICIENT,
A
POWER,
B
Q

0 1,4258E-05 1,8866 -4 / +4
5 1,8184E-05 2,0547 -9 / +5
15 2,0938E-05 2,1328 -8 / +4
30 3,2391E-05 2,0566 -6 / +5
45 3,2294E-05 2,0792 -10 / +5
*
Corresponding values for range of volumetric flow rate of 300 and 2000 m
3
/h

DISCUSSION

As a result of experiments performed for non-insulated aluminum-laminated flexible air duct
at 203 mm (8 inch) diameter with 35 mm pitch under fully stretched and four compressed
conditions, say 5, 15, 30 and 45%, empirical equations were produced for pressure drop
characteristics of the flexible duct. It was identified that the error rates of Power Law model
varied depending on flow rate of air.

The pressure loss in 15% compression condition is higher than the one in the 30%
compression condition as shown in Figure 4. Therefore, it was foreseen that flow
characteristics in flexible duct would be similar to the one in the rigid duct above a specified
compression ratio. In addition to compressed conditions, the pressure loss coefficients were
determined in blow through configuration for the flexible duct under fully stretched condition
at five different bending angles, say 15, 30, 45, 60 and 90
o
. It was determined that the
pressure loss coefficients were in the range of 0.10 and 1.60 depending on the bending angle.

Power Law equations based on experimental data would be able to guess the pressure loss
values through flexible duct in the range of 300 and 2000 m
3
/h with an error of maximum
10 %. The form of the equations has the same structure including coefficient and power.
The power values are higher than 2.0 for all compression conditions except for the one in the
fully stretched condition.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The experimental study is sponsored by AFS Boru Incorporated Company and conducted by
R&D team in the laboratory of company.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

18

REFERENCES

1. Harris, A. D. 1958. Examination of Flexible Duct Colliery Engineering 35 (407), pp. 29-30
Neveril, F. B. and Behls, H. F., Friction Loss In Flexible Plastic Air Duct, GARD Report
1278-2, October 1965.
2. Harrison, E. 1965. Balancing Air Flow in Ventilating Duct Systems IHVE Journal 33, pp.
201-226.
3. ACCA 1995. Residential Duct Systems - Manual D. Air Conditioning Contractors of
America. Washington, DC.
4. Kokayko, M, J olton, J ., Beggs, T, Walthour, S and Dickson, B. 1996. Residential Ductwork
and Plenum Box Bench Tests. IBACOS Burt Hill Project 95006-13. Integrated Building and
Construction Solutions, Pittsburgh, PA.
5. Abushakra, B., Dickerhoff, D. J ., Walker, I. S. and Sherman, M. H. 2001. Laboratory Study of
Pressure Losses in Residential Air Distribution Systems. Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory Report LBNL-49293, Berkeley, CA.
6. Abushakra, B., Walker, I. S., Sherman, M. H. 2002. A Study of Pressure Losses in Residential
Air Distribution Systems. Proceedings of the ACEEE Summer Study 2002, American Council
for an Energy Efficient Economy, Washington DC, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Report LBNL 49700, Berkeley, CA.
7. Abushakra, B., Walker, I. S., Sherman, M. H. 2004. Compression Effects on Pressure Loss in
Flexible HVAC Ducts. International Journal of Heating, Ventilating, Air-Conditioning and
Refrigeration Research, 10 (3): 275-289.
8. Culp, C. 2011. HVAC Flexible Duct Pressure Loss Measurements, ASHRAE RP-1333, Final
Report.
9. Weaver, K.D., Determining Pressure Losses For Airflow in Residential Ductwork MSc.
Thesis, Mechanical Eng. Dept., Texas A&M University, December 2011.
10. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 120-2008, Method of Testing to Determine Flow Resistance of
HVAC Ducts and Fittings American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Inc.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

19

CASE STUDY: A NET ZERO ENERGY BUILDING BASED ON HEAT
PUMP TECHNOLOGY
Bart Van Reeth
1
, Hiroshi Aihara
1

1
Daikin Europe NV, Belgium

Corresponding email: aihara.h@bxl.daikineurope.com

SUMMARY

In 2010 a recast of the European Energy performance of buildings directive was published,
introducing nearly zero energy building for new constructions by 2019 and 2021.
Manufactures of buildings HVAC equipment are preparing on this new evolution. Field
measurements were conducted on a net zero energy building designed for small to medium
enterprises (SMEs). Energy flow and comfort parameters were monitored. The net zero
energy concept, built around air source heat pump technology, achieved a positive energy
balance of 977 kWh after one year of measurements. The study was conducted in cooperation
with five European research institutes.

INTRODUCTION

Since the publication of the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive recast (2010), much
attention has been paid to nearly zero energy buildings (nZEB). Building equipment
manufacturers have been closely following this evolution and contributing to this
development. High efficiency solutions after all play an important role in the total energy
picture. To this end, field measurements at a Net Zero Energy Building were started in March
2010 as part of an nZEB project in cooperation with major research institutions. The aim of
the project is to develop an economically feasible Net Zero Energy Building concept using
heat pump technology.

NZEB CONCEPT

Building description
The project concerns a newly constructed office building (2009) for a small to medium
enterprise that is home to 15 fulltime employees. An 800-m warehouse is connected to the
north side of the 2-story office. Interior views can be seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Interior and exterior pictures of the test office nZEB Herten

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

20

The entire construction is steel frame. The general building characteristics, including the
climate data, are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. General building characteristics
Location Herten. Germany
Owner Athoka Gmbh. Zeller Gmbh
Typology
Office and showroom +warehouse and
workplace
Climate data
Heating:
T
design
: -8.6C
Cooling:
T
design
: 30.3C
Number of floors 2
Net floor area 545 m
Conditioned floor area 515 m
Conditioned volume 1424 m
Lighting level >500 lux
Indoor temperature
Winter: 20-23C, zone depending
Summer: 24C, with individual user control
Ventilation rate According to EN15251, method B1.3
Envelope to volume ratio 0.66

Since the idea was to start with an open and flexible architectural approach, the building
envelope did not target extreme insulation values, but rather a slight improvement in the
German EnEV standard (Table 2), in combination with measures to reduce the loads such as
controllable solar shading on the facades and windows, cool roof covering, and a free cooling
option in the heat recovery ventilation system.

Table 2. Envelope technical data

Material U value
(W/mK)
EnEV
reference
Construction
External walls Brickwork (insulation 14cm) +
sandwich panels (insulation 10cm)
0.23 -0.25 0.28
Roof Steel deck (insulation 20cm) 0.19 0.2
Windows Double glazing +insulated
aluminium frames
1.3 1.3
Office envelope
(average)
0.41

Equipment description
As a next step, high efficiency systems are used to reduce energy consumption. The primary
system for heating the building is an air source heat pump, with a water circuit connected to
underfloor heating. Each room has one or more piping zones for which the water volume flow
is individually controlled by valves, managed by PI-controlled temperature sensors per zone.
This ensures a balance between optimal comfort and energy savings. Since heat pump
performance very much depends on the provided water temperature, the leaving water
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

21

temperature is intelligently controlled in function of the weather. The project revealed that
good knowledge of the building and its users can facilitate a perfect match between solutions
used. Trying to avoid inefficient back-up heater operation in extreme winter conditions can
lead to an over-dimensioned design, which results in lower efficiency at low partial load
operation (e.g. warmer temperatures). Therefore for this project, the choice was made to
optimise the heating system for partial load efficiency, and use combined operation in
extreme winter conditions, i.e. augmenting heating capacity using the already present air-
to-air heat pump (designed for cooling the building, but able to run in heating mode). The
buildings control system was designed so the that underfloor heating remains the dominant
heating system, and use of the electrical backup heater is minimised. This combined operation
resulted in high seasonal efficiency. Both outdoor units of the Air/Water and Air/Air (VRF)
system can be seen in Figure 2a.

a) b)
Figure 2. a) Air/Air VRF(left) and Air/Water heat pump (right) outdoor unit, b) White coated
roof covered with PV
As noted above, comfort cooling during the summer period is handled by an air-to-air heat
pump in reversed cycle mode (VRV III). Each room has individual control of its indoor unit.
Ventilation is provided by two heat-recovery ventilation systems with a temperature exchange
efficiency of 75% and an enthalpy exchange efficiency of 60-65%. The control system uses
free cooling whenever possible in the summer period.
The lighting design makes use of LED and other efficient lighting technology where possible.
The desks have personalised lighting to guarantee light comfort and the highest possible
energy efficiency.
A Net Zero Energy Building concept may be defined as a building that is energy neutral over
a period of one year: i.e., it must deliver as much energy to the supply grid as it takes from
this grid. The energy saving component was handled with the previous actions; the remaining
component is the addition of renewable energy sources. In this project, 27.3 kWp thin-film
photovoltaic panels were installed on the roof. This system was chosen for its combination of
easy installation and good response to the infrared light of the CIGS solar cells (copper
indium gallium selenide). The latter is important since the research included an evaluation of
the effect of a durable sun reflective roof coating on the photovoltaic energy production. A
picture of the roof can be seen in Figure 2b.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

22

All equipment and sensors are connected to online measurement and visualisation systems
that allow research engineers to remotely monitor performance and comfort at the field test
site.

MEASUREMENT RESULTS

Energy flows
The building and its equipment were closely monitored for a 12-month measurement period.
An analysis of the energy flows shows an energy surplus for measurement year 2011-2012.
The positive outcome of 977 kWh (1.8 kWh/m) is displayed in Table 3 and Figure 3. This
result includes the aspects mentioned in the European Energy Performance of Buildings
Directive: heating, cooling, domestic hot water, ventilation and lighting. These measurements
were conducted in cooperation with five research institutes [1,2,4,5,6].
Table 3. Measured energy performance. All specific values are per net floor area.

Delivered and
exported energy
kWh/(ma)
Primary
energy factor
-
Primary
energy use
kWh/(ma)
Heating 14.5 2.6 37.7
DHW 1.7 2.6 4.4
Cooling (incl. server room) 5.1 2.6 13.3
Ventilation 4.3 2.6 11.2
Lighting 11.1 2.6 28.9
PV power generation -38.5 2.6 -100.0
Total -1.8

-4.6

Figure 3. Yearly comparison of simulated and measured energy consumption and generation

As can be seen in Figure 3, energy consumption was in line with the calculation made
according to the German DIN18599 energy standard. The months of February and March
deviate the most from the calculation. In March 2011, measurement had just started and the
lighting control was not yet fully operational. February 2012 was a month with extreme
winter conditions: -15 C as a daily minimum, compared to -8.6 C in the reference year.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

23

Heat pumps appear to be an excellent solution for zero energy buildings. The results of the
project show that the success of a zero energy project is already highly influenced in the first
stage of the project: the design phase. The aim was to allow an open and flexible architectural
approach in which the goal of achieving zero energy building performance would not create
obstacles for the architect in the design and form of the building. This was made possible by
the early integration of the technical concept into the architectural, allowing both to converge,
resulting in a technically and architecturally superior building.

Increased PV performance
The researched durable sun reflective coating is designed to reduce the roof temperature and
be a passive measure for reducing the buildings cooling demand. In this field test, a part of
the roof was treated with this special coating in order to compare it with standard white roof
coating. The effect on the photovoltaic energy yield was expected to be twofold: (1) increase
the solar reflection on the photovoltaic cells and thus increase the energy produced, and (2)
lower the working temperature of the cells and thus increase the potential difference across
the field Figure 4a. These two aspects resulted in a measured yield increase of 11% in
comparison with the standard white roof coating Figure 4b [1].

Figure 4. a) Principle of the photovoltaic system

Figure 4. b) Results of measurement on yield increase of the photovoltaic system [1]

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

24

Thermal comfort
The projects priorities included not only energy savings but also ensuring the highest comfort
levels for building users. To evaluate temperature comfort over a longer time span the method
out of CEN EN 15251 was used. The different categories are listed in Table 4.

Table 4: Temperature ranges for evaluation of the long-term measurements of indoor
temperature in offices (from CEN EN 15251-2007).

Category Winter
temperature range
(C)
Summer
temperature range
(C)
I high level of expectation 21 - 23 23.5 25.5
II normal level of expectation 20 - 24 23 26
III acceptable, moderate level of expectation 19 - 25 22 - 27
IV values outside the criteria for the above
categories

Temperature occurrence during working hours (08h00 till 18h00) was analysed for the
different offices. Winter (a) and summer (b) results are displayed in Figure 5 (one month
measurement for each season). The winter results show an excellent outcome. To fully
understand the results of the summer period an in-depth look is needed of room L1.03 as
example (Figure 6) . In this figure the temperature spread is shown. As the end user can set
its own desired room temperature (in this case mostly around 22C), the comfort should be
evaluated according to the users request and not only based on the standards ranges.
Overcooling would be a wrong conclusion of Figure 5(b) and Figure 6 as the user is
requesting this temperature range. The exercise is to find the balance between energy saving
and respecting the users comfort requirements.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

25

Figure 5. Temperature ranges measured according to EN 15251 for (A) winter month and (B)
summer month

Figure 6. Spread on temperature range during summer month of room L1.03

ALTERNATIVE COMPARISON
A comparison is made between the heat pump concept (HP) for nZEB and a total different
approach, i.e. a concept build around a biomass fueled cogeneration unit (CHP). This unit can
provide heat at sufficient temperature to do the space heating and the generation of the
domestic hot water. At the same time the unit produces electricity. In the summer period the
operation time of this unit is prolonged by using the heat to start the absorption process of an
absorption chiller. To run the thermodynamic process optimally a cooling tower is added. See
Figure 7. Due to the fact that the CHP also generates electricity to contribute to the zero
energy target, the PV system can be smaller (14kWp).

Figure 7: Biomass fueled cogeneration unit with an absorption chiller . [2]

Figure 8 is showing the comparison of the energy flows in the two cases. Although the CHP
solution has more distribution and storage losses than the HP system, the primary energy
consumption of heating is remarkably lower. The reason can be found in the fact that biomass
is counted with a primary energy factor of 0,2 in Germany.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

26

The cooling energy, on the other hand, is in the alternative solution quite higher. The reason
can be found in the higher auxiliary energy demand: distribution of the cold fluid, re-cooling
of the absorption chiller.
As the energy to run the lights and the ventilation system stays the same, the total sum of the
primary energy consumption is in both cases quite similar.

Figure 8: Comparison of the total primary energy consumption . [2]

On the heating system side the cogeneration unit is more expensive than the air to water heat
pumps. You have to foresee storage and chimneys. On the cooling side the investment for an
absorption chiller will also be higher than a compression system. As mentioned the PV field
of the CHP alternative is remarkably smaller, so the investment cost will also decrease.
Leading to a slightly cheaper investment cost of the CHP case. The overview can be seen in
Table 5.
Table 5. Comparison of investment costs [2]

Due to the higher running and maintenance costs the investment difference is paid back after
one year, as illustrated in Figure 9. So from economic point of view the Heat Pump concept is
the most competitive for nZEB.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

27

Figure 9. Cost difference (investment, running and maintenance) between the two
alternatives. [2]

EXPERIENCE GAINED
After more than one year of monitoring building operation, two aspects deserve attention.
In low energy buildings, proper product dimensioning and selection is a crucial step. Good
interaction with the building owner and users prevented oversizing of equipment.
Manual monitoring makes it possible to discover upcoming problems before these would be
noticeable to the building user and result in a wasting of energy. This process could be
automated.

REFERENCES

[1] ef.Ruhr GmbH Technische Universitt Dortmund, Effectiveness of Building Eneregy
Management Systems of Daikin Test nZEB and Integration into an Intelligent Grid, 2012
[2] Fraunhofer IBP, Validation of Net Zero Energy Building Concepts Study executed for Daikin
Europe NV, 2012
[3] International Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy - Technical University of Denmark,
Monitoring of indoor environment quality parameters and occupant perceptions in the Daikin nZEB
Building in Herten, Germany, 2012
[4] CETIAT, Analysis of a heat recovery ventilation system in an nZEB building, 2012
[5] Fraunhofer Institute for Environmental, Safety and Energy Technology UMSICHT, Net Zero
Energy Building test office Herten - Efficient heating and cooling with VRV / DAIKIN Altherma
combination, 2012
[6] School of Mechanical Aerospace and Civil Engineering - University of Manchester, The Near Zero
Energy Building (NZEB) Project: Report on the University of Manchester contribution to the
programme of Research sponsored by Daikin Europe N.V., 2012

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

28

CLIMAMED 2013 NET ZERO ENERGY USE IN BUILDINGS
1-Lawrence Chee

Orient Research Consulting, Sustainable Consultant

FP7-EEB-HIPIN- Dissemination Manager

Corresponding email: lawrencechee@orientresearch.com

2-Ahmet Akcakaya

Orient Research Consulting, Senior Mechanical Engineer

Corresponding email: ahmetakcakaya@orientresearch.com

3-Cevat Erdogan

Orient Research Consulting, Senior Mechanical Engineer

Corresponding email: cevaterdogan@orientresearch.com

SUMMARY

Zero energy use in Building is a topic that is becoming more important, due to rising fuel
costs, and in some instances causes fuel poverty in families and national security. In the last
10 years, there have being significant technology advances in building technology relating to
insulation materials, equipment in harnessing renewable energy and not forgetting stricter
building codes in relation to energy efficiency.

With these vast array of innovations, this paper following the principles of sustainability (3
Rs) to Reduce-Reuse-Renew, to explain how a building can reach the potential of being Zero
energy use. It is like a jigsaw puzzle where all the different pieces coming together and every
piece are important.

The paper will briefly consider case study relating in Passive House Standard and ongoing
work in how to adapt the Passive House Standard into moderate temperate climatic
conditions.

INTRODUCTION

It is now commonly recognised that the largest CO2 emitters are from buildings. And
increasingly, approximately 38% in EU-wide are from the residential sector (1). Therefore, to
combat the world-wide problem of global warming, professionals must look at different ways
to reduce the emission of CO2 from buildings.
In the last 20 years, there has being significant development in this area but only in the last 5
years, like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle, they are being pieced together. And furthermore, by
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

29

introducing a new idea, it causes new problems; which then requires a new solution. But the
architects, engineers and other construction professionals have developed very innovative
solutions which are nearly Zero Energy Building.

Definition
Nearly Zero Energy Buildings (2) is defined by energy efficient buildings that emit little or no
CO2 into the atmosphere due to heating or cooling; satisfying the thermal comfort of its
inhabitants. Generally, it is achieved by reducing the energy requirement and supplementing
by use of renewable sources of energy; which are wind, sun, geothermal, hydro or wave.

General principles of sustainability
The basic principles of sustainability are Reduce, Recycle and Renew (3). We can apply these
same principles to buildings.

The first principle of an energy efficient building is reducing waste heat loss or heat gain;
the second principle is recycling energy in heating or cooling and the third is the use of
renewable energy.

Reduce Insulation to the building fabric
The development of insulation has significant effect in reducing heat loss and/or heat gain in
Mediterranean countries. Different insulation companies in Europe like Knauf (4) and
Kingspan (5) has developed products that can achieve very low U-values. Also Building codes
like EN 18329 minimizing air filtration. And the emergence of Passive Haus Standard (6) (11)
has significantly changed the way we think of an energy efficient building.

But the development of such high insulated buildings with minimum air filtration introduces a
known problem condensation inside buildings leading to building sickness. This problem is
recognised and must be designed out by introducing ventilation. The audience may ask it
makes no sense to have ventilation after introducing such high insulation and air filtration
standards why bother changing in the first place. The ventilation system must have an
inbuilt heat recovery system; in Mediterranean countries, is also reversible.
Another disadvantage of high insulated buildings is that it increases thickness of the external
walls; to 500 - 800 cm (11). In places where land is a premium like Istanbul and South East
England, this issue affects the internal space standard of the building or reduces the number
buildings that can fit in a parcel of land.
Research and Development is currently ongoing to increase the insulating properties of
existing building materials. OR is part of a European Consortium of companies called
Hipin, funded by European Commission FP 7 programme where we are attempting to
increase the insulating properties of coatings in plaster, building membrane system and paint
by incorporating aerogel. (6) The concept of High Performance Insulation Based on
Nanostructured Encapsulation of Air (HIPIN), in this project, is to develop a sustainable and
affordable technology to produce a nanostructured thermal insulating coating to improve
thermal efficiency in new and retrofitting buildings. The insulating material will have
enhanced performance compared with the state of the art products and will contribute to the
protection of the environment through the reduction of greenhouse gases. In addition to the
insulating effect other functionalities will be sought such us self-cleaning, sound insulation
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

30

and fire retardant properties. The innovative multi-functional material will be suitable for
application in a liquid form on exterior of buildings at a reduced cost and time.

What is exciting about this new development is that it will improve the insulation properties
of many common building materials like plasters, blocks, roof tiles, other insulation material
like XPS and similar products

An older solution to condensation is reintroducing lime plaster allowing walls to breathe (8).
The immediate challenge is sourcing the material and the skilled lime plasterers.
Other related developments are in:-
Better insulating window and doors
Improving insulating properties of glass

Recycling
On to the next principle of recycling, firstly, heat from fridges, PCs, machinery and human
living beings are recycled in a well insulated building. With the use of HVAC-R, heat is
recycled back into the building but the quality of the air is warm and fresh. In a reversible
HVAC-R system, unwanted heat is dispelled and cool and fresh air is ventilated into the
building9. Dependent on the recovery unit, up to 60% of the waste heat can be recovered. (10)

Renew
Renew is translated as use of renewable energy. In technological terms, today, we are very
rich in our knowledge and availability of various systems. I will list out the commonly
available systems now exist in the marketplace, developed by reputable international
companies.
a. Solar PV systems which converts suns rays into electricity.
b. Solar thermal systems which converts warmth of sun or air to provide heating and hot
water.
c. Wind turbines which converts wind to electricity; mini wind turbines were introduced
but were found to be inconsequential to the buildings energy usage.
d. Geothermal or ground source heat pump system.
e. Air source heat pump system, heat extracted from ambient air temperature to provide
heating and hot water.
f. Night Air Effect Free Cool air Design that allows the building to cool at night.
g. Water turbines, currently used in large hydro electric dams.
h. Wave turbines, developed large scale off the North Sea of Britain.

The above b, d and e which uses the heat pump, will require electricity, so they really offer a
cheaper solution to traditional gas or electric fired boilers. However, if such systems are
combined with PVs linked to a form of energy storage, it can achieve the nearly Zero carbon
building due to non CO2 emissivity.

Related to renewable energy like PV and other systems is that energy that is produced must be
used or stored. There is also a significant amount of R&D to develop better batteries. For
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

31

example, rechargeable batteries and rechargeable energy storage system. This area of
expertise is an emerging technology.

Passive House Standard
Case Study (14)

The table below illustrates the required U values of the building elements. (12)

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

32

Building Fabric U value W(m2 K) Typical Rockwool Insulation
Thickness
1 Wall 0.097-0.126 335 mm
2 Roof 0.095 500 mm
3 Window 0.85
4 Door 0.80
5 Floor Slab 0.09-0.123 320-400mm

Ventilation
6 Supply per person 30 m3/h
7 3 person house 90 m3/h

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

33

Building Energy Performance Index (BEPI) & Code for Sustainable Homes

We discussed the availability of technologies and related issues relevant to Nearly Zero
Energy Buildings, on the same theme, governments are also getting on the act by introducing
legislation where new buildings must be built to be energy efficient, to demonstrate this, BEPI
certification is introduced. Example for England and Wales, but note EU Directive
2002/91/EC

Example of home in UK built to Code for Sustainable Homes, Very Good: Building
Performance Indicator (BEPI) class B - 84 (12)

Building fabric U-values:

Roof 0.11 W/m2K
Wall 0.21 Wm2K
Floor 0.17 Wm2K
Windows 1.50 Wm2K

Current Research Work

In temperate weather with a milder winter, can we achieve thermal comfort with zero energy
building?

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

34

The Passive House Standard illustrates the possibility of a winter with minimal heating
requirement. For hot summers, measures to prevent overheating, for instance night cooling,
solar shading measures, will they be adequate to prevent the use of air conditioning systems.
Furthermore, the thickness requirements e.g. for walls are significant, can these be reduced by
incorporation of Hipin-Aerogel in the building materials?

The issues we are working on are ..

a. What are the appropriate U values for the respective building elements?
b. What measures to reduce overheating?
c. If Hipin-aerogel is introduced into the insulation, plaster, blocks, tiles and paint, will
the overall thicknesses of the material be reduced?
d. And similarly, reduce the heat gained by reflection.

Finally, why is all this important to the typical business developer or building owner.
Energy costs are increasing way beyond national inflation index. It is a cost
saving over the medium and long term. Typically, cost of insulation can be
recovered in less than 3 years.
Cost of carbon as defined MNIs Corporate Sustainability Strategy and Goals
Global Warming can we afford the price of a warmer planet?

A recent World Bank report concluded that world temperatures could warm by 4C by the end
of this century if no concerted action is taken.
In a recent opinion piece in the Washington Post, Mr Kim wrote: "A world that warm means
seas would rise 1.5 to 3 feet, putting at risk hundreds of millions of city dwellers globally.
"It would mean that storms once dubbed 'once in a century' would become common, perhaps
occurring every year. And it would mean that much of the United States, from Los Angeles to
Kansas to the nation's capital, would feel like an unbearable oven in the summer." (15)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

European Commission FP7, EEB, Hipin Research Consortium
Orient Research Consulting Engineers, Istanbul, Turkey

REFERENCES

1. http://www.euractiv.com/energy-efficiency/eu-reaches-agreement-energy-savi-news-
223090 18 Nov 2009
2. Nearly zero energy buildings: a chieving the EU 2020 target, European Council for an energy
efficient economy 8 Feb 2011
3. http://sustainability.about.com/od/Going-Green/a/The-3-Rs-Reduce-Reuse-And-
Recycle.htm
4. http://www.knauf.com/www/en/
5. http://www.kingspan.com/
6. http://www.passivehouse-international.org/
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

35

7. www.hipin.eu
8. http://www.projectbook.co.uk/article_11.html
9. http://www.commercial.carrier.com/commercial/hvac/carrier/0,,CLI1_DIV12_ETI12110,00
.html
10. The Carbon Trust, 2011,Heat Recovery.
11. Dr Wolgang Feist, 2012 , EnerPHit und EnerPHit, Zertifizerungskriterien fur die
Modernisierung mit Passivhaus-Komponent,
12. Dr Paul King, 2010, Kingspan System solutions to meeting Code for Sustainable Homes.
13. J ason Palmer, Ian Cooper, 2011, GB Housing Energy Fact File
14. Dr Wolgang Feist, 2005, Case Study Passive Houses Kronenburg
15. Jim Yong Kim,2013, World Bank, A 4
0
C Warmer World

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

36

HYBRID HVAC SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT OPTIMIZATION IN
NET-ZERO ENERGY BUILDINGS
Birol Klk, Fellow ASHRAE
Baskent University, Ankara, TURKEY
Corresponding email: bkilkis@baskent.edu.tr

ABSTRACT
Large net-zero energy buildings may have diverse thermal and electrical loads with
challenging and non-coincident profiles to be simultaneously satisfied. This paper emphasizes
the importance of hybrid HVAC systems in energy savings and reduction of exergy
destruction and introduces an optimization algorithm. The core of net-zero buildings is a
combined heat and power system (CHP) and the algorithm sizes the optimal CHP system
when it is bundled with absorption/adsorption chillers, heat pumps, thermal storage, and
sustainable energy systems like wind and solar. The algorithm is based on the Rational
Exergy Management Model and searches the optimum size for the CHP and all other
equipment in the bundle with the objective of maximum exergy efficiency averaged over a
typical design year and based on hourly data. The paper analyses four new building scenarios,
one of which is a business as usual type of building and the fourth one is a net-zero
energy/exergy building. Results show that optimization search may substantially increase the
exergy efficiency depending upon the level of the green building concept in each scenario
being analyzed and this achieves fuel savings and CO
2
emission reduction up to 50%.
1- INTRODUCTION

Net-zero building evaluations are based on the first-law of thermodynamics and on-site
measurements and do not take into account of the exergy destructions taking place due to
direct and indirect activities of the building. Exergy destructions lead to additional but
avoidable CO
2
emissions that compound on the first-law emissions. In this analysis the base
scenario is a large building complex that has no alternative energy utilization, supplies heat
from on-site natural gas boilers and the electric power is supplied from the national grid.
Green and large building scenarios include four levels of sustainable energy use, tri-
generation with absorption and adsorption cooling machines, on-site power-driven ground-
source heat pumps, and thermal storage for peak load shaving. Solar applications and wind
energy applications may be somewhat limited due to the fact that land is at premium and
wind-turbine noise may be a concern in urban areas. When the analysis is focused on the large
building complex including all ancillary buildings within the building, the compounded CO
2

emission responsibility of the building, is given by the following expression [1]:
( ) E
c
Q
c
Q
c
CO
T j
j
Ri
Pj
j
Bi
i

1
2
. (1)
Eq. 1 does not include embedded exergy destructions and related CO
2
emissions during post
and pre construction phases. The subscript (i) stands for the on-site large building systems and
the subscript j stands for the off-site energy and power systems. Here, the first and the last
term represent CO
2
emissions due to the first-law analysis of thermodynamics, the first one
being for heat (Q) and the last term being for the electrical power loads (E). Heat loads
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

37

include absorption or adsorption-cycle cooling heat loads. Electrical power loads include
chiller-operated cooling systems and equipment loads. In a typical large building complex the
average annual heat demand to electrical energy demand ratio is about 1,4 [ 2, 3].
E n E Q = = 4 , 1
(2)
The coefficient 1,4 in Eq. 2 may be generalized for any large building complex by n. Here,
n is the annual-averaged heat to electrical energy demand ratio. E (electrical energy
consumed) also includes the electrical energy demand of electric power-driven chillers for
space cooling.
The second term in Eq. 1 represents the compounding CO
2
emissions due to the exergy
destruction taking place in large buildings and related operations. The main reasoning in
developing this term is that if a building destroys exergy of the fuel or power used prior to
useful applications in the large buildings (like comfort heating without utilizing the fuel
exergy first for on-site power generation), then a distant power plant must proportionately off-
set this exergy destruction by spending more fuel. Here, exergy destructions are represented
by the Rational Exergy Management Efficiency,
Ri
in terms of the ideal Carnot cycle [4].
=
f
ref
app
ref
Ri
T
T
T
T
1
1
(3)
For example, if natural gas at a combustion temperature, T
f
of about 2000 K is consumed in
an on-site boiler that is dedicated only for comfort heating at an application temperature T
app
,
which in this case is equal to the design indoor comfort temperature, T
a
of 20
o
C (293K), if the
environment reference temperature T
ref
is taken equal to the average ground temperature, T
g
of
10
o
C (283 K), then from Eq. 3
Ri
is only about 0,04. This means that the available useful
work potential (exergy) of the natural gas is irreversibly destroyed by 96%. In a more exergy-
rational application, the natural gas could be used first in on-site power generation like in a
Combined Heat and Power (CHP) system. In green building applications,
Ri
may be higher
up to 0,7 [8]. This means that if all variables in Eq. 3 are kept constant except the second
term, which includes
Ri
, then CO
2
emissions may be reduced by about 39 % in a green
building if
Ri
is increased from 0,04 (base line) to 0,70 or above:
( )
( )
39 , 0 75 , 0 1
1 4 , 1 04 , 0 1
1 4 , 1 7 , 0 1
1 = =
+
+
X
.
Here, X is the CO
2
sequestration potential ratio of the large buildings. This calculation may
be generalized in terms of n,
Ri
, and by replacing the denominator by a new term c.
( )

=
c
n
X
Ri
04 , 0
{
Ri
0,04} (4)
Eq. 4 shows that the CO
2
sequestration potential is linearly proportional to
Ri
at a rate of
(n/c), where,
1 96 , 0 + = n c (5)
Finally, CO
2
emission of a green building, CO
2
, for a known X becomes:

( )

=
BS G
CO X CO
2 2
1
{X 1} . (6)

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

38

Yet, specific loads that may not be reduced below a limit imposed by a collection of certain
functional requirements and regulations. Therefore, it may be a prudent statement that a green
building may reduce CO
2
emissions by up to 50%.

Fig. 1. The relationship between X and
Ri
for different heat to power demand ratios, n.

2- CO
2
EMISSON RESPONSIBILITIES of a LARGE BUILDING COMPLEX

One cannot isolate a building from its environment in calculating or predicting its overall
CO
2
emissions responsibility. Even one excludes the embedded emissions; a building
constantly interacts with the environment. For example if its site is not optimized, additional
emissions are likely due to traffic congestion or additional trip distances. Another example
may be deforestation to clear the land for especially constructing a large building, usually
which a land with a green forest landscape is preferred.

2.1. CO
2
Emissions
In this study two main CO
2
emission responsibility factors were recognized, namely:
a- Large building complex responsibility during operation.
b- Deforestation activity, if there is any
In case (a) five scenarios were considered. One of them is a business as usual case.

2.1.1 Responsibility of the Large Buildings Complex:
The large building complex may first be identified by the n and the CO
2
if Eq. 2 is
generalized by the following definition:
E
Q
n =
(7)
( )
a
T j
j
Ri
Pj
j
Bi
i
E
c
n
c
c
CO

1
2
(8)
m h B D E E
p a
= (9)
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.6
0.7
0.03 0.13 0.23 0.33 0.43 0.33 0.63 0.73 0.83 0.93
X

Ri
CO
2
Sequestration Potential Ratio, X with
Ri

n=1,4
n=1
n=1,2
n=1,6
n=2
Eq. 4
n: Annual-averaged thermal energy to
electrical energy consumption ratio.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

39

2.2. Building Scenarios
2.2.1. Business as Usual Scenario-Base Line (BAU)
In this scenario Eq. 1 applies with
Ri
=0,04. There is not any energy green building
concept applied. The total CO
2
emission responsibility of this scenario is analyzed in three
main categories, namely compounded emissions of the building and de-forestation.
Let for a given power supply mix of a country c
j
=0,5 kg CO
2
/kW-h with an overall first-
law efficiency of her power plants,
Pj
of 0,35 and power transmission efficiency,
T
of 0,8.
Assuming that heat is supplied to the building by on-site natural gas boilers with an average
first-law efficiency,
Bi
of 0,75. Let c
i
=0,2 kg CO
2
/kW-h for natural gas. Then from Eq. 9,
( )
a a a a a a
E E E E E E CO 1 , 4 785 , 1 920 , 1 373 , 0
8 , 0 35 , 0
5 , 0
4 , 1 04 , 0 1
35 , 0
5 , 0
75 , 0
2 , 0
2
= + + =
(10)
2.1.2 Responsibility of Deforestation:
Loss of CO
2
sequestration potential, LCS in ton CO
2
/a units due to deforestation of DF
number of trees, and the annual CO
2
sequestration potential of a single typical local tree per
annum, s averaged over a 50 year period, which corresponds to the life time of a typical
building, may be based upon yearly-piece wise calculations taking into account natural
survival rate, CF in the tree stock.
( )
67 , 3
1000

=
CF s DF
LCS
(11)
Here, the multiplier 3,67 converts carbon sequestration into CO
2
sequestration. If for
example, if 70000 mature trees will be cut for land clearing purposes, then the CO
2
emissions
responsibility amounts from Sections 2.1.1 and 2.1.2 are summed. With the sample values of
DF =150000, s =35 kg CO
2
/a, CF =0,85:
( )
/a CO ton 16377 67 , 3
1000
85 , 0 35 150000
2
=

= LCS

+ =
2 2
CO LCS TCO (12)
=310
6
ton CO
2
/a.

Table 1. Breakdown of CO
2
Emissions Responsibility: Base Line (BAU).
ri
=0,04, n =1,4.
No Green Building Features.
CO
2
Emission Source CO
2
Emission
ton CO
2
/a
Comments
De-forestation, LCS 16377 Corrected for natural tree loss over a
50-year period.
Building CO
2
Direct Emissions 1,5810
6

2,9810
6

From fuel consumption.
Exergy Destruction 1,410
6

Total CO
2
emission, TCO
2
=LCS +CO
2
310
6
large building and tree deforestation.

Table 1 gives the break-down of the total CO
2
emissions of the Base Scenario according to
de-forestation, and direct CO
2
emissions (First-law) and compounding CO
2
emissions
(Second-Law Analysis: Exergy Destructions).

2.2.2 Green Building Scenarios
In this study, four scenarios were considered all common in n =1,4 and E
p
=150 MW.
While the first three scenarios are practically possible, the last scenario is a hypothetical
scenario where
Ri
approaches one. In this hypothetical scenario however, even if all the heat
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

40

and power is obtained from renewables, there may be other more value adding applications in
the nation-wide energy budget to allocate these resources to some other demand points.
Therefore, the power load remains in the demand side of the energy and CO
2
emission
balance sheets. Therefore, X may not approach unity while E
p
apparently approaches zero and
remains at 0,57.

1- Green Building Case 1:
Ri
= 0,3, X = 0,15
In this scenario, there is a CHP plant with a peak 80 MW electric power capacity and 84
MW peak thermal power capacity at design conditions, after necessary correction factors on
an annual average were applied, like outdoor temperature, humidity, and air pressure.
Cooling is accomplished by electric chillers (BAU). Due to limited space only 15 MW solar
PV power is possible without further deforestation. No wind turbines will be installed and
only 20 MW green power will be obtained from third-party green power utility companies.
Because only a simple CHP system is considered in this scenario, the primary energy
savings equation, given by the EU directive [5], modified by the second-law [6] provides a
way of estimating the CO
2
sequestration:

(13)

The reference values for heat generation by a separate boiler is taken 0,85 and power
generation by a separate plant is taken 0,52 [5]. Reference value for
RCHP
is 0,2024 [5]. For a
set of 80 MW capacity gas-turbine CHP plant, the following annual-average efficiency values
were predicted to beCHPH =0,45, CHPE =0,43, and because the only difference between
this scenario and the base scenario is the cogeneration plant, the following identity is set:
RCHP
=
Ri
=0,3. Then the average fuel savings is calculated from Eq. 13:

This result means that the CHP set is saving 30% (0,3) energy based on every kW-h of
electrical energy supplied. In terms of the average power generation efficiency of 0,43, energy
savings of 0,3 savings on an annual basis using Eq. 10, with D =0,8, B =0,7, h =24 h/day, m
=360 operating days per year is calculated:
h/a - kW 10 7 , 2 43 , 0 / 360 24 7 , 0 8 , 0 3 , 0 80000
8
= = kW ES
a

If c
j
is equal to

0,2 kg CO
2
/kW-h for natural gas, then the above energy saving corresponds to
an annual CO
2
emission reduction may be deduced from the first term in Eq. 1.
/a CO ton 5400 1000 / 2 , 0 10 7 , 2 (kg/ton) /1000
2
8
2
= = =
j a
c ES CO (14)

Ri
= 0,5, X = 0,27
In this scenario a 150 MW CHP plant is accompanied with 30 MW-cooling capacity
absorption system. A 40 MW-cooling capacity (50 MW in heating) ground-source heat pump
(GSHP) system will provide additional heating or cooling. Results are given in Table 2.

( )
( )
100
2
2
1
1
+
=
RCHP
RCHP
RCHP
PES
Ref
RefE
CHPE
RefH
CHPH
( )
( )
% 30 100
3 , 0 2
2024 , 0 2
0,52
0,43
0,85
0,45
1
1 =
+
=
RCHP
PES
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

41

Ri
= 0,7, X = 0,39
This is a building with hybrid electromechanical systems. A biogas plant using solid wastes
and liquid waste with a capacity of 20 MW electric power will be installed. PV systems are
partially replaced by PVT (Photo-Voltaic Thermal) and PVTC (Photo-Voltaic Thermal and
Cooling) systems [7]. The general layout of the green electro-mechanical system developed
and analyzed for this scenario is shown in Fig. 2. Results are given in Table 2. In this electro-
mechanically green system there is a combined heat and power (CHP) plant at the core. It has
dual fuel capability, namely biogas and natural gas. Biogas reactors receive solid and liquid
wastes on-site and process them separately. Part of the electric power output of the CHP
system drives the water-to-water, ground-source heat pump (GSHP). In order to increase the
rational exergy management efficiency, hydronic heating and cooling is also performed to
satisfy most of the sensible loads all over the building space through chilled beams and
radiant panels, which are proven green building components also for green buildings [8, 9].
Power supply is augmented by solar PVs, PVTs and PVTCs.

Fig. 2. Green and Hybrid Electro-Mechanical System Components for Scenario 3 [8].

The latter is capable of sensible cooling in thermal radiation and natural convection modes
[10, 11, 12]. Green power is purchased by outside vendors available in the vicinity. Thermal
energy from solar panels and the CHP system are stored in thermal energy storage tanks
(HWT) for different temperatures.

4- Green Building Case 4: Net Zero Energy and Net- Zero Exergy Building (NZEB),
Ri
1, X0,57
This scenario will be an upper bound for the analysis and the base scenario will be the lower
bound. According to REHVA, nearly zero energy (nZEB) building is a technically possible
building that on an annually net basis consumes almost zero energy [12]. NZEB on the other
hand that is the subject of this article is the ideal case, which takes the nZEB concept one step
further on a mathematical basis. This hypothetical scenario may not be techno-economically
possible especially for buildings.

CHP
Biogas
Natural
Gas
Remote Green Power
Provider
On-site
PV, PVT, PVTC
Power
HWT1
HWT2
HE
Heat
Power
Heat
Radiant Cooling
Heat
Comfort Heating
AC
HE
Chilled Beams and
Radiant Panels
Chillers
Ice Tank
CWT
Comfort Cooling ABSC
ADSC
Fresh Water
Domestic
Hot Water
Reject Heat
Comfort Cooling
HWT3
or Cold
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

42

Table 2. Total CO
2
Emissions, TCO
2
, in Terms of X, Including Deforestation and Site
Selection Effects. n =1,4.
SCENARIO TCO
2
X
Ri
Comments
BAU 310
6 [1]
0 0,04 Business as usual construction
1 2,5410
6 [2]
0,15 0,3 80 MWe CHP, PV, Remote Green Wind Power
2 2,1910
6
0,27 0,5 150 MWe CHP, 30 MWt Absorption Chiller, 40 MWt
GSHP, PV, Remote Green Wind Power
3 1,8310
6
0,39 0,7 Scenario 2 optimized, thermal storage systems added, 20
MWe biogas plant, PVT and PVTC.
4 1,5710
6
0,69 1 Net-zero energy and net-zero exergy building (NZEB)
[1] See Table 1.
[2] TCO
2
values for all scenarios in this column are calculated based on the CO
2
valueof

BAU in Table 1.
TCO
2
=2,9810
6
x (1 - X) +16377 =2,54 10
6
ton/a

3- OPTIMIZING THE CHP PLANT

Unless the building in question is a military war hospital or natural disaster-ready large
hospital (Mega Hospital) the CHP plant capacity is always selected below the anticipated
peak power load, expressed by the ratio c:
p
CHP
E
E
c =
(15)
In Eq. 15, c is the ratio of the optimized and corrected, annual average CHP plant power
capacity,
CHP
E to the peak power load of the building E
p
on an annual basis. The catalog value
E
CHP
of the CHP power plant is de-rated according to the altitude of the site. In a detailed
hourly analysis of the plant performance hourly changes of the outdoor relative humidity,
outdoor DB air temperature, outdoor air pressure, daily variations of the lower heating value
of the fuel are also considered in order to further correct the actual performance. ISO standard
gives the standard operating conditions for rating and de-rating purposes [13]:
15
o
C outdoor air temperature, 101,3 kPa outdoor air pressure, 60 % relative humidity and sea
level. Any variation from these standard values needs a capacity correction. On a year-by-year
basis the technical depreciation of the CHP plant is important, because the capacity decreases
by the number of years operated (n).
E
CHP
(t) =k
a
k
p
(t) k
rh
(t) k
ta
(t) k
f
(d) y(n)
m
E
CHP
(16)
Then an annual average value
CHP
E is obtained by integrating Eq. 16 over a time period and
then dividing it to the given time period (usually year):
=
t
t
CHP
CHP
dt
dt t E
E
0
0
) (
(17)
The ratio c may not be less than the so-called cut-off load, which means that the CHP plant
may not be operated below a cut-off capacity value due to operational and economical
reasons. This limit is usually specified by the manufacturers to be around 0,4. If for example c
is 1, the CHP plant corrected capacity on an annual performance average is selected to be
equal to the peak load of the building power load that may be observed in a one-year period.
Obviously, there will be several hours and days in a year that the CHP plant has to be
operated at partial load, which decreases the plant efficiency. Furthermore, even though the
excess power may be provided back to the grid with some restrictions like during a general
power failure the building may not supply power to the grid. Even in cases when the excess
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

43

power may be supplied to the grid heat supplied by the CHP plant may exceed the thermal
loads and unless building thermal storage tanks are used the heat may be wasted. These
arguments clearly show that the c value is very critical in optimizing a CHP plant.

3.1. The Objective Function
In this study an objective function was developed based on the following factors:
First-law efficiency,
I
,
c ratio,
Operating factor, IF,
Ri
, CO
2
emissions, and the pay-back period.
The last two factors may be easily related to the other factors mentioned above. Therefore
the following optimization equation is implicit on CO
2
emissions and the pay-back period.

OF =f(
I
, c, IF,
Ri
, CO
2
) {Maximize} (18)
[ ]
( )
( )
3 , 1
2
84 , 1
3
1
) 9 , 0
=
IF c
CO
c IF
OF
Ri
I
i
ref
I
(19)
Equation 19 is a compilation of four terms. The first term is the first-law efficiency and
must be maximized. The second term with a minus sign represents the decrease in the CHP
plant life in terms of operation hours until the expected life. The third term is for the decrease
of CO
2
emissions against a reference value indexed to the green building threshold value of 0,
70 for
Ri
[8]. The last term represents the simple payback period term for a reference value
of 3 years. The last term is the economy indicator in terms of a reference pay-back period of
three years.. At this point the following relationships are encountered [3]:
+
=
9 , 0
) 6 , 0 ( 6 , 0
l
I
IF j
and (20)
The term (IF) may be expressed by the following relationship. Then. a single-variable
function in terms of c is obtained if
Ri
is known.
IF =-1,2833c
2
+0,7063c +0,8756 (21)
OF =f**(c) {Maximize} (22)
0 =
dc
dOF
, {subject to:
I
0,80, 0,4 c 0,90, 0,7 IF 1,1 >
Ri
0,06} (23)

3.2 Case Study 1.
In this case study the first scenario discussed above in Section 2.2.2 is used with an
unknown CHP plant capacity instead of 80 MW. The peak design load of the building electric
power load is 150 MW, and the optimum c value is sought by using the algorithm given in
Section 3.1 and the following design data: c
i
=0,2 kg CO
2
/kW-h (Natural gas)
CO
2ref
: 0,075 kg CO
2
/kW-h (Natural gas and
Ri
=

0,7), j:0,8, l: 1,2
The data given above was run on a spreadsheet for all scenarios. The maximum condition is
satisfied at c =0,55. Table 3 provides the numerical data for OF for the Scenarios discussed
in Section 2.2.2 and the results are plotted in Fig. 3. Results show that the optimum (c) value
stays almost the same at 0,55 for all scenarios. The (OF) value increases sharply when
Ri
increases above 0,40.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

44

Table 3. Results for (OF) for Different Scenarios.
BAU Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4
c IF
I
OF OF OF OF OF
0,9 0,352197 0,6124612 -1,56774
-
1,536775788 -1,49235878
-
1,430466229
-
1,066098787
0,85 0,4291708 0,6443083 -1,02824
-
0,995672718 -0,94894609
-
0,883835206
-
0,500521155
0,8 0,499728 0,6815587 -0,64174 -0,60728433 -0,55785622
-
0,488980995
-
0,083505856
0,75 0,5638688 0,7204477 -0,35211
-
0,315695108 -0,26344668
-
0,190641498 0,237969667
0,7 0,621593 0,7588857 -0,13435
-
0,095988041 -0,04095201 0,035737535 0,487216323
0,65 0,6729008 0,7954727 0,022704 0,062916292 0,120605689 0,200992554 0,674237809
0,6 0,717792 0,8291921 0,122855 0,164771941 0,224906745 0,308701144 0,802006879
0,55 0,7562668 0,8592757 0,165108 0,208545422 0,270861955 0,357696467 0,868899643
0,5 0,788325 0,8851334 0,144363 0,189107706 0,253299491 0,342747059 0,869333554
0,45 0,8139668 0,9063124 0,050886 0,096701328 0,16242906 0,254016883 0,79320326
0,4 0,833192 0,9224724 -0,13155 -0,08492038 -0,01802069 0,075200198 0,624000566

Table 4. Comparison of the Feasible Domain and the Optimum (c) Values for the Scenarios.
Scenario Feasible Range of c Optimum Value of c
BAU 0,43 c 0,66 0,55
1 0,42 c 0,67 0,55
2 0,40 c 0,69 0,55
3 0,40 c 0,71 0,55
4 0,40 c 0,78 0,55

4- DISCUSSION of RESULTS

This study have shown that the capacity selection of a CHP plant expressed by the factor (c)
for large building complexes is very important from the efficiency, economy, environment,
and operational points of view. The case study have shown that the optimum (c) value is

Fig. 3. Optimum Values of (c) for Different (
Ri
) values corresponding to the Scenarios.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

45

about 0,55 and does not vary much with the factor (
Ri
). However, the optimal range of the
term (c), which satisfies the condition OF >0, widens with the term (
Ri
), that is the metric
for the rational about the management of exergy especially for green buildings where
Ri

approaches or exceeds 0,7. Higher the (
Ri
) term, wider the feasible domain.. This domain is
important when the optimum point is not achievable. In a wider feasible domain, the designer
is able to choose a more suitable solution under the design-specific constraints. At any rate,
Fig. 3 shows that the worst case for the term (c) is when it approaches 0,9 and beyond. In this
case the objective function becomes negative, which indicates that the shorter life time makes
a feasible solution impossible. In order to avoid this, the building must at the same time
approach net-zero or near net zero building status, that is
Ri
>0,7. Otherwise the only
permissible case for (c) to approach 0,9 is military hospitals and/or natural disaster emergency
complexes where service completeness in the most diverse condition supersedes other factors.
The proposed algorithm provides more comprehensive prediction of the performance of a
CHP plant. In conclusion, a detailed analysis is a must especially for green building design
and this analysis must seek an optimal (c) value including economical, operational, energy
and exergy efficiency, CO
2
emissions variables.

5- REFERENCES

1. Klk, B., Klk, . Energy and Exergy Efficiency Comparison of Poly-Generation
and Co-generation Systems, Conference Proceedings, (In Serbian), pp: 474-486, the
Fortieth International Congress on Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning, 2-4
December, Belgrade, 2009.
2. Kilkis, B., Erol, O., and, D. C. Bayram, A Tri-Generation Retrofit Towards Green Buildings,
IGEC VI Conference, Eskisehir, 5-9 J une, Conference Proceedings, 2011.
3. Klk, B. and Klk, . Combined Heat and Power with Renewable Energy Systems:
A Guide for Optimum Design, Rating, and Enviro-Economic Analysis, 160 p.,
TTMD: Ankara, 2013 (in print).
4. Klk, . A Rational Exergy Management Model to Curb CO
2
Emissions in the
Exergy-Aware Built Environments of the Future, Doctoral Thesis in Civil and
Architectural Engineering, KTH, Stockholm, Sweden, 189 p., 2011.
5. EN, Directive 2004/8/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11
February 2004 on the Promotion of Cogeneration Based on a Useful Heat Demand in
the Internal Energy Market and Amending Directive 92/42/EEC, L 52/50 Brussels,
2004.
6. Klk, B., Klk, . Comparison of Poly-generation Systems for Energy Savings,
Exergetic Performance, and Harmful Emissions, Proceedings of ES2007, Energy
Sustainability, Paper No: ES 2007-36262, J une 27-30, Long Beach, California, 2007.
7. Klk, B., A New Building Integrated Solar Facade System for Heating, Cooling, and
Power (BIPVTC) in Green Buildings, TTMD J ournal (English Edition), No: 7, pp: 26-
33, Ankara, 2010.
8. Klk, B. A Benchmarking and Metrication Study in a High Performance, Green
Office Building- Energy Efficiency Road Map for Sustainable District Cooling and
Heating, CLIMA 2010 International Conference, Proceedings on CD, ISBN: 978-975-
6907-14-6, 9-14 May, Antalya, 2010.
9. Klk, B. Solar Tri-Generation Module for Heating, Cooling, and Power, Conference
Proceedings on CD, Solar Future 2010 Conference, 11-12 February, stanbul, 2010.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

46

10. Klk, B., 2011. Application of a Novel Solar PV Tri-Generation Heat Pumping
Facade to a High Performance Building in Ankara, 10th Int. Energy Agency, Heat
Pump Conference 2011, May 16-19, Conference Proceedings on CD, J apan, 2011.
11. Bean, R. and B. Klk, The Basics of Panel Heating & Cooling, ASHRAE Learning
Institute, Short Course, ASHRAE: Atlanta, 150 p., 2010.
12. Kurnitski, J ., Technical Definitions for Nearly Zero Energy Buildings, The REHVA
European HVAC J ournal, Vol: 50, Issue: 3, pp: 22-28, May 2013.
13. ISO, ISO 26382:2010, Cogeneration systems - Technical Declarations for Planning,
Evaluation and Procurement, 27 p., 2010.

6- NOMENCLATURE

a Unit electrical energy price, $/kW-h
B Base load factor, dimensionless
b Unit fuel price, $/kW-h (Based on the lover heating value, LHV)
c
p CHP
E E c / =
, dimensionless
c
i
Unit CO
2
content of the fuel, kg CO
2
/kW-h
c
j
Unit CO
2
content of the fuel outside the building boundary, kg CO
2
/kW-h
CF Natural survival rate factor of a given tree type, dimensionless
CHPH Partial heat generation efficiency of CHP, dimensionless
CHPE Partial power generation efficiency of CHP) dimensionless
CHPS Partial steam generation efficiency, dimensionless
COP Coefficient of performance, dimensionless
CO
2ref
Reference Emissions, dimensionless
D Diversity factor, dimensionless
d Day
DF Number of trees to be subjected to cutting (deforestation), dimensionless
E Electrical energy demand , kW-h
E
a
Annual electrical energy demand, kW-h
E
CHP
Catalog value of the CHP plant electric power generation, kW, or MW
E
CHP
(t) Hourly corrected electric power generation capacity of the CHP plant, kW, or
MW
CHP
E
Optimized and corrected annual average CHP plant power generation
capacity, MW
ES
a
Energy savings per annum according to PES
RCHP
, kW-h/a
E
p
Peak electrical power demand, kW-h
H
s
Supplementary heat generation efficiency, dimensionless
h Daily building operating hours, h
IF Operating Factor, dimensionless
j, l Coefficients in Eq. 20
k
a
Capacity correction coefficient for the altitude from sea level, dimensionless
k
f
Capacity correction coefficient for the lower heating value of the fuel,
dimensionless
k
p
Capacity correction coefficient for atmospheric pressure, dimensionless
k
rh
Capacity correction coefficient for relative humidity, dimensionless
k
ta
Capacity correction coefficient for the outdoor air temperature,
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

47

dimensionless
LCS Loss of CO
2
sequestration potential due to deforestation, ton CO
2
/a
m Annual full operating days of the building, days/a or the coefficient in Eq. 16
n Annual-averaged heat to electrical energy demand ratio, dimensionless or age
OF Objective Function, dimensionless
PER Primary Energy Ratio, dimensionless
PES Primary energy savings ratio, per-cent
PES
RCHP
Rational Exergy Management Efficiency embedded PES, per-cent
Q Heat demand, kW-h
RefH Reference value for the partial heat generation efficiency by CHP,
dimensionless
REFH
s
Reference value for the supplementary heat generation efficiency,
dimensionless
RefE Reference value for the partial power generation efficiency by CHP,
dimensionless
RefPER Reference PER value, dimensionless
RefS Reference value for the partial steam generation efficiency of the CHP
system
Ref
RCHP
Reference value for
Ri
, dimensionless
s Annual carbon sequestration potential of a tree per annum, kg carbon/a.
T
app
Application temperature, K
T
a
Design comfort air temperature in a building, K
TCO
2
Total CO
2
emissions responsibility, LCS +CO
2
, ton CO
2
/a
T
f
Combustion (or equivalent) temperature of exergy source (fuel), K
T
g
Annual-averaged ground temperature at approximately 1,5 m, K
T
ref
Reference environment temperature, K
t time, h
X CO
2
sequestration ratio, dimensionless
Greek Symbols
B
On-site boiler efficiency, first-law, dimensionless
pj
Remote power plant efficiency, first-law, dimensionless
T
Power transmission efficiency, dimensionless
I
First-law efficiency, dimensionless
Ri
Rational Exergy Management Efficiency for on-site electromechanical
systems
CO
2
Compounded CO
2
emission responsibility of the building complex, ton
CO
2
/a
CO
2
CO
2
sequestration potential, ton CO
2
/a
Abbreviations and Acronyms
a Annum (year)
ABSC Absorption cooling machine
AC Air conditioning
ADSC Adsorption cooling machine
ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air-conditioning Engineers
Inc.
BAU Business as usual
CHP Combined Heat and Power (aka cogeneration)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

48

CWT Cold water storage tank
EU European Union
GSHP Ground-source heat pump
HE Heat exchanger
HWT Hot-water storage tank
ISO International Standardization Organization
NZEB Net-zero energy and net-zero exergy building
nZEB Nearly-zero energy building (According to REHVA)
PV Photo-voltaic
PVT Photo-voltaic-thermal
PVTC Photo-voltaic-thermal-cold
REHVA Federation of European Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
Associations
Subscripts
BS Base scenario (BAU scenario)
c Cooling
G Green
i Within building boundaries (on-site)
j Off-site location

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

49

TESTING A SIMPLIFIED BUILDING ENERGY SIMULATION
PROGRAM VIA BUILDING ENERGY SIMULATION TEST (BESTEST)

Glden Gken Akkurt
1
, Cem Doan ahin
1
, SavaTakan
1
, Zeynep Durmu Arsan
1

1
zmir Institute of Technology,zmir

Corresponding email: guldengokcen@iyte.edu.tr

SUMMARY

In Europe, residential and service buildings are responsible for more than 40% of primary
energy consumption and this ratio is expected to rise. European authorities have undertaken
the challange to control domestic energy consumption of buildings to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions and the studies on efficient energy use have been accelerated since 1992. Most
important outcome of these studies is the European Union Directive on the Energy
Performance of Buildings. The Directive underlines the structure of methods which determine
the energy performance of buildings for member states.

Turkey is revising its legislations on building energy performance as foreseen in Directive on
the Energy Performance of buildings through the European Union accession process.
Directive on Energy Performance of Buildings were introduced in J uly 2008, urges to
develop national building energy simulation methodologies on evaluation of building energy
performance. KEP-SDM is one of the simplified methodologies developed based on the
regulation.
The methodologies are reliable as long as they are validated. The aim of this study is to assess
the accuracy of KEP-SDM by BESTEST.

Climatic zone approach and software-based weather data were implemented into KEP-SDM
and the results were compared with eachother. It was concluded that sensitivity of the weather
data affects the accuracy of building energy simulation methodologies quite significantly.

INTRODUCTION

The building industry and the built environment are some of the largest contributors to energy
and material use worldwide. In the northern part of the European Union, 41% of total final
energy consumption comes from buildings, with 30% being used in residential buildings [1].

Due to importance of a good quality of the indoor environment and problems caused by high
energy consumption, governments have enacted a series of policies and regulations aimed at
increasing the energy efficiency of residential buildings and ensuring a good indoor
environment. An example of such initiatives is the European Union Directive on the Energy
Performance of Buildings (EPBD). EPBD obliges all European member states to implement
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

50

performance-based energy regulations aimed at decreasing energy consumption in buildings
in relation to heating, cooling, ventilation, lighting and domestic hot water [1].

Turkey is revising its legislations on building energy performance as foreseen in EPBD,
through the European union accession process. TS 825 which is Thermal insulation
requirements for buildings standard, came into force at 2000, was revised in 2008 [2].
Energy Efficiency Law is released in February 2007; urging industry, transportation and
residential sectors to take measures on improvement of energy efficiency [3]. The target of the
law is to reduce energy intensity (kJ /$) of Turkey by 10% till 2020. Furthermore in December
2008, the Ministry of Public Works and Settlement introduced a regulation titled as Directive
on Energy Performance of Buildings [4]. According to this regulation, new buildings and
buildings under major renovation are urged to obtain an Energy Certificate which includes
heating, cooling, domestic hot water and lighting energy consumptions as well as
Greenhouse Gas Emission Sertificate as a result of energy consumption. In J uly 2008,
Turkey signed Kyoto Protocol and commited to reduce greenhouse gas emmisions by 10%
compared to 1998 [5].

Based on the Directive on Energy Performance of Buildings, national building energy
simulation (BES) methodologies have been developed such as Standard Assessment Method
for Energy Performance of Residential Buildings (KEP-SDM) [6] and National Building
Energy Performance Calculation Methodology (BEP-TR).

The methodologies are reliable providing that they are validated.The purpose of this study is
to presenta methodology based on the application of a well-known validation and diagnostics
procedure, Building Energy Simulation Test (BESTEST) [7],to assess the accuracy of the
simplified calculation method KEP-SDM.This paper also presents comparison ofthe test
results of KEP-SDM with state of the art building energy simulation program (DB) [8].

Standard Assessment Method for Energy Performance of Residential Buildings (KEP-
SDM)
The KEP-SDM is a methodology composed for calculating the energy performance and
carbondioxide emissions of residential buildings per unit floor area. The methodology is
compliant with(TS 825) [2]and the Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP) [9].

The calculation is based on energy balance taking into account of a range of factors below
that contribute to energy efficiency:

Materials used for construction of the residential building
Thermal insulation of the building fabric
Ventilation characteristics of the residential building and ventilation equipment
Efficiency and control of the heating systems
Solar gains through openings of the residential building
The fuel used to provide space and water heating, ventilation and lighting
Renewable energy technologies

The calculation does not take into account of the factors stated below:
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

51

Household size and composition
Ownership
Efficiency of particular domestic electrical appliances
Individual heating patterns and temperatures

KEP-SDM is used to calculate the energy performace of residential buildings that have floor
area less than 450 m
2
. The methodology estimates the annual energy consumption of the
buildings depending on heating, domestic hot water and lighting demand where cooling is not
considered [6].

Fig. 1 Heating degree-day climatic zones in Turkey [5].

KEP-SDM uses degree-day phenomenon in calculations. Degree-day approach is still
prefered way for building energy performance calculations although there are other ways.
According to American Gas Association, keeping an indoor evironment at 21C is related to
difference between 18C and daily mean outdoor air temperature. Measuring the amount of
fuel to heat up any space on whenever day is calculated using the difference between 18C
and daily mean outdoor air temperature. This difference is called heating degree-day (HDD)
for any particular day [10].

Since HDD changes with climatal conditions and regions the degree-day phenomenon creates
HDD climatic zones apart from geographical regions. There are four different HDD climatic
zones according to TS 825, which are shown on Fig.1.

Building Energy Simulation Test (BESTEST)

BESTEST is a procedure, which was developed by International Energy Agency (IEA) in
1995, to test and diagnose the building energy simulation programs [11]. The procedure
contains several tests assessing the effect of physical properties on the results of building
energy simulations. The purpose of this procedure is to create obvious, well-defined test
series for software-to-software comparisons and program diagnostics. Not every simulation
program requires the same input to do calculations. Hence, test series defined in BESTEST
are designed to test different building simulation programs[7].

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

52

Table 1.Description of BESTEST Cases (Summary).
Caseno. Description
Case 600
8m x 6m x 2.7m ; South facing 12 m
2
window, no shading;
internal gains 200W;infiltration rate 0.5 ACH; low thermal
mass;
Case 610
Same as Case 600 with 1 m full-width overhang on south
facade
Case 620
Same as Case 600 but with a 6 m
2
east window and a 6 m
2

west window, no shading.
Case 630
Same as Case 620 with 1 m overehang over windows only,
plus 1 m fins on both sides of each window.

There are 36 BESTEST cases in all, plus 4 free-floating cases (no heating or cooling) [7].
These cases are classified as either qualification or diagnostic cases. A recommended way to
apply the procedure is to run the qualification tests first. The remaining cases are designed for
diagnostic purpose. In this study, some BESTEST cases were used to assess the accuracy of
the KEP-SDM. The reason of the case selection is based on applicability of the cases to KEP-
SDM. The cases applied are given in Table 1.

Figure 2. Isometric view of test case 600 [8].

The Case 600 is the base case which takes into consideration of the test construction
illustrated on Fig. 2. Other test cases are variations of the base construction. The Case 610
includes 1 m overhang on south facade different from Case 600. The Case 620 consider 6m
2

window in the west and east facade. Lastly, the Case 630 includes 1 m overhang extended
across the 3 m width of each window and side fins different from Case 620.

The BESTEST was designed to assess energy simulation programs which are able to run
simulation for any climatic region and location [11]. Nevertheless, the KEP-SDM runs
simulations taking into account the climatic zones of Turkey. Therefore, it is required to
develop a way to apply BESTEST in different climates than the original Denver, USA data
[11]. In this study, the KEP-SDM was tested using the weather data of zmir-Turkey.

The following approach [11] was used to convert the BESTEST results into the weather data
of zmir. State of the art building energy simulation program [8], was selected to apply the
approach. The simulation program [8] is based on the calculation methodology, Energy Plus
[12], improved with weather database and 3D interface [13].
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

53

First, all the BESTEST cases (600, 610, 620, 630) were run using the meteorological data of
Denver-USA to confirm whether the energy simulation results of DB (Q
DB.Denver
) are between
the minimum and maximum values stated by the BESTEST (Q
min.Denver
and Q
max.Denver
). Based
on the DB results for Denver and on BESTEST acceptable results, confidence intervals for
each BESTEST case were calculated using (1) and (2).

CImax=(Qmax.
Denver
Q
DB.Denver
) / Q
DB.Denver
(1)

CImin=(Qmin.
Denver
Q
DB.Denver
) / Q
DB.Denver
(2)

After that, the same BESTEST cases were simulated using DB for the weather data of zmir
(Q
DB.zmir
).Using the confidence intervals determined before and DB results for zmir, the new
acceptable range (maximum and minimum) for zmir was determined using (3) and (4).

Qmax.
zmir
=(1 +CImax) * Q
DB.zmir
(3)

Qmin.
zmir
=(1 +CImin) * Q
DB.zmir
(4)

This straightforward approach is developed using several assumptions. In reality, the new
maximum and minimum results for zmir should be determined based on reference programs
in the BESTEST procedure. Nevertheless, using of all BES programs in the BESTEST takes
loads of time and requires expertise. Thus, the methodology previously suggested in this
study providemeans to construct ranges of acceptable results for the BESTEST cases for any
location and weather, requiring miminum sources and knowledge[11]. The new minimum and
maximum acceptable values of BESTEST (Q
min.zmir
and Q
max.zmir
) calculated using (1), (2),
(3) and (4) are given on Table 2.

Table 2. BESTEST acceptance ranges for zmir.
Case Q
min
.
zmir
(kWh/year) Q
max
.
zmir
(kWh/year)
600 1889,87 2511,46
610 1916,58 2546,34
620 2062,04 2657,00
630 2263,03 2898,91

RESULTS

The comparison between KEP-SDM and BESTEST results are presented in Fig.s 3-6. The
first and the last columns are the minimum and maximum energy demand values obtained by
BESTEST, respectively. The second column represents result for zmirweather data
calculated using DB. The third column indicates result for zmir determined using the KEP-
SDM (Q
KEP-SDM.zmir
).

According to the results for Case 600 illustrated in Fig. 3, it can be said that DB is close to
minimum acceptable value. In other words, DB result for Case 600 is in the acceptance range.
For this case, heating energy demand calculated using the KEP-SDM exceeds the maximum
acceptable value by 20%.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

54

Fig 3. Annual heating energy consumptions for Case 600.

Analysing the results for Case 610, it can be noticed that Case 610 requires more energy
demand than that of Case 600. The result for the KEP-SDM is outside of the acceptable range,
when comparing to DB results. For this case, the result determined using DB is 1935 kWh per
annum, which is just above the minimum acceptable value. The Case 610 has the same
specifications as the Case 600 except that Case 610 has 1m full-witdh overhang on south
facade. The overhang importantly increases the heating energy demand in the KEP-SDM.
Similarly, the DB result shows increment for this case, but this increment is fairly lower than
that of KEP-SDM. Fig. 4 illustrates the results for the Case 610.

Fig 4. Annual heating energy consumptions for Case 610.

For Case 620, it can be observed that the change in window orientation increases the heating
energy demand for zmir. As can be seen from the Fig. 5, heating energy consumption
calculated using the DB is less than minimum acceptable value (2062 kWh per annum).
Moreover, the KEP-SDM result for this case exceeds maximum acceptable value in 24%.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

55

Fig 5. Annual heating consumptions for Case 620.

The Case 630 includes 1 m overhang extended across the 3 m width of each window and side
fins different from Case 620. The overhang and side fins increase the heating energy demand
for both DB and KEP-SDM.It can be seen from the Fig. 6 that KEP-SDM presents result over
the maximum acceptable value while the result determined using DB is below the minimum
acceptance value.

Fig 6. Annual heating consumptions for Case 630.

It can be noticed that the results calculated using KEP-SDM exceededmaximum acceptance
value for all cases. The reason why all cases for KEP-SDM are above the acceptance range is
thought to be weather data of zmir based on climatic zone approach. Thus, weather data of
zmir based on TS 825 was changed with that of based on DB. Later, all cases were re-
performed using weather data of zmir based on DB, instead. The simulation results obtained
using the KEP-SDM with new weather data (KEP-SDM(DB)) were compared with KEP-
SDM that has weather data of zmir based on TS 825 (KEP-SDM(TS825)). Fig. 7 shows the
results obtained for the new situation.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

56

Fig. 7 Comparison of simulation results with changed weather data.

As can be seen obviously that the results obtained using the KEP-SDM(DB) are in of
acceptable range for all cases. It can be noticed that accuracy of weather data used in building
energy simulations affects the results significantly.

CONCLUSION

In this study, a simplified BES methodology (KEP-SDM) was tested using a well-known
validation and diagnostic procedure, Building Energy Simulation Test (BESTEST).
Furthermore, test results obtained using KEP-SDM were compared with DB.

It was oserved that for all BESTEST cases the KEP-SDM results calculated using weather
data of TS 825 are out of the acceptance range. For cases 600 and 610 DB results are in of the
acceptable value while DB results for cases 620 and 630 are lower than the minimum
acceptable value. Moreover, all KEP-SDM results obtained using weather data of zmir of DB
were in the acceptable values.

As a consequence, it can be concluded that climatic zone approach of TS 825 causes errors on
building energy simulations. Therefore, in BES programs it is significant to use weather data
obtained from the meteorological station close to the building simulated.

In the literature, Dombayc focused on HDD and cooling degree day (CDD) numbers for 79
city centers in Turkey, covering a period of 21 years (1985-2005) [14]. Aim of this study is to
determine HDD and CDD numbers for the accuracy of building energy simulations. Ylmaz
inticated that the walls having the same heat transfer coefficient caused different energy
consumptions in the cities having similar degree-day values at TS 825[15].

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors would like to thank to Chamber of Mechanical Engineers,zmir for their support
throughout this research.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

57

REFERENCES

1. Santin,O G, Itard, L andVisscher , H. 2009. The effect of occupancy and building
characteristics on energy use for space and water heating in Dutch residential stock.
Energy and Buildings.Vol. 41, pp 1223-1232
2. Thermal Insulation Requirements for Buildings. 2008.Turkish Standards Institution.
3. Energy Efficiency Law. 2007. Republic of Turkey Ministry of Energy and Natural
Resources.
4. Directive on Energy Performance of Buildings. 2008. Republic of Turkey Ministry of
Public Works and Settlement.
5. Yaman,M C. 2009. Energy Efficiency in a University Building: Energy Performance
Assessment of IZTECH Administrative Building. zmir nstitute of Technology Master
Thesis.
6. KEP-SDM. 2008. Standard Assessment Method for Energy Performance of Residential
Buildings, Chamber of Mechanical Engineers, zmir, Turkey.
7. J udkoff,R. and Neymark,J . 1995. International Energy Agency (IEA) building energy
simulation test (BESTEST) and diagnostic method. ReportNREL/TP-472-6231, NREL,
Golden.
8. DesignBuilder. 2012. DesignBuilder Building Energy Simulation Software. Version 3.
9. SAP 2005. 2008. The Governments Standard Assessment Procedure for Energy Rating of
Dwellings. 2005 Ed., Revision 1, Version9.81,
10. Taylor,B L. 1981. Population-Weighted Heating Degree-Days for Canada. Atmosphere-
Ocean, Vol.19 (3), pp 261 268.
11. Melo,A P, Costola,D, Lamberts,R, andHensen,J L M. 2012. Assessing the accuracy of a
simplified building energy simulation model using BESTEST. Energy and Buildings.
Vol.45, pp 219-228.
12. EnergyPlus. 2012. EnergyPlus Energy Simulation Software, Version 7.0.0.036.
13. Tronchin,L and Fabbri,K. 2008.Energy performance building evaluation in Mediterranean
countries: Comparison between simulations and operating rating simulation. Energy and
Buildings. Vol.4, pp 1176-1187.
14. Dombayc, A. 2009. Degree-days maps of Turkey for various base temperatures.
Energy.Vol.34, pp 1807-1812.
15. Ylmaz, Z. 2007. Evaluation of energy efficient design strategies for different climatic
zones: Comparison of thermal performance of buildings in temperate-humid and hot-dry
climate. Energy and Buildings. Vol.39, pp306-316.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

58

INCLUDING THE BUILDING ENERGY PERFORMANCE
CONSULTANCY TO THE INTEGRATED BUILDING DESIGN
PROCESS: THE INDUSTRIAL BUILDING CASE STUDY IN TURKEY
Alpay Akguc
1
, Gozde Gali
1
and A. Zerrin Yilmaz
2

1
EKOMIM Ecologic Architectural Consultancy, Istanbul, Turkey
2
Istanbul Technical University, Department of Architecture, Istanbul, Turkey

Corresponding email: alpay@ekomim.com

SUMMARY

In the design process of the buildings, there are many industrial services coming from
different branches of science take place in different parts of the process. Nowadays, the
construction industry has become a booming sector and contributed to improvement of the
economy especially in developing countries but the integrated building design process is still
a problem in building sector. In addition to this, energy efficient design is one of the most
important issues in integrated building design process but necessary attention hasnt been paid
on it yet.

In the content of this study, an industrial building that an example of integrated design was
investigated. The detailed dynamic method was examined for the building energy
performance analyses. The simulations were performed during the design process. As a result
of the building energy performance analyses, the proposed building HVAC system became
around 80% more energy efficient than the baseline building HVAC system.

INTRODUCTION

The building quantity rises gradually due to increasing human population so that more energy
resources will be needed in the future. However, current energy resources are reducing day by
day, and more energy resources mean more CO
2
emissions. Buildings produce more than
30% of CO
2
emissions in the EU [1, 2]. It is also stated that 40% of the entire energy
consumption around the world is linked to the buildings [3]. Therefore energy saving become
an important issue especially in the buildings. In order to prevent the increasing of these ratios
in the future, the description of energy efficient building design comes into prominence for
providing the necessary energy demand and choosing the suitable and effective HVAC
systems according to the building typology.

Many building parameters are necessary for the energy efficient building design about
building physics, energy systems, automation systems and etc. and all these parameters are
dependent together. Therefore, architects, civil engineers, mechanical engineers, electric
engineers should work together during the design process as design team. Each group should
be aware of that, constructing a building is to constitute an interacted system to the
environment which it will be stand and it will be affected by seasonal and daily climatic
changes [4]. For constructing the energy efficient building, integrated design is a very
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

59

important process and the design teams should work collaboratively from the beginning of the
design process to the end.

In the beginning of the design, physical properties as building geometry, orientation, faade
transparency rates, opaque and transparent components, shading elements, interior layout,
thermal zones and obstacles around the building that affect the energy performance of
buildings should be determined. Secondly, thermo-physical properties as heat conductivity
coefficient, density and specific heat of opaque components of the building envelope and the
solar heat gain coefficient, daylight transmittance values and the overall heat transfer
coefficient of transparent components of the building envelope and infiltrations that are
important parameters for determining the building heating and cooling loads should be
decided. Besides, illuminance level, loads and efficiency of lighting equipment are also
important for energy efficiency and occupancy comfort. After determining to these passive
system parameters, the building HVAC equipment with appropriate capacity and efficiency
should be chosen working with building automation system. All these parameters should be
tested together in order to ensure the energy efficient design. For that reason, the crucial
benefits of building energy performance modelling and simulation tools and consultancy on
measurements to increase the building energy efficiency are being considered among building
design teams [5].

Building energy performance modelling, as a decision making process on building
architecture and system design, includes several segments according to the parameters taken
into consideration and scale of assessment. Over the last decade, there is a respectable rise
about the involvement of building energy performance simulation (BEPS) tools in building
design process through scientifically developed modules by energy demand and consumption
calculations, thermal and visual comfort analyses and evaluation of emission rates. Wide
ranges of users from different disciplines use BEPS tools related with their specialty. BEPS
tools give significant foresight, comparison and performance evaluation with various options
during early-design, design and operation phases to the users. To ensure the energy efficient
design in buildings, energy performance simulations should be performed in the beginning of
the design process and continue until the construction process.

In this paper, the industrial building was taken into account in order to consider building
energy performance. The energy performance analysis of this building were carried out from
beginning of the project with leading of building energy performance consultant and
performance simulations continued during the design process. There are basically two types
of simulation methods mostly in use; one of them is simple semi-dynamic method and the
other one is detailed dynamic method. In this paper, detailed dynamic method is examined,
since it guides the building design process. According to the energy performance test results,
the energy consumption of proposed building HVAC system was less than baseline building
HVAC system. The proposed building HVAC system became around 80% more energy
efficient with integrated design.

METHODS

This study consists of energy performance analyses of the proposed industrial building which
will be constructed in atalca Organize Sanayi Blgesi. These performance results were
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

60

compared with baseline building energy performance results which is modelled according to
ASHRAE 90.1 Appendix G and energy efficiency of proposed building was determined for
green building certification.

The building consists of three parts as production, technical and office zones. The modelling
image of this industrial building with six floors as illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The northwest and northeast faades of the building.

In building energy modelling, the building is divided into 169 thermal zones and 99 of them
are conditioned. The total, conditioned and unconditioned areas was shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Building area.
Area
[m
2
]
Total Building Area 21,384.62
Net Conditioned Building Area 18,385.93
Unconditioned Building Area 2,998.69

The building energy performance was performed using detailed dynamic building energy
simulation tools. The energy consumption of the building is affected by climatic conditions
directly. The detailed dynamic method calculates the dynamic building energy performance
using hourly climatic data in a period of one year with all dynamic loads of the building [6].

Firstly, the building annual heating and cooling demand was defined determining physical
and thermo-physical properties of the building. During these processes the civil engineers,
architectures and energy modelling experts were working together which are aware of the
integrated design importance. Building envelope, opaque and transparent components data
were determined which overall heat transfer coefficient of them minimized the building
energy demand basing on TS 825 standards. Also the internal heat gains from process,
occupants, electrical and lighting equipment were decided using current schedules which are
very important to determine the building energy loads. The internal heat gain data is
determined from ASHRAE Fundamentals 2005: 30 SI. Especially the process heat gain
amounts were excessive because of thermal process in this industrial building and wrong data
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

61

changes the performance results extremely. Entering the correct data about process heat gains
and their schedules in building energy simulation tool was a serious period in order to get
correct results. For that reason, the heat gains from thermal processes equipment were
measured using analyser for getting real current data. Besides, the lighting systems were
determined from ASHRAE 90.1-2007 basing on the lighting power density defined for all
thermal zones of industrial building. Besides, the daylighting control also was carried out in
order to minimize the energy consumption. As a result, the building annual energy demand
was identified under the long-term climatic data with all these passive system parameters.

According to the results of heating and cooling energy demands determined for all thermal
zones leaded HVAC system design and automation strategies. The conditioning systems of
the proposed building consist of three main parts which are heating, cooling and ventilation
system. For heating, cooling and ventilation, the variable refrigerant flow (VRF) systems with
fresh air intake unit were used for technical and office zones generally. These systems are
controlled according to the zone set-point temperatures. Unlike these thermal zones, the
heating of mess hall was ensured by under floor heating system. The control of this system
was carried out according to the floor temperature and set-point temperature of this zone. The
production zones were only ventilated by outdoor air units integrated heat recovery system.
There was no need to heating and cooling for these zones. Because, there are many thermal
process equipment in production zones and the heat gains from thermal process are excessive
so the heating demand is ensured in heating season. According to the building energy
performance analyses, the zone temperature in production zones was not exceeded the cooling
set-point temperature taken part in occupational health and safety legislation in Turkey.
Moreover, the free cooling strategy was determined for outdoor air unit in production zones
that when the outdoor air conditions are suitable to cool the building, the cool outdoor air was
transferred into the building using dampers in outdoor air units with temperature and humidity
sensors. Besides, exhaust systems served for wet areas and technical areas. The capacities and
efficiencies of all these systems were determined according to the building heating and
cooling energy demand supplied by detailed dynamic building energy simulation tool and
ventilation rates of breathing zones were identified according to ASHRAE Standard 62.1-
2010.

As a result of building energy improvement, this industrial building applied for green building
certification program and thus the energy performance of the building is determined by
comparing the annual energy consumptions of proposed building and baseline building.

The baseline building was created based on ASHRAE 90.1 2007 Appendix G. Baseline
building must be the same shape, geometry, use function, set point values and operation
schedules of the proposed building. The thermo-physical properties of the building envelope
of the baseline building were defined according to ASHRAE 90.1 2007 Table 5.5-4.

Baseline HVAC system is determined according to ASHRAE 90.1 2007 Appendix G Table
G3.1.1A. This system type refers to the System 8 VAV with Parallel Fan Powered (PFP)
Boxes. For heating, there are electrical heating coils and also chilled water cooling coils are
used in VAV air handling units integrated to water cooled chiller and cooling tower. Besides,
there are reheat units with fan system integrated to VAV air handling units in all conditioned
zones. The air economiser is not used due to climate zone of this building. Minimum outdoor
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

62

air ventilation rates shall be the same for the proposed and baseline building according to
ASHRAE 90.1 2007 Appendix G, G3.1.2.5. The baseline building is rotated for 0, 90,180
and 270 degrees and the results of the building performance are averaged.

RESULTS
Passive energy modelling calculates the annual energy demands of the building. After
completing all of the necessary passive modelling data that will affect the building energy
performance, simulation is performed and annual heating and cooling energy demands are
calculated for conditioned thermal zones in kWh. The results of proposed and baseline
building are shown in Table 2 in kWh/m
2
. In this part of the analysis Ideal Loads method is
used which means it is supposed that the heating and cooling system works without any loss.

Table 2. Annual heating and cooling demands of conditioned zones of the industrial building.
Annual Heating Demand
(kWh/m
2
)
Annual Cooling Demand
(kWh/m
2
)
Proposed Building 5.39 29.76
Baseline Building 7.13 33.38

The annual energy demand of the building is necessary in order to define required HVAC
system. After modelling the HVAC system with appropriate capacity and efficiency that
mechanical engineers, building energy performance consultant and energy modelling experts
worked together collaboratively during the energy modelling period, the annual energy
consumptions of proposed and baseline building was obtained and shown in Table 3.

Table 2. Annual electrical consumption of conditioned zones of the industrial building.

The annual energy consumptions for proposed and baseline buildings according to the type of
energy usage are illustrated in Table 3.

Proposed Building - Annual
Electrical Consumption
[kWh/year]
Baseline Building - Annual
Electrical Consumption
[kWh/year]
Heating 79,635.75 709,768.32
Cooling 98,416.02 435,838.00
Interior Lighting 77,508.23 212,310.11
Exterior Lighting 8,074.57 8,074.57
Interior Equipment 3,776,672.85 3,776,672.85
Exterior Equipment 1,064,595.55 1,064,595.55
Fans 250,240.35 563,211.91
Pumps 9,21 391,798.12
Heat Rejection 0 36,639.90
Heat Recovery 13,889.20 0
TOTAL 5,369,041.73 7,198,909.32
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

63

Table 3. The annual energy consumptions according to type of energy usage.
Proposed Building - Electricity
Intensity
[kWh/m
2
.y]
Baseline Building - Electricity
Intensity
[kWh/m
2
y]
Lighting 4.00 10.31
HVAC 20.03 99.94
Other 227.04 226.39
TOTAL 251.07 336.64

Consequently, the annual energy costs shall be compared between proposed and baseline
building in order to obtain energy improvement of proposed building for green building
energy certification. For that reason, the annual energy costs were calculated using the unit
price of electricity ensured from Trakya Serbest Blgesi. The results and energy improvement
were shown in Table 4.

Table 4. The annual energy costs and energy improvement rate.
Annual Electrical Energy Cost
[TL/year]
Energy Improvement
(%)
Proposed Building 1,353,106.76
25.4
Baseline Building 1,814,270.28
DISCUSSION

In this study, the effects of recommended energy performance improvements to proposed
building was investigated. Proposed building energy performance improvement was increased
by 25.4% in comparison to baseline building modelled using definitions given in ASHRAE
90.1.2007, Appendix G. Moreover, it is seen that, when the annual energy consumptions of
HVAC systems, in accordance with improved architectural design and lighting system, are
compared between proposed and baseline building, the energy efficiency improvement of
proposed building is around 80% as extremely high rate. It shows that, both of the HVAC
systems and the architectural systems in the building are highly energy efficient and quite
compatible together.

In conclusion, the energy modelling of the building is able to be carried out using all building
data by detailed dynamic building energy performance tools so the effects of design
determinations on initial investment costs and operation costs are able to be considered. After
obtaining detailed information about the building energy consumption trends, various
optimization strategies can be developed to reduce the energy consumption values. By means
of building energy performance tools which collect the architects, engineers and other design
groups, many industrial services coming from different branches of science work together
during design period collaboratively. Nowadays, the building energy performance analysis
has become a part of the design process and even complementary. In addition, the energy
companies that provide energy to the occupants and settlements may predict the future energy
demands and constitute the future energy planning by using the energy simulation results.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

64

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank to design team that, aware of the integrated and ecological design
importance, for their precious contribution to this project.

REFERENCES

1. Dijk Dv, Spiekman M. 2004. Energy Performance of Buildings Outline for Harmonized EP
Procedures. Final Report. ENPER-TEBUC study. Task B6.
2. N.N Directive 2002/91/EC of The European Parliament and of The Council of 16 December
2002 on The Energy Performance of buildings. 2002.
3. Omer A M. 2008. Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews 2008; 12(9):2265300.
4. Goulding, J .R., Lewis, J .O., Steemers, T. C., 1993. Energy Conscious Design, A Primer for
Architects, London, UK.
5. Yilmaz A, Z, Kalaycioglu E, Akguc A. 2012. The Samples of Energy Modelling for Energy
Efficient Green Building Design in Turkey. Building Simulation and Optimization 2012, 10-12
September 2012, Henry Ford College, Loughborough University, UK.
6. Bayraktar, M, Schulze, T, Yilmaz A Z. 2009. Binalarda Enerji Simulasyonlar iin Veri
Toplama Listeleri Araclyla Veri Ynetimi Modelinin Oluturulmasi. IX. Ulusal Tesisat
Mhendislii Kongresi. Izmir, Turkey.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

65

USING ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING IN HARMONY WITH NATURAL
LIGHTING THROUGH AN OFFICE BUILDING EXAMPLE
Gzde Gali
1
, Alpay Akg
1
and A. Zerrin Ylmaz
2

1
Ekomim Ecologic Architectural Consultancy, Istanbul
2
Istanbul Technical University Faculty of Architecture, Istanbul

Corresponding email: gozdegali@gmail.com

SUMMARY

Building energy performance analyses and increasing the performance level to an optimum
level has become crucial correspondingly to the developments in legislations. To this aim,
performing annual energy demand and consumption analyses of the buildings happened to be
one of the most important part of the construction sector. In this paper, only electricity
consumption for lighting and annual heating and cooling energy demands will be analyzed.
Over the years, artificial lighting design has been done without considering the effect of
natural lighting; the purpose of this study is to consider using both lighting methods together
and show the effects of this on annual energy demand. To evaluate the effects of the lighting
method selection, an office building is used in the assessments. The evaluations have been
done by using detailed dynamic building energy simulation tools. Finally, the significant
effect of selecting the right lighting method is defined in detail.
INTRODUCTION

Due to the gravity of being run out of energy and also the harmful effects of fossil fuels
energy conservation has gained great importance; in buildings that cause about 40% of energy
consumption, energy efficiency studies picked up. Energy efficiency is consuming less energy
to provide required services in buildings. In order to improve the energy efficiency level of
the buildings by following standard rules, legislations have been formed that define the
optimum levels in national base.

To this aim, the European Union published Energy Performance of Buildings Directive
(EPBD) in 2002 [1]. Within the adaptation process to EU legislations, in Turkey, Building
Energy Performance Regulation was published in 2008 and with this regulation all of the
buildings have been required to get energy certificate by the national building energy
performance calculation method BEP-TR [2, 3]. After that, an important modification has
been done in EU and EPBD-Recast 2010 was published [4]. It basically identifies that during
the optimum energy efficiency level studies for buildings, costs/initial investment costs have
to be considered. Therefore, the term nearly zero energy buildings replaced all the other
terms. In other words, to be able to provide maximum energy efficiency level in buildings the
costs may be too high, however providing optimum energy efficiency level in buildings
would be enough with lower costs. Therefore, in the scope of this paper cost analyses are
performed too to identify the optimum level.

The other way to analyze the building energy performance level is voluntary green building
certification systems, however it is important to have knowledge about the first method
explained above. Voluntary certification system is nowadays also a kind of prestige symbol
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

66

and LEED, BREEAM and CASBEE are the most popular ones. The aims of these methods
are lower operating costs and increase asset value, reduce waste sent to landfills, conserve
energy and water, be healthier and safer for occupants, reduce harmful greenhouse gas
emissions, qualify for tax rebates, zoning allowances and other incentives in hundreds of
cities [5]. This system calculates the energy performance level of the buildings more detailed,
therefore after these kinds of analyses the buildings would be more energy efficient in
comparison to the national certification method.

Annual energy consumption of the building depends on the energy consumed for heating,
cooling, ventilation, domestic hot water, and lighting. All of these indicators have been
analyzed by a lot of scientific people and within the content of this paper, only the effects of
lighting have been analyzed. There are academic studies that evaluate the effect of lighting on
energy consumption and the costs together and also standards based on this subject [6, 7, 8,
9]. After all, energy efficiency improvement studies usually base on improvements in building
envelope and HVAC systems. Considering that situation, this paper is to emphasize the
importance of lighting design in energy efficiency of buildings.

Lighting includes the use of both artificial light sources and natural illumination by capturing
daylight. Usually, in architectural design projects after the design process, electric engineers
place the artificial lighting fixtures according to the design. This phase may be done only by
considering the architectural design concept and placing the most appropriate lighting fixtures
under the name of design. In another way, during this phase lighting specialists may calculate
the peak values for lighting level of each room and places the appropriate lighting fixtures to
provide the calculated maximum level. However, in both methods the effect of daylight is
ignored. For example, if the effects of daylight have been added to the calculations there
might be no need to artificial lighting provides the maximum level alone. There are
international standards that suggest minimum illumination level and allowed lighting power
density (LPD) for each type of room and should be used in voluntary green energy
certification system analyses [10, 11].

Within the scope of this paper, an office building project is evaluated to analyze the effects of
lighting system and the aim of the project is to get EA Credit 1: Optimize Energy
Performance (Option 1) within LEED green energy certification system. The office building
locates in Izmir, Turkey. Izmir is in hot-humid climatic zone, so it has long, very hot and
humid summer conditions and winter condition is not severe. The climatic condition is very
important for daylight analyses and Izmir is very lucky about visible light.

METHODS

The office building has three basement floors and seven standard floors. Two external facades
of the building are adjacent to the other buildings therefore, there are only two external
facades that are directly affected from external climatic conditions. These two external
facades are on South and East directions. Figure 1 shows the form of the building.

The conditioned building area equals to 1,131.5 m
2
and the total building area equals to
1,926.4 m
2
.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

67

Figure 1. Office building

During the building energy performance analyses detailed dynamic energy simulation tools
that LEED recognizes are used. These tools base on detailed-dynamic calculation method that
described in EN 13790: Energy Performance of Buildings Calculation of Energy Use for
Space Heating and Cooling [12].

According to the LEED certification system, there is a baseline building definition to compare
the existing building energy performance results and find out the performance level. So, the
baseline building provides the minimum performance requirements. Baseline building is in
the same place and has the same geometry with the existing building, but in terms of
thermodynamic properties of the building envelope and mechanical and lighting systems
complies with ASHRAE 90.1-2007: Energy Standard for Buildings except Low-Rise
Residential Buildings for each climatic zone [11]. The building envelope is also a variable
between baseline and existing buildings, in the scope of this paper only the lighting power
density (LPD) and illumination level requirements of the baseline building is used. During the
analyses all of the other parameters that affect the building energy performance are kept
constant and only lighting method is altered. So, physical and thermo-physical properties of
the building envelope are same in all of the cases. In addition, there is no detailed HVAC
system definition since the analyses are performed for annual energy demand. Instead, Ideal
Loads method is defined to the building model that hypothesizes that the heating and cooling
systems work without any loss.

The first case (Case 01) is the existing building lighting system selection. This system is
defined according to the corporate identity of the office building. In this plan, there is an
automation system in connection with daylight in ground floor and 1
st
and 2
nd
floors.

The second case (Case 02) is to use the existing lighting system plan, but with LED lamps.
This case is formed to understand if the optimum performance level is possible without
changing the whole system, since the planning reflects the corporate identity. The automation
system exists in the same floors.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

68

The third case (Case 03) is formed according to the baseline building LPD values; but these
values supposed to be the minimum and better values are aimed in this case. There is
automation system in all of the floors except basement floors.
The fourth case (Case 04) has the same plan; however for LPD baseline building values have
been used. The aim in here does not to model the baseline building, since it is only to compare
the lighting systems. This case did not evaluated in the cost part, since it is not possible to
apply the exact values that ASHRAE requires for each room. The automation system is same
with Case 03.

The illumination level for each room is determined according to EN 12464: Light and
lighting. Lighting of work places. Indoor work places [10]. According to the standard, the
supposed illumination levels are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Illumination levels according to EN 12464.
Room Type Illumination level (lux)
Offices
Lobbies
Circulation areas
Wet zones
Storage rooms
500
300
150
100
200

The automation system in connection with daylight works during the presence of daylight and
for example in an office place, if the daylight provides 300 lux, the dimmable lighting system
switches on enough to provide 200 lux. That is an important energy saving method. Usually
in building projects this system is not used, fortunately the corporate identity and location of
this office building is suitable for this system.

RESULTS

Input Data Comparison

During the analyses Case 01 and Case 02 are compared first, to see the effect of LED lamps.
Secondly, Case 04 is compared to them, to see the impact of minimum standard LPD values,
and finally Case 03 is compared to all to see the impact of energy efficient LPD level. So, it is
important to mention that the existing lighting system plan has higher LPD values than
ASHRAE requirements. There is a long list for these values, however a summarize table is
shown in the scope of this paper in Table 2.

Table 2. Internal gain values in W/m
2
according to the cases
Room Type Case 01 Case 02 Case 03 Case 04
Offices
Lobbies
Circulation areas
Wet areas
Storage rooms
21.86
14.26
15.41
16.87
4.87
11.35
7.40
8
8.06
2.84
8.03
6.60
10.67
4.03
3.48
12
14
5
10
3

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

69

For circulation areas the minimum internal gain value just could be provided with LED lamps
in Case 02 because of keeping above of a certain illumination level value and this value could
not be provided less than 10 W/m
2
if the lamps are not LED lamps.

Keeping all other parameters that affect the building energy performance level constant, just
changing the internal values as in Table 2 and the automation system as explained in methods
detailed simulations have been performed for each case. The illumination levels are also kept
constant as in Table 1. According to these, the annual energy demand and electricity
consumption for lighting results of each case are shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Annual energy load results
Cases Annual Heating
Demand (kWh/m
2
.y)
Annual Cooling
Demand (kWh/m
2
.y)
Annual Electricity
Consumption for Lighting
(kWh/m
2
.y)
Whole Systems
(kWh/m
2
.y)
Case 01
Case 02
Case 03
Case 04
3.62
4.24
4.77
4.69
35.74
32.46
30.65
31.11
18.93
13.48
9.25
9.77
74.70
66.59
61.08
61.97

Lighting energy has an important effect on annual heating and cooling energy demands. Since
lighting fixtures radiates heat they are also a heating source, for this reason a room with a
higher internal heat gain from lighting will need less heating energy, however the cooling
energy demand will be higher. For example, as in Table 3, Case 01 has less heating demand
and more cooling demand than Case 02. Since Case 02 has less internal heat gain from
lighting (5.45 kWh/m
2
.y lower) it has more heating demand and less cooling demand than
Case 01. Because the internal heat gain is lower, cooling demand will be lower
correspondingly.

However, the increase and decrease ratios are not the same for annual heating and cooling
demand and electricity consumption for lighting. Electricity consumption changes in a greater
ratio than the annual energy demand results, therefore the effect of this can be seen on whole
system results. According to Table 3 the most energy efficient case is Case 03.

As mentioned before, the costs are also very important according to the latest arrangements in
EU legislations. The annual energy load results are also investigated in annual energy costs
level. To be able to define the savings electricity unit value is taken as 0.26458 TL/kWh as
Energy Institute offers for commercial buildings in Turkey. The annual energy cost
comparison between cases is shown in Table 4. The annual energy cost of the existing
building is represented with A and the differences of the other cases are shown accordingly.

Table 4. Annual electricity cost comparison
Cases Annual Electricity Cost (TL/y) Energy Cost Difference According to the
Existing Project (TL/y)
Case 01
Case 02
Case 03
Case 04
38,074.38
33,940.34
31,587.47
31,130.05
A
A-4,134.04
A-6,944.33
A-6,486.91

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

70

According to Table 4, if the lighting system suggestion in Case 03 is applied each year
6,944.33 TL less will be paid for electricity expenses.

According to the latest legislations initial investment cost of energy efficient system
suggestions is one of the most important parameters that need to be considered while defining
the optimum system. Table 5 shows the initial investment cost comparison and the payback
times for each scenario except Case 04 as explained before.

The lighting fixture and automation system unit costs are taken from a lighting system firm
that the office building works with. The initial investment cost of the existing building is
represented with B and the other cases are compared to that.

Table 5. The effect of energy efficient cases to the initial investment cost
Cases Effect of Energy Efficient Lighting System
Cases to the Initial Cost (TL)
Payback Time
Case 01
Case 02
Case 03
B
B+18,148.2
B+7,011.5
-
4 years and 3 months
1 year

1 year is a short payback time, since the building will exist at least 20 years. Therefore, after 1
year, each year 6,944.33 TL less will be paid for the energy demand expenses.

DISCUSSION

It is important to keep in mind that, in energy performance analysis studies while changing a
parameter it affects all of the other parameters. In this investigation, the aim was only
changing the lighting values and it was shown that changing the lighting values have a
significant effect on annual energy demands. It may be said that all parameters that affect the
building energy performance are connected to each other. Therefore, it is important to
consider the annual energy demands while analyzing the effects of lighting and annual energy
demands should also be calculated.

Case 01 is the existing project and in Case 02 only the lamp type is changed into LED lamps.
This change has an important effect on annual electricity consumption for lighting, since LED
lamps are known as energy efficient. This modification only has effect on annual energy
demand, and it increased the annual heating demand and decreased the annual cooling
demand.

Afterwards, Case 04 is simulated with ASHRAE 90.1-2007 required LPD values. These
values are higher than Case 02 LPD values; however the annual electricity consumption result
is less than Case 02. That is because automation system in connection with daylight is used
every floor that affected by daylight in Case 04, while in Case 02 this system is applied only
to the ground floor and 1
st
and 2
nd
floors. Therefore, it is obvious that automation system has
an important effect on annual energy loads.

Finally, Case 03 is simulated with lower LPD values than Case 02 and Case 04. This case has
the same automation system plan with Case 04, only the LPD values are different and the
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

71

annual energy load results are less than Case 04. That is because of the lower LPD values.
Also, the annual energy load results are less than Case 02. The reason of this is both lower
LPD values and better planned automation system.

Case 03 is also more economic in the name of initial investment cost in comparison to the all
other cases. Therefore, it can be mentioned that Case 03 is the optimum option for this
building.

This investigation also shows that it is not important to use energy efficient products, also
right application is the most important thing to do. In addition, right application is not always
the most expensive one, therefore both energy performance and cost analyses are very
important in determining the optimum system.

REFERENCES

1. EPBD, 2003. Directive 2002/91/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16
December 2002 on the Energy Performance of Buildings. Official J ournal of the European
Union L 001, 6571.
2. TC Bayndrlk ve Iskan Bakanl, 2008. Binalarda Enerji Performans Ynetmelii. TC REsmi
Gazete, 27075, Ankara.
3. TC Bayndrlk ve Iskan Bakanl, 2010. Binalarda Enerji Performans Ulusal Hesaplama
Yntemine Dair Tebli (Tebli No: YG/2010-02) - Bina Enerji Performans Hesaplama
Yntemi, Bina Enerji Performans Istma ve Soutma iin Net Enerji htiyacnn
Hesaplanmas, TC Resmi GAzete, 27778, Ankara.
4. EPBD-Recast, 2010. Directive 2010/31/EU of the European Parliament and of Council of 19
May 2010 on the energy performance of buildings (recast). Official J ournal of the European
Union, L153/13-35.
5. Url-1, <http://www.usgbc.org/leed>, accessed in 18.05.2013.
6. Mahlia, TMI, Said, MFM, Masjuki, HH and Tamjis, MR. 2005. Cost-benefit analysis and
emission reduction of lighting retrofits in residential sector. Energy and Buildings, 37, 573-78.
7. Mahlia, TMI, Razakb, HA, Nursahida, MA. 2011. Life cycle cost analysis and payback period
of lighting retrofit at the University of Malaya. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15,
1125-32.
8. CEN.2007. EN 15251, Indoor Environmental Input Parameters for Design and Assessment of
Energy Performance of Buildings Addressing Indoor Air Quality, Thermal Environment,
Lighting and Acoustics, Brussels-Belgium: European Committee for Standardization.
9. CEN.2007. EN 15193, Energy Performance of Buildings. Energy Requirements for Lighting,
Brussels-Belgium: European Committee for Standardization.
10. CEN.2011. EN 12464-1, Light and lighting. Lighting of work places. Indoor work places,
Brussels-Belgium: European Committee for Standardization.
11. ASHRAE. 2007. ANSI/ASHRAE/IEASNA Standard 90.1-2007, Energy Standard for Buildings
Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings, Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating,
and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
12. CEN. 2008. EN ISO 13790, Energy Performance of Buildings Calculation of Energy Use for
Space Heating and Cooling, Brussels-Belgium: European Committee for Standardization.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

72

FROM HIGH PERFORMING BUILDINGS TO NEARLY ZERO
ENERGY BUILDINGS: POTENTIAL OF AN EXISTING OFFICE
BUILDING
Cristina Becchio
1
, Stefano Paolo Corgnati
1
Valentina Monetti
1
and Enrico Fabrizio
2

1
DENERG, Politecnico di Torino, Corso Duca degli Abbruzzi 24, 10124, Torino, Italia
2
DISAFA, University of Torino, Via Leonardo da Vinci 44, 10095 Grugliasco (TO), Italia

Corresponding email: cristina.becchio@polito.it

SUMMARY

The EPBD recast establishes that by the end of 2020 all new buildings must be nearly zero-
energy buildings (nZEBs), that are defined as buildings with a very high energy performance
and that require a nearly zero amount of energy, a very significant extent of which should be
covered by renewable sources. As no minimum harmonized requirements are fixed by the EU
Directive, on this regards, the US high performing buildings represent a starting point to look
at as a reference. The aim of this paper is to some guidance to EU Member State into nZEB
roadmap by examining a set of US high performing buildings. Especially the energy
performance of an existing high performing office building was analyzed by means of
dynamic energy simulation and additional efficiency solutions have been applied to it in order
to adapt it to the current day and to make it converge towards a nZEB.

INTRODUCTION

The energy consumption ascribed to the building stock amounts approximately to 40% of the
whole Europes energy needs [1], even far more than the transport sector [2]. Thus, its urgent
to decrease this high energy consumption. With regard to this urgent issue and in connection
to the 20-20-20 targets, the European Union set a binding legislation in terms of buildings
energy performance, referred to as the European Directive 2010/31/EU or Energy
Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD recast). It especially requires Member States to
define proper national path to improve the energy performance of their building stock moving
forward to reach nearly zero energy targets. The Directive addresses both new and existing
buildings but, due to the noted low efficiency rate of the existing dwellings and the low
replacement rate of old dwelling by new buildings, (around 1-3% per year) [3], retrofit actions
on the existing stock represent a crucial and major step to deal with. While new buildings can
be constructed with high performance levels, existing buildings that represent the vast
majority of the European building stock, are predominantly characterized by very poor energy
performances and consequently in need of renovation work [4]. The renovation of existing
buildings stock offers significant potential for both cost-effective CO
2
emissions mitigation
and substantial energy consumption reduction, with a minimum energy savings estimable to
60-80 Mtoe/year in final energy consumption by 2020. Therefore existing buildings
renovation more than new buildings construction is the Europes biggest resource in terms of
energy and emissions savings and with its potential to reduce energy consumptions and
emissions of greenhouse gas and other pollutants, they can have a crucial role in hitting 2050
targets.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

73

Nevertheless, it remains unclear which concrete actions and legislative measures are
necessary at the EU level to reach these long-term targets. To this end, the EPBD recast on the
energy efficiency of buildings [1] requires Member States to improve buildings energy
performance aiming to the nearly zero energy target by 2020. The Directive does not give a
technical definition of nearly zero-energy buildings (nZEBs) but simply describes nZEBs as
buildings that have a very high energy performance. The nearly zero or very low amount of
energy should be covered by renewable sources. Since the EPBD does not define clearly
minimum harmonized requirements, it will be up to Member States to establish a national
framework for the definition of a very high energy performance.
On this regard an ad hoc Rehva Task Force was established to support Member States experts
providing them with a proper technical nZEB definition [5]. Nearly zero energy buildings
were defined as technically and reasonably achievable national energy use of >0 kWh/(m a)
but no more than a national limit value of non-renewable primary energy achieved with a
combination of best practice energy efficiency measures and renewable energy technologies
which may or may not be cost optimal. This definition allows to take into account local
national conditions and to use the comparative calculation framework as defined by EPBD
guidelines.
Similar concerns have aroused also in United States, where buildings consumes as well 40%
of primary energy and 71% of the US electricity [6]. US Department of Energy (DOE),
together with the collaboration of ASHRAE are taking concrete steps towards this issue and
aimed the net zero energy buildings (NZEBs) to be the market-viable standard by the 2030,
where, NZEBs are buildings that produce as much energy as they use. This plan, referred to as
ASHRAE Vision 2020 [6] is a critical milestone to be achieved. However a strong strategic
plan together with helpful tools (e.g. Design Guides and Standard) and reference project have
been set by ASHRAE to guide the building community.
In order to fulfill this target US high performing buildings (HPBs) represent a starting point to
look at as a reference. The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 [7] defines a high
performance building as a building that integrates and optimizes on a life-cycle basis all major
high performance attributes, including energy conservation, environment, safety, security,
durability, accessibility, cost-benefit, productivity, sustainability, functionality and
operational considerations. A high performance building can thus be seen as the first step to
be taken towards NZEBs. Moreover, to assist professionals to design high-performance
building ASHRAE has developed the Standard 189.1P for high-performance green building
and a certification program. A Database on HBPs project has also been developed by the U.S.
DOE and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), as a shared resource for the
building industry [8].
To deal with HPBs in Europe, it is not so clear as in US. First in Europe the high performing
building term and definition is not harmonized. Rather than it other terms are used for
indicating buildings with low energy consumptions. The most used ones are low energy
house, passive house and energy saving house [9]. The main difference between
European terms and the US ones is that in Europe they are mostly informal and descriptive.
They are not accompanied by benchmarks and not have harmonized calculation
methodologies. On this account the US approach represents a good lesson to be learnt by
European Member States, also on the way to define their national roadmap, on the basis of the
EPBD framework, towards the nZEBs.
This paper aims to examine some recognized US high performing buildings and to provide
some guidance to European Member States into nZEBs roadmap. In particular, an existing
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

74

high performing office building was analyzed. Since the case study represents a high
performing building for its construction period, additional efficiency solutions have been
applied in order to make it converge towards an European nZEB. The energy consumptions of
the selected building and the impact of the efficiency measures have been assessed by means
of dynamic simulation within the EnergyPlus code.

U.S. HIGH PERFORMINH BUILDINGS VS EUROPEAN nZEB

This study reviewed various office buildings, new and renovated ones, referred to as high
performing buildings and published from 2010 up to now in the ASHRAE HPBs magazine. In
particular 16 existing buildings, mainly located in United States but also in Northern America
and a few European sites, were selected and analyzed in order to provide additional guidance
on the energy-saving strategies to be adopted in the European context.
All case studies shared similar design intents as they all aimed to design new sustainable
office with a low environmental impact and low energy consumptions. Providing a high
quality and comfortable office working environment was also one of the main goals pursued
in all projects as the workers productivity had not to be comprised but indeed enhanced by all-
around applied energy saving and sustainable strategies.
A special attention to the environmental issues in the design process was also aroused by the
intent of accomplishing good rating scores in well-known certification protocols [10,11] . In
fact almost all case studies managed to achieve outstanding rating scores in LEED protocol or
similar ones. In regards to that, advanced dynamic simulation tools were used to assess the
building energy performance and the related obtainable energy savings. The evaluated energy
consumption was compared to real data and when, in some cases, they were not verified, the
building operation and system efficiency were checked. The not compliance of real
consumptions with simulated data was often due to the building operation, later altered on the
basis of the real building occupancy.
Moreover the use of advanced simulation programs allowed to optimize the building envelope
and form.
In general the design strategies adopted to achieve these goals can be outlined as follows:
- Design of a high-performing building envelope;
- Optimization of lighting system to reduce the related energy consumptions;
- Maximize the use of daylight;
- Design the HVAC system to minimize the energy use;
- Use of control points to operate the building systems to ensure high-level comfort to
maximize the systems efficiency and to reduce the energy consumptions;
- On-site energy production from renewable sources.
Furthermore almost all buildings designs were associated with commissioning to ensure that
the operation of all systems works properly. This is the case for example of the simulated
energy savings to be verified with the monitored ones.
The case studies analyzed are not characterized by energy efficiency measures highly
different from the ones usually adopted in the design of an European low energy building.
Nevertheless, if a difference has to be point out, in regard to the building envelope
performance, the minimum requirements of U-values are usually stricter in the European
countries than in US. For example the exterior walls U-value set by Italian regulation [12] is
0.33 W/m
2
K in climate zone E while the mean value in HPB analyzed is 0.45 W/m
2
K as
shown in Figure 1. For the design of a nZEB the U-values are even lower.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

75

Furthermore what in particular marks all projects is a special attention to minimize the energy
delivered to heating and cooling systems, trying to avoid the use of such systems thanks to
correct bio-climatic and passive design strategies. When needed the HVAC and ventilation
systems were designed to be simple and high-efficient systems and operating on the basis of
the real building occupancy through the use of Building Automation and Control Systems
(BACs).

Figure 1. U-value of the main envelope components of the HPB analyzed.

The lesson that can be learnt from US HPBs and applied to the European is that a major
implementation of BACs and a correct design and sizing of buildings systems are strongly
pursued also due to the building commissioning.

THE CASE STUDY

Project description

The case study hereby analyzed, called Grand View, is the new headquarters [13] of one the
most important Canadian consulting firm dedicated to the design of green buildings. Located
in central-east of Canada, in the Ontario province, the office buildings was designed aiming to
an healthy and sustainable environment, achieving a triple LEED Platinum certification under
the New Construction, Commercial Interiors and Existing Buildings: Operations and
Maintenance rating systems in 2011. The office building was completed and occupied since
September 2009. First years consumptions were monitored and compared to the estimated
one, simulated.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

76

The three-storey office building has approximately 2000 m
2
with a 12 m footprint and a East-
West orientation to optimize the exposures. The building has a rectangular plan with a
distribution area in the center and open and cellular offices ones.
With regard to the design of the building envelope, insulated concrete forms were used for
faades together with triple-glazed, low-emissivity and argon filled fiberglass windows.
The mechanical system has been designed to be simple and functional, guaranteeing high
energy efficiency. The heating/cooling system and the ventilation one have been designed to
be and operate separately. Three air-source heat pumps are located on the roof and serve one
floor each. The ventilation system operates with energy recovery ventilators for each different
zone. The air handling unit is also connected to a geothermal system to decrease the amount
of energy needed to heat the air to be introduced in indoor ambient. Moreover the heating
produced by the computer server rooms is used to preheat the building domestic hot water
demand. Building automation and control systems are fully adopted to customize the building
system operation on the basis of the real and not estimated occupants. Occupancy sensors are
thus set for the heating and cooling system control as well as for turning on/off the lights
when the space is unoccupied. The artificial lights are dimmed automatically when, due to
specific sensors, the daylight is sufficient and they are turned off when the space is
unoccupied.
Additionally with a roof rainwater collection system, the office building achieved a 82%
savings in the use of domestic hot water. Rainwater is thus used as non potable water to flush
toilets.

Energy Modeling

The building energy performance was assessed by means of dynamic energy simulation
through the EnergyPlus program (version 8.0). The energy model was calibrated on the basis
of the real energy consumptions of the first year of operation in order to have a suitable model
to be use for the nZEB implementations. The objective of the energy evaluation was to
determine the annual overall energy use in term of delivered energy (divided by sources) and
primary energy, which includes energy use for heating, cooling, lighting and equipment.
The simulations were run in standard weather conditions with the Typical Meteorological
Year (TMY) data of London near Ontario, Canada [14].
The building was modeled in 18 thermal zones overall: 17 conditioned zones and 1 non
conditioned basement. The real project does not have a basement since the company
philosophy aims its worker to use public transit providing them a discount on it. As this study
aimed to compare HPBs to European nZEBs, a basement was added to the original model to
customize it to Europe. The ground floor and the first floor are composed of five thermal
zones each while the second floor is divided in four ones. The distributive areas, (stairs,
entrance and services) are respectively modeled as a unique zone for all three floors. The open
office area is modeled separately from the cellular offices, located in the North and South
faades. The offices interior partitions were defined as internal mass.
In order to carry on accurate dynamic simulations, the influence of the surrounding urban
context was taken into account and modeled as shading surfaces with their own reflectance
properties. In particular the presence of a grove in the building site was considered especially
during the summer season. For the envelope characterization, its components were modeled
and defined on the basis of their noted R-values. Due to the lack of information about the real
building usage of electrical equipment, the schedules regarding the internal gains were
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

77

defined on the basis of rule of thumbs distinguishing the zones respectively by working and
service areas. The occupancy, lighting and equipment schedules and the power densities were
extracted from the reference building models database developed by the US Department of
Energy laboratories [15]. Lighting power densities were set to 4.6 W/m
2
based on the actual
metered data, which is quite low compared to the Standard 90-1 requirements but it is due to
the usage of daylights sensors.
The heating system has been assumed to be operating from the 1
st
of October to the 30
th
of
April in order to guarantee the occupants comfort. The interior temperature set point was
differentiated for office areas (21C) and service area (20C). The cooling system was
assumed to be operating in the remaining months. The interior temperature set point was set
to 24C from the 1
st
of May to the 30
th
of J une and during September. From the 1
st
of J uly to
the 31
th
of August, due to higher outdoor temperatures, the cooling temperature set point was
set to 25C. The heating and cooling system were assumed to operate depending on the
building occupancy. During weekdays, the outdoor air flow rate, always operating, was set at
11 l/s per person.

Figure 2. Axonometric view of the case study with the subdivision in thermal zones.

From HPB to nZEB: energy efficiency measures and results

The energy evaluation performed demonstrated the building energy performance could be
improved to reach a nearly zero standard. A few energy efficiency measures were studied and
applied to the original project, referred to as baseline HPB, in order to point out the real
feasibility to make the selected case study an acceptable nZEB, as defined in [5].
In particular, as highlighted previously in the second paragraph, envelope performances
represent the first issue to point at. The Grander View building envelope components are
characterized by stricter U-values than the HPBs ones analyzed previously, but they can still
be improved. For instance, in Europe the Passive House guidelines [16] suggest all building
opaque components should be so well-insulated that their U-values do not exceed 0.15
W/m
2
K.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

78

Table 1. Thermal features of the case study (HPB baseline) and of the case study highly
insulated
H
P
B

b
a
s
e
l
i
n
e

U-value [W/m
2
K]
H
P
B

h
i
g
l
y

i
n
s
u
l
a
t
e
d

U-value [W/m
2
K]
Walls 0.20 Walls 0.14
Windows 1.36 Windows 1.2
Roof 0.17 Roof 0.15
Ground slab 0.52 Ground slab 0.16

On this account, with regard to Italian context, the optional U-values of Turin city regulation
[17] were applied to the building model. Table 1 lists the thermal features (U-values) of the
main envelope components of the case study as it is (HPB baseline) and of the case study
highly insulated, in compliance with [17].

The only improvement of the thermal insulation hasnt brought to a drastic reduction on the
space heating energy consumptions, as shown in Figure 3. In a country like Canada, where
there is a quite cold climate, the heating energy need represents one of the first issue to look at
when designing a building. However in the case study, the building typology and the shape
did reduce the effect of such thermal insulation improvement on the heating energy needs.
The building envelope was modified to be highly insulated but the heating energy
consumptions was reduced only by the 15% on the overall. This proved the building was still
far from zero goals.

Figure 3. Annual end uses consumptions.

In order to reduce the energy consumptions and to drive the building energy performance
towards nZEB ones, the next step dealt with the production from renewable sources. In
particular, as the HPB baseline produces onsite energy from renewable source with a PV
system installed on the flat roof. A PV panel with an efficiency of 21 % was selected. To
increase the production of energy from system, additional efficiency configuration of PV
panels were studied:
- covering of almost the entire roof (the atrium roof was excluded), approximately 580 m
2
,
with PV panels (power: 124 kW
p
).
- covering of one half of the roof, 330 m
2
, with PV panels (power: 71 kW
p
);
- covering of a quarter of the roof surface, 150 m
2
, with PV panels (power: 33 kW
p
).
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

79

In Table 2 the results of the simulation carried on with the different PV system configuration.
The total covering of the roof accomplished to cover the electricity needs for the lighting and
the equipment system together with the HVAC system. The heating energy consumption was
thus not covered, and needtherefore further energy efficiency measures to be reduced.

Table 2. Energy production on-site and electric coverage
Net Electricity
Coming From
Utility [kWh]
Surplus Electricity
Coming From
Utility [kWh]
Total On-Site
Electric Sources
[kWh]
Percent
coverage
electricity
HPB Baseline+PV10% 144327 0 4430 3%
HPB insulated+PV10% 144327 0 4430 3%
HPB insulated+PV25% 105361 5955 43395 27%
HPB insulated+PV50% 51871 28317 96885 65%
HPB insulated+PV100% -3440 68660 152197 100%

CONCLUSION

Nowadays high performance buildings, low energy performing building or also the so called
green buildings are still few and cutting-edge. Even if the energy policies all-world-wide
strive to reach net zero target, these new generations of buildings are still a bit of a handful
compared to the whole existing building stock. Among them, the LEED-certified buildings
are the most famous ones also due to the market differentiation that has grown around.
U.S. and ASHRAE approach in supporting the net-zero goal applied to the building stock, has
also been successful thanks to a high money investment. In particular an outstanding example
of these design representative and showpiece buildings is the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory (NREL) campus in Colorado. It was design to be the first and largest truly net-
zero energy facility in the United States.
The analyses carried on within this study demonstrated that US high performing building are
still far from been considered as a first step nZEB o NZEB. Especially, taking in
consideration the age of the analyzed HPBs, the energy performance of these buildings
nowadays is not as good as estimated. The HPBs studied are in fact 5-6 years old and most of
them do not comply with the European standard in terms of energy regulation (e.g. Passive
house requirements). To this end, it is thus more difficult to reach a net zero target, taking as a
starting point an even though recent high performing building, than considering a new
construction or also an existing, but actually aged building.
Drawing a better picture at the European level, the existing building stock is quite old and a
large share of it was built before 1960s [4], when there were no regulations in terms of energy
requirements or they were quite low. The insulation levels of the existing building stock are
thus inefficient and together with old system leave a great improving margin on the building
energy performance to be exploited.
The analysis carried on within this study took an existing high-performing building, that
achieved a triple LEED Platinum certification, considered a quite good building in terms of
energy behavior and compared it to an European nZEB, as defined in [5]. By the way,
considering it is now 4 years old, its energy performance cannot be considered as good as
before and the efforts carried on to move it towards a nearly zero target proved it difficult to
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

80

be considered like that. Energy efficiency measures were applied to the original project in
order to improve the building energy performance. Firstly a higher insulation level was
applied to the building to make it comply with the European and in particular the Turin
regulation in terms of energy policy. Although the building envelope performance was
modified optimally in terms of thermal insulation, this measure proved the building was still
far from zero targets due to the low significant reduction on the space heating consumptions.
Taking in consideration that automation controls have been applied to the original project
(e.g. natural light sensors, occupancy sensors, etc), the next energy efficiency measures intent
to improve the production of renewable energy on site to cover the building electrical energy
need. It was found that, with the current level of performance and even with the PV systems
implementation on the roof, the office building could not accomplish the nZEB goal as the
heating energy consumption were still too high. The nZEB target was thus not feasible with
these simple analyses. Further nZEB strategies needed to be carried on in order to optimize
the building energy performance.
Furthermore this study tried to develop a list a lessons, in terms of positives aspects and
failures from the office building studied and from the set of HPBs selected too, with the
intention of defining a list of recommendations and best practices to be followed for the
design of nZEBs. In particular a significant lesson that can be learnt regards the strong
motivation that drives the owner to decide pursuing a low energy building. The decisions are
usually not driven by cost but mostly motivated to advertise the building as an outstanding
example for others. Additionally this kind of HPBs or low energy buildings do not always
perform as expected, therefore the monitoring need to have crucial role in the building
operation.

REFERENCES

1. European Parliament, Council. 2010. Directive 2010/31/EU of the European Parliament and of
the Council of 19 May 2010 on the energy performance of buildings. Official J ournal of the
European Union.
2. ENEA, Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic
Development 2013. RAEE 2011, Energy Efficiency National Report, Executive Summary,
ISBN 978-88-8286-279-4. Roma, Retrieved from www.efficienzaenergetica.enea.it.
3. Ma Z, Cooper P, Daly D, Ledo L 2012. Existing building retrofits: Methodology and state-of-
the-art, Energy and Buildings (55) 889902, doi: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2012.08.018
4. Becchio C, 2013. Assessment of energy and cost effectiveness in retrofitting existing buildings,
Doctoral dissertation, Politecnico di Torino.
5. REHVA, 2013. REHVA nZEB technical definition and system boundaries for nearly zero
energy buildings. REHVA Report No 4.
6. ASHRAE, 2008. ASHRAE Vision 2020, Producing Net Zero Energy Buildings: Providing tools
by 2020 that enable the building community to produce market-viable NZEBs by 2030.
ASHRAE Report, J anuary 2008.
7. Energy independence and security act of 2007, Public Law 110-140, 110th Congress
8. U.S. Department of Energy. High Performance Buildings Database
http://buildingdata.energy.gov/
9. Erhorn, H and Erhorn-Kluttig, Terms and definitions for high performance buildings, Detailed
report. Concerted Action, Energy Perfomance of Building, J anuary 2001.
10. U.S. GBC LEED website http://www.usgbc.org/leed
11. Energy Star web portal http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?c=new_homes.hm_index
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

81

12. Decreto Legislativo n.311 del 29 Dicembre 2006 - "Disposizioni correttive ed integrative al
decreto legislativo 19 agosto 2005, n. 192, recante attuazione della direttiva 2002/91/CE,
relativa al rendimento energetico nell'edilizia".
13. Carpenter, S. 2011. Simply Grand. In High Performing Buildings, ASHRAE, Spring 2011.
14. U.S. Department of Energy. EnergyPlus energy simulation software, Weather data.
http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energyplus/weatherdata_about.cfm
15. U.S. Department of Energy. Commercial reference buildings
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/commercial/ref_buildings.html
16. Passive House Guidelines. http://www.passivehouse-international.org/index.php?page_id=80
17. Agenzia Energia e Ambiente di Torino. Allegato energetico ambientale al regolamento
edilizio della citt di Torino. Allegato alla deliberazione n. 2010-08963/38. Agosto 2009.
Regione Piemonte.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

82

INSTRUCTIONS FOR PREPARING THE FULL PAPER TO
CLIMAMED 2013 CONGRESS NET ZERO ENERGY USE IN
BUILDINGS (TIMES NEW ROMAN BOLD 14 PT, STYLE: TITLE)
EVALUATION, IN TERMS OF SOLAR HEAT GAINS, OF THE
EFFECTS OF COURTYARD BUILDING SHAPES ON
MICROCLIMATE ACCORDING TO DIFFERENT CLIMATIC
REGIONS

Enes Yaa
1
,
1
University of Konya N.E.University, Konya

Corresponding email: enesyasa@yahoo.com

SUMMARY

The courtyard buildings, which we face either as a regulator of inter-building microclimate or
as a climatic regulator at urban scale especially in hot climate regions, and which constitute
one of the fundamental characteristic building styles of such climatic regions, should be
applied in a form compatible with the features of the climatic region it is used. There is the
need for a study that allows formation of a model toward determination of the optimum
courtyard form and meeting the conditions of comfort by establishing an optimization model
taking into consideration the climatic, meteorological differences for each climatic region the
specific climatic region requires. The purpose of this study is to examine the energy
efficiencies of the courtyard buildings used either as a micro climatic regulator in hot-dry
climatic regions, or as a climatic regulator at urban scale, and to determine inter-building and
courtyard comfort statuses, besides, to manifest different thermal behaviors of such buildings
by estimating the same fully and accurately using real meteorological data under different
design and climatic conditions with computer energy simulation on different courtyard form
options put forth for different climatic regions, and thus to provide new information to
designers at the process of putting forward the optimum courtyard form according to the
characteristics and data of the specific climate for different climatic regions. By using the
CFD program, this study has analyzed the thermal comfort statuses and energy performances
of 7 different courtyard shapes in inter-courtyard and building volumes that are discussed in
hot-dry, hot-humid and cold climatic regions as well as the effect of the sunbeams received by
the building surface and the daily solar movement on the thermal performance on the
building. As a result of the entire analysis made for all building shapes, the obtained values
were interpreted and the total energy performances were evaluated for each climatic region. In
this study, the courtyard buildings will be assessed in terms of their thermal performances.

Keywords: Energy performance in buildings, Courtyard Building, Building shape
optimization, Climatic comfort, CFD Fluent.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

83

INTRODUCTION

When we look at the courtyard buildings in general, we see that recently, frequent studies are
conducted for examining inter-courtyard thermal performance. Such studies can be examined
as inter-courtyard air movements, courtyard-building-sun-shadow relation and building-
courtyard option and inter-courtyard air movement relation as well as thermal performances
of courtyards in different climatic regions. In other study conducted for evaluating the effect
of courtyard option on the total energy performance; Prof. Ray Clark and Abdelsalam
Aldawoud (2007) examined the energy performance of the central atrium whereby the energy
performance of a courtyard building with the same geometry and ratio has been comparatively
examined [1]. In an other study, which examined the effects of building shape and form on
climatic performance in different climatic regions and which assessed the courtyard option in
environmental terms, Carlo Ratti, Dana Raydan and Koen Steemers (2003) conducted
numerical analysis studies on the shape and form of courtyard building, the relevant building
form and its climatic performance in environmental terms [2]. In a different study that
examined the thermal performance of courtyard building, Mohsen MA.(2005) assessed the
solar radiation effects of the geometric and physical parameters of the courtyard on the
courtyard building faade. The variability of the radiation, which was obtained by changing
the courtyard parameters, was examined [3] [4]. On the other hand, conducted many studies
on the courtyard shape and courtyard buildings. These especially focus on the effect of
courtyard shape on solar radiation gain-loss, and also on the sun-shadow effect. The purpose
of the study conducted by this couple in 2006 is to provide enough radiation in order to obtain
the heat required by the building during winter and to reduce the required energy for the
cooling requirement during summer; or for providing sufficient shadow area, to proportion
the courtyards inner envelope or to conduct a courtyard shape study. In another study they
conducted, they examined the effect of inter-courtyard sun-shadow performance; and
developed a mathematic model for calculating the shadowed and sunny areas of courtyard
buildings in circular geometry. This model so developed examines, during any period within
the year, the interactions between the sun and the courtyard buildings in circular geometry,
the latter located on ground in any ratio or dimension. In another study that touched upon the
courtyard shape and option, Muhaisen, A S., Gadi M. B. examined the shadowing
performances of many angled courtyard shapes such as pentagon, hexagon, heptagon and
octagon [5] [6] [7] [8]. Recently, the literature hosts studies that especially examine the
thermal performances of CFD and courtyard option. Among these, I.Rajapaksha, H. Nagai,
M. Okumiya (2004) examined in CFD the passive cooling potential of courtyard buildings,
which have single storey and intense massive envelope and located in hot humid climate
regions, and manifested the results obtained from this calculated analysis (CFD) and thus
asserted that as far as buildings with single storey and highly dense masses are concerned,
courtyard buildings located in hot humid climatic regions are suitable for passive cooling [9].
Another study conducted by the Rajapaksha et al. team (2003), examined the passive cooling
potential of the courtyard in a building with single storey and highly dense mass under a hot-
humid climate. They tested the presence of inter-courtyard in building design, and its
potential to increase and optimize the natural ventilation for minimizing the extremely hot
conditions in internal volumes[10].
Recent years especially witness an increase in numerical simulation studies. Experimental
studies are lesser in comparison. An example of studies conducted in this direction is the
study of H. Safarzadeh and M. N. Bahadori named: Airflow In Buildings With Courtyards.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

84

In order to forecast the inter-courtyard airflow ratios by taking into consideration, within the
courtyard, the air speeds and air flow directions of courtyard buildings located in the Hot-Dry
climatic regions of Iran such as the cities of Ahwaz, Kerman, Mashad, Shiraz, Tabriz and
Tehran, comparisons have been made both experimentally in a wind tunnel and through
numerical simulations, and findings have thus been reached. It was consequently seen that
owing to the wind shadowing effects by the courtyard wall and the trees in the courtyard, the
wind pressure coefficients on the walls of the windward buildings have decreased as
compared to buildings without courtyard [11]). Another study conducted by Muhaisen, A. S.,
Gadi M. B, emphasizes the effects of the courtyard building shapes with different ratios, and
especially of their sun related gains, on total energy. The study aims at observing the ratio at
which the heating and cooling requirements of a courtyard building located in a particular
climatic region are effected by the variability of the radiation that is obtained as a result of the
increase in the surface area of the courtyard shape [8]. All these studies suggest that the
number of advanced studies apart from some acknowledgements and certain methods is quite
few. Additionally, studies and examinations on the subject show that concerning the courtyard
buildings in question, we are far from a comprehensive strategy and research on what kind of
direct effects they have in terms of either energy efficiency or climatic comfort, as well as
how they act. For this reason, the purpose of the below study is the formation of a model
towards the determination of the optimum courtyard form and meeting the conditions of
comfort by establishing an optimization model while taking into consideration the climatic,
meteorological differences for each climatic region that is required by the specific climatic
region and accordingly, to evaluate the energy performances of all courtyard options
examined.

STUDY METHODS

To represent the 3 distinct climatic regions examined in the study, Diyarbakr was chosen
for the hot-dry climatic region, Antalya for the hot-humid climatic region, and Erzurum
for cold climatic region, and long-term average meteorological climate data pertaining to such
provinces were used. The option of building with 7 yards with yard dimension ratios was
developed for use in all regions within the optimization model by increasing 1.5, 2, 25, 3 and
5 fold at east-west direction the sizes of the other yard options developed in proportion with
the floor height (H=6) of the reference building with a yard size of x=y=z=H and with a fixed
building location. (Figure 1) [12].

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

85

FEATURES OF OPTIMIZATION MODEL DEALT WITH COURTYARD
OPTIONS
H Option 1.5 H Option

Dimensions of
courtyard
6.00x6.00x6.00 Dimensions of
courtyard
6.00x9.00x6.00
Building Roof
Area
160 m2 Building Roof
Area
184 m2
Building exterior
surface area (for
Total Heat Trans.)
800 m2 Building exterior
surface area (for
Total Heat
Trans.)
920m2
Total Volume of
Building
960 m3 Total Volume of
Building
1104 m3
Courtyard Area 36 m2 Courtyard Area 54 m2
Courtyard
Volume
216 m3 Courtyard
Volume
324 m3

MEAN FEATURES OF COURTYARD OPTIONS
2H Option 2.5 H Option

Dimensions of
courtyard
6.00x12.00x6.00 Dimensions of
courtyard
6.00x15.00x6.00
Building Roof Area 208 m2 Building Roof
Area
232 m2
Building exterior
surface area (for
Total Heat Trans.)
1040 m2 Building exterior
surface area (for
Total Heat
Trans.)
1148 m2
Total Volume of
Building
1248 m3 Total Volume of
Building
1392 m3
Courtyard Area 72 m2 Courtyard Area 90 m2
Courtyard Volume 432 m3 Courtyard
Volume
540 m3

Figure 1: Courtyard options and their particularities examined in the study[12].
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

86

CREATION OF THE MODELS AND THE ANALYSIS PHASE IN CFD

The geometries of 7 different courtyard models examined were drawn and the digital mesh
networks of the models belonging to each defined courtyard option were created, the thermal
regions of each model were defined and surfaces of the models were created and restricting
conditions were decided upon. Later geographical and climatic data of different climatic
regions were entered into the Fluent 6.3 simulation program. Further, data such as
permeability and reflectivity of the structure envelope, constructional components and
constructional materials were entered[12]. The thermal regions, building surfaces and
elements thereof previously decided upon during the Gambit phase were defined. Later, the
data comprising the inter-building thermal gains were entered and analysis commenced. As
criteria of the optimization studies; on 21st day of the 7th month for the cooling period of the
summer months, and 21st day of the 1st month for the heating period, hourly, daily, daytime
and nighttime inter-courtyard temperature and average temperature distributions, inter-
building total temperature gain and loss values, inter-courtyard air velocity movements,
direction of air, layering of air, air change ratio pertaining to courtyard building thermal
zones, inter-building thermal zones of courtyard buildings, for all building surfaces and roof
area; overall and average heat transition amount, surface temperatures, pressures, and velocity
distributions, inter-building and courtyard 1.60 m, 3.20 m and 6.50 m -level horizontal-
section temperature, pressure and wind speed values were analyzed, and taking into
consideration such values, internal temperature and average temperature distributions, overall
temperature gain, total temperature loss calculations and also sunlight gains on the surface of
the courtyard building were determined and calculated[12]. For the purpose of better cooling
and ventilation throughout the cooling season, and optimization of inter-building temperature
gains and losses throughout the heating season, investigation of architectural solutions, and
evaluations to reveal the effects of such results on cooling and ventilation load were
made[12]. The numerical and visual reports of all such values were prepared and relying on
such values; evaluations and comments were made on internal temperature and average
temperature distributions on the courtyard-building surface, overall temperature gain, total
temperature loss calculations, investigation of architectural solutions for better cooling and
ventilation as well as their effects on cooling and ventilation[12]. In view of all these results;
optimum courtyard forms were put forward both for the daylight and night period, in terms of
either inter-courtyard or inter-building thermal performance throughout the hottest period and
less hot period for each climatic zone. The building chosen as the reference in the study model
was considered as having 2 storeys, with a floor height of 3.00 m, with external building
dimensions of 14.00 x 14.00 x 6.00 m and courtyard dimensions of 6.00 x 6.00 x 6.00 m
(Figure 2) [12].

Figure 2: The Plan and Perspective for the Reference Courtyard-Building (With 2 storeys, a
floor height of 3.00 m, with external building dimensions of 14.00 x 14.00 x 6.00 m and
courtyard dimensions of 6.00 x 6.00 x 6.00 m[12]
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

87

At the entire courtyard configurations, building envelope that make up the courtyard formed
from outside to inside like this: External plaster; 0.030 m, Thermal conductivity coefficient
(n) 1.40 W / mK, dn / n Rockwool 0.040 m, Thermal conductivity coefficient (n) 0.040 W
/ Mk, dn / n 1.00; autoclaved aerated concrete (appropriate with mortar TS 4916), 0.200 m,
Thermal conductivity coefficient (n) 0.140 W / mk, dn / n 1429; Internal plaster; 0.020 m,
Thermal conductivity coefficient (n) 0.870 W / Mk, Ud value of the building envelope is
0.378 W/m
2
K[12].
In the CFD Fluent 6.3 program where the analysis study is performed, information on the
building envelope such the thickness, density, specific heat, thermal conductance coefficient,
sun radiation absorbency, sun radiation reflectivity, surface roughness and number of layers
are defined whereas layers in the floorings together with (if present) separate stratifications
are defined in the ground floor, mezzanine floor and roof slab. The thickness, density,
specific heat, thermal conductance coefficient, sun radiation absorbency, sun radiation
reflectivity, surface roughness and number of layers of the material used in the flooring are
examined. On the other hand, the data used in the simulation program are defined by entering
the values of volume ambient temperatures, boundary conditions for surfaces and thermal
zones, absorbency of surfaces, reflectivity, density, specific heat and thermal
conductance[12].

Evaluation of the Findings Obtained From Analysis Results

This study has evaluated the results of the CFD-Fluent analysis; the total energy performances
of all building options in terms of energy gain-loss in the buildings entirety during both
periods of summer-cooling and the winter-heating for three different climatic regions
examined.
From the raw CFD-Fluent data obtained, total heat transfer amount and solar radiation gain
tables are created for the sum of all horizontal and vertical building surfaces for a duration of
24 hours on 21
st
J anuary and 21
st
J uly for each three climatic region. The numerical values
obtained from tables have been separately evaluated in terms of both total building surface
area and total building volume[12].

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

88

Figure 3: Building's total heat transfer amount for January day hours period[12]

Optimum courtyard ratios for different climatic regions
During the evaluation of total energy performances of all courtyard options, the solar
radiation gains obtained by the courtyard grounds have been manifested with separate
tabulation and graphics. Accordingly, when we evaluate the Figure 3, we see that whereas the
maximum solar radiation gain of the courtyard grounds in the hot-humid climatic region of
Antalya during the less hot period 21
st
J anuary between the daily hours of 07.12- 17.07 is
around 80-100 W/m2; the maximum solar radiation gain in the hot-dry climatic region of
Diyarbakr between the daily hours of 06.34- 16.26 is 70-80 W/m2; and the maximum solar
radiation gain in the cold climatic region of Erzurum between 06.36-16.17 hours is 70-80
W/m2. In Antalya, which bears hot-humid climate property, the maximum solar radiation
value is seen in the 5H option; in Diyarbakr, which bears hot-dry climate property, it is seen
in the 5H; and in Erzurum, which bears cold climate property, it is seen in the 3H option
(Figure 4,5) [12]

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

89

Figure 4: The unit solar radiation gain for all building options according to courtyard
grounds surface area[12]

Figure 5: The solar radiation gain amount of the courtyard ground on 21
st
January for all
courtyard options[12].

Concerning the maximum gain obtained from the building's total courtyard surface on 21
st

J uly, it is seen that Antalya, a hot-humid climatic region, attains maximum solar radiation
gain of 600-700 W/m2 between the daily hours of 05.00-19.08; Diyarbakr, a hot-dry climatic
region, attains maximum solar radiation gain of 500-600 W/m2 between the daily hours of
04.19-18.31; and Erzurum, a cold climatic region, attains maximum solar radiation gain of
400-450 W/m2 between the daily hours of 04.09-18.33 (Figure 4,5) [12]. When the building
and inter-courtyard energy performance is evaluated in total, the least solar radiation gain is
desired during the cooling period. The building option in this direction is the optimum choice
for this period. On 21
st
J uly, Antalya, which bears hot-humid climate property, the least solar
radiation gain is seen in the H option; in Diyarbakr, which bears hot-dry climate property, it
is seen in the H; and in Erzurum, which bears cold climate property, it is seen in the 3H
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

90

option. During this period, H option appeared as the optimum choice for all three regions in
terms of inter-courtyard thermal gain according to the criteria of comfort and energy gain[12].

RESULTS

The Sun-Shadow analysis study that is a part of Yaa E's doctorate work dated: 2010 and
titled: "A Method Developed in the Optimization of Courtyard Building Shape According to
Climatic Performance in Different Climate Regions" concluded that particularly in hot-humid
and hot-dry climatic regions, the shadowy surface area within the courtyard generally
diminishes as the sun rises. The cooling period (21st J uly) is particularly important in terms of
comfort in the hot-dry and hot-humid climatic regions; and at the same time, the inter-
courtyard shadowy area ratio, where the energy gain is less, shows an increase as the
courtyard form gets longer whereas in winter, the sun admission ratios of the courtyard
surface areas increase as the depth in the courtyard decreases. During times when the form
depth decreases however, it is due to increase in the ability of sunbeams to enter into the
courtyard[12]. The optimum courtyard ratio is a form that allows minimum radiation during
summer and maximum radiation during winter. The more radiation received by courtyard
building surfaces, the more cooling is required during summer and proportionately less
heating is required during winter[12].
Generally, the effect of shadowing on the required heating load during winter is more than its
effect on decreasing the cooling load during summer. Thus, the sensitivity of the heating load
towards the obtained solar radiation is higher than the sensitivity of the cooling load towards
shadowy area. We can therefore conclude that making solar radiation gain during winter is
more critical (important) than evading this during summer. It has been observed that the
required annual energy demand increases in parallel with the increase in courtyard length.
However, this increase ratio is not directly proportional to the increase in courtyard length
when considered arithmetically[12]. As the courtyards plan come close to square, the inter-
courtyard shadowy area increases and the required energy amount during the 21st J uly
cooling period decreases; whereas during the 21st J anuary heating period, its effect on the
increased energy demand somewhat decreases. Generally, annual energy consumption
increases as the courtyard building shape gets longer. The solar radiation received by the
courtyard building surfaces, heat gain and therefore its effect on the required cooling and
heating loads has once again been revealed[12].

REFERENCES

[1] Clark R. and Aldawoud A. 2007. Comparative analysis of energy performance between
courtyard and atrium in buildings, Energy and Buildings, Volume 40, Issue 3, 2008, Pages 209
214

[2] Ratti C., Raydan D. and Steemers K. 2003. Building form and environmental performance:
archetypes, analysis and an arid climate Energy and Buildings, Volume 35, Pages 4959

[3] Mohsen MA.1979.Solar radiation and courtyard house forms II: Application of the model,
Building and Environment, Volume 14, Issue 2, 1979, Pages 89106

[4] Mohsen MA. 1995. Solar Radiation And Courtyard House Forms II: Application Of The Model.
Building and Environment 1979;14: 185201. 1995
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

91

[5] Muhaisen, A. S. and Gadi M. 2006. Effect of courtyard proportions on solar heat gain and energy
requirement in the temperate climate of Rome, Building and Environment, Volume 41, Issue 3,
March 2006, Pages 245253

[6] Muhaisen, A. S. and Gadi M. 2006. Shading performance of polygonal courtyard forms,
Building and Environment, Volume 41, Issue 8, August 2006, Pages 10501059

[7] Muhaisen, S. A., 2005. Shading Simulation of The Courtyard Form in Different Climatic
Regions, School of the Built Environment, The University of Nottingham, University Park,
Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK Received 13 J une 2005; received in revised form 24 J une
2005;accepted 12 J uly 2005

[8] Muhaisen, A S., Gadi M. B., 2005. Mathematical model for calculating the shaded and sunlit
areas in a circular courtyard geometry, Building and Environment, Volume 40, Page 1619-1625,
2005.

[9] Rajapaksha, I., H. Nagai, M. Okumiya., 2004. A Ventilated Courtyard As A Passive Cooling
Strategy in The Warm Humid Tropics Fuel and Energy, Volume 45, Issue 1, Page 53 J anuary
2004.

[10] Rajapaksha, I., H. Nagai, M. Okumiya., 2003. A ventilated Courtyard As A Passive Cooling
Strategy in The Warm Humid Tropics ,Renewable Energy, ISSN 2003, vol. 28, no11, pp. 1755-
1778., 2003.

[11] Safarzadeh, H., Bahadori, M.N., 2005. Airflow In Buildings With Courtyards School of
Mechanical Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, I. R. of Iran. 2005.

[12] Yaa E. 2010. "A Method Developed in the Optimization of Courtyard Building Shape According
to Climatic Performance in Different Climate Regions". Institute of Science and Technology,
Istanbul Technical University, PhD Thesis, February 2010.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

92

HIGH PERFORMANCE BUILDING SKIN.
FROM LOW-ENERGY TO NET ZERO ENERGY BUILDINGS.
Fabiana Cambiaso
1
, Matteo Varioli Pietrasanta
2

1
Urban Planning, Design and Architectural Technology Department, Sapienza University of
Rome, Italy
2
Pagano System, Rome, Italy

fabiana.cambiaso@me.com
matteo.varioli@pagano.it

SUMMARY

In the context of re-defining the building skin, that is to say, its transition from mono-
functional protective roles to polyvalent control functions, much ado is made of synergic
effects, and the expression intelligent building skin is frequently mentioned. In addition to a
multitude of window systems for the direct utilization of solar energy, including natural
ventilation, so-called manipulators for shading and heat protection, and daylight deflection,
solar components play an important role in intelligent or innovative building skin. The
technology they introduce (and their link to an electronic network system), enables the facade
to respond flexibility to changing external conditions. The result is lasting effect on essential
room or building characteristics, in other words, on user comfort. The product spectrum is
vast and the rate of innovation truly stunning: new or improved building materials have
offered great opportunities for innovation in architectural expression and design. Significant
case studies show that very high energy efficiency is imperative for a realistic chance of
achieving an equalised annual energy balance. This paper documents in detail the results of
energy monitoring and the experience gained from the planning and use phases, as well as the
individual steps on the way to an equalised annual energy balance. Research has revealed the
dynamics with which the field of zero energy is currently being developed.

INTRODUCTION

Discussion on the appropriate energy policy for the future and the growing concerns about
climate change regularly focus on the built environment in particular. On the one hand, the
construction, maintenance, and operation of buildings throughout their life cycle consumes
large amounts of energy and causes emissions. On the other hand, we are already aware of
and have tested measures for all kinds of buildings that can dramatically reduce the level of
consumption and emission. However, the net zero energy and plus energy buildings dealt with
in this research go further than these concepts. They indicate how an equalised annual energy
balance can be achieved by bringing together architectural design, energy efficiency and the
local use of renewables. They stand for independence from finite resources and immunity to
fluctuating energy prices. A zero-carbon building does not contribute to climate change.
In the new version of the buildings guidelines published in 2010 the European Union calls
upon member states to introduce the energy standard Nearly Zero Energy Building for all
new buildings by no lather than the end of 2020. The building technology programme of the
United States of America formulates the goals of arriving at marketable zero energy
residential buildings by 2020 and non-residential buildings by 2025 (in Europe instead 2018).
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

93

Nevertheless, standards that precisely define the goals in relation to the respective national
building practice standards do not yet exist. The Swiss MINERGIE-A Certificate, which was
released in March 2010, has become a pioneer in this important area of establishing
definitions. A proposal towards a calculation process in the context of German standardization
has been formulated and accompanied by a relevant calculation tool. Under extreme
conditions, autonomous buildings point the way. Far removed from any kind of energy
infrastructure and without a connection to an energy grid, they are generally entirely self-
supplying by means of renewables. But for the broad mass of buildings connected to the grid,
this can't represent the model of the future. The long-term storage of energy, in particular of
electricity, is a significant technological bottleneck. Equipping buildings to produce their own
electricity is not only technologically demanding, the maintenance of such systems is
complex and expensive, which means that connecting the building to an electricity grid offers
a significant advantage. However, a building can only be described as climate neutral if the
electricity grids are based to 100% on renewables. Here photovoltaic systems and combined
heat and power plants integrated in the building and run on biomass are suitable. Through the
interaction of architecture, building construction, and emerging materials and technologies the
studies presented utilise diverse possibilities: from the geometry to the U-values of the parts
of the building envelope to the performance of combined heat and power units or photovoltaic
arrays. Designing and building a net zero energy building means that from the very start
energy demand and energy generation must be consistently kept in balance. If the demand in
the annual sum exceeds the possibilities for energy generation, further savings must be
implemented [1]. The facade is one of the most significant contributors to the energy budget
and the comfort parameters of any building. High-performance building skin can be defined
as exterior enclosures that use the least possible amount of energy to maintain a comfortable
interior environment, which promotes the health and productivity of the building's occupants.
This means that sustainable envelope are not simply barriers between interior and exterior;
rather, they are building systems that create comfortable spaces by actively responding to the
building's external environment, and significantly reduce buildings' energy consumption [2].

Fig. 1. (on the left) Percentage and breakdown of gas emission as CO
2
equivalent.
Approximately one third of total annual emission of about one million tonnes is attributable
directly or indirectly to the building sector. (on the right) Energy use breakdown for
commercial buildings (Adapted from DOE, 2012).

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

94

METHODS

For most buildings, the facade affects the building's energy budget and the comfort of its
occupants more than any other system. To provide occupants with a comfortable and safe
environment, a facade must fulfill many functions, such as providing views to the outside,
resisting wind loads, supporting its own dead-load weight, allowing daylight to interior
spaces, blocking unwanted solar heat gain, protecting occupants from outside noise and
temperature extremes, and resisting air and water penetration. One of the primary tasks of the
building skin is to regulate the prevailing conditions in the surrounding external atmosphere
in order to ensure comfortable conditions in the interior. In view of the additional energy
required for the operation of mechanical building systems, any such installation should be
understood as a subsidiary system that acts to support the envelope in order to guarantee
sufficient interior comfort. Hence, facade and roof must react to climate conditions in order to
regulate how these might effect he internal building climate. The direct link between building
skin and room climate calls for a precise definition is the basis from which specifications for
the conception of the external walls and roof are derived. The main factors are indoor air
temperature and average surface temperatures, air change rates, relative indoor humidity,
luminance and lighting intensity. These comfort factors should not be seen in isolation: they
are closely related and interdependent. Indoor air temperature that is perceived as comfortable
is very much dependent on relative indoor humidity, surface temperatures and on air
movement in the room; it also influenced by individual factors such as clothing and physical
activity [3].
Fig. 2. (on the left) Comfort parameters. (on the right) Building skin parameters.

All comfort related parameters, with the exception of relative indoor humidity, can be
directly controlled and regulated through the design of the facade and the roof and this is the
principal guiding factor in the conception of the building skin. Thus the indoor air and
average surface temperatures are the product of the exchange between internal and external
heat gains, on the one hand, and transmission and ventilation heat losses through the building
skin, on the other. Air change can be regulated through the number and dimension of
ventilation openings. Luminance and lighting density are also influenced by the type, position
and size of openings in the building skin. Close observation has demonstrated that a well-
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

95

designed building skin is capable of producing a comfortable internal climate with the help of
environmental energies even under less than favourable climate conditions. Designers need to
consider the external environment, building orientation, space dimensions, and occupants'
comfort expectations. The relative importance of these criteria will affect design decisions,
such as the properties of opaque materials (thickness, density, conduction, reflectivity) and
transparent (glazing) materials (thickness, number of layers, heat transmission, light
absorption, reflection).
Moreover, different design strategies are required for different climatic zones. Basic methods
for designing high-performance building skin include: orienting and developing geometry and
massing of the building to respond to solar position; providing solar shading to control
cooling loads and improve thermal comfort; using natural ventilation to reduce cooling loads
and enhance air quality; minimizing energy used for artificial lighting and mechanical cooling
and heating by optimizing exterior wall insulation and the use of daylighting. In choosing
design strategies, we need to consider the conditions of the climate zone to minimize their
impacts and reduce energy consumption. Designers need to respond to the specific
characteristics of a building site [4].
Fig. 3. Environmental conditions and properties of envelope elements that affect thermal,
visual, and acoustic comfort.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

96

Many energy codes reference ASHRAE 90.1, Energy Standard for Buildings, which provides
recommendations for building envelopes. ASHRAE 90.1 is periodically updated based on
increasing expectations of building performance [5]. These recommendations are based on
building location and climate zone, using the IECC climate classification system of eight
zones and three sub-zones. Moreover, ASHRAE identifies four types of exterior walls: mass
walls, generally constructed of masonry or concrete materials; metal building wall, consisting
of metal members spanning between steel structure members (not including spandrel glass or
metal panels in curtain walls); steel-framed, with cavities whose exterior surfaces are
separated by steel framing members (including typical steel stud walls and curtain walls);
wood-framed and other walls. ASHRAE requirements are prescribed in three ways for all
climate zones: minimum allowable thermal resistance (R-value) for the different exterior
walls; maximum allowable heat transfer coefficient (U-value) for the facade assembly
(including thermal bridging effects of framing members); maximum allowable solar heat gain
coefficient (SHGC) for the glazed portions of a facade assembly [6].
Finally, advances in metallurgy and in industry have allowed steel, aluminum and wood to be
economical options for building envelope. The combination of lighter-weight materials, new
technology, and an ever-increasing emphasis on balancing low construction costs with high-
performance has led to the development of the exterior curtain wall as one of the most
efficient and affordable cladding solutions [7].

RESULTS

Three significant case studies illustrate how the various design strategies discussed have been
implemented on various building types located in different climates. Different ways of
approaching sustainable facade design are detailed, including proper design and passive
strategies based on building orientation; control of solar exposure and self-shading mechanics
through tectonic building form; design of external shading elements; selection of facade
materials; and design of exterior wall assemblies [8].
A) Endesa Pavilion, Barcelona, Spain
Fig. 4. (on the left) Endesa Pavilion. Physical parameters analysis (in the middle). (on the
right) Envelope components and technology.

ENDESA Pavilion is a self-sufficient solar prototype installed at the Marina Dock, within the
framework of the International BCN Smart City Congress. Over a period of one year it will be
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

97

used as control room for monitoring and testing several projects related to intelligent power
management. The pavillion is actually the prototype of a multi-scale construction system. A
facade composed by modular components, like solar brick, that respond to photovoltaic
gaining, solar protection, insulation, ventilation, lighting etc. The same parametric logic adapt
faade geometries to the specific environmental requirements for each point of the building.
It is is a single component that integrates all levels of intelligence that the building needs.
From form follows function (classic XX century statement) to form follows energy. The
facade opens reacting to the solar path, being active and becoming permeable towards south,
while becoming closed and protective towards north. The behavior of this skin makes visible
the environmental and climatic processes that surrounds the prototype. Self-sufficiency is a
multiscale problem. Against finished solutions we propose an open logic, an adaptative
component, a building system capable of scaling, applied equally to suburban or metropolitan
contexts. The same skin component addresses and responds to the energy collection, passive
solar gains, control of shadows and views, insulation, natural ventilation and forced, natural
and artificial lighting, storage. A single constructive system that is capable of solving a single
house or an office tower without changing logics, just adapting geometries. That simple rules
make the system able to respond to the full gradient different positions or orientations,
reacting with a whole range of permeability and energy collection. Form follows energy. The
final geometry responds to the energy of the place. Thus, the pavilion becomes permeable and
active towards south, where the interaction energy is maximized.; Towards north becomes
opaque, closed and protective, minimizing heat transfer. Higher overhangs allow more energy
collection and greater protection against the incident radiation during summer. Solar
calculation software, connected to the logic of parametric design, allows us to reach an
optimized solution. Each module, at each point, responds with mathematical accuracy to the
different stresses of the different orientation and position. Solar houses should be built with
solar materials. The wood, grown with solar power, is used now to build a self-sufficient
photovoltaic pavilion. The current digital manufacture techniques, and the last advances in
energy management and distributed production, make technology closer to the user, open and
participatory. The Endesa pavilion is an accessible device, technologically soft and easily
understandable. Its construction, materials and energy, and its climatic behaviour are
transparent to the inhabitant. Digital fabrication techniques are applied to speed up
construction times. Each piece is coded. Assembly process is just like solving a real scale 3d
puzzle [9].
B) Administration Building in Wrzburg
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

98

Fig. 5. (on the left) Administration Building in Wrzburg. (in the middle) Axonometric detail
and diagram of indoor climate strategy and energy concept in summer and winter, day and
night. (on the right) Grid cooling-elements and (below) legend of building structure.

The form, construction and skin of the building as well as the plant and the central control
technology were coordinated with each other to create a complex with a holistic solar-energy
system. Fossil fuels are used to meet only peek demands. The two storeys of the building,
each 4.10 meters high, were designed as open-plan spaces, with individual rooms divided off
by frameless glazed partitions. A key element of the energy concept is the double skin facade,
which acts as a climatic buffer. The external skin is in a post and rail construction with fixed
glazing; the internal skin consists of prefabricated elements with manually operated sliding
doors and motor-operated bottom-hung lights for ventilation purposes. The fresh-air supply is
drawn from the 60 cm intermediate space between the two skins. Flaps in the outer skin in
the plinth zone and in the upstand roof- serve to regulate natural vertical convection, while
axial fans at the corners of the building create horizontal currents that distribute the preheated
fresh air. Lightweight metal blinds reflect sunlight either away from the building, or into the
interior via soffit panels lined with cotton fabric. On the south and west faces of the structure,
the lower sections pf the louvres have a dark coating on one side and can be adjusted
separately from the upper part. Depending on the angle at which the louvres are set, the
degree of thermal absorption can be increased. During the cold months of the year, they serve
to preheat the air intake that flows over them. In summer, when the blinds are closed and the
air flaps are open, the building is cooled by a process of convection ventilation. Additional
nigh-time cooling is achieved via the atrium roof and the bottom-hung windows opened in a
tipped position. When cooling is required, a 200-square-meters collector installation produces
cold water by means of an adsorption heat pump. The water is then fed into ceiling cooling
panels along the glazed facade and around the atrium. If required, the system can also provide
energy for the underfloor heating. If the various elements of the system do not cover all needs,
a cogeneration plant is also available to supply electricity and thermal energy. Since both the
cooling soffits and the underfloor heating are water-fed systems, the two circuits can be used
reciprocally. Some 250 sensors serve to measure the relevant data, on the basis of which, the
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

99

control centre can respond to demands via more than 500 activating points. In addition,
individual users can modulate the system via their PCs [10]-[11].
C) Kuwait University College of Education, Shadadiyah, Kuwait
Fig. 6. (at the top on the left) Kuwait University College of Education. (at the top on the right)
Diagram of major facade assembly components. (below on the left) Facade energy concept.
(below in the middle) Self-shading facade geometry; (below on the right) Physical model and
GFRC panel mockup.

A self-shading facade protects the building's interiors from the intense solar radiation while
maintaining views for its occupants. Inspired by traditional Kuwaiti patterned screens, the
facade was designed using three-dimensional modeling and visualization software. The
complex geometry of the facade uses integral shading elements, set at the optimal cutoff
angles, to shade the building from intense solar radiation. Several layers form the self-shading
exterior skin. The major components of the envelope: a) shading fins are constructed of two
layers of tempered laminated glass, with a ceramic frit between the glass layers. These shades
reduce direct solar radiation and transmitted solar heat gain, thus reducing cooling loads for
the HVAC system. These translucent panels also direct diffuse light into the interior spaces
and reduce glare at the exterior wall. b) The opaque parts of the facades are panels made of
glass-fiber-reinforced concrete (GFRC), a lighter-weight and thin (less than 1 inch or 2.5 cm
thick) material. c) The galvanized steel skeleton provides a lighter-weight, structurally
efficient support for the GFRC panels. Its low weight results in low superimposed loads on
the building's structural system. d) Low-e insulating glass is used to reflect radiant infrared
light and to reduce cooling loads. Operable windows on the east and west facade allow natural
ventilation during milder seasons. This diamond-shaped windows, similar in shape to the
fixed windows of the facade, use a pivoting mechanism to open and close. e) Insulation
behind the GFRC minimizes heat transfer between the exterior and interior environment.
Energy modeling performed during design indicated that the facade design, along with other
energy-efficient design strategies, would reduce the building's energy consumption by 21%
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

100

compared to a baseline building prescribed by the ASHRAE 90.1-2004 standard. The facade
design would also eliminate 82% of the solar heat gain.

DISCUSSION

Growing interest in development of innovative solutions for enhancement of sustainability in
the built environments has been observed in recent year. According to the main constituents
of buildings particularly in building envelopes, facades are expected to play a significant role
towards the promotion os sustainable design in low energy buildings. This research presents a
holistic review towards the analysis of intelligent facades according to their types, current
implementations, challenges, and ultimate impacts. Smart envelope need to be responsive and
conscious to the local climate, outdoor environment, and indoor spaces with view to
parameters such as energy performance, thermal comfort, indoor air quality, visual comfort
etc. The findings demonstrate that energy modeling and simulations should be performed
during the early stage of design process of buildings. In conclusion, the study recommends the
intelligent facade to become inherent constituent of green buildings for future development
not only of carbon neutral buildings but of a more complex zero energy system [12].

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank the authors whose contributions are of such significant importance for the success of
my research. With their buildings, committed clients and designers have created the
conditions under which net zero energy buildings can become reality.

REFERENCES

1. Voss, K., Musall, E., 2013, Net Zero Energy Buildings, Mnchen, Edition Detail Green Books.
2. DOE, 2012, Buildings Energy Data Book 2011, Washington, DC: Department of Energy.
Retrieved from http://buildingsdatabook.eren.doe.gov/default.aspx
3. Lang, W., Is it all just a facade? The functional, energetic and structural aspects of the building
skin, in Schittich, C., 2006, Building skin, Mnchen, Edition Detail.
4. Aksamija, A., 2009, Context Based Design of Double Skin Facade: Climatic Consideration During
the Design Process, Perkins+Will Research J ournal, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 54-69.
5. ASHRAE, 2007, BSR/ASHRAE/IESNA 90.1-2007, Energy Standard for Buildings except Low-
Rise Residential Buildings, Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
6. Lawrence, P., and Chase, T., 2010, Investigating the Climate Impacts of Global Land Cover
Change in the Community Climate System Model, International J ournal of Climatology, Vol. 30, No.
13, pp. 2066-2087.
7. Spillman, W., Sirkis, J ., and Gardiner, P., 1996, Smart Materials and Structures: What are they?,
in Smart Materials and Structures, Vo. 5, pp. 247-254.
8. Blomsteberg, A., ed. 2007, BESTFAADE: Best Practices for Double Skin Facades,
(EIE/04/135/S07).
9. IAAC, Endesa Pavilion, Un Prototipo di Facciata Multiscalare progettata in funzione dell'energia,
in LegnoArchitettura, 2013, Edicom Edizioni, Anno IV, No. 11, pp. 88-95, ISSN 2039-0858.
10. Schittich, C., 2003, Solar Architecture: strategies, visions, concepts, Mnchen, Edition Detail.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

101

11. Badinelli, G., 2009, Double Skin Facades for Warm Climate Regions: Analysis os a Solution with
an Integrated Movable Shading System, in Building and Environment, Vol. 44, pp. 1107-1118.
12. Poirazis, H., 2006, Double Skin Facades: A Literature Review (IEA SCH Task 34, ECBCS Annex
43 Report).

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

102

ENERGY PERFORMANCE AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF
THE NATIONAL CENTER OF COSTUME SCENE (NCCS) IN
MOULINS (FRANCE) -AVERAGE 2007-2011
J .Naveteur
#1
, A.Rousset
*2
, V.Foray
#3

#1
EDF R&D Energy in Buildings and Territories Department. Site des Renardieres.
Ecuelles-77818Moret sur Loing-France. jose.naveteur@edf.fr;
*2
EDF - Commerce Rhne-Alpes Auvergne-Collectivits Locales-64, rue des Pcheurs-
03006 MOULINS Cedex. alain.rousset@edf.fr
# 3
NCCS Administrator-Quartier Villars, route de Montilly - 03000 Moulins.
vforay@cncs.fr
SUMMARY
The NCCS is equipped with a geothermal heat pump which uses groundwater to ensure the
environmental conditioning of the museum and reserves. This is the first museum in France to
be equipped with a groundwater (geothermal) heat pump
EDF R&D has realised energy monitoring of this site since 2007. The main performance
indicators of the heat pump are an average annual COP(1) of 3.78, a cost of 21 TTC per
MWh produced and a reduction in CO2 emissions of 77% when compared to a conventional
solution (gas boiler and chiller).

1. A place in history
Located on the left bank of the Allier opposite the town of Moulins, the Quartier Villars was
built in the late eighteenth century to accommodate a cavalry regiment.
It is a historical monument recognized for its wonderful pink sandstone stairs. It has been
renovated by the architect of historical monuments, Mr. Franois Voinchet. Interior design
and construction of the reserves were undertaken by architects J ean-Michel Wilmotte and
J acques Brudin. Project management was entrusted to the Regional Directorate of Cultural
Affairs (DRAC) of Auvergne.

Mission of the NCCS:
NCCS maintains the most prestigious collections of stage costumes in the world, made by
such great institutions as the National Library of France, the French Comedie and the Opera
National de Paris.

2. Descriptions of buildings
NCCS is composed of two buildings (total surface area (SA) =5745m2), one dedicated to the
museum (SA =3400m2; 18th century building and historical monument) and the other, a
modern building called the Reservations (SA =2345m), which ensures the conservation of
10,000 costumes.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

103

Descriptions of Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) system
Given the proximity of the Allier, the Regional Directorate of Cultural Affairs and the
consultancy firm Choulet sought to capitalize on the potential energy contained in the water.
The study made by hydrogeology consultancy firm Anta showed water resources sufficient
for feeding the geothermal heat pump on ground water.

This is the first museum in France to be equipped with a groundwater (geothermal) heat
pump

To conserve the costumes in an optimal environment, it is imperative to maintain
conditions of constant temperature (18C) and humidity (55%). This required the creation of a
network of 4 tubes (CF: Hydraulic diagram).

The heating and cooling of the buildings is performed by a geothermal heat pump on
groundwater system. The system includes the heat pump (344kW hot and 314kW cold) that
feeds a 4-pipe system (hot, cold) and 4 boreholes (2 pumping 35m3/hr each, and 2 in
injection).
The museum is equipped with an air handling unit and fan coil.
The reserves are equipped with a special air handling unit (temperature 18C, with 55%
hygrometry). It was installed air handling unit like those used in data center.

The museum The reservations (on the left)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

104

3. Methodological description of the intervention of EDF R & D.
Given its experience in geothermal heat pump (1) and energy monitoring (2), EDF R & D has
been requested by the DRAC to provide assistance for the implementation of this operation.
-We analyzed hydrogeological studies
-Assist in the design flow pattern.
We provided support to the
-Definition of control
-Definition of metrology-install. What types of measures, number of sensors, types of
equipment to install, survey frequency
-Commissioning of installations
-To monitor (since 2007) in partnership with the operator of the facility management.
-Assist in the optimization facilities through the analysis of the measurements.

4. Description of metrology.
Metrology includes:
-Many temperatures measurements such as temperatures networks hot and cold temperatures,
tempratures of air handling unit, ground water temprtaure and temprtature of pumped
water back into the aquifer. The outdoor temperature and humidity and ambient temperatures.
-A calorie counter
-A frigories counter
-Two electronic energie meters that measure, for the first consumption of the heat pump
and the second consumption of the pumps. These counters are the same type as those used for
energy billing by EDF.

5. The costs (including taxes)
The cost of work was 22M (Value 2006, 3849/m2) with 8.5M (1500/m2) for the interior.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

105

The cost of installation of the HVAC system was 935k (165/m2), and 57k for the 4
boreholes (1000 per meter of drilling).

6. The measurement results (Average 2007-2011).
EDF R&D has monitored the energy consumption of this site since 2007. The main results are:

Average 2007-2011 Consumption Cost (*)
Total 174kWh/m2 13,34/m
Geothermal heat pump 57kWh/m2 4,45/m
Pumps 27kWh/m2 2,12/m
Others uses 90kWh/m2 7,06/m
(*) including taxes

5 years of measurements showed that there were significant energy transfer between the hot
and cold that well justifies the advantage of supplying geothermal heat pump.

The main performance indicators of the heat pump are:
- An Average Annual COP
(a)
of 3.78, a cost of MWh (heat and cold) produced from 21/MWh
compared to 42.9/MWh by a gas boiler and cooling by electric chiller
(b)
,
- Reduction of CO
2
emissions by 77% compared to a traditional solution (gas boiler, and
electrical chiller).

Compared to a gas boiler and electric chiller solution, the economic savings provided by the
heat pump on ground water is 26k. The additional investment is approximately 60k; the
payback is therefore less than three years.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

106

On average, the buildings (museum and reservations) need 131kWh heat/m, and 84kWh
cold/m. To ensure these needs, the heat pump cycles 21m
3
/m
2
of area at an average flow rate
of 15m
3
/h.

7. What are the benefits for EDF R & D, EDF and other stakeholders
EDF R & D has developed an expertise in the field of consumption analysis of a museum of
its heating and cooling needs and concurrency requirements.
This expertise allowed us to intervene in the project MUCEM (Museum of the civilizations
of Europe and the Mediterranean) which will be equipped with a Heat Pump in sea water and
for which we perform the same type of benefits for CNCS.

This has allowed us to achieve a transfer of jurisdiction to the installer who had never
done this type of installation as the operator for whom this was a first.

For the CNCS, it is strongly interested in the involvement of EDF R & D because it
ensures that innovative system is correctly performed and operated

8. Conclusion
Monitoring has shown that installation of geothermal heat pump ensures the conservation
of costumes, with satisfactory operating costs all the while reducing CO
2
emissions.

Refrences
(1) Member of the editorial board of guides:
-The geothermal heat pumps from drilling aquifer: Manual for the design and
implementation. Edited by lADEME (French agency for energy) and The BRGM (
Bureau of Geological and Mining Research)
(2) J .Naveteur- The Lyon CAF: A geothermal thermo frigo pump for 13 years (REHVA
journal N48)

(a)
COP= Energy consumption in Hot and Cold by the buildings / Electrical energy
consumption by the heat pumps +the well pump.

(b)
Annual efficiency for a gas boiler =0.9; COP in cold for electric chiller =3

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

107

MUREAUX ADMINISTRATIVE SITE
THE FIRST HQE CERTIFIED OPERATION IN FRANCE: 7 YEARS
LATER...

J .Naveteur
#1
, S.Barrois
*2
, G.Aumont
#3

#1*2
EDF R&D Energy in Buildings and Territories Department. Site des Renardires.
Ecuelles -77818 Moret-sur-Loing, France. jose.naveteur@edf.fr; serge.barrois@edf.fr
#3
Energies responsable for the mayor of Mureaux - Place de la liberation-BP2053-78135 Les
Mureaux Cedex.gaumont@mairie-lesmureaux.fr

SUMMARY
The city of Mureaux, in the Yvelines (78), constructed a new administrative site in 2004. The
municipal staff applied an HQEmethod and the building was certified in 2005; it was the
first building of its kind in France. The building uses a geothermal heat pump for heating and
cooling made in free cooling by ground water. EDF R&D has monitored the energy
performance of the site for the past seven years. The average energy consumption is
13kWh/m and the average cost is 7.77/m (min =6.55/m; max =8.99/m). The average
COP (hot) =3.59 and the hot consumption is 66kWh/m. The cost of heating is 0.023/kWh,
compared to 0.041/kWh using a gas boiler. The average COP (cold) =14.51, and the cold
consumption is 11kWh/m. The cost of cooling is 0.00568/kWh, compared to 0.0167/kWh
if using an electric chiller. The payback for the geothermal heat pump is approximately 5
years. Overall, the heat pumps high-quality performance enables a 78% reduction in CO2
emissions compared to a gas boiler and electric chiller.

Introduction
The city of Mureaux, in the Yvelines (78), constructed a new administrative site in 2004 to
manage the various departments distributed over the territory of the municipality. The
municipal staff applied an HQEmethod and the building was certified in 2005 and was the
first of its kind in France.
Construction began in May 2004 and the inauguration took place in May 2005. The project
manager in its proactive HQE approach may, if desired, enhance its action by an
independent third party, the CSTB via its subsidiary Certiva, in order to be certified. The
certification is organized on the basis of 2 references: the Operation Management System
(OMS) and the Environmental Quality of the Building (EQB).
The OSM is defined as the set of possible elements to define the objectives of the EQB and to
organize the operation in order to achieve them. The EQB, structured on 14 defined targets by
the HEQ Association, allows the customer to define his or her environmental profile (choice of
targets). Three levels of performance are defined: basic (regulations or common practice),
effective and very effective. The project manager's responsibility is to define the specific
environmental objectives (levels) for his or her operation. Assessment is carried out at several
stages: end of programming phase, end of design phase and end of implementation phase. The
certifying body, Certiva, commissioned a team to audit the OSM and to check the EQB which
enables timely actions to be carried out if necessary.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

108

Site description
Site description

The unanimous desire of elected officials to preserve the former city hall influenced the
architectural choices and management of useful surfaces. Designed by architects J ean-Luc and
Marie-Sylvie Hesters Barlatier, the building has a SHON surface of 4437 m2 which spans two
floors. Particular care was given to the harmony and to the integration of the buildings
ensemble.
The total cost of the operation was 9.05 million, translating into a per-unit-surface area cost of
2,011/m2 (taxes included for both total and by per-unit-surface area). The additional cost of
the HQEpart is 3.89% (2005).
The stones of the old deconstructed buildings were recovered to construct the basement of the
new building in order to create a uniform connection between the new and the old.

Photo of the Building

The roof slates were used to create the atmosphere of the planted patios. The new building
includes 149 offices, 8 meeting rooms, 3 patios with gardens (2 of which are interior and
feature rocks and plants), 2 planted flat roofs, archives, technical rooms and underground
parking for 30 places for the vehicles of the different services.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

109

The old building includes the reception area and civil status on ground floor and the
exceptional council room on the first floor. The assistant to the SPACE Environment project
manager, in collaboration with EDF, advocated a comprehensive solution taking into account
the idea of comfort in its entirety, energy performance and environmental protection.

A high-performance building

The building registers excellent results with an interior insulation of expanded polystyrene
(80+10), floor insulation by Schck (Rutherma), thermal switches for building facades,
Climaplus 4S Saint-Gobain Glass 4/16/4 glazing (U =1.4W/m2.K) and is equipped with
sliding louvered shutters or venetian blinds for large surfaces.
Heating requirements are 11% less than what French regulation calls for (RT 2000) and
consumption forecasts were calculated at 15% below the projected reference consumption.

Heating and cooling with ground water
Heating and cooling is achieved principally through the floor.

A geothermal heat pump (CIAT water/water heat pump) with a heat rating of 290 kW uses the
energy drawn from the ground water.

The bore-well is equipped with a variable speed pump and the maximum flow rate is 32m3/hr.
The HP (heat pump) supplies the floor heating in winter.

In summer, the ground water (15C) is used via a heat exchanger in a "free cooling" mode
(without the heat pump) and cools the building.

A heating management system is implemented in seven zones according to their exposure and
times of presence.
Air renewal
Essential for the quality of air, the air is renewed by:
An Air Handling Unit "AHU" with a single flow of 8000 m3/hr for offices with extraction in
the corridors.
An AHU with a double flow of 300m3/hr with heat recuperation for the council room.
An AHU with a double flow of 300m3/hr with heat recuperation for the civil status service.

Centralized Technical Management
The building management system manages and controls 120 checkpoints and feeds back
energy consumption information:
water (tap water, hot water boosts and recovered rainwater, ECS, bore-well, etc.),
electrical use (EDF, well pump, heat pump, ECS boost, etc.),
heating use (heating need, cooling, solar panels supply),
temperature (outdoor, indoor (7 zones), starting circuit floor, bore-well water, etc.), and
120 control points and technical equipment checks.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

110

Recovery of rainwater
A recovery of rainwater recovery system designed for a roof surface of 933 m2 and a tank of
20,000 liters. This recovered water is used for flushing toilets, giving expected savings of
2,000/year.
Two filtering wells improve the retention and infiltration of rainwater.
Two planted roof terraces with a total surface area of 296 m2 which, in addition to their
qualities of comfort, also help to improve retention (65 liters/m3). They increase the thermal
inertia by preventing summer sunlight from overheating the terrace.

Methodological description of the intervention of EDF R & D.
Given its experience in geothermal heat pump (1) and energy monitoring (2), EDF R & D has
been requested by the city of Mureaux to provide assistance for the implementation of this
operation.
-We analyzed hydrogeological studies
-Assist in the design flow pattern.
We provided support to the
-Definition of control
-Definition of metrology-install. What types of measures, number of sensors, types of
equipment to install, survey frequency
-Commissioning of installations
-To monitor (since 2005) in partnership with the nergies responsable for the mayor of
Mureaux.--Assist in the optimization facilities through the analysis of the measurements.
Description of metrology.
Metrology includes:
-Many temperatures measurements such as temperatures networks hot and cold temperatures,
tempratures of air handling unit, ground water temprtaure and temprtature of pumped
water back into the aquifer. The outdoor temperature and humidity and ambient temperatures.
-2 calories counters, the first measurement of the heat consumption in buildings, the
second measures the energy generated by the solar collectors for hot water
-A frigories counter.
-14 energie lectric meters.One for the heat pump, one for the drilling pumps, one for
the other pumps, one for the hot water, nine for the lightingng, one for the air handling unit
Main results
Electricity consumption average (May 2005 to April 2012)
All costs exclude taxes

The average energy consumption is 502,959kWh or 113kWh/m; the consumption ranged from
119kWh/m2 in 2009/10 to 103kWh/m in 2006/07. The cost is on average 7.77/m
(min=6.55/m; max=8.99/m).
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

111

Energy performance in heating
In winter, the system has an average COP Hot (1) of 3.59, and the hot consumption is 66kWh
hot/m.

Energy performance in cooling
In summer, the system has an average COP Cold (2) (free cooling with ground water) of 4.51,
and the cold consumption is 11kWh cold/m.

The production cost of the cooling is 0.00568 /kWh (5.7/MWh heat) cold compared to
0.0167 /kWh (16.7/MWh) cold following with chiller (COP in cold =3).

The consumption of drilling pumps
The energy consumption resulting from ground water pumping is on average 2kWh/m2. The
pumps circulate 17m3/m2 of area at an average pump flow rate of 9m3/hr.
The payback of geothermal heat pump is 5 years
The energy savings made by the heat pump is 266MWh /year (61kWh/m); the economic
savings on average are 7661 (1.73/m2).
The additional cost for the heat pump on ground water is 36k, the payback is therefore
approximately 5 years.

A 75% reduction in CO2 emissions
The CO2 emissions for heating and cooling are 3.52kg/m2, a reduction of 78% compared
when compared to gas boilers for heating and electric chillers for cooling.
CLhers uses,
64kWh/m
PeaL pump
for heaung,
18kWh/m
urllllng
pumps,
2kWh/m
CLhers
umps,
9kWh/m
PoL waLer,
3kWh/m
Llghung,
13kWh/m
venulauon,
3kWh/m
Average on 7 years
(0S]200S-04]2012)
113kWh]m pear year.
Max=119, M|n =103
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

112

Recovery of rainwater
The recovery of rainwater is used to supply the toilets. On average, 202 m3of water has been
recovered for a total consumption of 732 m3, representing 38% of coverage.

Keys to success
The correct integration of the elements in the system (installation of the variable speed pump
of the well) and a rigorous commissioning of the installation (law of water on the HP,
regulation of the variable speed settings) allows for high quality performance.

Conclusion
Given the seven years of monitoring data, we find that the energy performance of this building
is excellent and stable.
The geothermal heat pumps, with geocooling in summer, are economically efficient and
respect the environment.

Refrences
(3) Member of the editorial board of guides:
-The geothermal heat pumps from drilling aquifer: Manual for the design and
implementation. Edited by lADEME (French agency for energy) and The BRGM (
Bureau of Geological and Mining Research)
(4) J .Naveteur- The Lyon CAF: A geothermal thermo frigo pump for 13 years (REHVA
journal N48)

(1) COP Hot =Energy consumption in Hot by the building / Electrical energy consumption by the heat pump +
the drilling pumps.
(2) COP Cold =Energy consumption in Cold by the building / Electrical energy consumption by the drilling
pumps.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

113

The HQE method on the project
First implementation of the HQE method: a charter was established during the
programming. Thus, 83% of waste was recovered compared to the total mass of
generated waste (the requirement of the HQEcertification reference is 15%). All
management targets are at the level "very efficient".

Energy target
C Ref 15% (thermal bridge breaking, ECO double glazing, etc.)
Water/water heat pump on water table - Centralized technical management (120
Control - Command points)

Water target
Rainwater recovery (20,000 liters tank)
Economic valves
Flow limiter

Activity waste target
Layout of the waste building (40m
2
with differentiated containers)
Selective collection
Source separation
Increasing awareness (sorting ambassadors)

Service and maintenance target
Arrival of fluids at a single place
Regrouping of technical rooms
Alarms & control transfer
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

114

NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION OF FLOW PATTERNS AND
THERMAL COMFORT IN AIR-CONDITIONED LECTURE ROOMS
USING STEADY AND UNSTEADY TECHNIQUES

Taher M. Abou-deif
1
, Essam E. Khalil
2

1
Research Student, 2 Professor of Mechanical Engineering
Mechanical Power Engineering Department,
Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University,Giza, Egypt

E-mail:eng.tahermohamed@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
The present paper was concerned primarily with the analysis, simulation of the air flow and
thermal patterns in a lecture room. The paper is devoted to numerically investigate the
influence of location and number of ventilation and air conditioning supply and extracts
openings on air flow properties in a lecture room. The work focuses on air flow patterns,
thermal behavior in lecture room where large number of students; using unsteady technique,
and comparing the results to previous work which was using steady technique. The
effectiveness of an air flow system is commonly assessed by the successful removal of
sensible and latent loads from occupants with additional of attaining air pollutant at a
prescribed level to attain the human thermal comfort conditions and to improve the indoor air
quality; this is the main target during the present paper. The study is carried out using
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation techniques as embedded in the commercially
available CFD code (FLUENT 6.2). The CFD modelling techniques solved the continuity,
momentum and energy conservation equations in addition to standard k model equations
for turbulence closure.
Throughout the investigations, numerical validation is carried out by way of comparisons of
numerical and experimental results. Good agreement is found among both predictions.

1-INTRODUCTION
The present work focuses on air flow patterns, thermal behaviours in air-conditioned lecture
room.That is in order to satisfy the student's thermal comfort conditions and improving the
indoor air quality, which are the main targets during this work.Air conditioning term can be
defined as a process that controls the microclimate of an enclosed space. This process
involves the movement of air through a space that has certain characteristics of temperature,
humidity, cleanliness, pressure differential and noise level attenuation in order to satisfying a
comfortable and healthy environment for the occupants.
1.1Thermal comfort is a condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the
surrounding environment, most important factors influencing thermal comfort are.
Environmental factors:
Air temperature, air speed,relative humidity, air quality,and Noise.
Other factors:
Activity level, clothing level, and psychological factors: such as mental effort.
Achieving thermal comfort for most occupants of buildings or other enclosures is a main goal
of HVACdesign engineers.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

115

1.2- In-door Air Quality
Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) deals with the content of interior air that could affect health and
comfort of building occupants. The IAQ may be compromised by microbial contaminants
(mold, bacteria), chemicals (such as carbon dioxide, radon), allergens, or any mass or energy
stressor that can induce health effects. So, using ventilation to dilute contaminants and
improve the indoor air quality in most buildings. Carbon is an indoor pollutants emitted by
humans and correlates with human metabolic activity. Carbon dioxide concentration at levels
that are unusually high indoors may cause occupants to grow drowsy, get headaches, or
function at lower activity levels, etc... Table 1 is a listing of carbon dioxide air concentrations
and related health effects and standards.

Table 1: Carbon dioxide air concentration level standards
Carbon Dioxide
Level
Health Effects Standards or Use of Concentration Reference
600 ppm None
Most indoor air complaints
eliminated, used as reference for air
exchange for protection of children.
NIOSH [1]

800 ppm None
Used as an indicator of ventilation
inadequacy in schools and public
buildings, used as reference for air
exchange for protection of children.
MDPH [2]

1000 ppm None
Used as an indicator of ventilation
inadequacy concerning removal of
odors from the interior of building.
ASHRAE
[3]

5000 ppm
No acute (shortterm)
or chronic(long-term)
healtheffects
Permissible Exposure Limit (8-hour
workday) / Threshold Limit Value.
ACGIH [4],
OSHA [5]

1.3 Ventilation Principles
Ventilation is the exchange of air, typically between an indoor space and the outside. When
people are present, ventilation is especially necessary to evacuate the carbon dioxide produced
and renew the oxygen used up. It is also needed to remove other pollutants (smoke,
chemicals, etc.) from the space. Ventilation air may be classified into natural or mechanical
ventilation. In natural ventilation or gravity ventilation, uses the natural forces caused by the
temperature difference inside the space to induce air circulation and removal.
1.4 Air Exchange Rate
The most common method to measure the ventilation rate is the air exchange rate; the air
exchange rate has units of 1/time. When the time unit is hours, the air exchange rate is also
called air changes per hour (ACH).The rate of ACH determines the rateat which the total
volume of air in the room is cleanedby an air purification system, which is a major factor
inthe degree of air cleaning that can be achieved. Where it is the total volume of air flowing
into a space in 1 hour divided by the volume of the space, then ACH can be expressed
mathematically as,
V Q ACH / 3600 =

(1.1)

Where: Q =volumetric air flow rate through the room, m
3
/s,
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

116

V =volume of the room, m
3

The air exchange rate may be defined for several different situations. For example, the air
exchange rate for an entire space served by an air handling unit compares the amount of
outside air brought into the space to the total interior volume, this the nominal air exchange
rate.

1.5 Air Conditioning Systems
Air conditioning systems can be categorized according to the means by which the controllable
cooling/heating is accomplished in the conditioned space. There are four basic systems
categories:-
1-All-Air Systems;air is used to carry the energy from indoor to outdoor and vice versa.
2-All-Water Systems; water is used to carry the energy from indoor to outdoor and vice
versa,
3-Air-Water Systems; air and water are used to carry the energy from indoor to outdoor and
vice versa.
4-In Direct Expansion (DX) Systems;refrigerant is used to carry the energy from indoor to
outdooror vice versa[i.e. direct expansion of refrigerant, without the chilled water cooling
medium].

2. ASSESSMENT AND VALIDATION
An experimental investigation on a real air-conditioned lecture room was done. This
investigation aims to validate the used computational fluid dynamics code, the results from
both investigations, experimental and numerical, will be compared. Flow parameters like
velocity and temperature have been measured at relatively important places on a plane
perpendicular to a grill in the supply duct.The space configuration and the measuring
instruments used are described. In addition, the experimental locations are described in
details. Furthermore, the experimental procedure and test precautions are discussed briefly.
2.1 Description of the lecture room configuration
2.1.1 Room Geometry
The room under investigation is a real lecture room "dissuasion room at building number 17"
Faculty of Engineering, Cairo University, which has main dimensions as shown in the
following figure 1.Conditioned air is supplied to the room through four air conditioners with
outside dimensions as shown in figure 2.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

117

0
.
2
5

m

Air out
Air in

Figure 1:lecture room configuration

Figure 2:air conditioner configuration
2-2 Measuring Locations
One place was chosen to perform measurements a plane passing with a supply grill. A vertical
plane perpendicular to the supply grill of air conditioner number 3 to show the decay in inlet
air velocity and temperature variation downstream. This plane was taken to pass with a supply
grill of air conditioner number 3. Measuring points is selected at each 20 cm on this plane.
Temperature and velocity are measured at 110 points in this plane.The layout of these
measuring points is shown in figure 3.

0.75 m
0.175 m
1
2
3
4
8.88 m
10.2 m

10.2m
1 m
3.85 m
8.88 m
3.6m
False Ceiling
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

118

Figure 3 A:Lines of measurements near supply grill.

Figure 3B:configuration of measurements plane.

1
2
3
4
3
6
7
8
9
10
1 2 3 4 3 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 m
1.8 m
Line 1 Line 11
Ground
Air cond.3
Measurements plane
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

119

Figure 3 C:predicted velocity contours in the measurements plane.

Table1: Measurements Lines Coordinates at Supply grill
No. X (m)
Y (m)
Z (m)
From To
1 0.25 1 2.8 -11.5
2 0.4 1 2.8 -11.4
3 0.55 1 2.8 -11.3
4 0.65 1 2.8 -11.2
5 0.8 1 2.8 -11.1
6 0.95 1 2.8 -10.9
7 1.05 1 2.8 -10.75
8 1.2 1 2.8 -10.6
9 1.4 1 2.8 -10.45
10 1.5 1 2.8 -10.3
11 1.75 1 2.8 -10

2.3Assessment of CFD Modelling Validation:
The typical validation procedure in CFD, as well as other fields, involves graphical
comparisons of computational results and the corresponding availableexperimental data. If the
computational results "generally agree" with the experimental data, the computational results
are declared "validated".

2.4Results and Discussion
Temperature and mean velocity values downstream the supply duct is compared below.
2.4.1Temperature measurements:-

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

120

Figure 4 showscomparisons between measured and predicted air temperature profiles
downstream the supply grill at line 5.

Figure 4:Comparisons between measured and predicted air temperature profiles downstream
the supply grill at line 5.

The assumptions were suggested in the numerical model to represent the air supply grill, gave
a good agreement with the measured results. The measured values are not equal the numerical
ones due to the limited measuring instrument resolution.

2.4.2Velocity measurements

Figure 5 showscomparisons between measured and predicted air velocity downstream the
supply grill at line 5.

11
11.3
12
12.3
13
13.3
14
14.3
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8
1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

ne|ght (m)
||ne S
measured numerlcal
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

121

Figure 5:Comparisons between measured and predicted air velocity downstream the supply
grill at line 5.
2.5 Conclusions:
The measured air temperatures and velocities were compared against the predicted results.
Fair agreement can be found between the simulated and measured results. For the measuring
points, the average velocity and temperature prediction errors were calculated equal to 0.04
m/s and 0.5C (1.8%), respectively. These values verify the satisfactory performance of the
CFD model, taking into account the accuracy of the measurement. And most of the predicted
air temperatures and velocities were overestimated.Generally the calculations yielded the
same trends as the measurements. Curves of measured temperature is displaced from the
predicted ones, this could be due to errors in specifying the boundary conditions. All
comparisons carried out and shown in this validation gave a direct conclusion of the
numerical model capability to predict the air flow characteristics within acceptable deviation
from the measured values.

3-Results And Discussions
3.1 Case Studies Specifications
All of the case studies will be developed with utilizing FLUENT 6.2 and GAMBIT 2.2 (as
mentioned before) based on a lecture room configuration with 12 6 4 m (12 m in length
(L), 6 m in width (W), and 4 m in height (H)).
Three case studies developed as shown in figure 6, 7, and 8 to show the influence of supply-
extract positions on the air flow characteristics.
Case 1 describes the air flow characteristics at ceiling air supply with 6 square supply air
ports distributed uniformly at the ceiling, while 6 extract ports from all side walls.
Case 2 describes the air flow characteristics when the air supply ports from the side wall (wall
of X-Z plane at X =6 m,five ports), while the extractions from the opposite wall (wall of X-Z
plane at X =0 m, five ports).
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8
v
e
|
o
c
|
t
y

(
m
]
s
)

ne|ght (m)
||ne S
measured numerlcal
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

122

Case 3 describes the air flow characteristics at ceiling air supply with 6 square supply air ports
distributed uniformly at the ceiling, while 6 square extract ports at ceiling also

Figure 6: Case 1 Configuration. Figure 7: Case 2 Configuration

Figure 8: Case 3 Configuration. Figure 9: Modeling of case 1 with
effect of students load

USING STEADY TECHNIQUE:

Figure10: (Case 1) Velocity magnitude contours (m/s),Figure11: (Case 2) Velocity magnitudecontours
(m/s),Vertical plane at Z=1.5 m.Vertical plane at Z=1.5 m.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

123

Figure 12: (Case 3) Velocity magnitude contours (m/s), Figure 13: (Case 1) Temperature contours (K),vertical
plane at Z=1.5 m.Vertical plane at Z=1.5 m.

Figure 14: (Case 2) Temperature contours (K),Figure 15: (Case 3) Temperature contours (K), vertical plane at
Z=1.5 m.vertical plane at Z=1.5 m.
A complete air flow properties prediction of case 1 in actual study (student's presence); will
lead us to more actually comparison with standard values in order to give a comfortable
environment within the occupied zones.

Figure 16: (Case 1) Velocity magnitude contours (m/s),Figure 17: (Case 1) Velocity magnitude contours (m/s),
vertical plane at Z=1.5 m.Vertical plane at X=6 m.

Figure 18: (Case 1) Temperature contours (K),Figure 19: (Case 1) Temperature contours (K), horizontal plane
at Y=1m.vertical plane at Z=1.5 m.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

124

Figure 20: (Case 1) Temperature contours (K),Figure 21: (Case 1) Temperature contours (K), vertical plane at
X=6 m.Horizontalplane at Y=1m.

Figures from 10 to 12 shows the velocity contours in m/s for cases 1, 2, and 3 respectively at
vertical plane at Z =1.5 m.
Figures from 13 to 15 shows the temperature contours in K for cases 1, 2, and 3 respectively
at vertical plane at Z =1.5 m.
Figure 16 shows the velocity contours in m/s for case 1 with the effect of student's presence at
vertical plane at X =6 m.
horizontal plane at Y =1 m.
Figure 19 shows the temperature contours in k for case 1 with the effect of student's presence
Figure 20 shows the temperature contours in k for case 1with the effect of student's presence
at vertical plane at X =6 m.
Figure 21 shows the temperature contours in k for case 1with the effect of student's presence
at vertical plane at Y =1 m.

USING UN-STEADY TECHNIQUE:

Figure22: (Case 1) Velocity magnitude contours (m/s), Figure23: (Case 1) Velocity magnitudecontours
(m/s), Vertical plane at Z=1.5 m.Vertical plane
at X=6 m.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

125

Figure24: (Case 1) Temperature magnitude contours (K), Figure25: (Case 1) Temperature
magnitudecontours (K), Vertical plane at Z=1.5 m.Vertical plane at X=6 m.

Figure26: (Case 2) Velocity magnitude contours (m/s), Figure27: (Case 2) Velocity magnitudecontours
(m/s), Vertical plane at Z=1.5 m.Vertical plane
at X=6 m.

magnitudecontours (K), Vertical plane at Z=1.5 m.Vertical plane at X=6 m.

Figure30: (Case 3) Velocity magnitude contours (m/s), Figure31: (Case3) Velocity magnitudecontours (m/s),
Vertical plane at Z=1.5 m.Vertical plane at X=6 m.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

126

Vertical plane at Z=1.5 m.Vertical plane at X=6 m. magnitudecontours (K),

A complete air flow properties prediction of case 1 in actual study (student's presence);
willlead us to more actually comparison with standard values in order to give a
comfortableenvironment within the occupied zones.

Figure34: (Case 1) Velocity magnitude contours (m/s), Figure35: (Case 1) Velocity magnitudecontours (m/s),
Vertical plane at Z=1.5 m.Vertical plane at X=6 m.

Figure36: (Case 1) Velocity magnitude contours (m/s), Figure37: (Case 1) Temperature
horizontal plane at Y=1 m.Vertical plane at Z=1.5 m magnitudecontours (K),

magnitudecontours (K), Vertical plane at X=6 m. Horizontal plane at Y=1 m.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

127

Figures 22, 26, and30 shows the velocity contours in m/s for cases 1, 2, and 3 respectively at
Figures from 24, 28, and 32 shows the temperature contours in K for cases 1, 2, and 3
respectively at vertical plane at Z =1.5 m.
Figures 23, 27, and31 shows the velocity contours in m/s for cases 1, 2, and 3 respectively at
Figures from 25, 29, and 33 shows the temperature contours in K for cases 1, 2, and 3
respectively at vertical plane at X =1.5 m.
horizontal plane at Y =1 m.
at vertical plane at X =6 m.
at vertical plane at Y =1 m.

4-Concluding Remarks
From the previous chapters and according to the results obtained using the numerical
investigation, the following conclusions can expressed concerning different lecture room
configurations:
Cases 2 and 3 are rejected due to their problems of stratification and uncomfortable
conditions.
CO2 concentrations and relative humidity magnitudes developed in the present work may be
slightly decreased due to modeling of students presence in the room based on the maximum
full load design through assumption of no free spaces between audience bodies, which in the
same chair rows.
Total fresh air through air supply ports assumed in cases of students presence effect, but in
actual mixing between recirculated and fresh air should be designed in order to minimize the
total cost of this design.
Increasing number of air extraction ports will lead to more uniform air flow distribution and
minimize the stagnant air zones.
There is no significant change in results between steady and unsteady techniques in this case
study.

REFERENCES

[1] NIOSH, "Guidance for Indoor Air Quality Investigations ", National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health, Hazards Evaluations and Technical Assistance Branch, Division of Surveillance,
Hazard Evaluation and Field Studies Cincinnati, OH, 1987.
[2] MDPH, " Indoor Air Quality Assessment ", Massachusetts Department of Public Health, Bureau of
Environmental Health Assessment, Boston, MA, 2000.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

128

[3]ASHRAE, " ASHRAE Standard 62-2004: ventilation for acceptable indoor air quality ", American
Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, USA, 2004.
[4] ACGIH, "Guide to Occupational Exposures-1999 ", American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, OH, 1999.
[5] OSHA, "Limits for Air Contaminants ", Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Code of
Federal Regulations, 29 C.F.R. 1910.1000 Table Z-1-A, 1997.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

129

AIR FLOW REGIMES AND THERMAL COMFORT IN A LIVING
ROOM

Essam E. Khalil ,EsmailM.El-Bialy,and Taher M.Aboudeif
Fellow ASHRAE

EssamE.Khalilis a professor of Mechanical Engineering Cairo University, Esmail M. El-
Bialy is assistant professor of Mechanical Engineering, Cairo
University,TaherM.Aboudeifislecturer assistant of Mechanical Engineering, Cairo
University
E-mail:eng.tahermohamed@yahoo.com
SUMMARY
A computational fluid dynamics model is developed to examine the air flow
characteristics of a room with different supply air diffusers. The paper is devoted to
numerically investigate the influence of location, type, and number of air supply and extracts
openings on air flow properties in a typical seating room. The work focuses on air flow
patterns, thermal behavior in the room where few number of occupants. As an input to the
full-scale 3-D room model, a 2-D air supply diffuser model that supplies direction and
magnitude of air flow into the room is developed. Air distribution effect on thermal comfort
parameters was investigated depending on changing the air supply diffusers type, angels and
velocity. Air supply diffusers locations and number were also investigated. The pre-
processor Gambit is used to create the geometric model with parametric features.
Commercially available simulation software Fluent 6.3 is incorporated to solve the
differential equations governing the conservation of mass, three momentum and energy in the
processing of air flow distribution. Turbulence effects of the flow are represented by the well
developed two equation turbulence model. In this paper work, the so-called standard k-
turbulence model, one of the most widespread turbulence models for industrial applications,
was utilized. Basic parameters included in this work are air dry bulb temperature, air velocity,
relative humidity and turbulence parameters are used for numerical predictions of indoor air
distribution and thermal comfort.
The thermal comfort predictions through this work were based on the PMV (Predicted
Mean Vote) model and the PPD (Percentage People Dissatisfied) model, the PMV and PPD
were estimated using Fangers model.
Throughout the investigations, numerical validation is carried out by way of comparisons of
published experimental results whenever available. Good qualitative agreement was generally
observed.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

130

ABBREVIATIONS
2D = Two dimensional configuration
3D = Three dimensional configuration
CFD = Computational Fluid Dynamics
PMV = Predicted mean vote
PPD

= Predicted percentage dissatisfied

INTRODUCTION
The present paper work is concerned with the air flow patterns in a simple room due to
changing the supply diffuser shape and angles. The pre-processor Gambit is used to create the
geometric model with parametric features. Commercially available simulation software
Fluent 6.3 is incorporated to solve conservation of mass, momentum and energy in the
processing of air distribution, and to analyze turbulence affection combined heat transfer on
air distribution. In this paper work, the so-called standard k- turbulence model, one of the
most widespread turbulence models for industrial applications, ASHRAE (2009), was
utilized. Basic parameters included in this work are air temperature, air velocity, relative
humidity and turbulence parameters are used for numerical prediction of indoor air
distribution, Khalil (2000, 2006),Berglund, (1989).
The room main dimensions are 4 m width, 5 m length and 3 m height as shown in Figure1.
A person setting on a sofa is modeled, and a television is added in front of him. The air is
supplied to the room with different conditions as shown later in the boundary conditions
section.

Supply Diffuser Lights Return Diffuser

Figure 1: Case Geometry
Boundary Conditions

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

131

Walls
The room walls were set in the solver to be a constant temperature surface
and its temperature was assumed to be 30 C. The walls material was
simulated to be gypsum which matches the real configuration walls
properties.
Lights heat
load
Lighting fixtures are mounted at ceiling; the light heat flux is set to a value
of 555 w/m
2
for an area of 0.18 m
2
.
Human body
The skin temperature is set at 32.5C depending on the metabolic rate of a
setting person, and the body is assumed to have zero diffusive flux
Television
heat load
Television is placed on a table in the middle of the room, the heat load is
assumed to be 200 W which corresponds to a heat flux of 200 w/m
2
for an
area of 1 m
2
.
The pre-processor GAMBIT was used in meshing the simulated model. The mesh dependency was
examined by solving the flow field for five mesh configurations made of 705, 000,1,500,000and 1,720,000 cells,
respectively, and results showed that up to 3.7% difference in the maximum velocity existed between the coarser
and finer mesh and less than 0.25% difference existed between the two finer meshes, which indicated that the
finer mesh resulted in mesh-independent solutions.
SIMULATION AND DISCUSSION
This part shows the parametric studies carried out on the room model presented in the
previous section. The first case shows the best results in room comfort, as shown in its PPD
histogram (Percentage of People Dissatisfied),Fanger (1972), without paying attention to
energy efficiency. In the second case the air flow is changed in order to enlarge PPD
differences in other cases. Other cases show different air distribution depending on changing
diffuser angels, diffusers type, and location. Table (1) summarizes the difference between
cases selected for this paper work.
Table (1): Description of simulated parametric study cases

Case Diffuser type
T
supply

Diffuser
angles
V
supply

C m/s
1 Square Diffuser 12.8 15-30-60 0.9
2 Square Diffuser 12.8 15-30-60 0.65
3 Square Diffuser 12.8 30-60-90 0.65
4 Circular Diffuser 12.8 30-60-90 0.65
5 Swirl Diffuser 12.8 45 0.65
6 Circular with low side return 12.8 30-60-90 0.65
7 Side supply 12.8 30 0.65

A. Case (1) Square Diffuser (15-30-60)

Boundary conditions for this case and diffuser angels were mentioned in the previous
section. Temperature contours at selected planes are shown, moreover the PMV (Predicted
Mean Vote),Olesen (1998), the velocity vectors at supply diffuser, and the PPD histogram. As
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

132

shown in Figure 2 the temperature is in order of 40C near the heat sources (Lamp and
Television set). The temperature around the seating sofa is in the order of 24C.Figures 3 and
4 demonstrated the corresponding predictions of mean air temperature and PMV for case I.

V
1
V
2
V
3

Figure 2: Supply Diffuser

Figure 3a: Temperature contours at the Figure 3b: Temperature contours of
Centerline plane x=2m a horizontal plane at Y=1m

Figure 4a: PMV contours at the centerlineFigure 4b: PMV contours in a horizontal
planeat x=2m plane at Y=1m
B.Case (2) Square Diffuser (15-30-60)
3

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

133

Figure 5a: Temperature contours at the Figure 5b: Temperature contours in
Centerline at plane X=2m a horizontal plane at Y=1m

Figure 6a: PMV contours at the center- Figure 6b: PMV contours in a horizontal
line plane X=2m plane at Y=1m
Figures 5and6 show the predicted temperature contours at x=2 m and at Y=1 m for case 2
together with the corresponding contours of PMV at same planes. Although these are in
general similar to case I predictions but they differ in details due to utilizing a square diffuser
at lower velocity of 0.65 m/s instead of 0.9 m/s, Figure 7 shows the velocity vectors at
diffuser exit. The computed results shown in Figures 8 to 9 were obtained at supply velocity
of 0.65 m/s but at different diffusing angles of 30/60/90 of case 3. Better values of PMV are
shown in all across the room as indicated in Figure 9.

C. Case (3) Square Diffuser (30-60-90)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

134

Figure 7: Supplied air angles

Figure 8a: Temperature contours at Figure 8b: Temperature contours in
the centerline plane X=2m a horizontal plane at Y=1m

Figure 9a: PMV contours at the center- Figure 9b: PMV contours of a horizontal
line plane X=2m plane at Y=1m
D. Case (4) Circular Diffusers (30-60-90)
Air is supplied through three annular areas with equal areas at three different angels 90, 60,
and30 with discharges 0.025m
3
/s, 0.6 m
3
/s, and 0.035 m
3
/s respectively. The obtained
predictions at the same selected planes are shown in Figures 10and 11. An even distribution
of mean air temperature was shown for case (4) while the predicted PMV values were not
uniform along the room.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

135

centerline plane X=2m a horizontal plane at Y=1m

Figure 11a:PMV contours at the center- Figure 11b: PMV contours of a
line plane X=2m horizontal plane at Y=1m

E. Case (5) (Swirl Flow)

In this case the air is supplied with two equal components in the axial and tangential
directions as shown in Fig. 12. The air is supplied with 0.12 m
3
/s. The predicted temperatures
were shown here in Figure 13 at a vertical
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

136

Figure 12 : Supply air at grill exit plane

Plane at X=2 m and at a horizontal plane at Y=1 m.The corresponding contours of PMV
are shown in Figures 14a and 14b;these generally indicate uniform values of PMV that reflect
more comfort level for occupant in the order of PMV=0.4 that is near neutral. Excessively
high values indicate discomfort due to feeling worm or even hot at PMV =3.

centerline plane X=2m a horizontal plane at Y=1m

Figure 14a: PMV contours at the centerlineFigure 14b: PMV contours of a horizontal
plane X=2m plane at Y=1m

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

137

F. Case (6) Side Return
In some practical situation ; the air is supplied from the ceiling mounted circular diffuser,
and is then extracted through the side rectangular grilles as shown in Figure15.For that
particular design configuration air was supplied at 0.12 m
3
/s as shown here after in Figure 15.
The corresponding predictions of air temperatures and predicted Mean vote PMV,are shown
in Figures 16 and 17. The distributions indicate unhomogenity in temperature distribution in
the room as well as uneven distribution of the PMV,as compared to the case shown in Figure
9 for same room configuration although at different design.

Figure 15: Room Configuration

centerline plane x=2m a horizontal plane at Y=1m
Lights
Return Grilles
Supply Diffuser
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

138

Figure 17a: PMV contours at the centerline Figure 17b: PMV contours of a
horizontal
plane X=2m plane at Y=1m
G. Case (7) Side Supply

In this case the air is supplied from a side grill as shown in Figure18. This case represents
some of the hotel rooms design. The air is kept at a discharge of 0.12 m
3
/s. Air is making a
30 angle with the negative Z-direction as it enters the room.

Figure 18: Room Configuration

Light
Supply Grille
Return Grille
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

139

Figure 19a: Temperature contours in a vertical Figure 19b: Temperature contours in
a
plane at X=1.2m horizontal plane at Y=1m

Figure20a: PMV contours in a vertical planeFigure 20b: PMV contours of a horizontal
at X=1.2m plane at Y=1m

Figures 19 and 20 show the corresponding predictions for those particular case .The
comparisons between all cases are shown later in Figure 21 in terms of the PPD.

Case (1) Square Diffuser Case (2) Square Diffuser

Case (3) Square Diffuser Case (4) Circular Diffuser
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

140

Case (5) Swirl Flow Case (6) Side Return

Case (7) Side Supply

Figure 21: Room PPD Histograms

CONCLUSIONS
The supplied air flow rate was reduced after the first case to magnify the difference
between different air distributions systems used afterwards.
Diffuser air supply angles of 15-30-60 and 30-60-90 were used, and the 30-60-90
showed better results as shown before in the PPD histograms.
Circular diffusers didnt show significant improvement compared to square diffusers.
Swirl diffusers showed the best results as 90% of the room volume have a PPD of 10%.
Side returns are better than ceiling return as shown in comparing cases 4 and 6, the PPD
showed that less than 10% of the people will feel dissatisfied in nearly 70% of the room
volume.
Side supply was simulated in case 7 as it is common in practical applications, but its results
were relatively worse than ceiling diffusers.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

141

REFERENCES

ASHRAE Handbook, Fundamentals 2009, ASHRAE, Atlanta, USA.
Berglund, L. G., and Cain, W. S., Perceived Air Quality and the Thermal Environment, the Human Equations:
Health and Comfort, Proceedings of ASHRAE/SOEH Conference IAQ89 ATLANTA: ASHRAE, (1989),
pp.93-99
Fanger P.O.," Thermal Comfort: Analysis and Application in Environmental Engineering", McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1972
FLUENT 6.2 Documentation, Fluent Inc.
Khalil,E.E., 2000, Computer aided design for comfort in healthy air conditioned spaces,
Proceedings of Healthy Buildings 2000, Finland, Vol. 2, pp. 461-467.
Khalil, E.E.,2006, Preserving The Tombs Of The Pharaohs, ASHRAE Journal, 2006, pp.34-
38
Olesen, B. W., "Guidelines for Comfort ", ASHRAE Journal, (2000) pp.41 - 46, August 1998.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

142

EFFECT OF CITY VENTILATION ON URBAN HEAT ISLAND
IN URBAN AREAS:A PARAMETRIC STUDY

Aya Glten
1
, U.Teoman Aksoy
2
and Hakan F. ztop
3

1
Frat University, Faculty of Technical Education, Elaz, Turkey
2
Frat University, Technology Faculty, Department of Construction Education, Elaz,Turkey

3
Frat University, Technology Faculty, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Elaz,Turkey

Corresponding email: aycagulten@gmail.com

SUMMARY

Urban heat island (UHI) is a remarkable phenomenon that affects a citys demand for cooling
especially in summer season. City ventilation could be a good solution to mitigate the adverse
effects of UHI. In this study, the impacts of city structure on city ventilation by a parametric
study was investigated numericallythat was held out in Elaz, Turkey, by the meteorologic
factors of 1st 11th And 21st days of summer months in 2012.A comparison is performed for
different city structures with different aspect ratios. City structure was modeled for 3D space.
Meteorologic data have been obtained from Government Meteorological Office. In the
simulations, DTRM radiation model for radiation heat transfer and k- turbulence model as
turbulent flow were used. Results are presented as comparison of surface and air temperatures
of each case. It has been found that city structure and orientation has a remarkable effect on
city ventilation and UHI.

INTRODUCTION

UHI phenomena which could be defined as the temperature differences between urban and
rural areas is mainly affected by meteorological factors (e.g.wind velocity and cloudness) and
by physical properties of city structure such as building coverage materials, vegetation and
building height-street width (aspect) ratio [1]. Many studies that are observational or
conducted by simulation methods showed the strong effect of aspect ratio on distribution of
surface temperature which is theprimary indicator for UHI [2,3].In a street canyon, surface
temperature distribution is also affected by wind direction and wind velocity. So then,
combined effect of aspect ratio and wind velocity and direction as a cooling tool could be an
important indicator in street canyons in order to measure UHI capacity.

In this study, we investigated the dimensions of UHI due to surface temperature distribution
of urban surfaces (street, pavement, building faade and roof) in a complex urban area (Gazi
Street) in Elaz. For this purpose simulations made for 12:00 of 1
st
, 11
th
and 21th days of
summer months by a commercial computational fluid dynamics program.3D model of the
study area and meshing is also made by a design modeler and meshing program integrated
with commercial cfd program [4].

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

143

METHODS

The study has two phases;

1. The aspect ratio which is 1 for the existing conditions has been changed to 0,5 and 2
to evaluate different city structures by wind velocity data obtained from Goverment
Meteorological Office.
2. Wind velocity for all cases is raised by adding 2 m/s in order to evaluate the cooling
effect of wind velocity in terms of different aspect ratios.

It is obviously necessary to validate the simulation results of a CFD study at least with one set
of observational data [5]. In this study, model description is constructed by a validation test
that was held out for Gazi Street in Elaz by surface temperature measurements and
meteorological data of 21
st
March of 2007. Results for the validation study are presented in
Table 1.

Table 1. Surface temperature values for the validation study.
North Oriented
Wall (K)
Pavement on
North Side (K)
Street (K) Pavement on
South Side (K)
South Oriented
Wall (K)
Simulated 293,49 291,62 292,27 292,78 298,76
Observed 289,3 289 290,2 291,3 291,1
Convergence% 2,09 0,90 0,71 0,44 2,36

The studied model is used in the validation test consists of two buildings 24 m high and
facing another, a set of pavement 3m length on each side (north and south) and a street layout
24m length in the middle. The buildings are oriented to north and south sides while the street
is east-west oriented (Figure 1).

Figure1. Model description for studied area

For the other cases simulated in this study, the area constructed by validation test is used
containing different aspect ratios. The model which comprises (H) m length buildings is
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

144

centered in a cubic domain of which dimensions are 5H for each direction [6].Wind
velocity/direction and air temperature values are listed in Table 2.

Table 2. Wind velocity/direction and air temperature values for studied days.
Days Wind Velocity/
Direction (m/s)
Air
Temperature (C)
1 J une 3,8 WNW 27,4

11 J une 4,97 SE 29
21 J une 5,27 WNW 30
1 J uly 4,3 NW 29,4
11 J uly 2,35 SW 35,4
21 J uly 3,4 NNW 36,7
1 August 1,2 W 36,3
11 August 1,65 SW 35,8
21 August 5 WNW 35,7

Mesh skewness criteria is accepted for mesh quality and 0.83 skewness is provided for all
cases. Approximately 280000 tetrahedral mesh cells are modeled in the simulations.

The other features and boundary conditions for the method are right as below.
Simulations are made for steady-state regime.
DTRM radiation model for radiation heat transfer and k-- RNG turbulence model
were used.
The coverage materials of urban surfaces and their thermophysical properties are
presented in Table 3.
Simulations are made for 12:00 of 1
st
, 11
th
and 21
st
days of summer months.
Meteorological data for 12:00 of these days is obtained from Government
Meteorological Office and calculated heat transfer coefficients for each situation are
listed in Table 3.
Second order upwind difference scheme(UDS) discretization is used for all equations.

Table 3.Thermophysical Properties of Coverage Materials of Urban Elements
Urban
Element
Material Density
(kg/m
3
)
Cp
(J /kgK)
Thermal
Conductivity
(W/mK)

Street Asphalt 2120 920 0,74 0,93 0,93
Walls Mortar 1860 780 0,72 0,93 0,23
Pavements Concrete -
block
2000 880 1,2 0,7 0,6
Roof Tile 1458 880 0,52 0,91 0,4

In this study, it is accepted that urban surfaces are affected by radiation and convection. Heat
balance equation is generated for each surface to predict the surface temperatures of urban
surfaces. It is calculated by Eq. (1) [7] as

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

145

(1)

Where,
is net solar radiation,
is net longvawe radiation and
issensible heat flux.

(2)

I
d
, I
sky
veI
ref,
(W/m
2
)are the amount of incoming direct, sky and reflected solar radiation
respectively.
is the absorption coefficient of surface, is incidence angle of direct solar

radiation and
is sky view factor of the surface.

The net long wave radiation
is sum of longwave radiation
and atmospheric radiation
(3)

(4)

isemissivity of surface,
is sky view factor of surrounding buildings and ground,
and

represents emissivity and surface temperature of surrounding surfaces respectively.

Atmospheric radiation
is calculated as below:

(5)

Where a andbare coefficients[8] and e (pa) represents relative humidity of air.

Sensible heat flux that affects surfaces by convection is calculated byEq. (6).

(6)

Heat transfer coefficient,
(W/m
2
K), is calculated based on a method from ref. [9].
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In this study, the performance of urban surfaces against UHI by comparing their
surface temperatures for different aspect ratios is studied numerically. Fig. 2, Figs. 5 to 8
present area-weighted average temperature of horizontal urban elements(street, pavements
and roofs on south and north side) for 12:00 of studied days for both of present and raised
wind velocity, respectively.Fig. 3 and 4 present the vertical urban elements (north and south
oriented walls) surface temperature.
In summer season, at 12:00 when the sun is at the top, in a street canyon as we studied
in our case, street and pavements are exposed to direct sunlight by the absence of shading
effect of surrounding buildings. So then, as shown in the Fig. 2, surface temperature of street
decreases while the H/W ratio increases. It is just because of increasing amount ofshaded area
by a higher H/W ratio on the street on north side. The lowest surface temperatures are
obtained for pavement on north side by reason of shading effect while south side pavement
has the highest surface temperature values because of its direct exposition to sunlight. Raising
H/W ratiodoesnot have any influence on pavement on north side, but it causes a little bit
increasing on south side pavement.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

146

The north and south oriented walls which are vertical urban elements are influenced
by H/W ratio less than horizontal surfaces. The obtained results from the simulations for walls
are nearly same for all H/W ratios. South oriented wall presents much higher surface
temperatures comparing to north side as expected. On the other hand, a regular variation is in
the case for surface temperatures being parallel to air temperature in all cases.

(a)

(b)
Fig. 2.Surface Temperature Values For Street. a) present wind velocity b)increased wind
velocity

(a)
0
20
40
60
0
20
40
60
!un 1 !un 11 !un 21 !ul 1 !ul 11 !ul 21 Aug 1 Aug 11 Aug 21
A
|
r

1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

S
u
r
f
a
c
e

1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

Days
P/W=0,3 P/W=1 P/W=2 alr LemperaLure
0
20
40
60
0
20
40
60
A
|
r

1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

S
u
r
f
a
c
e

1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

Days
0
20
40
60
0
20
40
60
A
|
r

1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

S
u
r
f
a
c
e

1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

Days
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

147

(b)
Fig 3. Surface Temperature Values for South Oriented Wall a) present wind velocity b) raised
wind velocity

(a)

(b)
Fig 4. Surface Temperature Values For North Oriented Wall. a) Present wind velocity
b)Increased wind velocity

Cooling effect of wind is related to its direction as much as its velocity and could be
remarkable for lower H/W ratios. For August 1 and 11 the lowest wind velocity is in the case
while only W oriented wind provides a cooling effect in August 1 especially for 0,5 H/W
ratio.The main reason of this is parallel orientation of street due to coming wind
direction.Wind coming from SW direction in 11 August has not provided any cooling effect.
Otherwise, for other wind directions, more wind velocity is needed because of obstacle
0
20
40
60
0
20
40
60
A
|
r

1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

S
u
r
f
a
c
e

1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

Days
0
20
40
60
0
20
40
60
A
|
r

1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

S
u
r
f
a
c
e

1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
(

C
)

Days
0
20
40
60
0
20
40
60
A
|
r

1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

S
u
r
f
a
c
e

1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

Days
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

148

structure of urban canyon. The highest wind velocity is in the case for 21 J une and 21 August
with a direction of WNW and nearly 5 m/s velocity. They provide better cooling effect for all
studied H/W ratios.

Wind velocity could be more effective on horizontal surfaces than vertical ones depending on
winddirection. By raisingthe wind velocity, horizontal surfaces show lower temperatures
while vertical surfaces present nearly same values. Surface temperatures of vertical surfaces
could be decreased by leeward wind direction.

(a)

(b)
Fig 5. Surface Temperature Values For Pavement On South Side. a) present wind velocity b)
increased wind velocity

(a)
0
20
40
60
0
20
40
60
A
|
r

1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

S
u
r
f
a
c
e

1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

Days
0
20
40
60
0
20
40
60
A
|
r

1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

S
u
r
f
a
c
e

1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

Days
0
20
40
60
0
20
40
60
A
|
r

1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

S
u
r
f
a
c
e

1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

Days
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

149

(b)

Fig 6. Surface Temperature Values For Pavement On North Side. a) present wind
velocityb)increasedwind velocity

(a)

(b)
Fig 6. Surface Temperature Values For Roof. a) present wind velocity b)increased wind
velocity

CONCLUSIONS

0
20
40
60
0
20
40
60
A
|
r

1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

S
u
r
f
a
c
e

1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

Days
0
10
20
30
40
30
60
0
10
20
30
40
30
60
A
|
r

1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

S
u
r
f
a
c
e

1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

Days
0
10
20
30
40
30
60
0
10
20
30
40
30
60
A
|
r

1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

S
u
r
f
a
c
e

1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

Days
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

150

The main findings of the study showed that H/W ratio, wind velocity and direction have an
importance on surface temperature distribution in an urban canyon.Lower H/W ratio provides
less shaded areas then higher surface temperature values especially on horizontal surfaces. On
the other hand, cooling effect of wind could be more sensible for lower H/W ratios. Increasing
H/W ratio also increases the need for more velocity winds in city structure. It is not an
attainable situation for cities. So then it is an urgent necessary to determineappropriate H/W
ratio at the design stage of cities to provide bettercity ventilation in order to mitigate adverse
effects of urban heat island.

REFERENCES

1. GIVONI, B., ClimateConsiderations in Buildingand Urban Design,1998.
2. ALI-TOUDERT, F., MAYER, H., Numericalstudy on theeffects of
aspectratioandorientation of an urban Street canyon on outdoorthermalcomfort in hot
anddryclimate, Buildingand Environment, 41(2006)94-108.
3. TONG, N.Y.O., LEUNG, D.Y.C., Effects of diurnalheatingscenarioandwindspeed on
reactivepollutantdispersion in urban streetcanyons, J ournal of EnvironmentalSciences, 2012,
24(12)2091-2103.
4. AnsysUsers Guide
5. MIRZAEI, P., A., Approaches to study Urban Heat Island- Abilities and limitations,
Building and Environment, 45 (2010) 2192-2201.
6. YANG, L., LI, Y., Thermal conditions and ventilation in an ideal city model of Hong-
Kong,Energy and Buildings, 43 (2011)1139-1148.
7. ASAWA, T., HOYANO, A., KAZUAKI, N., Thermal design tool for outdoor spaces based
on heat balance simulation using a 3D-CAD system, Building and Environment 43 (2008)
2112-2123.
8. books.google.com/ A Test of Brunt's Formula forPredicting Minimum Temperatures. (Son
eriim:26.01.2013)
9. LOVEDAY, D.L., TAKI, A.H. Taki, Convective heat transfer coefficients at a plane surface
on a full-scale building faade, International J ournal of Heat and Mass Transfer 39 (8) (1996)
17291742.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

151

CFD SIMULATIONS OF CHEVRON TYPE PLATE HEAT
EXCHANGERS AND VALIDATION WITH EXPERIMENTAL DATA

Ece Ozkaya
1
, Yasin Genc
1
, Selin Aradag
1
and Sadik Kakac
1

1
TOBB University of Economics and Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Sogutozu cad No: 43, 06560 Ankara / Turkey

Corresponding email: eozkaya@etu.edu.tr

SUMMARY

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is a powerful and useful tool to predict thermal-
hydraulic performance of chevron type plate heat exchangers (CPHE). In this study, three-
dimensional CFD analyses are conducted to assess the thermal and hydraulic performances of
a commercial chevron type PHE by performing the CFD analyses for the heat exchanger and
comparing the results with a computer program previously developed based on experimental
results. Two separate flow zones, one for each of the hot and cold domains, are used to model
the heat transfer. Mass flow inlet and pressure outlet boundary conditions are used for each
domain and heat transfer between the domains is modeled with a contact region which is
conservative heat flux for a thin material. Temperature and pressure distributions are obtained
and the total temperature difference and pressure drop values are compared with experimental
data. The thermal properties are in good agreement with experimental data; however pressure
predictions deviate from the experimental results and the studies for hydraulic characteristic
prediction continues.

INTRODUCTION

Design of plate heat exchangers which has been used since 1930's in food industry, was
developed in 1960's with the help of new geometries and the development related to new
materials; therefore the utilization of plate heat exchangers increased. Today, they are used in
several applications such as heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) applications,
electronic circuits and chemical industries on account of their compactness, high efficiency,
flexible design and easy maintenance [1].

Heat transfer calculations of plate heat exchangers are a wide area of research because of their
complex geometry and several design parameters involved in the process. Hence, it is
necessary to develop correlations for heat transfer and pressure drops associated with these
heat exchangers. Experiments for hydraulic and thermal performance analyses have to be
performed for different plate types, in order to develop plate-dependent correlations for
Nusselt number and friction factor, which are used in thermal and hydraulic performance
predictions, respectively [2].

These experiments, however, are quite expensive and limited. For this reason, CFD can be a
powerful tool for performance analyses of plate heat exchangers. It provides realistic
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

152

visualizations of the flow, zone by zone and it can also provide a wide range of test cases in
order to predict parameters such as temperature, pressure and velocity in the heat exchanger
whereas the experiments cannot. There are studies in literature for CFD simulations of
different types of plate heat exchangers. Pelletier et al. [3] investigated whether simulation of
brazed plate heat exchanger (BPHE) for determining heat transfer characteristics can be
conducted by using FLUENT CFD simulation program. The analyses were performed for
three-dimensional volumes which are formed by merging two different plate geometries. CFD
simulations, were first practiced with a flat surface plate heat exchanger in order to collect the
clues for the necessity for simulating compact corrugated plate heat exchanger. Then, the
analysis was performed for complex geometries. The k- SST turbulence model was used and
Reynolds number was about 3500. Constant heat flow and constant wall temperature
conditions were used as boundary conditions. The working fluid is water and its properties are
constant. CFD results are compared with the experimental results which are conducted for the
plates with the same geometrical features. This study concluded that the experimental results
could be more accurate when constant heat flux approximation was used. It is observed that
the simulation shows a deviation of 4.2% from the experimental values. OHalloran et al. [4]
studied BPHEs experimentally and numerically. By using a commercial CFD code, FLUENT,
numerical analyses were performed for three BPHEs which have different chevron angle
values, 60
o
/60
o
, 27
o
/60
o
and 27
o
/27
o
. The results of the CFD simulations show good
agreement with experimental results.

Kanaris et al. [5] investigated heat transfer enhancement and fluid flow inside the channels of
a commercial PHE experimentally and numerically. Pressure drop and temperature difference
values are used to validate CFD results. An experimental set-up with IR thermography camera
was used. CFD simulations are limited with the Reynolds number range in the experiments
and the simulations are steady state. It is presented that limited experimental and theoretical
work in literature is in fairly good agreement with the obtained results. It is found out that,
PHE simulation with commercial CFD codes is an effective tool for predicting the flow
characteristics, heat transfer and pressure drops.

Utriainen and Sundn [6] carried out a three-dimensional numerical study to assess the
thermal and hydraulic performances of cross wavy (CW) ducts. The effects of secondary flow
in cross wave on thermal and hydraulic performance are investigated. The amplitude and
length are the variables to define waviness and seven different combinations are used for
computations where the hydraulic diameter is constant. A commercial software is used for
the CFD analyses for a Reynolds number range of 700-1400. Near wall region flow is
disturbed by angled streamwise flow and a secondary flow which increases velocity and
temperature gradients. These results in not only enhancement in heat transfer but also an
increase in wall friction which means higher overall pressure drop. The study concluded that
the performance of CW duct is superior to straight duct up to six times; however the pressure
drops are similar.

Zhang and Che [7] worked on eight turbulence models for the evaluation of performance. The
models are Low Reynolds k- (LBKE), standard k-, realizable k-, RNG k-, Reynolds
Stress Model (RSM), k-, SST and Large Eddy Simulation (LES). The best predictions are
made by LBKE and SST both for thermal and hydraulic performance within the whole
Reynolds number range. Zhang and Che [8], in another study, investigated the effects of
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

153

corrugation profile and inclination angle on the flow and heat transfer for a Reynolds number
range of 1000 to 10000 and an angle range of 60 to 120. Five different corrugation profiles
were studied which are sinusoidal, isosceles triangular, trapezoidal, rectangular and elliptical.
The trapezoidal profile provides higher performance for heat transfer and the friction factor
gets five times higher than that of the elliptical channel.

Freund and Kabelac [9] developed a measurement method for PHE performance. An IR
camera was used for measuring temperature. The measurements are used to validate CFD
simulations for a unitary cell. SST and Explicit Algebraic Stress Model - Reynolds Stress
Model (EARSM - RSM) turbulence models are used for the CFD simulations. The SST
model predicted the thermal performance 33% lower than the experimental results while
EASM RSM predictions gave 25% lower results. Although EASM RSM predicts better
than SST, CFD results are lower than measured results which indicates a PHE designed with
CFD may perform better than predicted because of the uncertainties in the turbulence models
used.

The main goal of this study is to perform the CFD analyses for determining thermal
performance of plate heat exchangers and to validate the results with obtained experimental
data. Temperature and pressure distributions of contact region, temperature difference and
pressure drop values are obtained from the CFD simulation results.

METHODS

The geometrical properties of the plate used in the CFD simulations are shown in Figure 1a
where chevron angle (), the most important parameter for thermal and hydraulic
performance, is 30. Corrugation depth (b) is 2.76 mm and the plate thickness (t) is 0.45 mm.

a) b)
Figure 1. The plate and CFD model definitions a) Geometrical properties b) CFD set-up
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

154

The Computer Aided Drawing (CAD) model is created by three-dimensional photogrammetry
scanner and is simplified for the CFD model. After the CFD model is ready, grid and set-up
are prepared as given in Figure 1b. Boundary conditions are mass flow inlet, pressure outlet
and wall condition is no slip wall conservative heat flux with thin material for the contact
surface and stationary no slip wall for other walls. Hot side inlet temperature is 65C and cold
side temperature is 20C. Pressure outlet is 0 Pa relative pressure where the operating
condition for pressure is 1 atm.

In the study of Gulenoglu et. al. [10], correlations for Nusselt number and friction factor were
evaluated from experiments. CFD analysis needs to be verified with experimental data taken
from the study of Gulenoglu et. al.[10]. Outlet temperatures and inlet pressures are calculated
by CFD simulations and differences between the inlet and outlet are compared to this
experimental data. For this verification process, the flow chart in Figure 2 is used. Mesh
independent results are obtained in the study. After mesh independency is achieved, the
effects of the turbulence model are investigated. In this step, boundary conditions are fixed as
mass flow inlet and pressure outlet boundary conditions. As mentioned in Zhang and Che [7],
SST turbulence model gives the best predictions when compared to various industrial
turbulence models, taking cost into account.

Figure 2. Flow chart for the verification of the CFD analysis
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

155

Two properties of mesh, number of elements and y
+
(minimum non dimensional cell height)
value, are used to obtain mesh independency. The number of elements in the mesh is
determined by doubling for every grid as 2.5 million (M), 5M, 10M and 20M elements. The
results are nearly the same for 10M and 20M; hence the 10M mesh is chosen for the
following analyses. The effects of y+on the results are also examined. Five inflation layers
are used to resolve the boundary layer on heat transfer plate and to predict thermal and
hydraulic performance more accurately. Different y
+
values, 0.5 and 1, on contact region are
examined for 10M element mesh. The best values are obtained for a y
+
values of 0.5. The
results of 10M elements with a y
+
value of 0.5 is used for the rest of the study.

RESULTS

Temperature and pressure distribution on the contact region for the chosen grid and set-up is
given in Figure 3 for a mass flow rate 0.03 kg/s and in Figure 4 for a mass flow rate 0.06 kg/s.

a) b) c) d)
Figure 3. Temperature distribution for Case 1 (mass flow rate of 0.03 kg/s) a) Cold side, b)
Hot side, Pressure distribution c) Cold side, d)Hot side

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

156

a) b) c) d)
Figure 4. Temperature distribution for Case 2 (mass flow rate of0.06 kg/s) a) Cold side, b)
Hot side, Pressure distribution c) Cold side, d)Hot side

Temperature distribution on the contact region is given in Figure 3a and Figure 3b for 0.03
kg/s mass flow rate where Reynolds number is 800. Cold water is heated as seen in Figure 3a
while hot water is cooled down and temperature of flow is distributed as expected. The flow
arrangement is counter flow; hence the average temperature of cold water outlet can be higher
than hot water outlet. For a mass flow rate of 0.03 kg/s, the temperature difference is 27.2C
where experimental data for this case is 23C. Cold water outlet temperature is 9C higher
than the hot water outlet temperature.

Pressure distribution on the contact region is given in Figure 3c and Figure 3d for a mass flow
rate of 0.03 kg/s. Temperature distribution is affected by Chevron angle and flow direction;
however, pressure distribution is not. Pressure drop is about 0.6 kPa where experimental data
gives a pressure difference of 2.7 kPa. In this case, CFD overpredicts the heat transfer rate
but under predicts total pressure drop.

Temperature distribution on contact region is given in Figure 4a and Figure 4b for 0.06 kg/s
of mass flow rate where Reynolds number is 1800. Distribution is similar to the 0.03 kg/s
case; however, the temperature difference is 16.6 C where experimental data is 19C.
Although the flow arrangement is counter again, average cold water outlet temperature is
lower than hot water outlet. The cold water outlet temperature is 12C lower than the hot
water outlet temperature. Pressure distribution on contact region is given in Figure 4c and
Figure 4d for 0.06 kg/s of mass flow rate. Pressure drop is about 1.5 kPa where experimental
data shows a pressure drop of 9.4 kPa. In this case, CFD underpredicts both the heat transfer
rate and total pressure drop.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

157

The results for the mesh independency study are given in Table 1 for the minimum mass flow
rate of 0.03kg/s.

Table 1. Results of different grids for the mass flow rate of 0.03 kg/s
Element Number y
+
value T [C] P [kPa]
2.5 M 6 12.7 0.39
5M 6 14.9 0.40
10M 5 17 0.40
20M 4.2 19.6 0.43
10M 1 17.8 0.46
10M 0.5 27.2 0.6

DISCUSSION

Chevron type PHE with corrugation improves heat transfer by helping turbulent flow to
develop. It is indicated in literature that when Reynolds number is higher than 800-1000, the
flow becomes turbulent. In this study, the minimum Reynolds number is chosen as 800 for a
mass flow rate of 0.03kg/s; however, the flow is not fully turbulent. Turbulence modeling
may cause extra turbulent kinetic energy to develop numerically, this may be the reason for
CFD to overpredict heat transfer parameters. On the other hand, the maximum mass flow rate
is 0.06kg/s where Reynolds number is 1800. Higher Reynolds number means turbulent flow
and for the case with the maximum mass flow rate, the flow is fully turbulent. However, this
time, CFD underpredicts the temperature difference. This can be a result of insufficient
inflation layers to resolve the secondary flow in corrugation and boundary layer separations.
This can also be the main cause of under prediction of pressure drop.

The validation procedure continues and mesh independency study is still a work in progress.
The experimental data is taken from a correlation-based computer program. To avoid
correlation errors, new experiments are being carried out specifically for CFD validation and
the CFD results will have a meaning after the validation experiments for exactly the same
cases.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This project is supported by Turkish Scientific and Research Council (TUBITAK) under grant
TUBITAK-112M173 and by Turkish Academy of Sciences Distinguished Young Scientists
Award Programme and by TUBITAK BIDEB programme.

REFERENCES

1. Kakac, S., Pramuanjaroenkij, A., Liu, H., 2012, Heat Exchangers: Selection, Rating, and
Thermal Design, 3
rd
Edition, CRC Press.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

158

2. Wang, L., Sundn, B., Manglik, R.M., 2007,Plate Heat Exchangers: Design, Applications and
Performance, WIT Press.
3. Pelletier, O., Stromer, F., Carlson, A., 2005, CFD Simulation of Heat Transfer in Compact
Brazed Plate Heat Exchangers, ASHRAE Transactions. Vol. 111, no. 1, pp. 846-854.
4. OHalloran, S., J okar, A., 2011, CFD simulation of single-phase flow in plate heat exchangers,
ASHRAE Transactions, LV-11-C018, 147-156.
5. Kanaris, A.G., Mouza, A.A., and Paras, S.V., 2005, Numerical and Experimental Investigation
of Flow and Heat Transfer in Narrow Channels with Corrugated Walls, 4
th
International
Conference on Heat Transfer, Fluid Mechanics, and Thermodynamics.
6. Utriainen, E., Sundn, B., 2002, A numerical investigation of primary surface rounded cross
wavy ducts, Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 38. pp. 537-542.
7. Zhang, L., Che, D., 2011, Turbulence Models for Fluid Flow and Heat Transfer between Cross
Corrugated Plates, Numerical Heat Transfer, Part A, Vol 60, pp. 410-440.
8. Zhang, L., Che, D., 2011, Influence of Corrugation Profile on the Thermalhydraulic
Performance of Cross Corrugated Plates, Numerical Heat Transfer, Part A, Vol 59, pp. 267-296.
9. Freund, S., Kabelac, S.,2010, Investigation of Local Heat Transfer Coefficients in Plate Heat
Exchanger with Temperature Oscillation IR Thermography and CFD, International J ournal of
Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol.53, pp. 3764-3781.
10. Gulenoglu, C., Aradag, S., Sezer-Uzol, N., Kakac, S., Experimental Comparison of
Performances of Three Different Plates for Gasketed Plate Heat Exchangers, International
J ournal of Thermal Sciences (accepted).

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

159

ENERGY EFFICIENT DATA CENTERS WITH SPECIALIZED
SIMULATION TOOLS

Can zcan
1

1
Akro Engineering Ltd., Kocaeli, Turkey

Corresponding email: can.ozcan@akroengineering.com

SUMMARY (heading style: Times New Roman Bold 12 pt, UPPERCASE)

Due to increasing demand on cloud computing, centralized data centers are becoming more
important where capacities increase. This in turn, not only increases the initial costs but also
the running energy costs. As energy prices rise and concerns about global warming grow there
is increasing will to attain efficiency in data center energy systems. The criteria for such
efficiency is called PUE(Power Usage Effectiveness) and defined as Total Facility
Power/Total IT Power. Cooling is about 75% of the non-IT power consumption and can be
improved thru simulations. This paper will address usage of specialized simulation tools to
effectively calculate PUE and optimize data center cooling systems according to ASHRAE
standards.

INTRODUCTION

The introduction should present the practical and scientific background for the study or
presentation, the hypothesis(es) and a clear statement of the objective(s) of the
study/presentation.

Data Centers are being built in increased number and capacity with recent trends and
advancements in information technologies. Penetration of mobile technologies to large
communities, storage of user data in form of data-rich formats and cloud computing
technologies are factors for such increase of Data Center investments.

Energy consumption has been increasing in the world, with diminishing resources for
traditional fossil based fuels. With environmental concerns, renewable energy is a current hot
topic. Though much research is in the field of energy generation, the opposite side of the
equation is the energy consumption which is a field open for improvement with more efficient
mechanical systems.

Data shows that the energy consumption in Data Centers is at comparable scale to overall
energy consumption [1]. And considerable percentage of data center energy consumption is
related to data center cooling, not the IT equipment consumption. Because of this
significance, efficient Data Center cooling is important for both financial and environmental
concerns.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

160

Computational Fluid Dynamics is the science of solving fluid dynamics and heat transfer
equations on a discretized domain. The technique was developed mainly for aerospace
industry in its early implementations and has been employed in different industries with great
success over several decades.

The governing equation for fluid dynamics is Navier-Stokes and is still impractical to solve
numerically using DNS(direct numerical solution) with current computer systems. Therefore a
reduced version of Navier-Stokes, that is Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS)
equations was introduced by Osborne Reynolds in late 19
th
century.

Coupling RANS equations, with proper turbulence and heat transfer equations lead to solution
of a coupled fluid dynamic system which is called CFD.

In this study, I propose CFD as a valuable tool for energy efficiency in Data Centers and
support our hypothesis with an example. Additional benefits of using such technology for
reliability and preventing excess redundancy is also discussed.

METHODS

Data Center energy efficiency is calculated using CFD methods in this study. I have
considered a simple optimization model for energy efficient data center design.

(a) Numerical Optimization using Unit Cell Model
In this case, a large data center facility is analyzed by modeling only a unit cell portion. This
case only 1/16
th
of the data center is modeled using 2 rack rows with a single air handler being
in the model. The geometric unit cell model is shown in Figure 1 below.

Figure 1 CFD Domain For Optimization Study
The design of the server room is chosen to be an under floor configuration, where the air
vent openings will be distributed on the floor. The modeled unit cell, rack and air handler unit
dimensions can be listed as:

unit cell dimensions (width)x(length)x(height) : 4.8m x 9.0m x 3.8m
rack dimensions (width)x(length)x(height) : 1.2m x 0.6m x 2.1m
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

161

air handler dimensions (width)x(length)x(height) : 3.0m x 1.2m x 1.6m

As it can be observed from Figure 1, there are 2 rows of server cabinets in the unit cell
model, where each row consists of 8 cabinets of 10kW each.

The following boundary conditions are required to define the differential equation to be
solved using CFD method:
Air handler units are assigned to work as an outlet
Every cabinet/rack will generate 10kW heat with 0.85 m
3
/s flow rate [3]
Server environment should be kept between 18 and 23 degrees Celsius
AC unit inlet temperature is between 10 and 17 degrees Celsius
AC unit volumetric flow rate is assumed to be 8 m
3
/s
Wall conditions are given a standard thermal conductivity value with 23 degrees
Celsius
Radiation effects are neglected
Buoyancy model is considered for natural convection type flow
Turbulence model is chosen as Shear Stress Transport (SST)
Floor vent tile openings are modeled as porous domain with directional loss
coefficients

Figure 2 Boundary Conditions On Air Handling Unit, Service Racks

Figure 3 Boundary Conditions On Air Handling Unit and Venting Tiles

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

162

With the given conditions, the problem is setup for a numerical optimization study using the
following input and output parameter set as outlined in Figure 4 and Figure 5. The numerical
optimization loop is set to be fully automated using scripting for geometry creation, meshing,
solution and post-processing stages of a single CFD analysis.

Optimization study has 4 input variables where 3 of them are related to ceiling mounted flow
deflector as shown in Figure 4. The position of the deflection is measured from wall (where
air handling unit is placed) towards center of the data center room. The length and height of
the deflector are used to set the size of the flow deflector. The last input parameter is chosen
to be Grill Free Area Ratio, this parameter is set in the CFD solver numerically, by
adjusting the porosity value. The aim is to define flow amount through the tiles via this
parameter.

Figure 4 Input Parameters for Numerical Optimization

For flow optimization, only 2 output parameters are used; Rack Temperature and
Temperature Uniformity. After post processing of the solution the maximum temperature
on the racks is read and recorded as Rack Temperature parameter. The temperature
uniformity is calculated on the racks, based on standard deviations. Standard deviation
provides a measurement of temperature variation from the mean. Temperature uniformity
corresponds to minimized standard deviation of rack surface temperatures.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

163

Figure 5 Output Parameters for Numerical Optimization

A response surface based optimization method is chosen, since a single CFD run takes
considerable run time and is not suitable for direct optimization. An initial design of
experiments (DOE) is generated by optimal space filling algorithm, which is suitable for
nonlinear flow problems. Non-parametric regression algorithm is employed for response
surface. Multiple objective genetic algorithm (MOGA) is used to perform actual optimization.
Optimal design candidates are verified with direct numerical simulation as a follow-up for
accuracy of the solution.

RESULTS
(a) Numerical Optimization using Unit Cell Model
Response surface fit for Rack Temperature is show in Figure 6. Deflector Position and
Grill Free Area Ratio is found out to be the most important factors affecting the maximum
rack temperatures. The shape of the response surface suggests the nonlinear relationship
between input and output.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

164

Figure 6 Response Surface for "Rack Temperature" as a Function of Deflector Position and Grill Free
Area Ratio

For data center cooling efficiency, one would like to minimize Rack Temperature and
achieve Temperature Uniformity by minimizing standard deviation. Analyzing the data one
can obtain valuable information about design parameters for this specific data center design:

Air vent tile free area ratio has to be around 0.3 to 0.35 [Figure 7a]
Deflector position is found out to be optimum between 3m to 4m [Figure 7b]
Deflector length should be small (just closing over the aisle) [Figure 8a]
Deflector height should be large [Figure 8b]

Figure 7 Effect of (a) Grill Free Area Ration and (b) Deflector Position, on Rack Temperature

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

165

Figure 8 Effect of (a) Deflector Height and (b) Deflector Length, on Rack Temperature

Figure 9 Pareto Chart for All Design Points
Pareto frontier surface is useful to determine for multi-objective optimization. Such chart is
generated in Figure 9. Since one would like to minimize both Rack Average Temperatures
and Standard Deviation for uniform cooling, one can look for a feasible point on the pareto
surface as shown with yellow dashed line. One can observe that there is a trade-off between
the two output parameters by looking at this chart. The choice can be dependent on a number
of parameters and can be chosen by considering all design constrains.

For the sake of application, one pick a feasible design on the pareto surface with equal weight
on both output parameters. Then we can compare the temperature profile before and after this
optimization study in below images:
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

166

Figure 10 Temperature Distribution in Server Room (a) Initial Design (b) Optimized Design

Figure 11 Rack Temperatures (a) Initial Design (b) Optimized Design

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

167

Figure 12 Temperature Distribution via Volume Rendering (a) Initial Design (b) Optimized Design

DISCUSSION
In this paper it has been shown that numerical engineering simulation tools can be utilized for
greater energy efficiency in data centers. Improvement of software capabilities and
technology allows system designers to consider more possibilities in virtual simulated
environments before making important design decisions.

Current state of general and customized software has benefits effecting the energy efficiency
calculations. In this paper, I have studied the optimization and automatic model generation
capabilities of a general purpose code with detailed modeling capabilities of a specific data
center energy efficiency tool.

I believe, there is still room for improvement in these simulation systems by combining best
of both options. In future analysis, I would like to concentrate on optimization of detailed
systems and enabling of data transfer from design data.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank Applied Math Modelling, NH and Ozen Engineering, CA for their
support on this study.

REFERENCES

1. J . Koomey, A Simple Model for Determining True Total Cost of Ownership for Data
Centers, Uptime Institute 2008
2. U. Singh et.al. CFD-Based Operational Thermal Efficiency Improvement of a
Production Data Center
3. S.V. Patankar Computational Modeling of Airflow in Raised-Floor Data Centers
4. C.D. Patel, R. Sharma, C.E. Bash and A.Beitelmal, Thermal Consideration in Cooling Large
Scale High Compute Density Data Centers, EICTT Conference 2002 CA USA
5. Handbook of Hydraulic Resistance 3rd Edition I. E. Idelchik, CRC Begell House 1994
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

168

INVESTIGATION OF THERMAL COMFORT INSIDE A FURNISHED
OFFICE ROOM ACCORDING TO VELOCITY-TEMPERATURE
VARIATIONS

Firat Karasahin
1
, Tamer Calisir
2
and Senol Baskaya
2

1
Hacettepe University Physics Engineering Dep., 06800 Beytepe-Ankara TURKEY
2
Gazi University, Dep. of Mechanical Engineering, 06570 Maltepe-Ankara TURKEY

Corresponding email: tamercalisir@gazi.edu.tr

SUMMARY

In this study, airflow profiles for conditioning the space of a furnished office room with a
manikin have been numerically investigated. An existing experimental space has turned into a
numerical model using PHOENICS CFD code, by using boundary conditions that were
applied in the experimental study. Obtained results have been compared with the experimental
data and a good agreement was achieved. For two different diffuser locations the diffuser inlet
velocity was varied between 0.1-2.0 m/s and temperature for summer and winter conditions
was varied between 16-20C and 25-35C, respectively. Between the investigated cases, for
summer conditions, the optimum comfort conditions for the cooling process were obtained for
DL1 with 20C supply air temperature and 2m/s supply air velocity. For winter conditions, in
the case of heating, optimum comfort conditions were obtained for DL2 with 30C supply air
temperature and 1m/s supply air velocity.

INTRODUCTION

For thousands of years the human being is struggling against climate conditions. Although the
struggle in the external environment is greatly won through appropriate clothing, indoor
conditions have been changed continuously in order to obtain more comfortable living
conditions. The main task of a high-performance ventilation system is to supply fresh and
conditioned air in order to get rid of pollutants and to ensure a comfortable and healthy indoor
air environment.

In order to ensure indoor air quality and thermal comfort a lot of research has been performed
in the past and certain standards have been established. Catalina et al. reported a full-scale
experimental and a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) study of a radiant cooling ceiling
installed in a test room [1]. Olesen and Parsons carried out a study on thermal comfort
standards [2]. Abanto et al. concerned about the numerical simulation of airflow and the
prediction of comfort properties in a visualization room of a research centre [3]. Mendez et al.
analyzed numerically the ventilation airflow pattern in a two-bedded hospital room [4].
Baskaya and Eken investigated numerically the air distribution inside a room containing one
person and office furniture under different inlet/outlet and summer/winter configurations [5].
Lin et al. investigated the air movement, air temperature profile and gaseous contaminant
transportation in an office with stratum ventilation using numerical and experimental
techniques [6]. Sajadi et al. investigated numerically the effect of geometric parameters on the
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

169

performance of a specific type of swirling air diffuser [7]. Some of the standards created by
International organizations define systems which provide appropriate air for the necessary
comfort and health conditions indoors. The European Prestandard PrENV 1752 is intended to
be a flexible tool for assisting the designer in providing a proper indoor environment for
people in ventilated buildings [8]. The ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-1992 specifies conditions
in which 80% or more of the occupants will find the environment thermally acceptable [9].
The purpose of the ISO 7730 Standard is to present a method for predicting the thermal
sensation and the degree of discomfort of people exposed to moderate thermal environments
and to specify acceptable thermal environmental conditions for comfort [10]. The scope of the
ISO 7726 Standard is to specify the minimum characteristics of instruments for measuring
physical quantities characterizing an environment as well as the methods for measuring the
physical quantities of this environment [11]. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62-2001 specifies
minimum ventilation rates and indoor air quality that will be acceptable to human occupants
and are intended to minimize the potential for adverse health effects [12].

As can be seen, there have been many investigations on thermal comfort and indoor air
quality, but there were very few investigations on idealization of diffuser locations according
to velocity temperature variations in a furnished office room. In this study, thermal comfort
conditions were investigated numerically by changing velocity, temperature and diffuser
location effects of velocity-temperature distributions and diffuser locations on thermal
comfort conditions for summer/winter conditions.

NUMERICAL MODEL

Airflow behavior and resulting thermal comfort conditions for conditioning the space of a
furnished office room with a manikin have been numerically investigated using PHOENICS
CFD code. Numerical model was designed using table, shelve, cabinet, chairs and a human
manikin, according to the experimental setup. The investigated office room and appropriate
diffuser locations (DL) are shown in Figure 1. By changing velocity and temperature
conditions several parametric combinations have been produced, and the effects of velocity-
temperature distributions on thermal comfort conditions were observed. The office room was
modeled using the exact dimensions of the experimental space, which were 5x4x2.55m
3
.
Diffuser dimensions of DL1 and DL2 were 437.5x190 mm
2
and 600x600 mm
2
, respectively.

(a) (b)
Figure 1. Geometry of investigated office room and diffuser locations (a) DL1, (b) DL2

DL1
DL2
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

170

Standards for air-conditioning and ventilation were investigated carefully and based on these
information a model was developed. According to the experimental setup, 64 temperature
locations were used in the analysis of numerical results. Figure 2 shows the temperature
locations. For a specified diffuser location the velocity was varied between 0.1-2.0 m/s and
the temperature for winter and summer conditions was applied in the range of 25 35 C and
16 20 C, respectively. All walls, floor and ceiling temperatures were modeled as 30 C and
5 C for summer and winter conditions, respectively.

Figure 2. Temperature measurement locations

Trial solutions were obtained with a wide range of iteration and cell number combinations for
iteration and grid independency checks. Final simulations were performed with iteration
numbers of 5000 and cell numbers up to 100x90x60 depending on the relevant sizes. In order
to check the adequacy of the present numerical approach, the obtained results are compared
with experimental measurements which were obtained from the furnished office room. In
Figure 3. comparison of experimental and numerical results at the 1st temperature
measurement location is shown. It can be seen that there exist just 1-2 C temperature
difference between the numerical and experimental results, which shows that the numerical
model is suitable.

Figure 3. Comparison of experimental and numerical temperature values at 1st temperature
measurement location

Governing Equations

The airflow and heat transfer inside the office room is a three-dimensional, turbulent, mixed
convection problem formulated with three-dimensional equations of conservation of mass,
momentum, energy, turbulent kinetic energy and its dissipation rate. For a steady,
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

171

incompressible, three-dimensional flow the conservation of mass, turbulent momentum and
energy equations can be expressed in the following forms.

( )
0 =
i
i
x
U
, (1)

( ) ( )
ref i
i
j
j
i
ef
j i
j i
j
g
x
u
x
u
x x
P
u u
x

, (2)

( )

j
ef
j
j
j
x
T
x
T u
x
, (3)

Here, g is the gravitational acceleration,
ref
is the reference density,
ef
is the effective
dynamic viscosity. In the above equation, the g(-
ref
) term is the buoyancy force.
shows the diffusion term. The turbulence kinetic energy equation is expressed as:

( )
+ +
B K
i k
ef
i
i
i
G G
x
k
x
k u
x
, (4)

Here,
k
is a turbulence model constant,
K
G is the rate of shear production of k and
B
G is
the rate of buoyancy production of k.
K
G and
B
G are defined as given below:

=
i
j
j
i
j
i
t K
x
u
x
u
x
u
G ,
i
i
t
t
i B
x
g G
=

1
, (5)

The dissipation rate of turbulence kinetic energy is given as:

( ) ( )

2 3 1
C G C G C
k x x
u
x
B K
i
ef
i
i
i
+ +
, (6)

where,

3 2 1
C , C , C , are turbulence model constants. These definitions were made
according to the standard k- turbulence model. In this model the turbulence model quantities
are given as:
+ =
t ef
,

2
k
C
t
= ,
t
t
ef
= , (7)

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

172

where,
t
is the turbulent viscosity,
fluid density,
C turbulence model constant and

ef

is the effective exchange coefficient. Values of the turbulence model constants are
t
=1.00,
C
=0.09,
k
=1.00,
=1.314, C
1
=1.44, C
2
=1.92, C
3
=1.00.

Boundary Conditions

Velocities at the walls and shelve, cabinet, chairs and human manikin are zero because of the
no-slip condition. Shelve, cabinet, chairs and human manikin were assumed to be adiabatic.
All walls, floor and ceiling temperatures were modeled as 30 C and 5 C for summer and
winter conditions, respectively. For a specified diffuser location, the velocity was varied
between 0.1-2.0 m/s, and the temperature for winter and summer conditions was applied in
the range of 25 35 C and 16 20 C, respectively. At the outlet, the pressure is fixed to the
ambient pressure and all variations of temperature, turbulent kinetic energy and its dissipation
were taken to be zero.
The logarithmic law of the wall was used in regions close to the wall surfaces. Equations used
for the turbulent inlet boundary conditions are given below [5].

2 2
5 1
c
t
in
U I . k
in
= ,
+ =
c
/
t
U / / v u I
in
2 1
2 2
2 ,
in
=
2 3/
in
k / L
, L
=d / 2 (9)

Here, k
in
is the turbulent kinetic energy at the inlet, I
tin
turbulence intensity at the inlet, U
c

characteristic velocity scale, u and v average fluctuating components of velocity,
in

dissipation rate of k at the inlet, L
characteristic length and d is the jet slot width [5].

RESULTS

In this study, outside air was supplied at a specific temperature and velocity range from two
different locations to provide the necessary human thermal comfort conditions. For
temperature, velocity and vertical temperature variations thermal satisfaction categories were
considered together. In Table 1 the design criteria for a single office room is shown [8].

Table 1. Design Criteria for the space
Type of
Building/Space
Category
Operative Temperature
[
o
C]
Mean air velocity [m/s]
Summer Winter Summer Winter
Single Office
A 24,51,0 22,01,0 0,18 0,15
B 24,51,5 22,02,0 0,22 0,18
C 24,52,5 22,03,0 0,25 0,21
K Discomfort

As mentioned before, there have been 16 temperature and velocity locations at which four
vertical temperature and velocity data were used in the analysis. Using that data mean velocity
and mean temperatures were calculated for all 64 locations. The resulting velocity and
temperature values were used to determine the variation of thermal comfort conditions inside
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

173

the office room. As a result, in accordance to the most uncomfortable condition, the ultimate
comfort category was determined. Figure 4. shows the representation of comfort categories
for each location.

Figure 4. Comfort category representation for each location

In Figure 5 the velocity and temperature distribution for DL1 and DL2 at winter conditions is
shown for 1.0 m/s and 30C. It is seen from the temperature contour for DL1 that the right
side of the room is colder, and especially the location around the desk is below the comfort
conditions. The air is entering from the bottom and changes its direction after impinging on
the cabinet, and after this the velocity of air decreases along the room. It is believed that due
to the decrease in velocity and temperature air could not heat the office room. Similarly, for
DL2 it is seen that when air enters from the top of the office the velocity and consequently the
temperature distribution is more uniform. Also, there is little effect from occupants for such a
diffuser location. In addition, changes of inlet/outlet locations significantly alter the
temperature distributions. If the figures are analyzed jointly, one can see that the temperature
distribution develops because of airflow characteristics resulting from the variation of
inlet/outlet locations and the occupants size and location.

(a)

(b)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

174

Figure 5. Velocity vectors and temperature contours at heating conditions, 1.0 m/s velocity
and 30C temperature (a) DL1 (b) DL2

In Figure 6 the velocity and temperature distribution for DL1 and DL2 at summer conditions
is shown for 2.0 m/s and 20C. It can be seen from the velocity distribution for DL1 that there
is a significant effect of the occupants to the velocity and temperature distributions.
Accordingly, too high velocities at the diffuser inlet and very low temperatures were
observed. But these values are only near the bottom of the office. In general a uniform
temperature and velocity distribution along the office was observed. For DL2 it is observed
from the velocity distribution that high velocities are present at diffuser inlet and the
conditioned air impinges on the bottom. For this reason a wall jet and high velocities are
observed at the bottom surface, which leads to discomfort. On the other hand, a more uniform
temperature distribution in the range of 24-25C is obtained.

Table 2. shows the comfort analysis performed at winter and summer conditions for 1.0 m/s and
30C and 2.0 m/s, 20C, respectively. From the results obtained for DL1 at winter conditions it
is seen that category A was achieved for mean velocity and vertical temperature difference.
However, as a result of flow velocities the mean office temperature was obtained in the range of
16-17C, and because of that, although a mean comfort category B was achieved, the ultimate
comfort category was uncomfortable. Similarly, from the comfort analysis for DL2 A and B
comfort categories were achieved for mean velocity and vertical temperature difference,
respectively. The mean temperature distribution of the office room was obtained in the range of
22-23C and a mean comfort category of B or C was achieved. Despite this, the ultimate
comfort category was achieved as uncomfortable. For temperature measurement locations at the
heights of z=0.6m and z=1.1m comfort categories for temperature were acceptable.
Nevertheless, at the height of z=0.1m the temperature range was very low, so the ultimate
comfort category was uncomfortable. As observed from the velocity and temperature
distributions for DL1 at summer conditions, A ultimate comfort category has been obtained in
general. There have been also some points where discomfort exists. But these points are at height
levels of ankle like before observed from the velocity distribution. Approximately 24C
temperature was observed in the upper regions of the office room for DL2 at summer conditions.
Hence, comfort category A was obtained. However, because of high velocity values at the
vertical locations of z=0.1m, ultimate discomfort was obtained for this arrangement.

(a)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

175

(b)
Figure 6. Velocity vectors and temperature contours at cooling conditions, 2.0 m/s velocity
and 20C temperature (a) DL1 (b) DL2

Table 2. Comfort analysis
W
I
N
T
E
R

C
O
N
D
I
T
I
O
N
S

LOCATION
16
LOCATION
15
LOCATION
14
LOCATION
13
DL1 K C (K, A, B) K B (K, A, A) K B (K, A, A) K B (K, A, A)
DL2 K B (K, A, A) K C (K, K, A) K C (B, K, A) B B (B, A, A)
LOCATION
12
LOCATION
11
LOCATION
10
LOCATION 9
DL1 K B (K, A, A) K B (K, A, A) K B (K, A, A) K B (K, A, A)
DL2 K B (K, A, A) K C (K, A, B) K B (A, K, A) K C (B, K, A)
LOCATION
8
LOCATION
7
LOCATION 6 LOCATION 5
DL1 K B (K, A, A) K B (K, A, A) K B (K, A, A) K B (K, A, A)
DL2 K K (B, K, A) K C (B, K, A) K C (B, K, A) C B (B, A, A)
LOCATION
4
LOCATION
3
DL1 K C (K, K, A) K B (K, A, A) K B (K, A, A) K B (K, A, A)
DL2 K C (B, K, A) K B (K, A, A) K C (B, K, A) C B (C, A, A)
S
U
M
M
E
R

C
O
N
D
I
T
O
N
S

LOCATION
16
LOCATION
15
LOCATION
14
LOCATION
13
DL1 A A (A, A, A) B B (B, A, A) A A (A, A, A) C A (A, A, A)
DL2 K C (B, K, A) K C (B, K, A) K C (C, K, A) K C (C, K, A)
LOCATION
12
LOCATION
11
LOCATION
10
LOCATION 9
DL1 K B (A, K, A) K K (K, K, C) A A (A, A, A) K C (C, K, A)
DL2 K C (B, K, A) A A (A, A, A) K C (B, K, A) K C (B, K, A)
LOCATION
8
LOCATION
7
DL1 K C (B, K, A) A A (A, A, A) A A (A, A, A) A A (A, A, A)
DL2 K C (B, K, A) K C (B, K, A) K C (B, K, A) K C (B, K, A)
LOCATION
4
LOCATION
3
DL1 A A (A, A, A) A A (A, A, A) A A (A, A, A) A A (A, A, A)
DL2 K C (B, K, A) K C (B, K, A) K C (C, K, A) K C (C, K, A)

DISCUSSION

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

176

Airflow behavior and resulting thermal comfort conditions for conditioning the space of a
furnished office room with a manikin have been numerically investigated. An existing
experimental space has been turned into a numerical model using PHOENICS CFD code. The
numerical results obtained have been compared with the experimental data and a good
agreement was achieved. For two different diffuser locations the diffuser inlet velocity was
varied between 0.1-2.0 m/s, and temperature for summer and winter conditions was varied
between 16-20C and 25-35C, respectively. For winter conditions, comfort category A was
achieved for mean velocity and vertical temperature difference for DL1. Although a mean
comfort category B was achieved, the ultimate comfort category was uncomfortable, because
the mean office temperature was obtained in the range of 16-17C. Similarly, the comfort
analysis for DL2 was achieved as A and B comfort categories for mean velocity and vertical
temperature difference, respectively. The mean temperature distribution of the office room was
obtained in the range of 22-23C and a mean comfort category of B or C was achieved.
Despite this, the ultimate comfort category was achieved as uncomfortable. For summer
conditions, there has been an A ultimate comfort category obtained in general for DL1. There
have been also some points seen where discomfort exists. The comfort analysis for DL2 was also
presented and comfort category A was obtained. However, because of high velocity values at
the vertical locations of z=0.1m, ultimate discomfort was obtained for this arrangement.

REFERENCES

1. Catalina,T,Virgone,J , Kuznik, F. 2009. Evaluation of thermal comfort using combined
CFD an experimentation study in a test room equipped with a cooling ceiling. Building and
Environment. Vol. 44, pp. 1740-1750.
2. Olesen,B W, Parsons, K C. 2002. Introduction to the termal comfort standards and the
proposed new version of EN ISO 7730. Energy and Buildings. Vol. 34, pp. 537-548.
3. Abanto, J , Barrero, D, Reggio, M, Ozell, B. 2004. Airflow modelling in a computer room.
Building and Environment. Vol. 39, pp. 1393-1402.
4. Mndez, C, San J os J F, Villafrulea, J M, Castro, F. 2008. Optimization of a hospital room
by means of CFD for more efficient ventilation. Energy and Buildings. Vol. 40, pp. 849-854.
5. Baskaya, S, Eken, E. 2003. Investigation Of Room Air Flow Regarding Effects Of Occupants,
Inlet/Outlet Locations, Inlet Velocity, And Winter/Summer Conditions, Int. Comm. Heat Mass
Transfer. Vol. 30 (8), 1147-1156.
6. Lin, Z, Tian, L, Yao, T, et al. 2011. Experimental and numerical study of room airflow
under stratum ventilation. Building and Environment. Vol. 46, pp. 235-244.
7. Sajadi, B, Saidi, M H, Mohebbian, A. 2011. Numerical Investigation of the swirling
diffuser: Parametric study and optimization. Energy and Buildings. Vol. 43, pp. 1329-1333.
8. PrENV 1752:1996, Ventilation for buildings - Design criteria for the indoor environment.
9. ASHRAE. 1992. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55 1992, Thermal Environmental Conditions
for Human Occupancy, Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and
Airconditioning Engineers, Inc.
10. ISO 7730 2005, Ergonomics of the thermal environment Analytical determination and
interpretation of thermal comfort using calculation of the PMV and PPD indices and local
thermal comfort criteria.
11. ISO 7726 1998, Ergonomics of the thermal environment Instruments for measuring
physical quantities.
12. ANSI /ASHRAE Standart 62-2001, Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

177

ECONOMICAL ANALYSIS OF HEAT RECOVERY VENTILATION
FOR DIFFERENT CLIMATE CONDITIONS IN TURKEY

smail Hakk Tavman
1
, Cihan angarl
2

1
Dokuz Eyll University, Mechanical Engineering Department. zmir
2
Impelair AS, zmir

Corresponding email: cihan@impelair.com

SUMMARY

Ventilation increases heating and cooling demand because of the additional fresh air load.
With heat recovery ventilators, exhausted air energy is transferred to the supplied fresh air by
the help of an air to air heat recovery exchanger. Supply air temperature to the space is not
constant and is a function of exhaust air and fresh air temperature. In this study 5 cities
located at different regions are considered and fresh air temperatures are received for an
hourly basis by Turkish State Meteorological Service. A heat recovery ventilator with cross-
flow heat recovery exchanger has been provided from a manufacturer with a nominal air flow
rate of 500 m
3
/h. Supply air temperature; recovered total energy and heat recovery efficiency
are calculated in an hourly basis for the 5 cities. Return on investment calculation shows that
Ankara which is the coldest city examined has the shortest return on investment time.

INTRODUCTION

The energy crisis in 1970s led the countries to develop new energy strategies. The increasing
consumption in the Carbon based fuels and the limited resources not only increase the interest
in renewable energy researches but also encourage the governments to search for more
efficient ways to use the Carbon based fuels.

Researches made in U.S show that 70% of the total electricity consumption and 50% of the
total natural gas consumption takes place in the buildings [1]. Investors, architects, landlords
and building operators are looking for modernistic solutions to support marketing activities
that can both decrease the investment and operational costs and also create a better indoor
environment to increase productivity and human comfort in buildings.

Heat recovery ventilation (HRV) units are designed to meet the modern ventilation needs
while decreasing the fresh air cooling/heating load.

HRV systems are examined for investment and operational costs by many researchers. It is
shown that HRV systems are creating energy savings in colder climates and with the increase
in temperature efficiency the energy savings also increase [2]. With the use of HRV systems
according to climate, it is possible to reduce the total cooling design load up to 29% and the
total heating design load up to 37% [3]. To decrease the humidity indoors, HRV systems are
more efficient than natural ventilation systems and mechanical exhaust systems [4].

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

178

METHODS

In this research an HRV unit serving a call center with 16 operators is examined. The HRV
unit has a nominal air flow rate 500 m
3
/h and is running 24 hours a day. The unit is equipped
with a cross flow plate type heat recovery exchanger without humidity transfer. The unit has
an automatic by-pass system; when the temperature is between 21C and 26C, a by-pass
clamp is opened and return air is not introduced and by-passed through the heat exchanger.
These operational periods are not calculated in the energy savings calculation. Indoor air
conditions for all the climates examined is fixed and taken into consideration as 22C,
50%RH during winter and 26C, 50% RH during summer. Outdoor air relative humidity for
the examined cities are also fixed and taken into consideration as 75% in winter and 35% in
summer.

Picture 1. Cross flow Heat
Exchanger

Picture 2. Air Passing
Ducts in a Heat Exchanger

The heat recovery exchanger
used in this research has a plate
size of 400 mm and a length of
320 mm. The plate distance is
3,5 mm.
Outside air temperatures for 5 cities located in different climate zones in Turkey are delivered
by Turkish State Meteorological Service on an hourly base for 2005. Energy recovery
efficiency, supply air temperature and total recovered energy are calculated for the 5 cities
separately by the software supplied by the heat exchanger manufacturer and presented in the
charts. The software is a scientific hybrid of heat exchanger calculation and empirical data
received from tests conducted according to the standard EN 308 "Heat exchangers - Test
procedures for establishing performance of air to air and flue gases heat recovery devices".
The software is approved by the independent testing and certification authority Eurovent.

RESULTS

Monthly average outdoor air temperatures are calculated and given in Table 1. Hourly based
outside air temperatures are illustrated through Chart 1-5. Minimum winter outdoor air
temperatures for Antalya and zmir are over 0C, below 0C for Urfa and stanbul and less
than -6C for Ankara. Maximum summer outdoor air temperatures are over 30C for Ankara
and stanbul, over 33C for Antalya and zmir and over 36C for Urfa. Seasonal maximum
and minimum temperature difference for Ankara, Antalya and Urfa is over 42C, for zmir
and stanbul is over 35C.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

179

Table 1. Monthly Average Temperatures for the examined cities.
J an. Feb. Mar. Apr. May J une J uly Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Ankara 3,3 2,3 6,0 11,2 16,2 18,9 24,5 25,0 18,6 10,8 5,9 2,8
Antalya 10,8 10,1 13,4 16,8 21,1 25,4 28,4 28,9 25,6 19,3 13,9 11,8
stanbul 7,1 6,0 7,3 12,3 16,3 20,3 24,2 25,1 20,8 14,7 10,5 8,7
zmir 9,9 8,6 12,0 16,3 21,2 24,7 28,4 28,4 23,9 17,8 12,8 11,2
Urfa 6,6 6,5 11,4 17,4 23,0 27,2 33,0 32,0 26,5 18,6 11,1 9,8

Chart 1. Outdoor Air Temperature for Ankara

Chart 2. Outdoor Air Temperature for Antalya

Chart 3. Outdoor Air Temperature for stanbul

Chart 4. Outdoor Air Temperature for zmir

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

180

Chart 5. Outdoor Air Temperature for Urfa

To evaluate recovered total energy, the year has been divided into three seasons; heating,
cooling and by-pass. Heating season is regarded for outdoor air temperatures below 21 C and
cooling season for outdoor air temperatures above 26 C. Between these values heat recovery
exchanger will not operate return air from the call center will be by-passed. Fresh air will be
introduced to indoor space without heat treatment.

Energy recovered is calculated in kW for heating and cooling seasons and in heating season is
denoted in red dots and in cooling season blue dots through Chart 5-10. For Ankara and
stanbul the heat recovery occurred for heating season the most. For Izmir and Antalya the
season heat recovery is more balanced but still more for heating season. In Urfa the heat
recovery occurred for cooling and heating are in balance. The charts show that in colder
climates where outdoor air temperature is lower than 0C and with warmer summer
temperatures slightly above 30C; the heat recovery develops mainly for heating seasons.
Similarly; for climates with warmer conditions also the heat recovery rate in cooling season is
increasing whereas for climates with high outdoor air temperatures like Urfa it is more
balanced.

Chart 6. Recovered Energy for Ankara

Chart 7. Recovered Energy for Antalya

Chart 8. Recovered Energy for stanbul

Chart 9. Recovered Energy for zmir

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

181

Chart 10. Recovered Energy for Urfa

Thermal effectiveness also known as heat recovery efficiency is defined as;

Rate Transfer Heat Maximum l Theoretica
Rate Transfer Heat Actual
= , (1)

Figure 1. Temperature change in a heat
exchanger

The maximum theoretical heat transfer rate
occurs in counter-flow with infinite heat
transfer surface area. It cannot occur in
parallel flow because the exit temperature
must be between the two inlet temperatures.

Total energy recovery with the formula for constant specific heats with no phase change for
heating and cooling seasons;

( ) ( )
1 2 h h
h
p h
T T c m Q = , (2)
( ) ( )
1 2 c c
c
p c
T T c m Q = , (3)
The actual heat transfer is given by;

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
in C out C C out H in H H
T T c m T T c m Q
, , , , max
= = , (4)

If the hot fluid has the lower thermal capacity, then the efficiency formula is generated for
even fluid flows as;

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
in C in H
out H in H
in C in H h
out H in H h
T T
T T
T T c m
T T c m
, ,
, ,
, ,
, ,
, (5)

If the cold fluid has the lower thermal capacity then the efficiency formula is generated for
even fluid flows as;

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

182

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
in C in H
in C out C
in C in H h
C out C h
T T
T T
T T c m
T T c m
, ,
, ,
, ,
int , ,
, (6)

Supply air temperatures for 5 cities are calculated from the software and are shown in Chart
11. The shallow area in the chart shows the by-pass season where no heat recovery has
considered for the different climates. Although outdoor air temperatures and energy recovery
rates are different it is observed that the supply air temperatures after the heat recovery
ventilation unit are close to each other.

Chart 11. Supply air temperature comparison for 5 cities

Although the outdoor air temperatures vary for the examined cities with maximum of 11 C in
heating season as illustrated on Chart 1 through Chart 5, supply air temperatures variation is
smaller and is a maximum of 5 C. As the indoor air temperatures are fixed for the heating
season at 22 C, this change in variation is a function of the efficiency. As shown in Formula
6, when the temperature difference in the two opposite air streams increase, the efficiency of
the HRV system also increases. With the evaluated data and the efficiency formula it is shown
in Chart 12 that the HRV system efficiency increases with the change in temperature
difference and in a colder climate examined, supply air temperature may result to have a
smaller margin than a warmer climate because of the higher heat recovery efficiency.

For the examined system, heat recovery efficiency is calculated and Chart 12 is developed.
Although the outdoor air temperatures vary in summer, the heat recovery efficiencies are
similar for the cooling season, this result in a significant diversity in the supply air
temperatures as shown in Chart 11.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

183

Chart 12. Supply air temperature comparison for 5 cities

The payback period of the installed HRV system is calculated for the 5 cities. To calculate
return on investment (ROI), HRV system investment and operational cost is compared to a
duct fan system (DFS). DFS consist of one supply air fan to introduce fresh air indoors and
one return air fan to extract dirty, stale air indoors. To treat incoming air against particles, dust
and similar a filter box is also adapted to the system. The power consumption of two systems
is compared for the nominal air flow and measured a difference of 18W/hour because of the
pressure drop across the heat recovery exchanger and return air filter. This results in an
additional electrical consumption of 157 kW. The installation and the maintenance cost for
the two systems are identical, thats why it is neglected in the calculation. To calculate the
heating/cooling savings of the HRV system, a natural gas burner is used for comparison for
winter and an air source heat pump unit is used for calculation with a with a SEER (Season
Energy Efficiency Ratio) of 3,0 for summer. Table 2 shows the input to the ROI calculation.

Table 2. Data used for Return on Investment calculation.
HRV System Duct Fan System
Initial Cost Investment Cost 710.00 454.00
Operational
Costs
Electrical Consumption 134 W/hour 116 W/hour
Service Costs
Same as
alternative
Same as
alternative
Natural Gas Heating
Cost
0.028 /kW
Heat Pump Cooling
Cost
0.031 /kW
Table 3. Total heat recovery in 5 cities
Ankara Antalya stanbul zmir Urfa
Heating (kW) 3689 1614 4540 1880 2050
Cooling (kW) 85 265 35 197 604
Total (kW) 3774 1879 4575 2077 2654
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

184

Total recovered heat for heating and cooling season is given in Table 3. For heating season a
natural gas burner with 0,028 /kW heating cost and a heat pump system with 0,031 /kW is
used for comparison. Figure 2 shows the return on investment for the 5 cities.

Figure 2. Return on Investment for the 5 cities.

DISCUSSION

The results carried out in this research shows that in colder climates due to the higher
temperature differences heat recovery efficiency is higher. Although the outdoor air
temperatures are lower, because of the high heat recovery efficiency supply air temperatures
are similar to warmer climates. In colder climates, ROI is less than warmer climates. Also in
climates with hot summer and warm winter, ROI is less than warmer climates. In Ankara and
Istanbul ROI is the lowest due to colder climate data but also in Urfa where summers are very
hot ROI is lower than the warmer cities, Izmir and Antalya. To make a more appropriate
calculation for warmer climates it is important to evaluate the enthalpy exchange with a
humidity transfer capable heat recovery exchanger. The results should be effected because of
the humidity transfer in the fresh air.

REFERENCES

1. J . L. Niu and L. Z. Zhang, Membrane-based enthalpy exchanger: material
considerations and clarification of moisture resistance, J ournal of membrane science
189, 179191, Retrieved November 14,2007 from Science Direct database.
2. Kragh J esper , Rose J rgen & Svendsen Svend Mechanical Ventilation with heat
recovery in cold climates. Proceedings of the 7th Symposium on Building Physics in
the Nordic Countries 1033-1040.
3. Serhan Kka, Is Geri Kazanm Cihazlarnn Baz ehirlerdeki Yllk Toplam Istma
Ve Soutma Kazanlari, VII. Ulusal Tesisat Mhendislii Kongresi TESKON 05
Bildiriler Kitab, 39-47, 2005
4. L. Z. Zhang & J . L. Niu, Effectiveness correlations for heat and moisture transfer
processes in an enthalpy exchanger with membrane cores, J ournal Of Heat Transfer
124, 922929, Retrieved November 14,2007 from ASME database.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

185

INDOOR AIR CONCENTRATIONS OF SYNTHETIC MUSK
COMPOUNDS AND THEIR FRACTIONATION BETWEEN GAS AND
PARTICULATE PHASES IN A UNIVERSITY CAFETERIA

idem zcan, Aysun Sofuoglu, Sait C. Sofuoglu

zmir Institute of Technology, zmir, Turkey

Corresponding email: cemilsofuoglu@iyte.edu.tr; saitcemil@iit.edu

SUMMARY

In this study, we measured indoor air gas and particulate phase SMC concentrations in a
cafeteria at Izmir Institute of Technology. Total Suspended Particles (TSP) samples were
collected on glass-fiber filters while gas phase samples were collected using XAD-2 resin
sandwiched between polyurethane foam. A total of ten 7-hour samples were collected. After
clean-up, extraction, and fractionation the samples were analzed for 11 nitro and polycyclic
SMC using a GC-MS. Results showed that SMC are heavily (~87% on average) present in
the gas phase. Cashmeran, celestolide, galoxolide, musk ketone, and tonalide were the five
compounds detected in all samples followed by phantolide, musk xylene, and tresolide. Total
(gas+particle) mean standard deviation concentrations ranged from 0.20.5 ng/m
3
(musk
ambrette) to 5451100 ng/m
3
(musk ketone). SMC concentration profile is different than that
we previously measured in a womens sports center and a primary school classroom.

INTRODUCTION

Synthetic Musk Compounds (SMCs) were synthesized because it was not possible to satisfy
the demand for natural musk from musk deer (Moschus moschiferus L.) and some other
animals and plants. Mainly two groups of SMCs (nitro and polycyclic musks) have been
produced and used in a wide range of personal care and household products such as perfumes,
deodorants, antiperspirants, lotions, detergents, softeners, all sorts of cleaning fluids, etc.
Nitro musks are Musk Ketone (MK), Musk Xylene (MX), Musk Ambrette (MA), Musk
Moskene (MM), and Musk Tibetene (MT). Because MA was determined to be a mutagenic,
it was banned by the European Union, and the use of MX was not recommended as it might
be carcinogenic [1]. The worldwide production has shifted from nitro musks to polycyclic
musks. Cashmeran (DPMI), Phantolide (AHDI), Traseolide (ATII), Tonalide (AHTN),
Galaxolide (HHCB), Celestolide (ADBI) are the commonly used polycyclic musk
compounds. However, HHCB and AHTN were shown to be Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals
[2, 3].

SMCs have been detected since 1980s in biota, fish, mussels, human milk and adipose tissue,
waters, wastewaters, and drinking water [4-7]. Because SMC containing products are
primarily used indoors, indoor air is the main inhalation exposure pathway. Levels of SMCs
indoors have not been characterized well; there still are microenvironments for which no data
exists. Investigated microenvironments include a hairdresser shop [8], apartments and
kindergartens [9], a primary school classroom and a womens sports center [10] a cosmetics
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

186

plant [11], for which gas phase average or median levels were ranging from 20 ng/m
3
in the
hairdresser shop to 267 ng/m
3
in the classroom for HHCB, the most frequently detected SMC.
Particle phase concentrations were measured only in our previous study [10] and in a
cosmetic plant in China [11]. SMCs were found to be dominantly in the gas phase; particle
(PM
2.5
) phase concentrations constituted less than 5% of the total concentrations [10]. This
study aimed to measure SMC indoor air concentrations in a university cafeteria, and to
determine gas-particle phase partitioning.

METHODS

Indoor air samples were collected from a cafeteria at zmir Institue of Technology for ten days
in Summer-2012. Gas and particulate phase (Total Suspended Particles, TSP) samples were
collected with a sampling system consisted of a Harvard impactor (Air Diagnostics &
Engineering Inc., Harrison, ME, USA) and a pump. TSP was collected on 37 mm glass fiber
filters. Serially attached two glass cylinders were connected to the impactor to collect the gas
phase. While front cylinder consists of PUF-resin-PUF, back cylinder contains only PUF that
was used for the detection of breakthrough. Finally, a vacuum pump (Air Diagnostics &
Engineering Inc., SP-280) was connected to the PUF cartridges and the air collected left the
system. Sampling time was 7 hours with a20 l/min flow rate. At the begining and end of the
sampling the pump was was calibrated using a calibrator (Defender 510-H; BIOS, Buttler,
NJ , USA).

In this study , the extraction procedure was adapted from Peck and Hornbuckle [12] for the
synthetic musk compounds. Each of the gas and particulate phase samples (PUF, resin, GFFs)
were extracted by acetone and hexane (1:1) mixture ultrasonically. Then the extracts were
evaporated to reduce the volume to 5 ml under the gentle stream of nitrogen gas (100 ml/min).
Then, 10 ml hexane was added for three times to exchange solvent into hexane. Finally, the
extract was concentrated to 2 ml volume. A Florisil column was used for clean-up of the
sample. A piece of glass wool, 0.75 g Florisil and 1 cm sodium anhydrous sulfate were placed
in a Pasteur glass pipet to enhance SMCs in the column, respectively. Before column
chromotography, florisil was activated at 650
0
C and sodium anhydrous sulfate was activated
at 450
0
C in the oven then 37.5 l water was added to 0.75 gr Florisil in the column for
deactivation. The samples were passed through the columns and discharged. Four ml of ethyl
acetate was passed through the column and this solvent phase was collected in a 40 ml amber
vial. Volume of the samples was reduced to 1 ml with a gentle nitrogen gas stream. Solvent
was changed into the hexane and the extracts were kept in the freezer until GC/MS analysis.
A gas chromatograph (Thermo, Trace GC Ultra,Austin, TX, USA) coupled to a mass selective
detector (Thermo DSQII) with electron impact ionization operated in selective ion monitoring
(SIM) mode was used for the analysis. A 30-m 5% phenyl methyl siloxane capillary column
(TR-5MS; 0.25 mm I.D., 0.25 m film thickness) was used.

RESULTS

Re-analysis of the samples for ADBI and MK, which were detected in both gas and
particulate phases, are in progress due to QA/QC issues. Therefore, here we report
concentrations of the remaining compounds. Indoor air average gas phase SMC
concentrations in the university cafeteria ranged from 0.27 ng/m
3
for MA to 107 ng/m
3
for
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

187

HHCB. All SMCs were detected in the gas phase in the order from the highest to the lowest
concentration as HHCB >AHTN >ATII >DPMI >MX >AHMI >MM >MT >MA. Three
SMCs were detected in the particulate phase samples. Average concentrations were ranked as
MX >DPMI >ATII, ranging from 0.07 ng/m
3
for ATII to 3.2 ng/m
3
for MX. Gas and
particulate average concentrations are presented in Figure 1 and 2, respectively.

Figure 1. Gas phase average SMC concentrations measured in a university cafeteria. (Error
bars show one standard deviation)

Figure 2. Particulate phase average SMC concentrations measured in a university cafeteria.
(Error bars show one standard deviation)
Because AHMI, HHCB, AHTN, MM, MT, and MA were not detected in the particle phase,
these compounds were found to be 100% in the gas phase. Partitioning for the remaining
SMC were 99%, 98%, and 62% gas phase for ATII, DPMI, and MX, respectively.

DISCUSSION

Kallenborn and Gatermann [8] measured gas phase concentrations of SMCs in the cafeteria of
the Norwegian Institute for Air Research. HHCB, AHTN, and ATII were the detected
compounds with concentrations of 35.3 ng/m
3
, 11.6 ng/m
3
and 4.8 ng/m
3
, respectively. MX
0.01
0.1
1
10
uMl A1ll Mx
C
o
n
c
e
n
t
r
a
t
i
o
n

(
n
g
/
m
3
)

Synthetic Musk Compounds
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

188

and MK were not found in the air samples. They also measured SMCs in the rest facilities in
the institute. Concentrations reached up to 19 ng/m
3
(HHCB). Unlike the cafeteria they
detected MX and MK in the rest facilities with concentrations of 0.6 ng/m
3
and 0.2 ng/m
3
,
respectively. They also collected indoor air samples from laboratories, a hair dresser, and
toilet. The ATII level measured in the hair dresser (5.2 ng/m
3
) was comparable to that of our
study ( 9.54 ng/m
3
) but in general concentrations were lower than those measured in this
study, including HHCB, AHTN, and ATII but with the same order from high to low
concentration.

We previously measured indoor air gas and particulate phase SMC concentrations in a
primary school classroom and a womens sport center [10]. In the classroom HHCB and
AHTN concentrations were reported as the highest particle phase concentrations among the
other SMCs while in this study HHCB and AHTN were not found in the particulate phase
samples. However, similar to this study all of the SMCs were dominantly found in the gas
phase (>96%) in the previous study. Partitioning of MX between gas and particulate phases
was low (62% vs. 38%) compared to the other SMCs and the previously measured
partitioning (>99% in the gas phase). SMC concentration profile is different than that we
previously measured in a womens sports center and a primary school classroom probabaly
due to the use of different cleaning and/or personal care products Indoor air particulate phase
polycyclic musks concentrations was measured in a cosmetic plant [11], ranking from high to
low as HHCB>AHTN>DPMI>ADBI>AHMI. Based on total gas and particulate phase
concentrations, SMCs were dominantly in the gas phase (98%) in a workshop of the cosmetic
plant. In conclusion, MX needs to be studied further along with MK and ADBI for
verification of the results. In conclusion, it can be speculated that the variation in SMC
concentrations are mainly due to the variation in the product use and their SMC content.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We thank the supervisor of the cafeteria Mr. brahim da for welcoming our investigation.
We also thank Environmental Research Center of Izmir Institute of Technology for GC-MS
analysis.

REFERENCES

1. SCHER, 2006. Scientific Comittee on Health and Environmental Risks Opinion on
Classification of Musk Ketone. European Comission, Health and Consumer Protection
Directorate-General.
2. Seinen, W., Lemmen, J .G., Pieters, R.H., et al., 1999. AHTN and HHCB show weak
estrogenicbut no uterotrophic activity. Toxicology Letters. Vol. 111(1), pp. 161-
168.
3. Schreurs, R.H., Sonneveld, E., J ansen, J .H., et al., 2005. Interaction of polycyclic
musks and UV filters with the estrogen receptor (ER), androgen receptor (AR), and
progesterone receptor (PR) in reporter gene bioassays. Toxicological Sciences. Vol.
83(2), pp. 264-272.
4. Yamagishi, T., Miyazaki, T., Hori, S., et al., 1981. Identification of Musk Xylene and
Musk Ketone in freshwater fish collected from Tama River, Tokyo. Bulletin of
Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. Vol. 26, pp. 656-662.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

189

5. Kallenborn, R., Gatermann, R., Planting, S., et al., 1999. Gas chromatographic
determination of synthetic musk compounds in Norwegian air samples. J ournal of
Chromatography A. Vol. 846, pp. 295-306.
6. Rimkus, G.G., Gatermann, R., and Hhnerfuss, H., 1999. Musk xylene and musk
ketone amino metabolites in the aquatic environment. Toxicology Letters. Vol. 111,
pp. 5-15.
7. Benotti, M.J ., Trenholm, R.A., Vanderford, B.J ., et al., 2009. Pharmaceuticals and
endocrine disrupting compounds in U.S. drinking water. Environmental Science and
Technology. Vol. 43, pp. 597-603.
8. Kallenborn, R. and Gatermann, R., 2004. Synthetic Musks in Ambient and Indoor Air.
Series Anthropogenic Compounds, ed. G. Rimkus. Vol. 3X. Springer Berlin
Heidelberg. 85-104.
9. Fromme, H., Lahrz, T., Piloty, M., et al., 2004. Occurrence of phthalates and musk
fragrances in indoor air, dust from apartments and kindergartens in Berlin (Germany).
Indoor Air. Vol. 14, pp. 188-195.
10. Sofuoglu, A., Kiymet, N., Kavcar, P., et al., 2010. Polycyclic and nitro musks in
indoor air: a primary school classroom and a womens sport center. Indoor Air. Vol.
20(6), pp. 515-522.
11. Chen, D., Zeng, X., Sheng, Y., et al., 2007. The concentrations and distribution of
polycyclic musks in a typical cosmetic plant. Chemosphere. Vol. 66(2), pp. 252-258.
12. Peck, A.M. and Hornbuckle, K.C., 2006. Synthetic musk fragrances in urban and rural
air of Iowa and the Great Lakes. Atmospheric Environment. Vol. 40(32), pp. 6101-
6111.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

190

NUMERICAL SIMULATION OF NATURAL VENTILATION IN A
LIVING SPACE FOR DIFFERENT SPACE ORGANIZATION

Gven
1
, Murat akan
2
and Glten Maniolu
3

1
Istanbul Technical University, Energy Institute
2
Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
3
Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Architecture

Corresponding email: ogusguven@gmail.com

SUMMARY

Natural ventilation is an essential passive strategy in order to maintain thermal comfort inside
buildings and it can be also used as an energy-conserving design strategy to reduce building
cooling loads by removing heat stored in the buildings' thermal mass. In Turkey, the
temperate-humid climate allows natural ventilation in most of the days in the year. Space
organization according to orientation is one of the most important design parameters in order
to provide a good natural ventilation strategy in residential buildings. However, most of the
residents modified their houses so as to enlarge or divide them and changed the original space
organization and consequently the natural ventilation strategy. Modifications such as new
walls introduced to divide spaces or removed walls for combining spaces may have a negative
effect on natural ventilation. In this study, an apartment with different space organizations is
studied numerically for natural ventilation performance. The apartment is north-south oriented
and it can provide airflow by means of pressure difference and the modified space
organization changes the air velocity and temperature distributions inside the space. Different
configuration alternatives are examined with commercial CFD software to simulate the air
velocity and temperature distribution in the living space. The aim of the study is to compare
different space organization alternatives from the thermal comfort point of view and develop
different proposals without disturbing natural ventilation airflow.

INTRODUCTION

Ataky Project was one of the first modern housing projects in Istanbul initiated by Emlak
Bank comprising 367 villas and multi-storey apartment buildings of various heights. It aimed
to form a low-density elite neighborhood as of 1956. The foundation ceremony for Phase-I of
this ambitious project was held in 1957, after a number of infrastructural problems were
solved, including the construction of the Sirkeci-Florya shore drive (1956-57) and a
swimming club on the Ataky coast (1957). Parallel to these developments, the construction
of the E5 (Istanbul-London) motorway and the electrification of the Sirkeci-Halkal railway
supported the project.

Phase I (1957-62) was composed of 662 residential units in 52 apartment buildings which
were 3 to 13 storeys high. The buildings were set in greenery with selectively designed
social, cultural, educational and commercial spaces. Large windows illuminated comfortable
spaces and all comfort systems from natural ventilation to elevators and central heating had
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

191

been architecturally designed and inserted, and the wet spaces were planned suitably for the
installation of refrigerators and washing machines. The visual characteristics followed
modernist ideals in the form of buildings raised on pilotis with flat roofs where elevator
towers, chimneys, light shafts and concrete pergolas were visible, full-height French
windows opened onto balconies, simple cubist faade arrangements introduced bold colored
patches inserted in light pastels, and form followed function.

After almost 50 years, the social structure still reflects a concentration of the upper middle
class members according to the evaluation of the 1990 national population survey data and the
land rents and real estate values are still in rise, especially after the 1999 earthquake paranoia
of safe buildings. Although most of the original owners and residents remain in-situ, the
needs and ideals of a comfortable life-style are different nowadays. The symbols of a former
utopia are transforming rapidly with every apartment that is re-fitted and every building that is
renovated. Enclosure of the open and semi-open balconies, a trend that disturbs the original
faade compositions visually, are being made to further extend the living areas. Inside,
partition walls are added in most cases in order to gain separate rooms; and these affect the
original climatic control arrangements [1],[2].

When the design strategies of Phase-I are assessed, it is seen that the climate related design
parameters were utilized often at building and settlement scale. Buildings were oriented such
that they did not obstruct solar radiation especially in heating period. Buildings were also
erected upon pilotis to distribute humidity evenly in spring seasons and to obtain maximum
cooling at summer times. Primary volumes of residential units were oriented towards south;
taking advantage of the solar radiation when heating demand was high. Besides, window
openings on northern and southern faades were designed such that cross-ventilation was
maintained in order to benefit from the cooling capacity of the wind through natural
convection. The proper integration of these design parameters leads to a decrease in energy
expenditures. Due to climate change, the month intervals in which heating or cooling is
required have started shifting slightly. Nowadays, building cooling costs approach and
sometimes even surpass heating load costs. For this reason, natural ventilation, which
contributes to reducing cooling costs, can be considered as one of the most important design
parameters. Natural ventilation is directly related to building orientation and volume
organization. Rational decisions taken in this respect would clearly improve the performance
of natural ventilation schemes and therefore help to eliminate the cooling energy requirement.

On the other hand, the originally climate-balanced aspects of Phase-I buildings have started to
change due to different requirements and needs of users throughout the years. Tearing down
interior walls for the sake of living space expansions and enclosure of open or semi-open
balconies led to drastic changes in the initial structures and therefore initial tasks of
designed spaces. Unconsciously made alterations in internal spaces, not only endangered the
structural integrity of buildings but also decreased the efficiency of cross-ventilation schemes.
As a natural consequence, users are forced, more and more, to utilize active mechanical
ventilation systems which increase management costs of the buildings substantially.

The fundamental rule behind natural ventilation in buildings is to create an air movement. Air
motion physics depends mainly on the position, the form, the orientation of the building, the
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

192

relative position of the building with respect to other buildings, the size and the position of
windows and the organization of its volumes.

Natural ventilation rate varies with climatic variables such as wind speed, air temperature and
relative humidity.These data are important to determine, evaluate and simulate the thermal
comfort and cooling energy loads that can be provided by the building under study or in the
planning and design stage [3]. However, the conditions of outdoor air movement will also
influence the performance of indoor air movement by the difference of air pressure applied
onto a building faade through by relevant passive design parameters [4],[5].

Generally, the natural ventilation in buildings can be classified into two types, which consists
of air pressure ventilation or known as wind force, and stack effect ventilation or thermal
force [6]. Air pressure ventilation can be summarized as the horizontal air movement where
the air flows into the building due to the differences of air pressure between the outdoor and
indoor environment. The cool air will flow through the window and door openings or the
building claddings into the rooms, as the air temperature indoor is much warmer. The patterns
of air flow through openings can be classified into single sided ventilation (where the air flow
in and out at the same openings on the same faade), and cross or double side ventilation
(where the air flows in and out at different openings on different faades).

Stack effect ventilation is the condition of vertical air movement when the cool air has been
warmed up by human activities and operations of indoor machinery, and the warm air moves
vertically and is discharged out from the buildings through chimney and air well [7].

Researchers have been working for decades to understand the mechanisms of natural
ventilation and for developing a suitable reference technique to quantify air movement.
Several methods were proposed and investigated, including analytical models based on
driving forces or on simple heat and/or mass balance, direct measuring techniques such as
anemometers, simulations with computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and multizone modeling,
indirect measuring techniques as pressure difference and different tracer gas techniques [8].
Mochida et al. [9] and Lee et al. [10] pointed out that careful consideration of wind flow
around a building when deciding the placement of window openings is very important to fully
utilize the potential of cross-ventilation and improve thermal comfort. However, different
window configurations result in different ventilation effectiveness, indoor air qualities and
impact on comfort conditions in the occupied zone [11],[12]. J iang et al. [13] presented an
extensive experimental and computational study of natural ventilation, driven only by wind
forces for simple geometries representing cross-ventilation and single-sided ventilation
configurations. Schulze et al. [14] developed a simulation methodology to evaluate the
functionality of controlled natural ventilation in an office building. The results indicate that
analytical equations for the air flow rates are very consistent with simple steady state airflow
network simulations. Therefore, in the architectural design phase of natural ventilation,
potentials of different opening configurations may be estimated by those equations. Computed
ventilation rates under various fixed conditions depend mainly on the opening cross section,
but also strongly on the location of the openings and their geometry. Limited studies have
been carried out to examine detailed internal aerodynamic information. Effects of
compartmentalization due to room partitioning on internal pressures were studied by Liu [15];
and ceiling partitioning effects by Kopp et al.[16] also showed that the effect of opening size
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

193

was of little significance if the leakage area was less than 10% of the windward-dominant
opening area. A full-scale boundary layer and separately-performed numerical studies showed
the sensitivity of internal pressure characteristics to the size of the dominant openings, as well
as the size of the internal volume [17,18,19]. Prianto presented the effect of ceiling, partition
and floor design on indoor airflows pattern of traditional dwelling in urban living quarter of
tropical humid region. The paper proved that internal division (ceiling, partition, and floor
surface) placed in the stream pattern will interrupt and slow down the indoor air speed [20].
Zhang Lin et al. presented a case to investigate the effect of partitions in an office on the
performance of under floor air supply ventilation system via computational fluid dynamics.
The results indicated that the partitions may significantly affect airflow and performance of an
under floor air supply ventilation system [21].

CIBSE AM10 Natural Ventilation in Non-Domestic Buildings is the most widely used
guide for designing a naturally ventilated space. The design should meet the air quality
standards that are provided in ASHRAE 62.1 [22] standard.

In this study, two symmetrical residential units: one having an original and the other with an
altered plan were compared on the basis of natural ventilation performance through a
numerical modelling approach and several space configuration alternatives were assessed in
order to improve the ventilation performance of the altered plan.

2. SPACE CONFIGURATION

The study has been applied for a residential building selected from Atakoy Phase I, mass
housing area in Istanbul. The selected building is 4 storeys high, detached with flat roof; 4
apartments per storey, 2 apartments and entrance hall on ground floor. The building is raised
on columns and open at grade level for car parking. The building has four external walls
oriented to the main four directions. The building height is 10,4 m. and floor area is 426 m
(Figure1).

Fig. 1 Residential building chosen for the study

In both of the residential units (original and modified) openings are on the southern and
northern faades. In the modified plan, the northern wing of the living room was added to the
kitchen space and the living space was left open only to the south, preventing natural
ventilation (Fig. 2). As seen in Fig. 2, since the living room of the original apartment has
openings both in the north and south faades, it is possible to ventilate the building by means
of cross-ventilation.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

194

Figure 2. Original and modified plan types

For all of the configurations, the numerical simulation assumes a window height of 1,5 m and
the elevation of the windows measured from the floor is taken as 0,8 m. Northern wall
consists of two windows with a total area of 5,92 m
2
, while the area of the two windows on
the southern wall sums up to 6,30 m
2
.

The assessment study was made in two steps. First of all, the original and the modified
apartments were compared via modeling and simulations on the basis of average living space
temperatures and air velocities. Later on, the ventilation conditions of the modified apartment
were tried to be improved by several suggested design alternatives. All of these design
suggestions were based on the impact of partition wall openings on cross-ventilation
performance. Creating a service passage between the kitchen and the living room and
obtaining enough illumination within the living space were two other design criteria taken
into account during the study. The alternative configurations that are shown in Figure 3
consisted of 10, 20, 30 and 40 % openings.
Fig. 3. Alternative configurations

NUMERICAL STUDY

The CFD simulation is made for different opening configurations on the partition wall. For all
the configurations, a 3D model has been drawn for the ventilated space. Then the numerical
grid has been configured. These configurations were meshed with a commercial CFD mesher
software. A grid of about 10.000 hexagonal elements were made (Figure 4). The fluid regions
near the walls were meshed denser in order to simulate the boundary flows properly.

OR: %10 OR: %20 OR: %20 OR: %30 OR: %40
B
BR1
BR2
B
BR1
BR2 L R L R
N K K
wc wc
Modified plan Original plan
Partition
wall
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

195

Figure 4. 3D Model and Numerical Grid

The boundary conditions for the windows is the most important parameter. The airflow inside
the space is driven by the pressure differences between windows. The real conditions can only
be simulated by determining pressure coefficients. As this study focuses on the inside flow, a
pressure difference of 5 Pa is assumed between North and South faces. This assumption holds
for about 4 m/s of wind speed from north, if the correlations in CIBSE Manual [23] is used.
RESULTS and DISCUSSION

Table 1 is a summary of the numerical solutions at a plane of 1.5 m height above the floor.
Figure (a) in Table 1 shows the numerical solution for standard configuration of the apartment
whereas figure (b) reflects the modified conditions in the neighboring residential unit. The
other figures show the temperature distribution and velocity vectors of five different partition
wall vent configurations. These configurations are selected in order to suppress the
overheating effect of the modified partition wall configuration (Figure (b)).When figure (a)
and (b) are compared, the temperature readings from the midpoints of the living room show
that the configuration with partition wall is 5.7% (1.3) warmer than the standard
configuration. This is attributed to the air flow blockage effect of the partition wall in the
modified configuration (b) in which natural convection is prevented. In order to overcome this
blockage problem, the modified partition wall is altered numerically with different vent
configurations which are seen in Figure 3. The effects of these altered configurations are
given in Table 1 Figures (c), (d), (e), (f), (g).

Clearly, it is seen from the figures that as the vent size to partition wall ratio increases, the
temperature distribution becomes more homogeneous which leads to a more comfortable
living space. The configurations (d) and (e) have both vent to wall ratio of 20%. Though the
ratios are the same, configuration (e) performs better than configuration (d). That is because,
instead of using a single vent close to the ceiling, two vents are introduced in the mid region
of the partition wall. This shows that not only the ratio of vents to the wall is important but
also, the positions of the vents are of importance. Configurations (e) and (f) are the only two
configurations that the two spaces: the kitchen and the the living room are partitioned by one
or two service windows. With respect to the modified configuration (b), using configurations
N
N
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

196

(e) and (f) decreases the average temperature in the living space by 4.33% (1.06C) and
3.64% (0,89C) respectively.

As a result of this numerical study, it can be concluded that the space organization must be
made such that natural ventilation is not prevented. To do so, residents should consult the
technical advice of experts in the field.

Table 1. CFD Results (Temperature distribution and velocity vectors)

(a) (b)
(c)
(d)
(e) (f)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

197

REFERENCES

1. Gven, M and Ik, O. 1999. Emlak Bankas: 1926-1998, Istanbul, Turkey.
2. Trkiye Cumhuriyetinin Ellinci Ylnda Emlak Kredi Bankas, Ankara, 1973.
3. Chen, Q, Lee, K, Mazumdar, S, et al. 2009. Ventilation performance prediction for buildings: A
method overview and recent applications. Building and Environment, 44(4), 848-858.
4. Broderick, C R and Chen, Q. 2001. A simple interface to CFD codes for building environment
simulations. In 7th International IBPSA Conference, Rio de J aneiro, 577-584
5. Ghiaus, C and Allard, F. 2005. The physics of natural ventilation. In Cristian Ghiaus & Francis
Allard (Eds). Natural Ventilation in the Urban Environment: Assessment and Design (pp. 36-
80). London: Earthscan.
6. Ghiaus, C and Roulet, C A. 2005. Strategies for natural ventilation. In Cristian Ghiaus &
Francis Allard (Eds). Natural Ventilation in the Urban Environment: Assessment and
Design(pp. 136-157). London: Earthscan.
7. Siew, C C, Che-Ani, A I, Tawil, N M, et al. 2011. Classification of Natural Ventilation
Strategies in Optimizing Energy Consumption in Malaysian Office Buildings. Procedia
Engineering 20- 363 371.
8. Ozcan, S E, Vranken, E, Berckmans, D. 2008. Measuring ventilation rate through naturally
ventilated air openings by introducing heat flux, Building and Environment 44, 22-33.
9. Mochida, A, Yoshimo, H, Takeda, T, et al. 2005. Methods for controlling airflow in and around
a building under cross-ventilation to improve indoor thermal comfort. J ournal of Wind
Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 93, 437-449.
10. Lee, J Y, Kang, J H, J ang, Y G, et al. 2005. PIV analysis of the ventilation flow inside a large-
scale factory building. In: Choi,C.K., Kim, Y.D., Kwak, H.G. (Eds.), Proceedings of 6th
AsianPacific Conference on Wind Engineering (APCWE VI), Seoul, Korea, September 12
14, pp. 427436.
11. Heiselberg, P, Svidt, K, and Nielsen, P V. 2001. Characteristics of airflow from open windows.
Buildings and Environment 36, 859-869.
12. Heiselberg, P, Bjorn, E, and Nielsen, P V. 2002. Impact of open windows on room air flow and
thermal comfort. International J ournal of Ventilation 1 (2), 91-100.
13. J iang, Y, Alexander, H, J enkins, R, and et al. 2003. Natural ventilation in buildings:
measurement in a wind tunnel and numerical simulation with large eddy simulation, J ournal of
Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 91 (3) 331353.
14. Schulze, T, and Eicker, U. 2012. Controlled natural ventilation for energy efficient buildings,
Energy and Building 56, 221-232.
15. Liu H, and Saathoff P J . 1983. Internal pressure of multi-room buildings. J Eng Mech Div.: 109
(EM3):908e19.
16. Kopp, G A, Oh, J H, and Inculet, D R. 2008. Wind-induced internal pressures in houses. J
Struct Eng.: 134(7): 1129e38.
17. Ginger, J D, Holmes, J D, and Kopp, G A. 2008. Effect of building volume and opening size
on fluctuating internal pressures. Wind Struct.: 11(5):361e76.

(a) Standart Configuration
(b) Modified Configuration
(c) Tested Configuration (OR %10)
(d) Tested Configuration (OR %20)
(e) Tested Configuration (OR %20)
(f) Tested Configuration (OR %30)
(g) Tested Configuration (OR %40)

(g)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

198

18. Holmes, J D. 2009. Discussion of: net pressures on the roof of a low-rise building with wall
openings" by R.N.Sharma and P.J .Richards, [J .WindEng.&Ind.Aerodyn. Vol.93, pp. 267e291,
2005]. J Wind Eng Ind Aerodyn.;97:320e1.
19. Sharma, R N, Mason, S, and Driver, P. 2010. Scaling methods for wind tunnel modeling of
building internal pressures induced through openings. Wind Struct.; 13(4):363e74.
20. Prianto, E. 2003. Contribution of N3S numerical simulation (2) in investigating the influence
of internal division design on indoor air speed. International J ournal on Architectural Science,
4(3), 114-122.
21. Lin, Z, Chow, T T, Tsang, C F, et al. 2009. Effect of internal partitions on the performance of
under floor air supply ventilation in a typical office environment. Building and Environment,
44, 534-545.
22. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.2-2004, Ventilation and Acceptable Indoor Air Quality in Low-
Rise Residential Buildings
23. CIBSE 2005. Application Manual AM10, Natural Ventilation in Non Domestic Buildings.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

199

MODELING ZERO ENERGY BUILDING: TECHNICAL AND
ECONOMICAL OPTIMIZATION

Maria Ferrara
1-2
, J oseph Virgone
1
, Enrico Fabrizio
3
, Frdrik Kuznik
1
, Marco Filippi
2

1
CETHIL, UMR5008, Universit Lyon1 INSA-Lyon, France
2
DENERG, Politecnico di Torino, Italy
3
DISAFA, University of Torino, Italy

Corresponding email: joseph.virgone@insa-lyon.fr

SUMMARY

This study was born in the context of new challenges imposed by the recast of Energy
Performance of Buildings. The aim of this work is to provide a useful method to deal with a
huge number of simulations corresponding to a large number of single-family house
configurations in order to optimize a constructive solution from both technical and
economical point of view. The method combines the use of TRNSYS, building energy
simulation program, with GenOpt, Generic Optimization program.
The reference building is a low-consumption house case-study situated in Amberieu-en-
Bugey, Rhne-Alpes, France. After a short description of the case-study and of TRNSYS
model, the link and the configuration files which have been created between the simulation
program and the optimization software are illustrated. A first parametric study is performed in
order to evaluate the impact of variation of various parameters of envelope and shading
elements on the total annual energy consumption for heating and cooling. As a second study,
the global cost method is applied to the case-study, and GenOpt is used to determine the cost
optimal level of the reference building. Beyond the result, we think this study shows useful
method and tools that could support technical and cost optimal level research, providing an
easy and fast way to explore various building configuration with a huge number of
simulations, as requested by European Standard.

INTRODUCTION

In the context of the European Union efforts to reduce the growing energy expenditure, it is
widely recognized that the building sector has an important role, accounting 40% of the total
energy consumption in the European Union [1]. The recast of the Directive on the Energy
Performance of Building (EPBD)[2] imposes the adoption of measures to improve energy
efficiency in buildings in order to reach the objective of all new buildings to be nearly Zero
Energy Building (nZEB) by 2020. This practice could lead to greenhouse gas emission
reduction in the building sector of 80-90% by 2050. As the results in term of energy
efficiency are evaluated at a global (or at least European) scale, it is remarkable that a good
nZEB design is strictly related to the local scale, depending on climatic data, available
technologies and materials, population lifestyle. Moreover, as usual, measures related to
ecological sustainability could not be pursued without taking into account an economical
sustainability. It is obvious that the design of a zero-energy building is not yet profitable in
terms of costs, and that this will lead to different resultsdepending on the country, the age of
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

200

the building and its use (commercial buildings, residential, etc.). Consequently, EPBD recast
has set out that Member States (MSs) ensure that minimum energy performance requirements
are set with a view to achieve the cost optimal level, that is defined as the energy performance
level which leads to the lowest cost during the estimated economic lifecycle. Based on Global
Cost method, the aim is to define for each MSs the most effective strategies to improve
building performance with the lowest global cost.
In order to develop general strategies, a huge number of case study should be examined and a
common method to compare a large number of simulations has to be established.
We have collaborated between France and Italy in order to improve our methodologies and to
apply them on the single-family houses, with references buildings, constructive solutions,
typical sources of energy accessibility, costs, etc...In the present article we present one carried
out with TRNSYS computing environment with a view to establish a procedure for techno-
economic optimization using the tool GenOpt.

The reference building.

The Reference Building (RB) is a new single-family house situated in Amberieu-en-Bugey,
Rhne-Alpes, France. It is representative of new construction of single family house in the
region.
The gross floor area (GFA) of the two floors is equal to 155 m
2
(see plans in figure 2).
Its possible to recognize many design features generally used in passive/low consumption
houses: the insulated living space is a cubic compact shape (S/V ratio is equal to about 0,68
m
-1
, S being the heat losses area and V the heated volume) that minimize the exchange surface
between the outside and inside. In order to reduce heat loss due to windows and benefit of
solar gains, the maximum of large openings are south-oriented (49% of total glass surface
(TGS) on the south external wall, 19% on the south roof slope) while the percentage of
openings in east and west orientation is less relevant (respectively 10% and 15% of TGS) and
there are only very small north oriented openings (7% of TGS). Window area is
approximately 1/5 of the GFA: the minimum imposed by the national regulation [3], which is
equal to 1/6 of GFA, is largely exceeded. A roof overhang protects south-oriented windows.

a) b)
c) d)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

201

Figure 1. Facades of reference building. a) South, b) North, c) West, d) East.
Thermal insulation is made on the internal side, thereby creating a thermal bridge on the
intermediate floor, which has been limited by use of thermal bridge breakers. However, this
solution eliminates thermal bridges at the slab and roof levels. At the moment, 20 cm of
insulating material are used on external walls, 30 cm on the slab and 40 cm on the roof.
RB was modeled using TRNSYS [4], dynamic building simulation program [5]. Each room
was modeled as a thermal zone, in order to better evaluate the evolution of temperature and
the thermal exchange from one zone to the other, as the HVAC system is considered active
only in the main rooms of the house. Set-point temperature for heating (19C) and cooling
(26C) was set only in the living-room (PP), in the bedrooms (C1, C2, C3) and in the
mezzanine (M), while other zones as restrooms (R1, R2), dressing (D) and passages (DGT1,
DGT2) are supposed to take heat (or cool) from transmission through internal walls and
doors. Garage (G) and laundry(B) are considered non-conditioned zones.
Figure 2. Plans of reference building, 1:200. a) First floor, b) Second Floor.

The standard meteonorm weather file of Amberieu-74820 were used in the simulation.
Lighting and occupancy were modeled using schedules related to a standard 4 people family
working life, week-ends are taken in account but holidays are not considered. The sum of
infiltration and ventilation rate is fixed equal to 0.7 ach as a medium value for all the zones.
Based on these settings, heating needs are estimated to be 48 kWh/m
2
/year, while cooling
needs are equal to 12 kWh/m
2
/year.

METHODS PARAMETRIC STUDY

In order to allow multiple simulation and optimal level research, building simulation software
was coupled with the general optimization software GenOpt and configuration files were
created [6].
C1
D
R1
PP
B
G
DGT1
C2
C3
DGT2
R2
M
a) b)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

202

Figure 3. Simulation-optimization framework.

Configuration file contains building simulation software configuration, error indicators and
start command, the command file contains parameter list and settings and related functions
which were inserted in simulation input files to obtain simulation input template. GenOpt run
is based on the initialization file, where location of input files and position of the objective
function are specified.

The more a house is energy efficient, the bigger is the influence of envelope design on the
final energy demand. In order to estimate the impact of the variation of each element of
building envelope and geometry (wall, roof and slab insulation, window type, window and
solar protection dimension) on the final total annual energy consumption, a parametric study
on the reference building was done. All set parameters and values referred to the house
section are shown in the figure below. Note that minimal window dimension corresponds to
the limit imposed by French regulation.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

203

Figure 4. Parameter list. Table 1. Parameter settings Table 2. Window Types

The initial value (Ini) is the fixed value assumed by parameters during the parametric run.
Four Ini scenarios were set: one is referred to the low-cossumption RB, the others are
respectively representative of a very less-insulated building, a standard insulated building,
and the last is an utopic very strong insulation. Geometric parameters are always equal to RB.

Table 3. Initial value scenarios

ResO ResR ResS s Bm bpp hr MIn WT WTR WTS
Low 0.5 0.75 0.5 0.8 2.4 4.2 4.72 0.4 1 1 1
Medium 1 2 1.5 0.8 2.4 4.2 4.72 0.4 2 2 2
RB 1.75 3.5 2.5 0.8 2.4 4.2 4.72 0.4 4 4 4
Strong 3.5 4.5 3 0.8 2.4 4.2 4.72 0.4 5 5 5
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

204

RESULTS PARAMETRIC STUDY

Here below results related to RB scenario are shown. Winter and summer performances are
separately evaluated and compared, while percentages are referred to the total annual energy
needs. Positive values of percentages indicate energy savings corresponding to decreases in
energy demand.

Figure 5. Impact of opaque envelope insulation in term of resistance (m
2
Kh/kJ ) on energy
demand gains RB scenario.

It is clear that insulation of opaque envelope takes an important role among energy savings
measures. In details, roof insulation accounts the most relevant impact in both summer and
winter case. In case of outwall and ground slab an increase of insulation corresponds to an
increase of heating energy savings and a decrease of cooling energy savings, while in roof
case insulation increase causes energy savings during all the year. This is due to the fact that
most of roof surface is south oriented and a major solar absorption is caused by dark color of
tiles.

Figure 6. Impact of window type (see table 2) on energy demand gains RB scenario.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

205

Results related to window type clearly show the impact of g-value and window orientation on
transparent envelope performances. A differentiation of window type based on optimization
of these parameters could be desirable taking into account also shading devices geometry and
window dimensions (see figure 7).

Results based on other scenarios revealed mostly the same curves, but it is clear that the
higher performances are set in initial scenarios, the higher is impact of parameter variation in
terms of percentage of energy demand.
Figure 7. Impacts of roof window dimension and shading overhang length on total energy
demand RB scenario.

METHODS ECONOMICAL OPTIMIZATION

In accordance with the EPBD, global cost calculations result in a net present value of costs
incurred during a defined calculation period, taking into account the residual values of
components with longer lifetimes. Following the procedure described in the European
Standard EN 15459 [7], global cost is directly linked to the duration of the calculation and it
can be written as:

C
G
( ) = C
I
+ C
a,i
( j ) R
d
(i ) V
f ,
( j )
i =1
n
(1)
where C
G
represents the global cost referred to starting year
0
, C
I
is the initial investment
cost, C
a,i
(j) is the annual cost for component j at the year i (including running costs and
periodic or replacements costs), R
d
(i) is the discount rate for year i, V
f,
is the final value of
component j at the end of the calculation period (referred to the starting year
0
).
In the context of cost optimal research in this method costs are written as function of
parameters p. So the terms of the previous equation become:
C
I
= f
j
p
( )
j
(2)

C
a,i
( j ) = f
a, j
( p) (3)
Where f
j
(p) is the cost function of the component j related to parameter p.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

206

Table 4. Cost function of parameters.

Cost functions were determined combining French price lists [8] and quotations of local
construction companies, all costs are comprehensive of human work and installation costs.
Cost analysis revealed that insulation cost functions are exponential functions, while window
cost were simplified in linear function.
A typical all-electrical energy system was considered, whose investment cost is 300 /kW of
maximal power installed, with a replacement time of 15 years. Energy price was assumed
equal to current prices of major electricity companies based on difference in tariffs for night
and day. In details, costs were fixed equal to 0.07952 /kWh during the night and 0.11442
/kWh during the day. Market interest rate was assumed to be 4%, calculation period is 30
years.

RESULTS ECONOMICAL OPTIMIZATION

All combination of parameters value performed by the optimization program can be
considered as a package of Energy Efficiency Measures, according to the European
Guidelines [9]. Note that in (1) only variable cost related to variation of parameters were
considered. So the objective function of optimization represents the global cost for each EEM.
Particle Swarm Optimization algorithm for discrete variables was used.
The first optimization run was performed only with parameters related to opaque and
transparent envelope resistance as variables. Geometric parameters (window dimensions and
shading overhang length) were fixed equal to RB values.
Here below cost values are shown referred to primary energy consumption (primary energy
conversion factor for electricity in France is equal to 2.58). Values are normalized to GFA.

Investment Cost Parameter Unit Unit cost function (/unit)
Outwall internal insulation ResO m
2
37.639*exp(0.351*ln(ResO))
Slab insulation ResS m
2
38.115*exp(0.186*ln(ResS))
Roof insulation ResR m
2
43.478*exp(0.309*ln(ResR))
Window Type 1 Area m
2
349.35x+28.17
2
390.85x+29.37
2
454.16x+36.62
2
460.45x+34.45
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

207

Figure 8. Cost optimal curve for RB geometry

Cost Optimal level corresponds to 343 /m
2
for a primary energy consumption of 120
kWh
ep
/m
2
/year. In details, ResO is 1.75 m
2
Kh/kJ , ResR is 2.5 m
2
Kh/kJ , ResS is 2 m
2
Kh/kJ
and window type is 5. The maximal investment cost corresponds to the minimal energy
consumption and leads to a global cost of 353 /m
2
, while the minimal investment cost
corresponds to the maximal energy consumption which leads to a global cost of 431 /m
2
.
A second optimization run was performed in order to estimate the variation of global cost
with variation of window dimension. In this case cost optimal corresponds to 297 /m
2
for a
primary energy consumption of 120 kWh
ep
/m
2
year. In details, ResO is 1.75 m
2
Kh/kJ , ResR is
3 m
2
Kh/kJ , ResS is 3 m
2
Kh/kJ . South oriented window area is half of RB windows area and
WTS is 3. Roof window area is equal to 0 and window type of other windows is 5. Talking
about window dimension, internal comfort and natural light should be considered before
taking decision to reduce window area.

Figure 9. Cost optimal curve based on variation of all parameters.

A = 88
8 = Max
lnvesLmenL cosL
C = Mln
lnvesLmenL cosL
C = CosL CpLlmal
A = max lnsulaLlon,
max wlndow area
8 = Max lnsulaLlon,
Mln wlndow area
C = Mln lnsulaLlon
mln wlndows area
u = mln lnsulaLlon
max wlndow area
C = CosL CpLlmal
C
D
A
B O
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

208

DISCUSSION

As cost of electricity is quite high, it is clear that considering global cost for 30 years an initial
high investment cost in high-performances of envelope is recommended also from economical
point of view. This is only an example, as this work attempted to establish a fast and precise
procedure for optimization which could be applied to different case-studies. It is known that
the use of more efficient energy system could lead to different solution. Moreover, further
studies have to be performed in terms of sensitivity analysis based on variation of financial
data and product costs.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This work has been supported by the Rgion Rhne Alpes COOPERA-2012 project
Modlisation des btiments zro-nergie : optimisation technico-conomique.

REFERENCES

1. BPIE (Buildings Performance Institute Europe). Cost Optimality. Discussing methodology
and challenges within the recast Energy Performance of Building Directive, 2010. BPIE
2. EPBD recast (2010). Directive 2010/31/EU of the European Parliament and of Council of 19
May 2010 on the energy performance of buildings (recast). Official J ournal of the European
Union
3. Ministre de lcologie, de lnergie, du dveloppement durable et de la mer, Arrt du 26
octobre 2010 relatif aux caractristiques thermiques et aux exigences de performance
nergtique des btiments nouveaux et des parties nouvelles de btiments (RT 2012)
4. Solar Energy Laboratory, TRANSSOLAR, Centre Scientifique et Technique du Btiment,
Thermal Energy System Specialists, TRNSYS 16 Documentation, 2007
5. Enrico FABRIZIO, Marco FILIPPI, Introduzione alla simulazione energetica dinamica degli
edifici, Ed.Delfino, Milano, 2011
6. Berkeley National Laboratory, GenOpt-Generic Optimization Program. User Manual, Version
2.1.0, Berkeley, 2008
7. CEN (European Committee for Standardization). Standard EN 15459:2007 -
8. BATIPRIX-22edition, vol. 1-2, Gros uvre Second uvre, Groupe Moniteur, 2005
9. Guidelines accompanying Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) No 244/2012 of 16
J anuary 2012 supplementing Directive 2010/31/EU

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

209

APPLICABILITY OF ONE-DIMENSIONAL RC-MODELSWITH
SHORTTIME-STEPFOR RADIANT SYSTEMS IN ENERGY BUILDING
SIMULATION PROGRAMS

Ismael Rodrguez Maestre, Enrique ngel Rodrguez J ara, J uan Luis Foncubierta Blzquez,
Francisco, J os Snchez De La Flor

1
Thermal Engineering Research Group.University of Cadiz. Spain

Corresponding email: ismael.rodriguez@uca.es

SUMMARY

Energy building simulation software are evolving towards smaller simulation time steps,
improving the coupling of the thermal models of the components of the building with those of
the systems HVAC, allowing to evaluate with major precision the effect of the control of the
above mentioned systems. For it, it is necessary to check many of the models used for the
constructive elements.

The heat transfer of radiant systems for heating or refrigeration (radiant floor or ceiling
systems), is a transitory multidimensional phenomenon of high thermal inertia. Detailed
models based on numerical methods, as finite elements or finite differences have a high
degree of precision, but they carry a high computational cost. Nevertheless, the simplified
models based on methods very known as functions of transfer, heat interchanger
Effectiveness -NTU, or the analytical ones of the type resistance - capacity (RC-Models),
always have presented a very acceptable relation among accuracy versus time of computation.

In the present article the accuracy of different one-dimensional RC-models applied to radiant
systems in transient regime for short simulation time-steps are evaluated. The study was
performance for multitude of geometries, property of materials and conditions of operation.
The evolution of the superficial temperature and heat flow was compared by the obtained one
by using finite. Finally, a correlation to predict the field of application of the above mentioned
models is proposed.

INTRODUCTION

The use in buildings of HVAC systems based on radiant surfaces for heating and cooling, as a
way to achieve the thermal comfort of its occupants, has increased widely in recent years.
These systems enable a reduction and increase of the set-point temperature for heating
andcooling respectively, due to the modificationof the mean radiant temperature within the
space. Therefore, this type of HVAC systems result in a significant reduction of the
consumption of heating and cooling in comparison with conventional ones [1].Different
experimental and theoretical case studies have demonstrated that it is possible to achieve
energy savings between 10% to over 30% in comparison with conventional systems by using
radiant surface based systems, depending on the building location [2].
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

210

To evaluate the thermal performance of these systems is necessary a sufficiently accurate
prediction model which can be integrated into a building energy simulation program (BES-
program). Koschenz and Dorer [3] pointed out the fact that the analysis of this type of system
should be based on transient calculations.Detailed and multidimensional models based on
numerical methods, such as finite element method (FEM) or finite volume method (MVF),
have a high degree of accuracy, but their complexity involves a computational and time
consumption too high to be integrated into these programs. Nevertheless, simplified models
are suitable because of its simplicity, low time consumption and acceptable accuracy in many
situations.

There is a wide variety of studies related to simplified thermal models of radiant systems for
heating and cooling.Somemodels interestingfrom the point of view of its integration in BES-
programs are listed below.Laouadi [4] developed a transient, semi-analytical and 2D model in
which the coupling between solid and fluid is performed by an iterative procedure based on
the Newton-Raphson method. Different transient and 2D models are based on star RC-
network method in which the R and C parameters are calibrated by an iterative process.On the
other hand, the heat conduction problem within the solid is modeled using an analytical [5] or
numerical [6]well-known solution. Nstor Fonseca [7] developed a transient model focused
on -NTU heat exchanger method and based on a RC-network which parameters are adjusted.
This model results in a non-analytical model with an iterative procedure. The study carried
out by Odyjas y Grka [8] shows the results of a transient and numerical model based on
finite difference method (FDM). Xing J in, et al. [9] used a numerical model based on finite
volume method (FVM) to evaluate the effect of various parameters on the system
performance.

The EnergyPlus model [10] is based on the well-known method of transfer function in heat
conduction.The coupling between radiant system and space is based on -NTU heat
exchanger approach. One of the simplified models available in TRNSYS [11] is based on a
simple capacitance method and -NTU heat exchanger approach. TRNSYS also features a
detailed three-dimensional model based on FDM [12] which uses an iterative method for
solving the resulting equations system.

This paper aims to study the degree of accuracy, and therefore, the range of application of a
simplified 1D analytical radiant floor model for the integration in BES-programs with a time-
step lower than one hour.Firstly, the proposed 1D analytical model is described. Afterwards, a
parametric study is carried out to define the different cases to simulate depending on
geometric parameters. Then, a detailed numerical model of reference based on FEM is
established. Once the analytical and numerical model isdeveloped, the results of the different
cases are obtained for both models.Finally, the results of both models are compared in terms
of mean heat transfer rate and a correlation of the committed error is obtained by means of a
multiple regression method.

SIMPLIFIED RC-NETWORK MODEL

The proposed 1D analytical model is based on a star RC-network method of 2 degrees of
freedom (R: distribution of capacitance nodes along the floor thickness; C: floor volume
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

211

affected by internal heat generation). This model is coupled with the hydraulic network and
decoupled with space. Figure 1 shows the electrical analogy of the model.

Figure 1. Electric analogy of the proposed RC-network model.

Assuming the existence of heat flux in the transverse direction only, and neglecting the
thermal inertia of the pipe, the following expressions for node are obtained from the energy
balance:
(1)
(2)
Where
and
are the surface area of the floor and piping respectively,
and
are
the specific heat capacity, density and thermal conductivity of the floor respectively,

and
are the volume and temperature of the node affected by internal heat generation and is
the internal heat generation in the solid,
and
are the temperature of the solid capacitive

nodes 1 and 2 respectively,
and
are the thicknesses from the tube center to solid

capacitive nodes 1 and 2 respectively,
and
are the convective heat transfer coefficient

inside the pipe and the mean temperature of the fluid respectively.

The convective heat transfer coefficient inside the pipe
is obtained by applying the

empirical correlation given by Dittus-Boelter [13] for fully developed turbulent flow and
smooth pipes.
(3)
Where has a value of 0.4 for heating and 0.3 for cooling.
y are the
dimensionless numbers of Nusselt, Reynolds and Prandlt respectively.

From an energy balance applied on node , the following equation is obtained:

(4)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

212

Where
and
are volume, density, specific heat capacity, flow rate, inlet

temperature and outlet temperature of water respectively.
Similarly for nodes
, y of floor, the corresponding equations are obtained:
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
Where
and
are the floor volume corresponding to capacitive nodes 1 and 2 respectively,
and
are the thickness of the floor from the pipe center to the upper and lower surface
respectively,
and
are the temperatures of the upper and lower floor

surfaces, the mean air temperature and mean radiant temperature of space corresponding to
the upper and lower floor surfaces respectively,
are the
convective-radiant heat transfer coefficients, the convective heat transfer coefficients and the
long wave-length radiant heat transfer coefficients corresponding to the upper and lower
surface respectively andwhere:
and
.

The described model results in an equation system which can be solved without an iteration
procedure.From this equation system,the node temperatures correspondingto the upper and
lower surface, the water outlet temperature and the mean heat transfer rate in upper and lower
surface can be derived:
respectively.

METODOLOGY

Firstly, the material properties, boundary conditions and initial conditions for the parametric
study have been defined:
.

Then, the different values of the geometric parameters to vary have been established in order
to study the range of applicability. These geometric parameters are:pipe spacingH, floor
thicknesseand tube diameterd. For H, 14 different values have been established in a range
equal to 5 mm H 320 mm. A form factor FF has been defined as FF =e/H. For this
parameter a total of 19 values have been establishedand divided into two ranges: from 0.1 to
1, with stepof 0.1 andfrom 1 to 10, with step of 1. Finally, d has also been taken into account
within an geometric ratio defined as r =d/min(H,e) and 3 different values: 0.25, 0.50 y 0.75.
Therefore, 798 different combinations to simulate are obtained.
On the other hand, a reference model has been established in order to have a detailed
reference foreach caseabove defined. Different studies related to radiant floor models
demonstrate the possibility of neglecting the length of the pipe without significant influence
in thermal performance [9], [10], [4], [14].Therefore, a detailed 2D numerical model based on
FEM has been built in ANSYS APDL program.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

213

Finally, the results of the variable of interest have been obtained for both the reference
numerical model and theproposed 1D analytical model, that is, the mean heat transfer rate in
the upper surface. Then, these results have been compared and the range of applicability in
steady-state and transient-state has been analyzed.

APPLICABILITY RANGE IN STEADY-STATE

From the comparison of the results for both models, the percentage error committed by the 1D
analytical model versus the reference numerical model has been obtained for steady-state. In
order to consider only common typologies and geometric configurations of radiant floors, the
results of the parametric study have been filtered according to the following values of
geometric parameters:20 mm H 320 mm, d 5 mm ande225 mm[15]. Thus, a total of
383 geometries meet these limits.Figure 2 shows a comparison of results obtained for both
models. This figurereveals a large number of cases in which the error committed by the 1D
analytical model can be acceptable. Considering a maximum limit of the error of 5% for
overestimation or underestimation, 157 different geometric configurations meet this
limit.That accounts for 41% of the total cases under consideration.

Figure 2. Mean heat flux in the upper surface: 2D FEM model vs. 1D RC-network model.

From these results, a sensitivity analysis has been performed in order to identify which
geometric configurations are within of 41% of cases under consideration. To achieve this
objective, the geometric configurations have been split into 2 different values of FF:FF 1
(figure3) andFF 1 (figure4).As can be extracted from figure3a), for r=0.25 and for a given
H value, the higher the FF value the lower the error.Acceptable errors are obtained for values
of FF close to 1 and H values less than 125 mm. As shown in Figure 3 b), for d equal to 0.75
times the floor thickness, acceptable errors are obtained for any value of Hand FF
valuesbetween 0.4 and 0.5. However, this error is not acceptable for almost all values of FF
when H is less than 35 mm. In general, for a given FF and r value, the higher the H value the
larger the error, as shown in Figure 3 c). Finally, figure 3 (d) shows that, for a given FF and H
value, the higher the rvalue the lower the error. This trend is observed until a certain rvalue
close to 0.75, for which the errors are then acceptable. In general, acceptable errors are
obtained when H is less than around 35 mm, depending strongly of e and dfor larger H values.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

214

a)

b)

c)

d)

Figure 3. Mean heat flux error in the upper surface forFF 1 as a function of:a) FF(r=0.25),
b) FF (r=0.75), c) H, d) r.

As observed onfigure4a), the floor thickness has not a significant influence on the error. If the
H value is less than 35 mm, the errors are acceptable for any d value. For higher H values, this
error dependsslightly on the evalue. In particular, geometric configurations withH values less
than 50 mm, d values equal to around 5 mm and FF greater significantly than 1 correspond to
common typologies of microcapillary systems [15]. Figure4b) showsthat, for a given FF and r
value, the higher the H value the greater the error. Finally, in contrast to FF less than
1,figure4c)showsacceptable errorsfor low d values and close to 0.25 times the H value.

a)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

215

b)

c)
Figure 4. Mean heat flux error in the upper surface forFF 1 as a function of:a) FF, b) H, c)
r.

From the previous results it is possible to extract that, the proposed 1D analytical model, of
simple integration in BES-programs, presents acceptable errors in steady-state for a large
number of geometric configurations of radiant floor.On the one hand, these errors depend on
H, d andeforFF 1. On the other hand, for FF 1 these errors depend on H anddprincipally.
In general, acceptable errors are obtained with low H values along with FF>>1, typical
configuration of microcapillary systems. However, it is possible to find out other different
cases in which the error is also acceptable, depending on the geometric parameters, so that it
turns difficult to establish a generalization about the applicability range of the
model.Therefore, a correlation of the percentage error committed in mean heat transfer rate in
the upper surface has been obtained for FF 1 (equation 10) and FF 1 (equation 11) by a
multiple regression method. These correlations present aR
2
value equal to 0.97 and 0.98
respectively for a confidence interval of 95%.
(10)

(11)

APPLICABILITY RANGE IN TRANSIENT-STATE

For those geometric configurations which meet the limit established for steady-state, the error
in transient-state has been quantified by means of the Root Mean Square Error (RMSE). In all
cases, a RMSE value in mean heat transfer rateless than 4 W/m
2
has been obtained.

Therefore, if the calculated error in steady-state is less than 5% by overestimation or
underestimation, the model presents an RMSE in transient-state less than 4 W/m
2
. In this
case, the proposed model can be applied with an acceptable error. In general, the
corresponding correlation can be used to assess whether the model can be applied for a given
geometric configuration of radiant floor.

CONCLUSIONS

Accuracy in term of surface temperature and heat fluxes of a one-dimensional RC-model
applied to radiant systems in transient regime for short simulation time-steps have been
showed.Results show a set of cases which committed by the proposed 1D analytical model in
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

216

steady-state is less than or equal to 5%. Correlations for estimate the error by using geometric
parameter in order to characterize the problem are presented. Results for microcapillary
systems are very satisfied. Furthermore, acceptable results for transient performance are found
in those cases with low error for steady-state.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors gratefully acknowledge funding from the Fundacin Campus Tecnolgico de
Algeciras (Spain).

REFERENCES

1. Radiant floor heating in theory and practice. Olensen, B.W. 2002, ASHRAE J ournal, Vol. 44,
pgs. 19-24.
2. Thermal comfort and energy consumption of the radiant ceiling panel system. Comparison with
the conventional all-air systym. T. Imanari, T. Omori, K. Bogaki. 1999, Energy and Buildings,
Vol. 30, pgs. 167-175.
3. Design of air systems with concrete slab cooling. M. Koschenz, V. Dorer. Yokohama, J apan :
s.n., 1996. Proceedings of Fifth International Conference Air Distribution in Rooms.
4. Development of a radiant heating and cooling model for building energy simulation software.
Laouadi, A. 2004, Building anda Environment, Vol. 39, pgs. 421-431.
5. An Optimized RC-network for thermally activated building components. T. Weber, G.
J hannesson. 2005, Building and Environment, Vol. 40, pgs. 1-14.
6. Thermoaktive Bauteilsysteme tabs. M. Koschenz, B. Lehmann. CH-8600 Dbendorf : s.n.,
2000. EMPA Dbendorf Zentrum fr Energie und Nachhaltigkeit, berlandstr 129. ISBN 3-
905594-19-6.
7. Experimental analysis and modeling of hydronic radiant ceiling panels using transient-state
analysis. Fonseca, N. 2011, International journal of refrigeration, Vol. 34, pgs. 958-967.
8. Simulations of floor cooling system capacity. Odyjas, A. Grka. 2012, Applied Thermal
Engineering. doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2012.08.029.
9. Numerical simulation of radiant floor cooling system: the effects of thermal resistance of pipe
and water velocity on the performance. X. J in, X. Zhang, Y. Luo, R. Cao. 2010 : s.n., Building
and Environment, Vol. 45 (11), pgs. 2545-2552.
10. The Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, USA.EnergyPlus Engineering Document,
The Reference to EnergyPlus Calculations. 2008.
11. Klein, et al.Type 653: Simple floor heating system - TRNSYS: A Transient System Simulation
Program User Manual. [ed.] The Solar Energy Laboratory University of Wisconsin. Madison :
s.n., 2009.
12. Klein, et al.Type 713: Radiant slab with embedded pipes (interfaces with zone air temperature) -
TRNSYS: A Transient System Simulation Program User Manual. [ed.] The Solar Energy
Laboratory University of Wisconsin. Madison : s.n., 2009.
13. F. W. Dittus, L. K. Boelter.Publications on Enginnering. [ed.] Berkeley University of
California. 1930. pg. 443. Vol. 2.
14. Establishment and validation of modified star-type RC-network model for concrete core cooling
slab. K. Liu, Z. Tian, C. Zhang, Y. Ding, W. Wang. 2011, Energy and Buildings, Vol. 43, pgs.
2378-2384.
15. REHVA, Federation of European Heating and Air-conditioning Associations.Low Temperature
Heating and High Temperature Cooling. [ed.] REHVA. Segunda Edicin. Finlandia : s.n., 2009.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

217

THE EFFECT OF USING RELIEF DAMPER IN STAIRCASE
PRESSURIZATION AS A PART OF POSITIVE VENTILATION
SYSTEMS

Bra Hepgzel
1

1
Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul

Corresponding email: hepguzel@itu.edu.tr

SUMMARY

Stairwell pressurization is an important part of ventilation system design, because it is
associated with life safety by means of preventing fire and smoke spread into the staircases in
case of fire. Fire codes require that the pressure difference between the staircase and the
building to be kept in a certain level. This can be achieved in combination of two methods,
which have to be applied simultaneously, first adjusting the rotation speed of the
pressurization fan by frequency convertors and second implementing relief dampers to
discharge the excessive amount of air. In this study, the importance of the use of relief damper
is investigated through both experimental and numerical studies. It was found that the relief
damper is essential to keep the pressure difference levels at permissible level and also the
location of the relief damper is crucial in order to properly discharge the excessive amount of
air out of the staircases.

INTRODUCTION

During a fire event in a high-rise building, the environment inside the stair enclosure is an
important determining factor for the ability of the building occupants to safely evacuate the
building. Fire stairs in high-rise buildings are to provide a fire-rated and smoke-proof
enclosure, using stair pressurization systems. In a high-rise building, the stairs typically
represent the single means of egress during a fire[1]. According to Turkish Fire Code, except
for residential use, when the structural height of the building exceeds 30.5 m, the fire stairs
shall be pressurized[2]
Stair pressurization systems typically consist of a variable speed fan with a frequency
converter, an overpressure relief damper, pressure sensor, and a ducted shaft for multiple
injection points. More than one fan can be used depending on the height of the staircase.
According to Turkish fire code [2], fire stairs greater than 25 m shall be pressurized with
multiple injection system and if the structural height of the building is greater than 51.5 m,
there must be an injection point into the staircase at least every three floors.
The design requirements for stair pressurizations systems included in the various codes and
standards indicate a minimum and maximum pressure differential [2], [3]. The minimum
pressure differential differs between 12.515 Pa, and is for counteracting the penetration of
hot smoke resulting from a compartment fire adjacent to the stair. The maximum pressure
differential specified ranges between 6080 Pa and is derived from the maximum allowable
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

218

door opening force allowed for doors entering the stairs, which is specified to be 110 N in
Turkish Fire Code. The door opening force is defined for the building occupants to be capable
of opening the door to the staircase in an emergency event. Excessive force against the door
could prevent occupants from entering the staircase, which could be a dangerous condition
even in the event of a small fire in a high-rise building.

Stair pressurization systems are difficult to design; considering different cases, such as all
doors of the staircase are closed and some of the doors are opened. The pressurization fan
capacity will be much more than the required pressurization air demand in the case of closed
doors. This can be achieved in combination of two methods, which have to be applied
simultaneously; first reducing the rotation speed of the pressurization fan by frequency
convertors and second implementing overpressure relief dampers to discharge the excessive
amount of air.

Air Movement in Staircase

The driving forces of smoke movement include naturally occurring stack effect, the wind
effect and fan-powered ventilation systems. Stack effect is induced by temperature differences
between staircase and outside. When it is cold outside, air in the staircase has a buoyant force
because it is warmer and therefore less dense than outside air. The buoyant force causes air to
rise within the staircase. However, a downward flow of air can occur in air conditioned
buildings when it is hot outside, which is known as reverse stack effect [4]. The impact of the
stack effect on a pressurization system design is given by eq.1. Where P
SO
represents the
pressure differences between building stairwell and outside, T
S
is absolute stairwell
temperature, T
O
is outside temperature, z is the height from neutral plane and Ks =3460 kg
K/(m
2
s
2
).

, (1)

The pressure, P
W
is the wind exerts on a wall of a building can be expressed by eq.2. Cw is
wind velocity at the upwind wall of height H, U
H
is the velocity at H and
0
is density of
outside.

, (2)

Upon detection of a fire, HVAC system should be designed such that either the fans are shut
down or the system goes into a special smoke control mode operation, if normal HVAC
operation continues, the HVAC system will transport smoke to every area the system serves
[4].

METHODS

oth numerical and experimental studies are executed to investigate the importance of the use
of relief damper in pressurization system.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

219

Description of the Field Test Staircase

The stairwell to be studied is located in a shopping center. The stairwell is 29.5 m in height
and it serves to 7 stories, where 5 of these floors are below ground. Also staircase has a roof
access door, which is normally kept locked and only used for maintenance purposes also it
can be characterized as airtight therefore no leakage is specified for this door for calculations.
The floor area of the staircase is 17.6 m2. Exit floor is on ground floor (0th floor). The
schematic of staircase and pressurization system are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1.Schematic description of the staircase and pressurization system.

Pressurization system has a centrifugal supply fan with the capacity of 35,000 m3/h on the
roof level. The fan supplies the outside air to the staircase through grilles in the vertical
supply shaft on every floor except ground floor. Motorized relief damper of the pressurization
system is also located on the roof level, which is directly connected to the discharge duct
(Figure1). Such a design is mostly preferred when it is very difficult to find a place for a relief
damper connecting the staircase directly to outside. However, placing the relief damper at the
discharge duct causes excessive pressure differences across the stair doors and the location of
the relief damper cannot serve to relief this excessive pressure, because the relief point is too
far from the pressurized staircase. A single pressure transducer is used to monitor the pressure
difference and serve as input to a linear control system that operates both frequency regulator
for the fan and the motorized relief damper, which is located at first basement floor. The
whole system is connected to the alarm system that enables both manual and automatic start-
up.

Description of the Tests

The measured parameters in the tests include supply air velocity through the grille, positive
pressure differences in between stairwell and the building and temperatures of stairwell,
inside and the outside of the building.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

220

Pressure difference values are measured by a differential pressure transducer (Testo 512) with
a measurement range of 0 to 2 hPa. Air velocity values are measured by a hot wire
anemometer (Testo 425) with a measurement range of 0 to 20 m/s. Both of the measuring
instruments are calibrated with an inclined manometer. Relative error is obtained as 2.1% for
the pressure difference transducer and 5.2% for hot wire anemometer.
A series of tests were conducted under non-fire conditions. During the tests, the temperature
values are measured in the range of 15.3C to 16.0C for outside air, 21C to 25C for the
staircase and 25C for the building compartments. At the beginning of each test, motorized
relief damper was manually adjusted and the fan started manually.
The staircase pressurization systems were tested for the following cases:

1- Case 1: The fan adjusted to supply a flow rate of 3027 m3/h, relief damper was fully
opened and all of the doors were closed.
2- Case 2: The fan adjusted to supply a flow rate of 1511 m3/h , relief damper was fully
opened and all of the doors were closed.
3- Case 3: The stair door at second basement floor was half opened to see check the
change in door opening forces at other floors.

RESULTS

Experiental Results

In this section, various comparisons are made between different experimental cases. In
Figure2, the supply air flow rate is altered while the other two parameters (the status of the
relief damper and the stair doors). Reducing the supply air rate by half has caused a decrease
in the pressure difference between the stairwell and the building approximately by 20% at
each floor.

Figure 2.Supply air flow rate effect (Case 1: Q =3027 m3/h; Case 2: 1511 m3/h).

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

221

The most significant result obtained from Figure 2 is that, the pressure difference range in
Case 2 fits very well to what is defined in the Fire Codes, except for the abrupt change at the
third basement floor, which is thought to be caused by a possible leakage problem inside the
pressurization shaft. The abrupt pressure reduction at the third basement could not be justified
by theoretical explanations but it is thought that the pressurization shaft needs to be checked
for leakage.
In Case 3, one of the stair doors (at second basement floor) is opened while the
pressurization fan supplied a capacity more than 20,000 m3/h and the relief damper is opened.
In this case, it is observed that the pressure difference across all the closed doors of the
staircase has remained in an acceptable range specified in the fire codes (Figure 3). It must be
noticed that these desired conditions are obtained for a pressurization flow rate of
approximately 7 times that for Case 1, where all the doors were closed. And yet, the pressure
difference is much lower in Case 3, comparing to Case 1. This is a consequence of a well-
known fact that [7], if the stair door at the exit discharge level could be automatically opened
in case of fire, then there would be no need for a relief damper in the design of the
pressurization systems. As far as known by the author of this paper, there is no automatic door
opening mechanism that is approved to be used in fire stairs. And it is out of scope of this
study to check the applicability of such a mechanism

Figure 3. Effect of an open staircase.

Numerical Results

Numerical analyses of the experimental cases are studied and the results are shown in Figure
4. Numerical results are 28% and 32% different from the cases in which the supply air flow
rate is 3137.04 m3/h and 1511.164 m3/h respectively with closed doors and opened damper.
The reason for these differences could be the prospective leakage problem inside supply shaft
at the third basement floor.The increasing trend towards upper floors of the pressure
difference in all cases, both numerical and experimental, is thought to be due to the stack
effect.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

222

Figure 4.Comparison of numerical results with experiments.

DISCUSSION

Fire staircases in shopping malls are only used in case of fire except in special cases. Doors of
the fire staircases are closed with automatic door closers under normal operation. In the fire
event or activation of the fire scenario, staircase pressurization system is activated without
any delay. The results of the study show that, doors of the staircases cannot be opened without
the relief damper and yet if the relief damper does not discharge the excessive pressure from
staircase to outside, in other words which discharges from the supply duct, unacceptable
pressure levels are encountered. Also, direct connection of the relief damper to the supply
duct causes a delay in discharging excess air from the staircases.
Relief damper is essential for the first moments of the system activation, in which all of the
stair doors are closed. If the exit door is opened and remains open continuously during
evacuation, the need for the relief damper will be eliminated.

REFERENCES

1. Ferreira, M J and Cutonilli, J . 2008. Protecting the stair enclosure in tall buildings
impacted by stack effect, Proceedings of the 8th Council on Tall Buildings and Urban
Habitat World Congress Dubai.
2. Turkeys Regulation on Fire Protection. 2009, Regulation Referring to the Fire
Protection of Buildings.
3. NFPA 92. 2012. Standard for Smoke Control Systems, Quincy Massachusetts: National
Fire Protection Association.
4. Klote, J H and Milke J A. 2002. Principles of Smoke Management. Atlanta: American
Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
5. Beceren, K, Soyel, K and Kl A. 1998. Pressurization of the stairwell by using single
injection systems. Proceedings of the 3rd International Mechanical Installation Science
& Technology Symposium Istanbul.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

223

6. Beceren, K and Balk, G. 2004.
Merdivenyuvalarbasnlandrmatasarmesaslarvebirhesaplamayntemi.
TesisatMhendisliiDergisi, Vol.83, pp 33 51.
7. Tamura, G T. 1990. Field tests of stair pressurization systems with overpressure relief.
ASHRAE Transactions. Vol.96 (1), pp.951 958.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

224

THE EFFECTS OF SET-POINTS AND DEAD-BANDS OF THE HVAC
SYSTEM ON THE ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND OCCUPANT
THERMAL COMFORT

Ongun Berk Kazanci, Bjarne W. Olesen
1

1
International Center for Indoor Environment and Energy, Dept. of Civil Engineering,
Technical University of Denmark, Nils Koppels Alle, Building 402, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark

Corresponding email: onka@byg.dtu.dk
SUMMARY

A building is a complex system where many components interact with each other therefore
the control system plays a key role regarding the energy consumption and the occupant
thermal comfort.
This study is concerned with a detached, one-storey, single family, energy-plus house. It is
equipped with a ground heat exchanger, a ground coupled heat pump, embedded pipes in the
floor and in the ceiling, a ventilation system (mechanical and natural), a domestic hot water
tank and photovoltaic/thermal panels on the roof.
Preliminary evaluations showed that for Madrid, change of indoor set-point in cooling season
from 23C to 25C (1 K) can decrease the cooling need by 23%. Hence, an interest arose in
order to quantify the energy saving potential with respect to different set-points and dead-
bands. However occupant comfort should not be neglected for the sake of energy savings.
This study focuses on the effects of the set-points and dead-bands of different components on
the energy consumption together with the occupant thermal comfort. Evaluations are carried
out with TRNSYS for Copenhagen and Madrid in order to compare climatic effects.

INTRODUCTION

As the fossil fuels are gradually depleting, focus on the renewable energy resources and their
integration into various systems has been increasing. Even though replacing fossil fuels with
renewable energy resources is an important step, energy efficiency should not be neglected.
People spend most of their time indoors [1] therefore providing a comfortable and healthy
indoor environment should be placed in the center of every HVAC system design. This goal
should be achieved as efficiently and as effectively as possible.
This study is concerned with the house, Fold, which Technical University of Denmark
competed in the worldwide student competition Solar Decathlon Europe 2012 [2]. During the
design of the HVAC system of the house, the above mentioned points were studied.
The house was designed to be energetically self-sufficient and in fact it performs as an
energy-plus house [3]. It is equipped with a ground heat exchanger (GHX), a ground coupled
heat pump, embedded pipes in the floor and in the ceiling, a ventilation system (mechanical
and natural), a domestic hot water (DHW) tank and photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) panels.
It was observed during the design and operation phases that in order to obtain optimal
performance, it is not enough for one component to perform optimally but all of the
components should perform optimally and interact with each other in the best possible way.
Hence set-points and dead-bands of different components emerge as crucial parameters. This
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

225

study is concerned with the indoor temperature set-point and dead-band, set-point of supply
temperature to the embedded pipes and mass flow rate in the ground loop and their effects on
energy demand, energy consumption and occupant thermal comfort. Evaluations are carried
out for Copenhagen and Madrid, with commercially available simulation software, TRNSYS.

CASE STUDY DESCRIPTION

The house is a detached, one-storey, single family, energy-plus house with an interior area of
66,2 m
2
and with a conditioned volume of 213 m
3
. The houses largest glazing faade is
oriented to the North, with a 19 turn towards West. The house can be seen in
Figure 13:

Figure 13: Southwest and North sides of the house

The glazing surfaces in North and South sides are covered by the overhangs which eliminate
direct solar radiation to the house during summer. During winter direct solar radiation enters
the house and creates a favorable effect. Only active shading system was for the skylight
window. Inside the house, there is one space combining kitchen, living room and bedroom.
The surface areas and the thermal transmittance values are presented in Table 2:

Table 2: Construction details of the house [3]
External walls South North East West Floor Roof
Area [m
2
] - - 19,3 37,2 66,2 53
U-value
[W/m
2
K]
- - 0,09 0,09 0,09 0,09
Windows South North East West Floor Roof
Area [m
2
] 21,8 36,7 - - - 0,74
U-value
[W/m
2
K]
1,04 1,04 - - - 1,04
Solar
transmission
0,3 0,3 - - - 0,3

The design conditions required for the house to be fully functioning in two different climates:
Denmark (Copenhagen) and Spain (Madrid). Summer maximum, summer average and winter
average temperatures are taken for Madrid while winter minimum temperature is taken for
Copenhagen. Design temperatures and respective loads are as follows:
Summer maximum 40,0C 52,0 W/m
2
(cooling)
Summer average 26,0C 35,2 W/m
2
(cooling)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

226

Winter minimum -12,0C 45,6 W/m
2
(heating)
Winter average 2,6C 26,6 W/m
2
(heating)
Cooling and heating system of the house is water based with a low temperature heating and
high temperature cooling concept, enabling the integration of renewable resources, ground in
this case. It is a dry radiant system, piping grid is installed under the wooden layer. Space
heating is obtained by the embedded pipes in the floor and space cooling is obtained by
embedded pipes in the ceiling and, if necessary, in the floor. A mixing station is installed
between ground and embedded pipes in order to control the water flow and temperature.
In the ceiling, there is foam board system with aluminum heat conductive plates and PEX
pipes (12x1,7 mm). There are 6 circuits, with maximum flow rate in one circuit of 0,07 m
3
/h.
In the floor, there is chipboard system with aluminum heat conducting plates and PEX pipes
(17x2,0 mm). There are 4 circuits, with maximum flow rate in one circuit of 0,07 m
3
/h for the
cooling case and 0,15 m
3
/h for the heating case.
In order to regulate the indoor air quality, mechanical and natural ventilation systems are
installed. The distribution system consists of 2 supply diffusers and 4 exhausts (kitchen hood,
bathroom, toilet and clothes dryer). Maximum flow rate that could be provided by the air
handling unit, AHU, is 320 m
3
/h and this capacity fully covers the design value. AHU has two
heat recovery systems; passive (cross flow heat exchanger) and active (reversible heat pump
coupled with the DHW tank). Ventilation system is utilized to control humidity and indoor air
quality expressed by CO
2
levels. Mechanical ventilation is shut off when the outside air
temperature is suitable for natural ventilation. Natural ventilation is possible via two windows
in South and North faades and the operable skylight window.
The only electrical energy source of the house is solar energy, utilized via PV/T panels placed
on the entire roof area. The electrical system is designed to be grid-connected. The solar
thermal system is coupled with the PV part of the PV/T panels. Thermal part absorbs the heat
produced by PV panels and utilizes it in the DHW tank.
Heat source/sink for space heating/cooling is the ground, utilized via a borehole heat
exchanger. Free cooling is obtained during the cooling season and ground coupled heat pump
is only used during the heating season. The ground heat exchanger is a borehole with a depth
of 120 meters, single U-tube configuration and with a diameter of 0,12 m.

METHODS and INVESTIGATIONS

Presented results are from the commercially available dynamic building simulation software,
TRNSYS [4]. Simulations were carried out for Copenhagen and Madrid, International
Weather for Energy Calculations (IWEC) and Spanish Weather for Energy Calculations
(SWEC) weather files were used, respectively.
Same load profiles for occupants, lighting and equipment were implemented for Copenhagen
and Madrid. There are 2 occupants in the house with 1,2 met. Occupants are assumed to be
away from 8:00 to 16:00 during the weekdays and from 12:00 to 17:00 during the weekends.
The lighting load is 222 W (3,4 W/m
2
). Lights are assumed to be ON from 05:00 to 08:00 and
from 16:00 to 22:00 every day. Electrical power of the installed home appliances is 1,5 kW.
Different equipment is ON and OFF during the day. The values are expressed with respect to
the maximum value. For the weekdays, load is 5% all the time except from 02:00 to 03:00
where load is 20% and except from 19:00 to 20:00 where load is 62%. For Saturday, from
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

227

7:00 to 8:00 the load is 15%, from 8:00 to 9:00 the load is 34% and for Sunday from 2:00 to
3:00 the load is 20%.
Ventilation rate is 0,8 ach and infiltration is 0,1 ach. Natural ventilation is not taken into
account in the simulations.
G-value of the windows was taken as 0,28 (difference from the actual case is due to the
available material library).
May to September was the cooling season and the rest of the months were the heating season.
In the reference case, set-points for the operative temperature has been defined as 21C1 K
for heating and 25C1 K for cooling seasons, following category II of EN 15251:2007 [5].
The supply temperature set-points to the embedded pipes were 34C and 16C, for heating
and cooling modes, respectively. The flow rates were determined according to EN 15377-
2:2008 [6], design values were 619 kg/h for floor heating, 336 kg/h for floor cooling and 317
kg/h for ceiling cooling. The circulation pump in the ground loop has a design flow rate of
650 kg/h and a power of 68 W corresponding to this flow rate.
The heat pump is water-to-water type. The performance data of the heat pump is presented in
the following Figure 14 (heat pump is not used in the cooling season due to free cooling):

Figure 14: Heat pump efficiency curves for heating and cooling modes

In the above figure, load side represents flow coming from the house and source side
represents flow coming from the ground. The nominal thermal output of the heat pump is 3
kW with an electrical power of 600 W.
The results from annual simulations are presented in Table 3:

Table 3: Energy consumption by house needs
Application [kWh/m
2
] / Location Copenhagen Madrid
Need/consumption Need/consumption
Heating 100,7/30,6 54,2/17,3
Cooling 23,4/0,6 28,2/1,0
Ventilation 1,5/0,7 5,3/5,2
DHW 32,2/7,1 32,2/3,7
Rest of the electricity consumption 5,4 4,0
Total electricity consumption 44,4 31,3
Total primary energy consumption 111,0 93,8
Energy balance (electricity) 67,9 141,0
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

228

In the above table, need indicates thermal need and consumption indicates electricity
consumption. Rest of the electricity consists of consumptions of the pump of the embedded
pipe loops and of the two pumps for the PV/T panels. Energy balance is consumption
subtracted from production and it indicates that the house is an energy-plus house. The
primary energy factor has been taken as 2,5 for Denmark [7] and as 3 for Spain [8].

RESULTS

Results of the simulations

In the following tables, values next to the temperatures indicate set-point temperatures.
Values in the parentheses next to the flow rates indicate pump power. EN 15251:2007 has
been used as the indicator of the occupant thermal comfort and results are shown in the
percentage of time that the conditions fulfill respective comfort categories. During the
simulations, indoor temperature set-points are adjusted according to the comfort categories.
Dead-band analyses were not applied to all of the parameters; it was implemented on the
indoor temperature set-point as a representative case of its effects.
Coefficient of Performance (COP) values correspond to the COP of the heat pump (ratio of
heat delivered to electricity consumed) and COP
sys
is the ratio of heat delivered to the sum of
the electricity consumption of heat pump and the circulation pump. Free Cooling Coefficient
(FCC) represents the ratio of cooling effect to circulation pump consumption.
Presented results are only the embedded pipe system and do not consider ventilation however
this is considered not to have a significant effect due to the design strategy (ventilation system
is only intending to control humidity and CO
2
levels).
Results of the simulations are presented in the following tables, for each location and season:

Table 4: Heating season, Copenhagen (CC is the comparison of consumption to the reference)
Demand
[kWh/m
2
]
Consumption
[kWh/m
2
]
CC
[-]
COP
[-]
COP
sys
[-]
Cat.
I [-]
Cat.
II [-]
Cat.
III [-]
Reference,21C1 K 100,7 30,6 - 3,29 3,05 52% 90% 100%
T
indoor
, 19C 79,9 23,5 -23,2% 3,4 3,15 16% 26% 95%
T
indoor
, 20C 90,6 27,1 -11,5% 3,35 3,1 24% 54% 99%
T
indoor
, 21C 2K 97,7 29,7 -3,1% 3,29 3,05 48% 69% 100%
T
indoor
, 22C 109,7 33,9 10,7% 3,24 3 84% 98% 100%
T
indoor
, 23C 118,3 37,1 21,3% 3,19 2,96 96% 99% 100%
T
supply
, 30C 90,6 27,0 -11,9% 3,36 2,99 32% 62% 98%
T
supply
, 31C 95,2 28,5 -6,7% 3,34 3,01 38% 78% 99%
T
supply
, 32C 98,4 29,7 -2,9% 3,31 3,02 46% 86% 100%
T
supply
, 33C 100,2 30,4 -0,6% 3,3 3,04 52% 90% 100%
, 400 kg/h (63 W) 100,9 30,8 0,8% 3,27 3,05 52% 91% 100%
, 900 kg/h (74 W) 100,5 30,5 -0,5% 3,3 3,04 52% 89% 100%
, 1150 kg/h (79 W) 100,5 30,4 -0,6% 3,31 3,02 52% 89% 100%
, 1400 kg/h (84 W) 100,5 30,4 -0,7% 3,31 3,01 52% 89% 100%
, 1650 kg/h (87 W) 100,5 30,4 -0,8% 3,31 3 52% 89% 100%

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

229

Table 5: Heating season, Madrid (CC is the comparison of consumption to the reference)
Demand
[kWh/m
2
]
Consumption
[kWh/m
2
]
CC
[-]
COP
[-]
COP
sys
[-]
Cat.
I [-]
Cat.
II [-]
Cat.
III [-]
Reference,21C1 K 54,2 17,3 - 3,13 2,94 71% 99% 100%
T
indoor
, 19C 36,1 11,5 -33,7% 3,14 2,95 37% 51% 99%
T
indoor
, 20C 45,5 14,5 -16,2% 3,14 2,95 50% 72% 100%
T
indoor
, 21C 2K 48,7 15,6 -10,2% 3,13 2,94 57% 76% 100%
T
indoor
, 22C 63,2 20,2 16,9% 3,12 2,93 98% 100% 100%
T
indoor
, 23C 71,6 23,0 32,9% 3,11 2,92 100% 100% 100%
T
supply
, 30C 50,7 16,2 -6,6% 3,13 2,85 62% 94% 100%
T
supply
, 31C 52,1 16,6 -3,9% 3,13 2,88 65% 97% 100%
T
supply
, 32C 53,1 17,0 -2,1% 3,13 2,91 68% 99% 100%
T
supply
, 33C 53,8 17,2 -0,8% 3,13 2,93 70% 99% 100%
, 400 kg/h (63 W) 54,4 17,5 0,9% 3,11 2,94 71% 99% 100%
, 900 kg/h (74 W) 54,4 17,3 0,0% 3,14 2,93 71% 99% 100%
, 1150 kg/h (79 W) 54,3 17,3 -0,2% 3,14 2,92 71% 99% 100%
, 1400 kg/h (84 W) 54,4 17,3 -0,2% 3,15 2,91 71% 99% 100%
, 1650 kg/h (87 W) 54,4 17,3 -0,3% 3,15 2,9 71% 99% 100%

Table 6: Cooling season, Copenhagen (CC is the comparison of consumption to the reference)
Demand
[kWh/m
2
]
Consumption
[kWh/m
2
]
CC
[-]
FCC
[-]
Cat.
I [-]
Cat.
II [-]
Cat.
III [-]
Reference,25C1 K 23,4 0,6 - 38,22 93% 96% 99%
T
indoor
, 22C 35 1,2 101,6% 28,43 96% 98% 99%
T
indoor
, 23C 30,2 1,0 70,5% 29,17 95% 96% 98%
T
indoor
, 24C 27,2 0,8 27,9% 34,72 95% 97% 99%
T
indoor
, 25C 2K 21,2 0,6 -6,6% 37,13 89% 93% 97%
T
indoor
, 26C 19,8 0,5 -21,3% 41,17 89% 92% 97%
T
supply
, 17C 22,6 0,7 9,8% 33,45 92% 95% 98%
T
supply
, 18C 21,6 0,7 18,0% 29,89 91% 94% 97%
T
supply
, 19C 21 0,7 23,0% 27,89 90% 93% 97%
T
supply
, 20C 19,4 0,8 36,1% 23,42 88% 91% 96%
, 400 kg/h (63 W) 23,1 0,6 -3,3% 39,24 92% 95% 98%
, 900 kg/h (74 W) 23,4 0,7 9,8% 35,15 93% 96% 99%
, 1150 kg/h (79 W) 23,4 0,7 16,4% 32,92 93% 96% 99%
, 1400 kg/h (84 W) 23,2 0,8 27,9% 29,89 93% 95% 99%
, 1650 kg/h (87 W) 23,1 0,8 31,1% 28,75 93% 95% 99%

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

230

Table 7: Cooling season, Madrid (CC is the comparison of consumption to the reference)
Demand
[kWh/m
2
]
Consumption
[kWh/m
2
]
CC
[-]
FCC
[-]
Cat.
I [-]
Cat.
II [-]
Cat.
III [-]
Reference,25C1 K 28,2 1,0 - 27,19 90% 97% 100%
T
indoor
, 22C 41,9 1,9 83,7% 21,89 100% 100% 100%
T
indoor
, 23C 36,7 1,5 45,2% 24,34 99% 100% 100%
T
indoor
, 24C 31,1 1,2 16,3% 25,56 98% 100% 100%
T
indoor
, 25C 2K 26,9 1,0 -1,9% 26,45 80% 87% 99%
T
indoor
, 26C 26,3 0,9 -16,3% 30,18 79% 87% 99%
T
supply
, 17C 28,3 1,0 0,0% 27,25 90% 97% 100%
T
supply
, 18C 27,9 1,1 1,9% 26,37 89% 97% 100%
T
supply
, 19C 27 1,1 3,8% 24,98 88% 96% 100%
T
supply
, 20C 25,5 1,2 12,5% 21,84 85% 93% 99%
, 400 kg/h (63 W) 28,2 1 -3,8% 28,27 89% 96% 100%
, 900 kg/h (74 W) 28 1,2 10,6% 24,39 89% 97% 100%
, 1150 kg/h (79 W) 27,7 1,2 18,3% 22,56 89% 96% 100%
, 1400 kg/h (84 W) 27,7 1,3 26,9% 21,04 89% 96% 100%
, 1650 kg/h (87 W) 27,5 1,4 32,7% 19,95 89% 96% 100%

Energy performance

The indoor temperature set-points have the greatest influence on the energy demand and
consumption. In the heating season, higher indoor temperature set-points result in higher
demand and consumption (21% and 33% higher for 2C increase for Copenhagen and Madrid,
respectively) followed by a decrease in COP and COP
sys
. Changes in COP and COP
sys
are
more pronounced in Copenhagen. In the cooling season, higher indoor temperature set-points
result in lower demand (15% and 7% lower for 1C increase for Copenhagen and Madrid,
respectively) and consumption. Free Cooling Coefficient increases with higher indoor set-
points.
Dead-band increase (from 1 K to 2 K) results in a more flexible, less precise control, and
its effects are visible in the decreased demand and consumption values for all cases. COP and
COP
sys
are almost not affected while Free Cooling Coefficient is affected slightly.
Due to the low temperature heating and high temperature cooling concept, when investigating
the effects of different supply temperatures, lower temperatures than the design temperatures
were investigated in the heating season. A similar approach was utilized in the cooling case in
order to investigate the possibility of higher supply temperatures (also due to dew-point).
In the heating season, energy demand and consumption (12% and 7% lower for 4C lower
supply temperature for Copenhagen and Madrid, respectively) tend to decrease with the
decrease of the supply temperature set-point. This results in higher COP but lower COP
sys
.
COP is not affected in Madrid. In the cooling season, cooling demand decreases with
increased supply temperature set-point (17% and 10% lower for 4C higher supply
temperature for Copenhagen and Madrid, respectively) but this is not reflected to the
consumption values due to the longer operation of the circulation pump. This trend is
reflected to the Free Cooling Coefficient values.
The results show that flow rate in the ground loop doesnt have a significant effect on the
demand and the consumption for the heating case. For the cooling case, effects are more
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

231

pronounced on the consumption due to the free cooling concept (direct interaction of the
house with the GHX). COP
sys
and Free Cooling Coefficient values tend to decrease with
increasing flow rate mainly due to the higher consumption of the circulation pump.

Comfort conditions

The thermal comfort is most sensitive to the indoor temperature set-points. The effect of
increased dead-band is more visible in the heating season. Increase of the dead-band results in
a less strict control over the respective parameter therefore the comfort conditions tend to get
worse (due to less operating hours of the heat pump and/or the circulation pump).
In the cooling season, increased dead-band has a similar effect on the comfort conditions to an
increased indoor temperature set-point.
Comfort categories are less sensitive to the indoor temperature set-point changes during
cooling season than in heating season. This could be explained with the higher heating
demand than cooling demand. The same behavior is also observable for supply temperatures.
The supply temperatures to the embedded pipes have more effect on the comfort conditions
than the flow rate in the ground loop but less effect than the indoor temperature set-point.
The results show that the flow rate in the ground loop doesnt have a significant effect on the
occupant thermal comfort neither in the heating season nor in the cooling season.
Climatic effects can be observed in the case that Copenhagen is more sensitive to the supply
temperatures in the heating case (different heating needs) however in the cooling case this
effect is not possible to observe directly.
Indoor operative temperatures are presented in the following figure for both of the locations
during a representative week in J uly for Copenhagen and Madrid respectively (outdoor dry
bulb temperature is shown on the right axis):

Figure 15: Operative temperatures during a week in J uly for both of the locations

It is important to bear in mind that comfort categories only consider operative temperature but
thermal comfort is a function of other parameters such as humidity. Therefore Predicted Mean
Vote (PMV) could have been used in order to evaluate the occupant thermal comfort. Local
thermal discomfort issues should also be considered.
Every simulation software has its own advantages and limitations therefore the results
presented in this paper will be validated with the full scale experiments in the near future.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

232

DISCUSSION and CONCLUSION

Among the investigated parameters, the indoor temperature set-point is the most dominant
parameter with respect to energy demand, consumption and occupant thermal comfort.
Energy consumption and thermal comfort are also sensitive to the supply temperature to the
embedded pipe loops but not as much as indoor temperature set-points. Flow rate in the
ground has very low influence on energy consumption and occupant thermal comfort. This
effect could be explained as closer the component/parameter to the indoors, higher the
sensitivity (more components in between less the effect). When the indoor temperature set-
point is changed, every component in the system has to be adjusted accordingly but when the
set-point of a component is changed, this change does not affect the system as much because
the effects get dampened and not all of the other components need to be adjusted accordingly.
It is possible to save 23% and 34% of energy consumption during heating season in
Copenhagen and Madrid, respectively. In the cooling season, it is possible to reduce cooling
demand by 17% and 10% in Copenhagen and Madrid, respectively. While these reductions
result in fewer hours within Category I and II, Category III is satisfied for all of the cases for
more than 95% of the time. Climatic differences are observable via different effects of
modifications on the results. Increased dead-band results in lower energy consumption and
demand but it also results in decreased occupant thermal comfort.
It is possible to achieve 1C reduction in supply temperature in the heating mode and 1C
increase in supply temperature in the cooling season with almost no change in the comfort
conditions. However all of the other energy saving measures other than supply temperature
modifications are accompanied with lower comfort for the occupants. Due to this trade-off
between energy consumption and occupant thermal comfort, an optimum system operation
point should be chosen based on the priority.

REFERENCES
1. Olesen, B. W., & Seelen, J . (1993). Criteria for a comfortable indoor environment in
buildings. J ournal of Thermal Biology, 545-549
2. Solar Decathlon. (2012). Solar Decathlon Europe 2012, Rules,V.4.0.
3. Skrupskelis, M., & Kazanci, O. B. (2012). Solar sustainable heating, cooling and ventilation
of a net zero energy house. Kgs. Lyngby: Technical University of Denmark.
4. S.A. kleln eL al. (2009). 18nS?S 17, volume 1, CeLLlng SLarLed. Solar Lnergy LaboraLory,
unlverslLy of Wlsconsln-Madlson.
5. EN 15251. (2007). Indoor environmental input parameters for design and assessment of
energy performance of buildings addressing indoor air quality, thermal environment, lighting
and acoustics. Brussels: European Committee for Standardization.
6. Ln 13377-2. (2008). PeaLlng sysLems ln bulldlngs - ueslgn of embedded waLer based surface
heaLlng and coollng sysLems - arL 2: ueslgn, dlmenslonlng and lnsLallaLlon. 8russels:
Luropean CommlLLee for SLandardlzaLlon.
7. kurnlLskl, !., Allard, l., 8raham, u., eL al. (2011). Pow Lo deflne nearly neL zero energy
bulldlngs nZL8. 8russels: 8LPvA.
8. SARA Sustainable Architecture Applied to Replicable Public-Access Buildings. (2005). D17
Annex: Energy analysis of two different faade design options of the DSS project.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

233

A DIRECT NUMERICAL INTEGRATION (DNI) METHOD TO OBTAIN
WALL THERMAL RESPONSE FACTORS

Fernando Varela
1
, Santiago Aroca
2

1
Department of Energy Engineering, School of Industrial Engineering, UNED, Spain.

Corresponding email: fvarela@ind.uned.es

SUMMARY

The solution of the problem of transient conduction in multi-layer walls through response
factor method is well-known and has been studied widely and for a long time [1,2,3,4,5,6],
and recent studies [7,8,9] show that research in this field is not closed and keeps improving
calculation methods of this fundamental issue in building energy performance.

The critical point of Laplaces method is precisely the inversion of the Laplaces transform of
the solution to get the desired response factors.

The aim of this work is to present an alternative to classical methods of inversion avoiding the
process of root finding and approximating directly the integral Laplaces inversion formula.
The numerical inversion considered uses a specific integration path which makes the error
diminish exponentially with the number of approximation points [10].
The case studies and the programming code will show the precision of the obtained results
with very small computational effort and high programming simplicity.

INTRODUCTION

The problem of periodic transient heat conduction through a multi-layer wall (Figure 1)
consists in finding out the conduction heat fluxes in the extreme surfaces of the wall
( )
e
q t ,
( )
i
q t knowing the two temperature excitation functions
( )
e
T t ,
( )
i
T t as boundary conditions.
( )
( )
( )

( )

Figure 16. Heat conduction problem in a multi-layer wall.

For the k
th
layer, heat conduction process is described by the one-dimensional heat equation:
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

234

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
2
0
0,
,
,0
k k
k
k ki
k k ke
k
T T
t x
T t T t
T L t T t
T x T x
(1)

Where
( ) /
k k k k
c = is the thermal diffusivity of material k,
k
,
k
,
k
c its thermal
conductivity, density and specific heat, respectively, and L
k
its thickness. The problem is
complete considering matching temperatures and heat fluxes in the interfaces:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 1
1
1 1
0, ,
, 2,...,
0, ,
k k k
k k
k k k
T t T L t
k K
T T
t L t
x x

(2)

To solve the problem (1+2) defined above, a common method is the usage of Laplaces
transform. After some transformations, and applying condition (2), the Laplace transforms of
the responses of the wall can be written in terms of the Laplace transforms of the excitations
in the following way [11]:

( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1
1
g
g g
e e
i i
g
g g
D s
B s B s
q s T s
q s T s
A s
B s B s

(3)

Being
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1
K
g g
g k
k g g
A s B s
M s M s
C s D s
=

= =

the characteristic matrix of the wall, where

( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
sinh /
cosh /
/
/ cosh / cosh /
k k
k k
k k k
k k k k k k
L s
L s
s M s
s L s L s

=

is the characteristic matrix of layer k, function solely of the thermal properties of the layer.
Thus, the problem is solved in Laplaces space, remaining the issue of inverting the Laplaces
transforms of the desired heat fluxes.

Due to availability of excitation temperature data (in climatic records, for example), our
boundary data is generally described by a set of hourly time samples of temperature
( )
e
T k ,
( )
i
T k , k=1,2,.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

235

The intermediate values of temperature are estimated by interpolation, and this leads to
excitation functions written as linear combination of certain basis functions. In the case of
usual response factors, unit triangular functions
( ) { }
0 k
t k

=
are used, writing then any
sampled excitation function as

( ) ( ) ( )
0

k
T t T k t k
=
=
(4)

where the elemental triangular pulse

( ) t is defined as:

( )
1 , 1
0, otherwise
t t
t

This triangle function can, in turn, be decomposed in three ramp functions:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 1 2 1 t R t R t R t = + + (5)

Where the ramp function is defined as:

( )
0, 0
, t 0
t
R t
t
<
=

From (3), (4) and (5), due to linearity and independence of time of the problem, and provided
that the Laplace transform of the ramp function is
( )
2
1/ R s s = , it is clear that the problem
(1+2) is solved inverting the Laplace transform of the functions

( )
( )
( )
2
1
g
R
g
D s
X s
B s s
=
( )
( )
2
1 1
R
g
Y s
B s s
=
( )
( )
( )
2
1
g
R
g
A s
Z s
B s s
= (6)

Thus, the problem of heat conduction in a multilayer wall is equivalent to find the Laplace
inversions of the three functions (6).

The classical approach to this inversion [11] consists of using the well-known Riemann
inversion formula,

( ) ( )
1
2
st
f t f s e ds
i

=

(7)

Where ( , ), c i c i c = + is a path (named Bromwich contour) parallel to the
imaginary axis located to the right of every singularity of
( ) f s (Figure 2).

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

236

These integrals are computed using the residue theorem and finally result to be three series
evaluated in the infinite poles of the integrand function (which coincide with the roots of
( )
g
B s ):

2
1
0 0
2
1
0 0
0
( ) ( ) ( )
1
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
k
k
k
k
g g g t
R
k
g g k g
s s s
t
R
k
g g k g
s s s
g g
R
g g
s
D s D s D s
d
X t t e
B s ds B s B s
d
Y t t e
B s ds B s B s
A s A s
d
Z t t
B s ds B s
=
= = =
=
= = =
=

= + +

= + +

= +

2
1
0
( )
1
( )
k
k
g t
k
k g
s s
A s
e
B s
=
= =

(8)
c
( ) Im z
( ) Re z
slngularlLles

Figure 2. Bromwich contour and location of singularities.

In this approach, the roots
{ }
1
k
k

=
of
( )
g
B s must be computed numerically with a search
algorithm. This algorithm must be accurate enough to avoid missing roots, which can be very
near in some cases [12]. Some specific algorithms have been developed for this task [12]
which allow a significant improvement in performance, speed and accuracy.

In addition, derivatives of
( )
g
B s must be calculated and series (8) obviously must be
truncated, which adds another source of error.

DIRECT NUMERICAL INVERSION OF LAPLACE TRANSFORM

Provided that a numerical method is needed to compute
( )
g
B s roots, and after that series (8)
must be truncated, our proposal consists of computing directly the inversion integral (7)
without the use of residue theorem, but using directly a quadrature rule and avoiding this way
the root finding procedure.
A nave way to approximate (7) is applying directly the composed trapezoidal rule to the
inversion integral as is:

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

237

( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
'
2
k
n
t
n k k
k n
h
f t e f
i

=
=
(9)

Where
( ) represents a parametrization of path, and , ,...,
k
k h k n n = = are the
quadrature nodes.

However, this approach fails in most cases since the factor
( )t
e

is highly oscillatory on the
Bromwich line and transform
( ) f z typically decays slowly as
( ) Im z [13].

Talbot [14] tried to improve the performance of these methods, changing the integration path
to force a rapid decay of the integrand and thus avoiding high oscillations. Other authors
[13] have proposed hyperbolic and parabolic paths which improve the numerical inversion
performance which are well suited for this problem, but the error analysis offered is not
complete.

Finally, Lpez-Fernndez and Palencia [10] propose a method of numerical inversion based
on a hyperbolic path, very well suited for the pole structure of the integrand functions coming
from the Laplace resolution of heat conduction in multi-layer walls (6) and analyzing
carefully error bounds, which result to be exponential with the number of quadrature nodes:

( ) ( )
c n
n n
f t f t Ke

=

The method proposed in [10] states the following:
Let
( ) f z

be a sectorial Laplace transform, this is, a function fulfilling

( )
M
f z
z

(10)

for 1 > and z belonging to the complement of an acute symmetric sector
of the left half

of the complex plane (Figure 3). Let , d >0 be parameters fulfilling 0 <d <+d </2-,
[ ]
0 0
, t t the desired computation time interval for f , and 0 1 < < a free parameter.

( ) Re z
( ) Im z

Figure 3. Sectorial function and modified path
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

238

Then, the numerical inversion for the Laplace transform using the trapezoidal rule (9) using
the hyperbolic path
( ) ( ) ( )
1 sin T i = + in the grid , ,...,
k
h k k n n = = , where

( )
( ) ( )
0
2 1
arccosh
1 sin
dn
t

( ) ( )
1
arccosh
1 sin
h
n

converges uniformly in
[ ]
0 0
, t t to
( ) f t , the inverse Laplace transform of
( ) f z , and this
convergence is exponential.

It is not difficult to check the fulfilling condition (10) for the three Laplace transforms (6) we
want to invert.

RESULTS

Once we have shown that the method described in section 2 is applicable to multi-layer wall
transfer functions, some case studies are considered to show its accuracy and compare with
other methods.

Case study I. ASHRAE wall set.

We will apply the method to the set of the ASHRAE 41 representative wall assemblies result
of the research developed by Harris and McQuiston [15], to obtain the set of the first 24 X,Y,
and Z factors with an error less than 10
-6
. The number m of points needed in the quadrature
rule to achieve the mentioned accuracy are listed in Table 1.

Table 1: Needed nodes for different levels of accuracy in ASHRAE wall set.
Wall n m Wall n m Wall n m Wall n m Wall n m Wall n m
1 39 8 41 15 39 22 38 29 41 36 39
2 38 9 38 16 41 23 38 30 39 37 38
3 41 10 40 17 38 24 41 31 38 38 38
4 40 11 40 18 39 25 39 32 39 39 38
5 40 12 42 19 40 26 39 33 38 40 38
6 41 13 41 20 41 27 38 34 40 41 38
7 40 14 40 21 40 28 39 35 38

Case study II. Ouyang and Haghighats wall.

To compare the present method with the other existing methods, we show in Table 3 the first
20 cross (Y) obtained by Frequency Domain Regression Method (FDR) [5], Space State
Method (SSM) [3], Kusudas Direct Root Finding Method (DRF) [16] and DNI Method with
40 nodes for the wall shown in Table 2.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

239

Table 2: Wall description for case study II.
L
(mm)

(Wm
1
K
1
)

(kgm
3
)
c
p

(J kg
1
K
1
)
R
(m
2
KW
1
)
Outside surf.film 0.05
Concrete 89 1.73 2235 1106 0.0514
Insulation 127 0.0744 24 992 1.707
Concrete 89 1.73 2235 1106 0.0514
Inside surf. film 0.16

The values for FDR, SSM and DRF methods have been obtained from [17].

Table 3. Comparison of Response factors for case study 2 with different methods
FDR SSM DRF DNI
0.00001521 0.00001771 0.00001549 0.00001531
0.00163441 0.00164078 0.00164541 0.00163463
0.00849218 0.00852682 0.00852884 0.00849216
0.01600825 0.01606351 0.01605804 0.01600833
0.02127237 0.02132861 0.02132482 0.02127245
0.02453370 0.02458189 0.02458376 0.02453375
0.02630043 0.02634117 0.02634535 0.02630044
0.02697839 0.02701426 0.02701681 0.02697837
0.02687682 0.02690951 0.02690827 0.02687681
0.02622975 0.02625774 0.02625429 0.02622975
0.02521328 0.02523350 0.02523131 0.02521329
0.02395904 0.02397017 0.02397118 0.02395907
0.02256462 0.02256861 0.02257155 0.02256466
0.02110158 0.02110207 0.02110402 0.02110163
0.01962166 0.01962103 0.01962030 0.01962172
0.01816159 0.01815949 0.01815708 0.01816165
0.01674674 0.01674130 0.01673967 0.01674679
0.01539396 0.01538425 0.01538486 0.01539401
0.01411377 0.01410104 0.01410310 0.01411382
0.01291201 0.01289871 0.01290017 0.01291206

Case study III. Heavyweight wall.

The DNI method has been applied with 40 nodes to a heavyweight wall (Table 4) and
compared its accuracy (Table 5) with FDR Method for the first 72, 96, 120 and 144 cross (Y)
factors.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

240

Table 4. Case study III wall termophysical properties.
L (mm)

(Wm
-1
K
-1
)

(kgm
-3
)
c
p

(J kg
-1
K
-1
)
R
(m
2
KW
-1
)
Outside surface film

0.0538
Common brick 370 0.814 1800 879

Foam concrete 100 0.209 600 837

Wood wool board 25 0.163 400 2093

Stucco 20 0.814 1600 837

Inside surface film

0.1147

Table 5. Compared accuracy for DNI and FDR methods of for case study III wall
Number of response factors 72 96 120 144
DNI error* 0.62% 1.50% 3.66% 8.92%
FDR error* 0.63% 1.54% 3.74% 9.12%
*Error computed according to [18].
DISCUSSION

A new method to obtain wall response factors has been developed, with the following
advantages:

It is very simple and short to implement, since it is an application of the trapezoidal
rule to the Laplace inversion integral in an adequately chosen path.
It avoids all the problems derived of root finding procedures: long iterative processes,
possible root missings, etc.
It has exponential convergence with the number of interpolation points, so
convergence to solution is very quickly.

REFERENCES

1. Mitalas, G.P., Stephenson, D.G. 1967. Room thermal response factors. ASHRAE Trans., 73 (1),
pp. 2.12.10.
2. D.G. Stephenson, G.P. Mitalas. 1971. Calculation of heat transfer functions for multilayer slabs.
ASHRAE Trans., 77 (2), pp. 117126.
3. Ouyang, K. Haghighat, F. 1991. A procedure for calculating thermal response factors of multi-
layer wallsState space method. Building and Environment, Vol. 26 (2), pp 173-177.
4. Spitler, J .D, Fisher, D.E. 1999. Development of periodic response factors for use with the
radiant time series method. ASHRAE Trans., Vol. 103 (2), pp. 503515.
5. Wang, S, Chen, Y. 2002. A simple procedure for calculating thermal response factors and
conduction transfer functions of multilayer walls. App. Therm. Eng., Vol. 22 (3), pp 333-338.
6. Chen,Y, Wang, S. 2005. A new procedure for calculating periodic response factors based on
frequency domain regression method. Int. J . Therm. Sci., Vol. 44 (4), pp 382-392.
7. Xu, X, Wang, S, Chen, Y. 2008. An improvement to frequency-domain regression method for
calculating conduction transfer functions of building walls. App. Therm. Eng., Vol. 28 (7), pp.
661-667.
8. Li, X.Q, Chen, Y, Spitler, J .D, Fisher, D. 2009. Applicability of calculation methods for
conduction transfer function of building constructions, International J ournal of Thermal
Sciences, Vol. 48(7), pp. 1441-1451.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

241

9. Maestre, I, Cubillas, P, Prez-Lombard, L. 2010. Transient heat conduction in multi-layer walls:
An efficient strategy for Laplace's method. Energ. Buildings, Vol. 42 (4), pp. 541-546.
10. Lpez-Fernndez, M, Palencia, C, Schdle, A. 2006. A spectral order method for inverting
sectorial Laplace transforms. SIAM J . Numer. Anal. Vol. 44 (3), pp. 13321350.
11. Building Energy Simulation Group. Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory. 1982. DOE-2 Engineers
Manual. Version 2.1A. University of California.
12. Hittle, D. C., Bishop, R. 1983. An improved root-finding procedure for use in calculating
transient heat flow through multilayered slabs, Int. J . Heat Mass Tran. Vol. 26 (11), pp. 1685-
1693.
13. Weideman, J . A. C, Trefethen, L. N. 2007. Parabolic and hyperbolic contours for computing the
Bromwich integral. Mathematics of Computation, Vol. 76 (259), pp. 13411356.
14. Talbot, A.1979. The accurate numerical inversion of Laplace transforms. J . Inst. Math. Appl.
Vol. 23, pp. 97-120.
15. Harris, S.M., McQuiston, F.C.1988. A study to categorize walls and roofs on the basis of
thermal response. ASHRAE Transactions Vol. 94 (2). pp. 688-714.
16. Kusuda T. 1969. Thermal response factors for multilayer structures of various heat conduction
system. ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 75(1), pp. 24671.
17. Wang, S, Chen, Y.2003. Transient heat flow calculation for multilayer constructions using a
frequency-domain regression method. Building and environment, Vol. 38, pp. 45-61.
18. Chen, Y. Zhou, J ., Spitler, J .D. 2006. Verification for transient heat conduction calculation of
multilayer building constructions. Energy and Buildings, Vol 38, pp. 340348.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

242

APPLYING TEARING TECHNIQUES TO IMPROVE BUILDING
SIMULATION CPU TIMES

J uan L. Foncubierta Blzquez
1
, Ismael Rodrguez Maestre
1
, J uan Fco. Coronel Toro
2
, Paloma
R. Cubillas Fernndez
1

1
Thermal Engineering Research Group (iiter.uca.es). University of Cdiz. Spain
2
Grupo de Termotecnia, Escuela Superior de Ingenieros, Universidad de Sevilla. Spain

Corresponding email: Ismael.rodriguez@uca.es

SUMMARY

Energy building simulations software has turned into a tool increasingly used by the
professionals of the energetic sector. One of the possible aspects to improving in these
programs is the time necessary for the annual simulation of a building. These times have
increased lately due to a series of factors as the ability to analyze high dimension buildings,
complex systems HVAC or lower simulation time-steps.

These programs need to solve, for every time step, a set of systems of corresponding
equations to the thermal models used for the constructive elements and the systems HVAC.
Programs as TRNSYS or EnergyPlus use schemes of resolution type implicit that need from
numerical methods of resolution.

This paper presents the improvements obtained in times of simulation for a set of case studies
by applying Tearing techniques to the matrix which characterizes the system of equations just
before to use the numerical method. First, a brief description of used methodology is
presented. Then, a series of case studies based on HVAC systems are described. Finally, the
results in terms of CPU times are presented. The studies show savings in CPU-time for the
case studies between 20 and 77%.

INTRODUCTION

Building Performance Simulation tools (BPS) have gained a greater role in the last years,
mainly due to the development of new policies in energy savings in buildings, as the
European Directive 21012/27/UE [1], that aims to set a common actions to achieve a 20% of
energy savings in this sector for the 2020. The International Energy Agency has published
that the 23% of the total primary energy is consumed by the building sector [2].

The overall building consumption requires the detailed calculation of all the mechanisms of
heat transfer involved in the building (solar gains, walls, windows, shadow calculations,
equipment schedules, etc.) and in the HVAC systems, including control strategies [3].

Considering the classification made by Trcka and Hensen [4], the resolution of the equation
system derived from the above models, can be resolved by a sequential scheme (ex. DOE-2
[5]), which the different modules have no feedback between them (normally Building and
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

243

HVAC System), or iterative scheme, which the modules are fully integrated and can be
resolved simultaneously (ex. ESP-r [6], EnergyPlus [7], SPARK [8], TRNSYS [9]).

The error committed by an inadequate selection of simulation time step can be significantly.
Dos Santos [10] studied the influence of this time step with the accuracy of the results in a
complete building simulation, finding discrepancies up to 30% of the total energy
consumption. Also it is not possible to perform a correct HVAC control simulation in
oversized time steps. In this study, Dos Santos suggests 0.25-1s time steps, but the
computation time could be excessively high.

Mainly for these reasons, in recent years, the development of BPS has been evolving from the
traditional sequential methods, with one hour time step (where it is assumed ideal HVAC
control) towards iterative and fully-integrated resolution methods with shorter time steps (
EnergyPlus uses a 15 minutes time step by default).

The traditional numerical methods for solving system of nonlinear equations are based in the
linearization of the system, by the calculation of the system J acobian matrix [11]. The
computational cost of these methods is O(n
3
) [12], where n is the number of equations of the
system. It is possible to improve the efficiency of these methods by applying tearing of
equations methods [13]. The aim of these methods is to divide the whole system in subgroups
than can be solved individually.

The tearing methods can be divided in three different parts: Processing of the incidence
matrix, Generation of the equations subgroups in the correct resolution order and the Final
Resolution.

In the first phase of the method, the algorithms rely on the incidence matrix which represents
the system of equations to solve through relationships of functions and variables. These
algorithms could be divided in two groups, depending if they modify the incidence matrix.

The objective of the first ones is to identify permutations of rows and columns so that the
permuted incidence matrix becomes block lower triangular. This task could be done by the
systematic permutation search inside the incidence matrix [14, 15], other algorithms are
derived from the matrix factorization method, like LU decomposition or similar [16, 17].

The second ones are based in finding the maximum transversal of the sparse matrix, or
matching algorithms, without modifying the original matrix. The transversal relates one
unique equation with one variable and vice versa. This finding could be done by the
systematic search inside the incidence matrix [14], where the most extended are the Hopcroft
and Karp [18] and Duffs algorithm (MC21A) [19], being the last more efficiently in practice
[14]. Frenkel, J . has studied this kind of algorithms, which its efficiency depends on the type
of system to solve [20]. Also bipartite graphs matching algorithms, where the most extended
are Fords algorithm [21] and Hopcroft and Karps algorithm.

The second phase of the tearing process is the generation of the subgroups of equations. If the
incidence matrix has been modified in the previous phase, the equations blocks will be the
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

244

minimal blocks than cannot be decomposed further by column or row permutations (Figure
2).

If the maximum transversal is obtained, the subgroup generation can be done by the
application of strong connected component decomposition algorithm to a directed graph
(Figure 3) constructed from the transversal. The most extended are the Deep First Search
algorithms (Tarjans algorithm [22]).

In the last phase, it is extended the use of Newton-Raphson like algorithms, for the resolution
of the subgroups of equations [11].

The tearing methods have been introduced in BPS mainly by TRNSYS [23] and SPARK. In
TRNSYS each component is treated as one equation and uses matrix factorization methods to
obtain the block lower triangular matrix. This model does not allow the subdivision of
equations inside the components, where it is usual this subdivision between thermal and
hydraulic equations. SPARK uses the Hopcroft and Karps bipartite graph algorithm. This one
has the inconvenient that it is necessary to use symbolic methods to find explicit inverses of
the equations. This is not always possible, for example, the flow calculations in pipe networks
by the Colebrook-Whites expression [24].

A new method for tearing equations without equations symbolic methods, and its application
in BPS tools is presented in this article.

PROPOSED METHOD

This epigraph shows the proposed method description. First it develops the Processing of the
incidence matrix, second it generates the equations subgroups in the correct resolution order
and finally it shows the resolution algorithm used.

Processing of the incidence matrix

The Figure 1 describes the generation of the incidence matrix form the generic system of
equations showed. This matrix represents the equations in each i row, and each variable in its
j column. A nonzero is assigned to the position ij than the equation i contains the variable j.

) ,x ,x f(x f
) ,x f(x f
) ,x ,x f(x f
) ,x ,x ,x f(x f
) ,x f(x f
5 3 1 5
4 1 4
4 2 1 3
5 4 3 2 2
4 1 1
=
=
=
=
=

1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 1
5
4
3
2
1
5 4 3 2 1
f
f
f
f
f
x x x x x

System of equations Inciuence Natiix A
Figure 1. Example of incidence matrix.

Applying the efficient MC21A algorithm (Duffs algorithm [19]) the maximum transversal is
detected (Figure 3).
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

245

1 1 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 1 1
2
5
3
4
1
5 3 2 4 1
f
f
f
f
f
x x x x x

1 1 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 1 1
2
5
3
4
1
5 3 2 4 1
f
f
f
f
f
x x x x x

,
v

v

Peimuteu Inciuence Natiix A' Ninimal Blocks of A'
Subgioups of
equations
Figure 2. Example of permuted incidence matrix.

Generation of the subgroups of equations

A directed graph can be generated from the maximum transversal. The nodes of the graph
represent the system equations. The node connections are made based on the nonzeros of the
incidence matrix, in the column where the transversal is for the equation N.

Below is applied the Tarjans algorithm for the decomposition of strong connected component
to obtain the final subgroups to solve.

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )

1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0
0 1 0 0 1
f
f
f
f
f
x x x x x
5
4
3
2
1
5 4 3 2 1

Naximum tiansveisal System Biiecteu uiaph
Figure 3. System Directed Graph.

Final Resolution
Once the subgroups are generated, they are solved by the multivariable Newton-Raphson
algorithm, with LU decomposition for the efficient resolution of the lineal system.

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE

An example of application of the proposed method is showed in this epigraph for a simple Air
Handing Unit (AHU). As the Figure 4 shows, the exterior air is driven through a cooling coil
of P
s
of cool power. The fan overcomes the pressure losses (h) of the filters, coils and
conductions, applying a pressure increase of H
v
.

The equation 1 models the heating of the water entering in the coil. Analogously, the equation
2 models the cooling of the air entering the coil. So these two equations define the thermal
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

246

behavior of the AHU. The hydraulic behavior (equations 3, 4 and 5) is modeled by fan
equation and resistive conduction equation.

The figure describe all the phases of the proposed method, generation of the incidence matrix,
maximum transversal search with MC21A algorithm, directed graph generation and subgroup
generation with Tarjans algorithm. The hydraulic equations can be solved independently
first, next it can be solved the equation 1, and last the equation 2 can be solved.

Basic AB0 uiagiam

( )
( )
h
v
H f
h
a
m e d f
v
H
a
m c
a
m b a f
s
P
i,a
T
o,a
T
p,a
C
a
m f
s
P
o,w
T
i,w
T
p,w
C
w
m f
=
+ =
+ =
=
=
5
2
4
2
3
2
1
1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 1
5
4
3
2
1
f
f
f
f
f
h
v
H
o,a
T
a
m
s
P

1 ) 1 ( 0 0 0
) 1 ( 0 0 1 0
0 1 0 ) 1 ( 0
0 0 ) 1 ( 1 1
0 0 0 0 ) 1 (
5
4
3
2
1
f
f
f
f
f
h
v
H
o,a
T
a
m
s
P

System of equations Inciuence Natiix A Maximum Transversal

, ,
v

v

System Biiecteu uiaph Subgioups of equations geneiateu

Figure 4. Illustrative example.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

247

CASE STUDIES

With the aim to quantify the time savings by the method, a complete building simulation has
been done, with habitual and real HVAC Systems. The table 1 shows a brief description of the
simulated cases.

Table 1. Description of Case Studies.
Case Name Description
1
BBW
Bomestic Bot Watei System, with watei tank, solai panels anu an
auxiliaiy boilei.
2
2 Pipe System
Two pipe system with two chilleis foi cooling, anu two heat pumps
foi heating. It is a commeicial builuing with two theimal zones anu
two FanCoils attacheu to them.
3
2 Pipe System with
Watei conuensation.
Two pipe system with one heat pump, watei conuenseu. The
conuensation loop setpoint is maintaineu by a Cooling towei anu a
boilei.
4
4 Pipe System
0ffice Builuing with thiee exteiioi theimal zones, anu one inteiioi
zone, anu a 4 pipe system with one aii conuenseu chillei, anu aii
conuenseu heat pump.
5
4 Pipe System with heat
iecoveiy foi BBW
Analogous to the pievious system, but iecoveiing the conuenseu
heat fiom the chilleu to a BBW system.

Two inuepenuent 4
Pipe System
Two analogous inuepenuent 4 pipe system with eigth teimal
zones.
7
2 Pipe System
Case 2 like, 2 pipe system with six theimal zones.

Simulations for a period of one year with a five minutes time step have been performance.
The proposed algorithm is only applied to the HVAC System. The results of them are shown
in the Table 2.

Table 2. Simulation Results.
Case
N
Equations
N
Blocks
Simulation
time witbout
tearing {s]
Simulation
time witb
tearing {s]
Time
Savings
{3]
1 26 16 44.2 16.S 6S.1
2 S2 16 1u1.9 82 19.6
3 SS 17 1S1.2 6S.4 S1.7
4 48 24 SuS.1 182 4u.S
5 9u 47 929.S 272 7u.7
96 48 1S24.4 SS7.1 7S
7 1Su 67 2SS7.6 SS1.S 77.4

CONCLUSIONS

An alternative methodology to solve the equation systems in building simulation programs by
applying tearing techniques has been presented. Different case studies for real HVAC systems
have been performance. Results in terms of cpu times have been showed. Saving in cpu times
up to 77% have been found.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

248

REFERENCES

[1] European Parliament and of the Council, Directive 2012/27/UE, The energy performance of
buildings, 2012.
[2] Agencia Internacional de la Energa, http://www.iea.org, [En lnea].
[3] T. Hong, S. Chou y T. Bong, Building simulation: an overview of developments and
information sources, Building and Environment, n 35, pp. 347-361, 2000.
[4] M. Trcka y J . L. Hensen, Overview of HVAC system simulation, Automation in
Construction, n 19, pp. 93-99, 2010.
[5] LBNL, DOE Engineers Manual Version 2.1A, Berkeley, California: Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory., 1982.
[6] Essam O Aeasem. "Practical Simulation of Buildings and Air-Conditioning Systems in the
Transient Domain", PhD Thesis, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Energy Systems Division,
University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, U.K. 1993.
[7] D. B. Crawley, L. K. Lawrie, F. C. Winkelmann, W. Buhl, Y. Huang, C. O. Pedersen, R. K.
Strand, R. J . Liesen, D. E. Fisher, M. J . Witte y J . Glazer, EnergyPlus: creating a new-generation
building energy simulation program, Energy and Buildings, vol. 33, n 4, pp. 319-331, 2001.
[8] E. F. Sowell, M. A. Moshier, P. Haves y D. Curtil, Graph-Theoretic Methods in Simulation
Using SPARK, de High Performance Computing Symposium of the Advanced Simulation
Technologies Conference, Arlington, 2004.
[9] SEL, TRNSYS manual version 14.1 Solar Energy Laboratory, University of Wisconsin,
Madison, 1995.
[10] G. H. dos Santos y N. Mendes, Analysis of numerical methods and simulation time step
effects on the prediction of building thermal performance, Applied Thermal Engineering, n 24, pp.
1129-1142, 2004.
[11] L. D. Petkovic y M. S. Petkovic, A note on some recent methods for solving nonlinear
equations, Applied Mathematics and Computation, n 187, pp. 368-374, 2007.
[12] E. F. Sowell y P. Haves, Efficient solution strategies for building energy system simulation,
Energy and Buildings, vol. 33, n 4, pp. 309-317, 2001.
[13] G. Kron, Diakoptics - The Piecewise Solution of Large-scale Systems, London: MacDonald &
Co, 1963.
[14] I. Duff y J . Koster, On algorithms for permuting large entries to the diagonal of a sparse
matrix, SIAM J ournal on Matrix Analysis and Applications, vol. 4, n 22, p. 973996, 2001.
[15] V. Kundeti y S. Rajasekaran, Fast algorithms for placing large entries along the diagonal of a
sparse matrix, J ournal of Computational and Applied Mathematics, vol. 235, n 3, pp. 756-764, 2010.
[16] I. Duff y K. J ., The Design and Use of Algorithms for Permuting Large Entries to the
Diagonal of Sparse Matrices, SIAM J ournal on Matrix Analysis and Applications, vol. 4, n 20, pp.
889-901, 1999.
[17] M. Naumov, M. Manguoglu y A. H. Sameh, A tearing-based hybrid parallel sparse linear
system solver, J ournal of Computational and Applied Mathematics, n 234, pp. 3025-3038, 2010.
[18] J . Hopcroft y R. Karp, A n^5/2 Algorithm for Matching on a Bipartite Graph, de SIAM J .
Algorithms, 1973.
[19] I. Duff, On algorithms for obtaining a maximum transversal, ACM Transactions on
Mathematical Software (TOMS), vol. 7, n 3, pp. 387-390, 1981.
[20] J . Frenkel, G. Kunze y P. Fritzson, Survey of appropriate matching algorithms for large scale
systems of differential algebraic equations, de Proceedings of the 9th International Modelica
Conference, Munich, Germany, September 3-5, 2012.
[21] L. Ford J r. y D. Fulkerson, Flows in Networks, Princeton Univ. Press, 1962.
[22] R. Tarjan, Depth-first search and linear graph algorithms, SIAM journal on computing, vol.
1, n 2, pp. 146-160, 1972.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

249

[23] A. Fiscal, J . Thornton, S. A. Klein y W. A. Beckman, Developments to the TRNSYS
Simulation Program, J ournal of Solar Energy Engineering, vol. 5, n 123, 1995.
[24] C. F. Colebrook y C. M. White, Experiments with Fluid Friction in Roughened Pipes, de
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences 161 (906),
1937.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

250

ENERGY EFFICIENT HEATING OF BUILDING

Ahmet CAN
1
, Selin ENGN
2
and Dervi ZKAN
3

1
Trkisch-Deutsche Universitaet, Beykoz Istanbul, can@tau.edu.tr
2
Trakya University, Edirne,

selin.engin@yahoo.com
3
Kastamonu University, Abana Sabahat-Mesut Ylmaz Vocational High School, Kastamonu
dozkan@kastamonu.edu.tr

ABSTRACT

Energy is an important factor, in terms of social and economic development of countries and
the protection of the environment. The basic ways to increase energy efficiency is to reduce
energy consumption. In this context "Energy Efficiency Law" published in the Official
Gazette No. 26510 dated May 2, 2007 came into force [1]. According to this law, Turkey's
energy consumption rate is to be reduced by 15% by 2020. The energy consumed in
buildings is 35% of Turkey's total energy consumption. There is more than 40% energy
saving potential in the building sector. The energy consumed in buildings, provide an annual
savings of U.S. $ 7 billion.

A large part of the energy consumed in buildings is used for heating. The annual amount of
energy consumed per unit area of the buildings must comply with the prescribed value given
in "Energy Performance Directive of Buildings" published in the Official Gazette No. 27075
dated December 5, 2008 [2]. According to the regulation, the external climatic conditions, the
internal space requirements, local conditions, and cost-effectiveness should also be
considered. To ensure assessment of all the energy use of the building, calculation rules are
determined. The primary energy and carbon dioxide (CO
2
) emissions are specified according
to the given classification.

A two story building, used as a residence, located in the Second zone Degree-day in the city
of Tekirdag was selected for analysis. Here, the normal energy-efficient building is
designated as C-type, the medium energy efficient building as B-type and the super energy
efficient building as A-type. Energy identity documents, is defined according to the annual
energy consumption per unit area, the unit kWh/m
2
year. The building heat loss and
condensation calculations were made with a TS 825 standard accounting program with C, B
and A types calculated in different ways [3].

The designs are compared and according to the thermodynamic and economic aspects results
of the calculations are evaluated and presented.

Key Words: Energy Efficiency, Heat Insulation, Account The Payback Period.

1. INTRODUCTION

Energy is an important factor for social and economic development of countries as well as for
the protection of the environment.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

251

Energy efficiency is defined as minimum energy consumption without compromising the
quality, amount and life standards.

Sectoral allocation of primary energy consumption in Turkey is shown in Figure 1. As can be
seen in the figure, it is 37% in the industry, 21% in transportation and 35% in the housing
sector. 7 billion dollars can be saved annually only from the energy consumed in buildings,
[3]. In Turkey, it is seen that the largest portion of the energy is consumed in the buildings.
Energy consumed in buildings accounts for the 35% total annual consumption in Turkey and
85% of this is used for heating, which made it necessary to introduce laws and regulations
regarding energy efficiency. The Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources has enacted
Energy Efficiency Law in order to reduce the energy intensity of Turkey by 2020. This law
not only deals with the production, transmission, distribution and consumption processes of
the energy, but also with energy in energy consuming sectors such as industry, transportation
and housing; moreover, it deals with the development of energy conscious society and with
the utilization of renewable and domestic resources,[1].

Figure1. Sectoral allocation of primary energy consumption in Turkey
Rapid depletion of fossil fuel sources and oil reserves which meet a large part of the worlds
energy needs, and the adverse effects on the environment resulting from their usage made the
energy efficiency an important issue. In 2006, it was observed that the total energy
consumption in Turkey was 72.2 million toe (tons of oil equivalent) and only 29% of this
consumption was met with local resources. It is estimated that this figure will be 20% in 2020.
Thus, in order to improve energy efficiency, it is necessary to increase the use of the
renewable and local resources. When the buildings are constructed, designs should be made
according to the climatic zone and renewable resources of the area. For example, while
benefitting maximum from the sun in the cold climate zones, in hot climate regions shading
and natural ventilation must be used.
In buildings with the use of heat insulation, which is done to reduce the transfer of the heat
from internal environment to the external environment in the winters and just the opposite in
the summers, the amount of heat transfer per unit time is reduced. Heat insulation provides
thermal comfort. To ensure thermal comfort, the difference between the ambient temperature
and the inner surface temperature of the wall must be at most 3
0
C, [3]. If the internal surface
36%
37%
22%
5%
House Industry Transportatio Agricul
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

252

temperature is low, the heat creates airflows toward the cold surfaces. In order to prevent the
airflows heat insulation must be done.

In order to reduce the energy consumed in the buildings, even in the initial stage of their
design, they must be planned in a way that is energy efficient. This depends on the factors
such as the climatic conditions of the area, the altitude, the building land and the direction of
the building, its form, the heat conduction properties of the elements that surround the
building, the hours of operation and on the properties of the systems used for heating and
cooling the building.

By reducing the overall heat transfer with the insulation of the building elements such as the
walls, the ceiling, the floor etc., heat transfer can be reduced and in this way the condensation,
which corrodes the steel causing it to loose strength and some of its carrying capacity, can be
prevented.

a) For a multi-story building

b) For a single-story building

Figure 2. Heat losses in the multi-story and single story buildings

In general, as it is seen in Figure 2, in multi-story buildings 40% of heat is lost from exterior
walls, 30% from windows, 7% from the roof, 6% from the basement slab and 17% from air
leakage. In single-story buildings it was found that 25% of heat is lost through the exterior
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

253

walls, 22% from the roof, 20% from the windows, 20% from the basement slab and 13% from
the air leakage, [3]. As understood from here, the factors that affect the thermal insulation of a
building are walls, windows, roofs and floors. Convective heat losses mostly occur through
walls, and thus a large part of the energy is lost through the walls.

Located in the Second-Degree day zone in Tekirda, a two-story detached house was selected
as a sample. Heat loss and condensation calculations of the sample building were done with
an accounting program which is suitable for the TS 825 standard. Heat insulation and designs
for each- for C type normal energy efficient building, for B type medium energy efficient
building, and for A type super energy efficient building were done based on the kWh/m
2

values which are specified in the energy identity card of each type of building.

2. CALCULATION METHOD

Heat Insulation Rules of Buildings standard TS 825, which was introduced on J une14,
2000, with the purpose of energy efficiency while heating the buildings, gives the calculation
method to figure out the energy need required for heating the building. This standard is
applied to residential, commercial, public, education buildings, to hospitals and so on. TS 825
standard is not used in the design of heating systems as well as in the buildings which use
passive solar energy systems.

The calculation of annual heating energy requirement of a building is done by considering the
buildings properties, the internal and external climatic conditions, the gains and internal
gains from the sun and the heat losses through transmission and ventilation. In accordance
with the value obtained from this calculation, energy class of the building is determined.
Energy classes for houses were determined according to the standard and were specified as
super energy efficient building A, good energy efficient building B, and normal energy
efficient building C. Energy class of the building is issued in the heat insulation project.
Apart from this information, the materials, which are used in the construction and insulation
of the wall, ceiling, floor, window, and of the door, must be specified in the table sequentially
together with their values such as thickness, thermal conductivity, surface, and thermal
transmittance. Heat loss and gain, gain / loss ratio, the gain utilization factor, monthly and
annual heating energy needs, solar energy gain, temperature difference, and specific heat loss
must be shown in the chart. The sections of the construction elements must be drawn in a
detailed way, and the areas of the doors and windows in accordance with their directions as
well as the values of heat transmission coefficient must be specified. Condensation and
evaporation within of the construction elements must be calculated. Ventilation report must be
prepared. Heat demand certificate, showing the energy efficiency of the building, must be
prepared.

In an insulated building, calculated annual heating energy requirement is ensured to be
smaller than the limit set in the standard; moreover, calculated total heat transfer coefficient
for the outer wall, ceiling and the floor is ensured to be equal or slightly smaller than the
amount set in the standard. If, on the heat losing surfaces of the building, there is no
condensation at all, or if the condensation is smaller than the evaporation and if the inner
surface temperature is 3
0
C less than the internal ambient temperature, then it indicates
compliance with the standard, [3].
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

254

To calculate the annual heating energy demand, monthly heat gains are subtracted from the
monthly heat losses, the sum of the monthly heating energy needs is calculated and expressed
as follows:
y ay
Q Q =
, (1)

( ) ( )
, ,

ay i d ay i g ay
Q H T T t

=

, (2)

Specific heat loss of the building is the sum of the heat losses that occur by conduction and
ventilation.
i v
H H H = + , (3)

For the heat loss which occurs through the construction elements and heat bridges, the
following equations are written.

i I
H AU I U = +
, (4)

0.8 0.5
0.5
D D tav tav tab tab p p
k k d d ds ds
AU U A U A U A U A
U A U A U A
= + + + +
+ +
, (5)

Coefficients 0.5 and 0.8 are written for the external surfaces which do not contact directly
with the outside air but with an environment that is hotter than the outside air. If the roof
covering is exposed directly to the outside air, then the coefficient 0.8which is in front of the
U
T
heat transfer number must be taken as 1.
Thermal bridges occur at the points where two construction elements one with average heat
transfer temperature and the other one with greater heat transfer temperature meet. The
following definition is used for the heat transfer number in the heat bridge.

I TB
U bU = + , (6)

The heat transfer resistance is given by the following expression:

1 2
1 2
1
.......
n
i d
h h hn
d d d
R R
U
= + + + + + , (7)

The heat loss that occurs through natural ventilation is given by the following expression.

'
0.33
v h h h h
H cV cn V n V = = = , (8)

If there is no information or specific value based on the result of measurement, n
h
air change
value is taken as 0.8. Ventilated volume is 80% of the gross volume.

h
V =0,8
brt
V , (9)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

255

The changes that occur in the specific mass and specific heat of the air depending on the
temperature and pressure were ignored. For 20
0
C and 100 kPa, the following value was found
and used.

3 3
/ 3600 1.184 1006 / 3600 0.33 / 0.33 / c Jh m Ks Wh m K = = = , (10)

In addition to heat losses in buildings, there are heat gains resulting from the solar energy
entering into the building through transparent surfaces; moreover, there are other sources of
heat such as the devices used in the building, the metabolic heat of people, the stove in the
kitchen, hot water and the lighting systems. The second term of (2) equation represents these
heat gains. Monthly average internal gains per unit floor area in buildings is taken in general
as 5W/m
2
.
5
i n
A , (11)

0.32
n brt
A V = , (12)

The average monthly solar energy gain, calculated in accordance with the directive, is given
below. It shows the amount of solar energy provided directly in per unit of time.

, , , ,

g ay i ay i ay i ay i
r g I A =
, (13)
, i ay
r value takes on different values depending on the location and the characteristics of the
residential area: for the areas which have detached houses and buildings at most with 3 storys,
it is 0.8, for the areas which have shading resulting from trees and which have buildings up to
10 storys it takes the value of 0.6 and for the areas which have terraced houses and multi story
buildings it takes the value of 0.5.

The value of
, i ay
g changes depending on the incidence angle of sun rays.
,
0.80
i ay
g g
= , (14)
g
, is the solar energy transmission factor, measured in laboratory conditions, for the light
perpendicular to the surface. For single clear glass g
takes the value of 0.85, while for

multilayer clear glass it takes the value of 0.75; however, for the coated glass whose heat
transmission coefficient is below 2 W/m
2
K, it takes the value of 0.50.

Some portion of the heat gains is stored in the construction elements, while some portion of it
may come as instantaneous gains when heating is not required, or may be lost when windows
are opened. That is why, with monthly gain factor earnings can be reduced.

( )
1/
1
ay
KKO
ay
e

= , (15)
( ) ( )
i g,ay i d,ay
+ / H T T
ay
KKO = , (16)

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

256

If the monthly average of gain/loss
ay
KKO is 2.5 or above, then it is accepted that there is no
heat loss for that month. Ambient temperature for residential buildings T
i
is taken as 19
0
C.

With the calculation method given for the TS 825, net
y
Q annual energy requirement of the
building is determined. If the net room height is 2.6 m or less, annual heating requirement per
usage area is calculated, while if the net room height is above 2.6m, the annual heating
requirement per gross volume Qis calculated.

Net room height; 2.6 m /
y brt
Q Q V > = kWh/m
3

2.6 m / A
y n
Q Q = kWh/m
2

In accordance with the limit values specified in the TS825,
'
Q maximum allowable annual
heating energy requirement is calculated. After these calculations, if the
'
Q Q < is found, then
the project is said to comply with the standards. The rate of
'
/ Q Q helps to determine into
which energy class the building belongs to [3].

Another factor to ensure the durability and strength of the insulation of construction elements
is that condensation control must be done. Condensation occurs from the variation of the
vapor pressure resulting from the differences in temperature and relative humidity between
the two sides of the building element. When the water vapor cannot pass to the external
environment, condensation occurs in the structural element. It is necessary or not to determine
whether condensation occurs as a result of the insulation materials used, and if any, to
eliminate condensation through different insulation methods. Doing condensation control,
when the building is in project phase, is an important parameter for the implementation of
right insulation(3).

Thickness of the building materials, collating sequence, heat transfer, resistance to water
vapor diffusion, heat distribution inside of the structure, intended purpose of the structure and
the climatic conditions of the region are the main factors that affect the formation of
condensation.

For the total heat transmission resistance of a multi layered structure element, the following
expression is defined.
1 2 n
h1 h2 hn
d d d 1
R = = + +..... +

, (17)

For the calculations regarding the condensation control, surface heat transmission resistance
values, for the external and internal surfaces, were taken as R
i
=0,25 m
2
K/W and R
d
=0,04
m
2
K/W.

Heat flow per unit area is calculated for each month.

( )
i d,ay
q =U T - T , (18)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

257

In residential buildings, internal ambient temperature is taken as 20
0
C , after incrementing the
indoor temperature value specified in TS 825 1
0
C, (20=19 +1). External ambient temperature
values are taken from the list where monthly average external temperatures are given
according to the Degree-Day zones specified in TS 825. The soil temperature in contact with
the construction element is taken as the average of the outside temperatures which are
specified in TS 825.
Internal surface temperature of the construction element can be obtained from equation (19),
external surface temperature from equation (20) and the interface temperatures from equation
(21).

yi i i
T =T - R q, (19)

yd d,ay d
T =T - R q, (20)

1 i 1
T =T - R q
2 1 2
T =T - R q

n n-1 n
T =T - R q, (21)

In order to prevent condensation on the surface of the internal volume of the building, internal
surface temperature should be at most 3
0
C lower than the prescribed inner temperature value
for that volume.

The temperature change for a steady regime in a multi layered construction element is given
in figure 3. Water vapor saturation pressure corresponding to temperature values calculated
for the interfaces of the building element is determined from the table given in TS 825.

Figure 3. Temperature change in a multi-layered building element
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

258

Water vapor diffusion- equivalent air layer thickness is given with the following equation.

d
S = . d , (22)

It is defined as the thickness of the stationary air whose resistance to the passage of water
vapor is equivalent to that of a structural element. Here,
is the water vapor diffusion

resistance factor.
Partial vapor pressures in internal and external environments are defined with the following
equations.
i i doy,i
p = p , (23)
d d doy,d
p = p , (24)

In buildings with natural ventilation, relative humidity of internal environment is taken as
65%. For the relative humidity of external environment, values are given according to the
provinces as specified in TS 825 standard. For the construction element in contact with soil,
the relative humidity of the earth is taken as 100%. Relative humidity which is 80% or more
causes condensation on the surface and called critical humidity.
As explained, the TS 825 standard is a calculation method that requires elaborate calculations.
That is why, in order to do the calculations of heat loss, heating energy requirement and
verification of condensation in TS 825 standard, many calculation programs have been
developed. According to these programs, results obtained are compared with the limit values
given in the standard and in this way the energy efficiency of the building is assessed.

Calculation program ensures that construction elements and the thickness of the insulation
materials are designed in accordance with boundary conditions specified in the standard.
According to the standard, building elements such as wall, floor, roof, window and the like
are designed as a whole.

Overall functioning and the flow chart of the program in accordance with the TS 825 is given
in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Flow chart of calculation program in TS 825
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

259

By entering the data related to the building into the program, annual heating energy
requirement and condensation calculations are done and its compliance with the standard is
checked. Even if one of these two parameters is not suitable for the standard, rearrangements
should be made on the design. When the eligibility requirements for the project are met, heat
requirement identification card is issued. If required, by calculating the payback period it can
be determined how much time is needed for the insulation investment to refund itself by
saving energy.

Accounting programs have been developed by many firms complying with the TS 825
standard and have been put to the service of the user. Since all of them are created in
accordance with the TS 825 standard, their content is the same. In general, they include data
inputs, parameter inputs, calculation of condensation, charts and the like.

When data input is performed, initially data that is related to the project is written. On the
screen allocated for the information about the project, buildings name, its owner, land
information and information about the person who does the project is written down. Basic
information such as building type, number of floors, gross volume, area of use, ceiling
height, ventilation type and so on, which are used in calculations, usually take place here.

In order to perform the calculations, on the building elements screen, where the type of
materials used in the wall, ceiling and floor are specified, building components are named
separately. From the materials list for each building element, material entrance is performed
from inside out. Thickness of the materials that are entered is also specified. Field information
is given for each construction element. These values which are entered enable us to calculate
the total heat transfer U of the building element. Moreover, as the material inputs are
performed, cross-section of the building can be seen on the screen as a figure. Heat transfer
capability calculation value and the diffusion resistance factor value of a material
which is not on the list but has the certificate of conformity can be used by entering into the
program.

On the window information display, areas of the windows with respect to their directions and
total window area are entered into the program. Window system used in the building is
determined and U value is entered. In addition, by entering
, i ay
g solar energy transmission
factor value and
, i ay
r shading factor value solar energy gain can be determined. On the screen
for door details, area and U values are specified.

In the space allotted for parameters, condensation parameters, thermal bridge parameters and
heating system parameters are found. Condensation parameters screen contains the data that is
used for the adjustment of the heat and moisture constants according to the regions and this
information is used in the calculation of condensation. Specifying the form of the building
elements, where thermal bridges occur, as balconies, roofs, floors, interior walls, columns,
corners and as windows is determined on the thermal bridge parameters screen. Heating
system parameters screen contain values like the lower heating values of fuel types and boiler
efficiencies according to the type of the fuel used.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

260

All the reports and charts, obtained with the introduction of all the relevant information, can
be seen on the screen of charts. These are general information about the building, heat
requirement identification card, and calculation of the specific heat loss of the building,
annual heating energy requirement, the list of windows and doors, and the list of sectional
building elements, ventilation report and the chart of the physical matter values of the
building element. The chart of pressure and temperature distribution in building elements and
the chart of condensation and evaporation in building elements are the documents prepared in
the TS 825 statement as condensation graphics.

3. FEATURES OF THE SAMPLE BUILDING
A two story house, located in Tekirda, which is in the Second- Degree day zone is chosen for
analysis. Data related to the design of the sample building is given in Table 1. Heat loss and
condensation calculations of the sample building appropriate for the TS 825 standard have
been done with an computer program considering three types of insulation design for each
type of building: first for C class energy identification card, second for B class energy
identification card and lastly for A class energy identification card, and then they were
compared in terms of energy efficiency.

Table 1. Information about the design of the sample building
Gross Volume 342,2 m
3

Ceiling Height <2,6 m
Number of Floors 2
Building Type House
Fuel Type Natural gas
Location Tekirda-2
Ventilation Mode Natural
Ratio of Window Area Less than 60%

Field values of the building elements that belong to the sample building and that are used in
calculations are given in Table 2.

Table 2. Field values belonging to the sample building
Building area 118 m
2

Exterior wall area, A
d
156,26 m
2

Reinforced concrete area, A
bet
15,40 m
2

Ceiling area, A
tav
67,80 m
2

Base area, A
tab
50,20 m
2

Window area,
p
A
22,90 m
2

Door area, A
k
8,24 m
2

Building usage area, A
n
109,5 m
2

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

261

4. CALCULATIONS

Three kinds of designs have been done for the sample buildings energy index as super energy
efficient A type building, good energy efficient B type building and normal energy efficient C
type building.

Information about the insulation materials used in the building elements of the sample
building and about the insulation thickness is given in Table 3. In the three designs
considered while the thickness of the insulation material applied to floor and ceiling is kept
the same, for the walls the thickness of the material changes depending on the type of the
building: 7 cm for type A building, 5 cm for type B building and 3 cm for type C building.

Calculations are done by using TS 825 calculation programme and the U heat transfer values
obtained as a result of the insulation applied are given in Table 4. Since the obtained U heat
transfer values are below the recommended values in TS 825, it is concluded that they comply
with the standard.
Table 3. Insulation that is used in the sample building
Type of the Energy
Identification Card
of the Building

Building
Element

Insulation Element
Thickness of the
Insulation Material
Used (cm)

Type A
Wall Extruded polystyrene foam 030 7
Ceiling Glass foam 045 10
Floor Polyurethane rigid foam 030 10

Type B
Wall Extruded polystyrene foam 030 5

Type C
Wall Extruded polystyrene foam,030 3

Table 4. Values calculated for Type A, Type B and for Type C energy identification card of
the building

Type of the Energy
Identification Card
of the Building

U Heat Transfer Frequency Values (W/m
2
K)
U
D1 U D2 tav
U
U tab U p
U
1
k
U
2
k

Type A
0,286 0,376 0,400 0,270 1,1 4 3,5
Type B
0,354 0,501 0,400 0,270 1,1 4 3,5
Type C
0,463 0,753 0,400 0,270 1,1 4 3,5

With the help of the calculations done for Type A, Type B and Type C energy identification
cards, it has been determined that there is no condensation in walls in contact with external air
and in ceiling elements which are covered with roof. Since the temperature difference
between the inner surface and the internal environment is less than 3
0
C, insulations conform
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

262

to the standard. However, in ground element in contact with soil it has been found that in all
three types of the buildings conditions for condensation occur in the fourth component
waterproofing layer. But since it was found that within the which is the amount of condensed
water was less than 0.5kg/m
2
limits specified in TS 825 standard, and since the condensed
water will be thrown from the building elements in the form of evaporation during the
summer months as the amount of condensed water is less than the amount of evaporated
water, it has been concluded that condensation will do no harm.

a) For Type A energy identification certificate.

b) For Type B energy identification certificate.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

263

c) For Type C energy identification certificate.

Figure 5. For Type A, B and C energy identification certificates heat losses and heat gains of
the sample building with respect to the months.
When the heat losses from all the elements of the sample building as well as its solar gains
through the windows are considered, according to Figure 5 while there is no heat loss during
J une, J uly, August and September, there are considerable heat losses during the other months
in all three types of the buildings. Moreover, since the heat losses are more than the solar
energy gains, it is seen that the building needs heating during the first six months and the last
three months of the year.

Figure 6. Total heat loss for Type A, B, and C energy identification certificates of the sample
building.

In figure 6, variations of total heat loss rates as a result of the insulation applications for Type
A, B and C energy identification certificates can be seen. Accordingly, it is seen that heating
energy requirement has increased in Figure 7.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

264

Figure 7. Annual energy requirement of the sample building for Type A, B and C energy
identification certificates

In Figure 7, for the building with Type A energy identification certificate
y
Q =7.507 kWh
energy is spent annually. Heat loss per area of usage is / A
y n
Q Q = =68,56 kWh/m
2
. For
Type B energy identification certificate of the building annually
y
Q =8.157 kWh energy is
spent. Heat loss per area of usage is / A
y n
Q Q = =74,49 kWh/m
2
. For Type C energy
identification certificate of the building annually
y
Q =9.255 kWh energy is spent and heat
loss per area of usage is / A
y n
Q Q = =84,52 kWh/m
2
. Since the biggest heat loss, in
accordance with the standard, is calculated as Q ' =90,02 kWh/m
2
with the accounting
program of TS 825, it has been understood thatQ <Q , and that the insulation project used is
in compliance with the TS 825 standard.

As a result of the insulation applied on the sample building for Type A, B, and C energy
identification certificates, costs and payback periods have been found with the computer
program of TS 825. The results are given in Table 5 as a whole.

Table 5. The amount of energy saved for the building which has Type A, B and C energy
identification certificates and annual savings as TL

Annual savings are calculated by taking the unit cost of electricity as 0,362 TL/kWh.

Energy Identification
Certificate Type of the
Building
The Amount of the Saved
Energy (kWh)
Annual
Saving
(TL)
A 19.614 7.100
B 18.961 6.864
C 17.867 6.468
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

265

For Type A; 19.614 kWh
0,362 TL/kWh= 7.100 TL

For Type B; 18.961 kWh
0,362 TL/kWh= 6.864 TL

For Type C; 17.867 kWh
0,362 TL/kWh= 6.468 TL

Figure 8. Annual saving values for Type A, B, and C energy identification certificates

In Figure 8 it is seen that as the thickness of the insulation increases, saving values also
increase. Window systems which are used in the insulation for all three types of the energy
identification certificates are duplex coated and triple glazing and have U
p
=1,1 W/m
2
K. U
values of the non-insulated windows which are necessary for drawing the payback period
charts are taken as equivalent to U
p
=2,1 W/m
2
K corresponding to the uncoated triple
glazing of the insulated building. In this case, payback period charts calculated with the
program are shown in Figure 9. In the charts, while the blue line stands for the cost of
investment, the red line represents the value of the fuel savings and total cost for insulation
types are given in Table 6.

Table 6. Cost results for each type of insulation
Type of Energy
Identification
Certificate of the
Building
Net Energy Heating
Requirement of the
Insulated Building
(kWh)
The Amount of
Saved Fuel
(kg/m
3
)
The Price of
the Fuel
Saved (TL)
Cost of
Insulation (TL)
A 7.513 2404,929 2.188 6.577
B 8.166 2324,862 2.116 5.461
C 9.260 2190,724 1.994 4.534

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

266

a) Type A

b) Type B

c) Type C

Figure 9. Charts of payback periods for each type of insulation

Using on the information given in these charts variations in accordance with the years are
given in Table 7. It has been concluded that the building with Type A energy identification
certificate will repay the amount of initial investment for the insulation of the building within
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

267

four months, whereas the buildings having Type B and C energy certificates will do the same
within three months.

Table 7. Variations in accordance with the years
A B C
Investm
ent
Saving Year
Investm
ent
Saving Year
Investm
ent
Saving Year
6.577 2.188 0 5.461 2.116 0 4.534 1.994 0
6.844 4.465 1 5.683 4.318 1 4.718 4.069 1
7.122 6.834 2 5.913 6.609 2 4.910 6.228 2
7.411 9.300 3 6.154 8.994 3 5.109 8.475 3
7.712 11.865 4 6.403 11.475 4 5.316 10.813 4
8.025 14.535 5 6.663 14.057 5 5.532 13.246 5
8.351 17.313 6 6.994 16.743 6 5.757 15.778 6
8.690 20.204 7 7.215 19.539 7 5.991 18.413 7
9.043 23.212 8 7.508 22.448 8 6.234 21.154 8
9.410 26.343 9 7.813 25.476 9 6.487 24.007 9

5. CONCLUSION

Results indicate that as the U-values decrease depending on the materials used in the building
element, insulation increases.

In the insulation type for all three energy identification certificates, insulation thicknesses
used in the wall element, one of the components of the building elements, were taken as 7 cm
for Type A 5 cm for Type B and 3 cm for Type C building. This condition, led to the
conclusion that as the insulation thickness increases, heat transfer decreases.

Calculated in accordance with the TS 825 standard, it has been found that while the amount of
fuel consumed per unit area for the building with Type A energy certificate is 8,01 kg.m
2
, for
the building having Type B certificate it is 8,7 kg. m
2
and for the one with Type C certificate
it is 9,88 kg.m
2
. These results show that as the thickness of insulation increases, the amount
of fuel used decreases and as a consequence of this, the cost of the fuel decreases.

The results obtained from all of the analyses show that it is extremely important to use the
energy efficiently in buildings.

Moreover, in order to increase energy efficiency in buildings, there are a number of measures
that can be taken through the thermal insulation designs as well as by the residents of the
buildings. Some of them have been listed below:

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

268

- Old buildings must be redesigned with a thermal insulation and their heating
equipment must be renewed.
- Heating systems of the buildings must be insulated in accordance with the
standards and regulations.
- Ventilation of the houses must be short and in order to get some gains from the sun
during the daytime, windows facing south must not be covered with objects like
blinds, curtains and so on, while such measures should be taken for the windows
facing north. Double pane windows should be used.
- For the health of the people living in building space, room temperature must not be
above 19 or 20 Centigrade degrees. With a thermostatic valve which keeps the
room temperature constant or with a room thermostat this condition can be
provided.
- In the radiators positioned in the walls in direct contact with the outside air, in
order to prevent heat transfer from internal environment to external environment
through radiation, aluminum foil coated plates must be placed behind the radiators
so as to reflect the heat back into the building.

THE SYMBOLS USED

d
A : The area of floor in contact with the outside air, m
2
.
ds
A : The area of the building elements in contact with the interior spaces at low
temperatures, m
2
.
D
A : The area of the external wall, m
2
.
A
i
: Total window area in the direction of i, m
2
.
A
n
: Building area, m
2
.
A
n
: Window area, m
2
.
tab
A : Floor area, m
2
.
tav
A : Area of ceiling, m
2
.
b : The width of the building element that forms heat bridge, m
2
.
c : Specific heat of air, J /kgK.
d : Thickness of the layer, m.
ay i,
g : Solar energy transfer factor of the transparent building elements
: Mass per volume of the air, kg/m

3
.
H : Specific heat loss of the building, W/K.
I : The length of the thermal bridge, m.
ay i,
I : The intensity of the monthly average solar radiation that strikes the perpendicular
surfaces in the direction of i W/m
2
.
ay
: Monthly average gain utilization factor.

h
n : Air change rate h
-1
.
p
d
: Partial vapor pressure of the external environment, Pa.
p
i
: Partial vapor pressure of the internal environment, Pa.
ay
Q : Monthly heating energy requirement, J .
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

269

y
Q : Annual heating energy requirement, J .
ay i,
r : Monthly average shadowing factor of the transparent surfaces.
i
R : Heat transfer coefficient of the internal surface, m
2
K/W.
d
R : Heat transfer coefficient of the external surface, m
2
K/W.
t : Time, s.
ay d,
T : Monthly average exterior temperature, K.
i
T : Monthly average interior temperature, K.
d
U : Heat transfer coefficient of the floor in contact with the outside air W/m
2
K.
ds
U : Heat transfer coefficient of the building elements in contact with the interior space at
low temperatures W/m
2
K.
D
U : Heat transfer coefficient of the external wall W/m
2
K.
I
U : Natural heat transfer of the thermal bridge W/KU p : Heat transfer coefficient of the
window W/m
2
K.
tab
U : Heat transfer coefficient of the floor, W/m
2
K.
tav
U : Heat transfer coefficient of the ceiling, W/m
2
K.
TB
U : Heat transfer coefficient of the element that forms the thermal bridge, W/m
2
K.
brt
V : Gross volume of the building, m
3
.
h
V : Ventilated area, m
3
.
'
V : Volumetric flow rate of air change, m
3
/h.
h : Calculation value of heat transmission capability, W/mK.
: Lateral losses from the thermal bridge, W/mK.
i : Relative humidity of the internal environment %.
d : Relative humidity of the external environment %.
g , ay : Monthly average solar energy gains, W.
i : Monthly average internal gains, W.

REFERENCES

1. Enerji Verimlilii Kanunu, Resmi Gazete, 2 Mays 2007, Say 26510
2. Binalarda Enerji Performans Ynetmelii 05 Aralk 2008 tarihli, 27075 sayl Resmi Gazete
3. Engin, S. Binalarn Istlmasnda Enerji Verimliliinin Termodinamik Deerlendirmesi
Yksek Lisans Tezi, Trakya niversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstits, Edirne, 6 Austos 2012.

BRIEF HISTORY OF AUTHORS LIFE

Ahmet CAN
He was born in Tekirda on 19 February 1953. Having graduated from Yldz State Academy
of Engineering and Architecture as a mechanical engineer in 1974, he received his
mechanical engineer M.Sc. title in the area of Temperature and Process Option in 1976. He
worked as an assistant in 1977.
Between the years of 1978 and 1984 he was sent to Germany in accordance with the law
no.TC 1416 which granted him a state-funded scholarship. Between the years of 1978 and
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

270

1981 he received the title of Fachbereich Energie und Verfahrenstechnik-Diplom Ingenieur
(Dipl.-Ing.) and between the years of 1982 and 1984 he received the title of Doktor Ingenieur
(Dr.- Ing.) from the Technische Universitaet of BERLN under the supervision of Ord. Prof.
Dr.-Ing.hab. Theodor GAST.
In J anuary 1985, as a part of his compulsory service for the Republic of Turkey, he was
appointed as an Assistant Professor to the Department of Mechanical Engineering in the
Faculty of Engineering and Architecture in Trakya University. In November 1989, he became
Associate Professor in the Department of Thermodynamics and in J anuary 1997 he became
Professor in the Department of Thermodynamics. On 18 December, 2012, he was appointed
as a Professor to the Department of Mechatronics System Engineering, in the Engineering
Faculty of Turkish-German University.
He is the editor of a German book, and as the President of the Organizing Committee of the
11
th
Congress of National Thermal Science and Technique, he is the editor of the two-volume
proceedings. He translated the 32
nd
edition of the book from the Springer Publisher, whose
original name is HTTE Die Grundlagen der Ingenieurwissenschaften and which had been
translated into 10 languages beforehand, into Turkish and in J une 2010 its first Turkish
edition was published from the Literature Publisher under the name of HTTE Science of
Engineering. All the studies he has made so far and his contributions to science can be
obtained from his personal website named http://ahmetcan.tau.edu.tr .

Selin ENGIN
She was born in Krklareli on 9 May 1985. Having completed her elementary and secondary
education in Kean, she graduated from Tekirda Anatolian High School in 2003. She got her
bachelors degree from the department of Physics in the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Uluda
University. She got her masters degree in 2012 on Mechanical Engineering from the Institute
of Science in Trakya University.

Dervis OZKAN
Dervi ZKAN was born in stanbul on 10 October 1977 and completed his primary and
secondary education there. After studying machinery technician in Kayseri University
between the years of 1999 and 2001, he went to England for language education and
graduated from the ELTC department of the UMIST University in Manchester. After
returning to Turkey, he entered the Mechanical Engineering Department of Yeditepe
University in 2004 and graduated in 2007. He received his masters degree in 2010 from the
department of Mechanical Engineering in the Faculty of Engineering and Architecture,
Trakya University. In the same year he started his PhD in the department of Mechanical
Engineering and he still continues his studies. In 2013, he started working as a lecturer at
Kastamonu University, Abana Sabahat-Mesut Ylmaz Vocational High School. Dervi
OZKAN took part in many projects and he is good at AutoCAD (ECDL) and knows English
as well.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

271

EXPERIMENTAL PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF PCM
THERMAL STORAGE IN A PANEL RADIATOR

Trkan OK ERKEK
1
, Ali GNGR
1

1
Ege University, Engineering Faculty, Mechanical Engineering Department
Corresponding email: turkan.ucok@ege.edu.tr

SUMMARY

In this paper, the effects of phase change material (PCM) usage to the thermal performance of
a panel radiator are studied. For this purpose, 11x600x1000 mm PF panel radiator and storage
unit whose dimensions are 17x600x1000 mm, are assembled on the front heating surface.
Fatty acid of stearic acid which has melting and solidification temperatures compatible with
the 75/65 operating temperatures of panel radiator, is used as a PCM in the storage unit.
The storage unit, is filled with 9 or 13 kg of stearic acid at different cases and the front
heating surface is monitored with thermal camera during both charging and discharging
periods. At the end of the charging period, tests are taken for the radiators to determine their
standard thermal output according to TS EN442-2 /March 1998.
The standard thermal output is slightly low in the panel radiators with storage unit in
comparison with the standard panel radiator. However, the discharging period is relatively
long which are 1.5 h and 2.5 h for 9 kg and 13 kg stearic acid respectively. At the end of the
charging period, the mean surface temperature is specified to be lower by 4
o
C compared with
standard panel radiator with usage of 13 kg stearic acid. Energy and exergy efficiency results
shows 9 kg stearic acid shows slightly better performance in the panel radiator.

Keywords: PCM, storage unit, panel radiator.

INTRODUCTION

Latent heat energy storage has gained popularity in the research and development of the
storage systems with various PCMs to reducecosts including initial investment, energy,
operation and maintenance [1,2]. Research related with latent heat storage has recently
focused on the improvements primarily in the energy efficiency, exergy efficiency of storage
and heat transfer [3-8].
This study is a case study on the performance of one of the components of a heating system
into which latent heat storage is incorporated. The aim of this study is to observe the
applicability of such a system and to prepare a basis for further work that will use renewable
energy or waste heat in a similar system.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM AND THE TEST METHOD

In the experiments, stearic acid, which is one of the fatty acids, is used as a PCM for the latent
heat storage unit. Stearic acid is preferred because of the compatibility of melting temperature
range with the radiators mean surface temperature [9] and because it has the desirable
thermophysical, chemical and kinetical properties [10]. The properties of PCM are
represented in Table 1.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

272

Test room for experimentationis a laboratory where the radiator manufacturing company used
to determine the thermal power with the test methods and the program stated in the standard
of TS EN442-2 / March 1998 in accordance with EN45001:1989 [11,12].

Table 1. Properties of PCM used in the experiments [9,10]

Description Phase Value
Composition 40-45% stearic acid+52-58 % palmitic acid
Melting range (
o
C)

54-56
Latent heat (kJ /kg) 180
Specific heat(kJ /kg.
o
C) solid 2.83 (40
o
C)
Specific heat(kJ /kg.
o
C) liquid 2.38 (80
o
C)
Density (kg/m3) solid 965 (24
o
C)

Density (kg/m3) liquid 860 (60
o
C)

Thermal conductivity (W/m
o
C) 0.18
Cost ($/kg) 2.7
The inner surface temperature of the outer walls of the test chamber was controlled by water-
cooled sandwich panels. The control of the inner surface temperature by water flow inside
panel void structure is shown in Figure 1 schematically. The radiator on which tests were
carried out was connected to the outer wall of the channel where there is no water flow.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

273

Figure1. Schematic representation of the test room and the cooling circuit.
11x1000x600 mm plain PF panel radiator and panel radiator with storage unit is used in the
experiments. Front view of the heating surface and rear convector surfaces of standard panel
radiator is givenin Figure 2.

Figure 2. 11x1000x600 mm PC panel radiator

Figure 3.Dimensions of the storage unit.

Dimensions of the storage unit are demonstrated in Figure 3. In all experiments, the radiator
to be tested is fixed to the wall in accordance with TS EN 442 -2 [12]. Temperatures of the
reference points are controlled in order to maintain steady-state conditions for all
measurements. Radiator which tests to be taken on is connected to the circuit by means of the
links.Each link has a temperature sensor on it. In order to support the credibility of the
measurements additional temperature measuring devices are connected to the radiator inlet
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

274

and outlet. Heat output is determined according to the method described in the standards of
radiators.
Water circulated in the system is heated by means of a heater dipped into the system tank. The
flow rate of water is adjusted via a vane located outside the test room. An electronic scale
with an accuracy of 0.002 kg per 10 kg is used for measuring the water collected in the
measurement container.

The experiments conducted on the panels with storage units were realized in two stages. In
the first stage 9 kg of stearic acid which is solid under room conditions was loaded into the
storage unit. Considering the temperature distributions obtained in the first stage 4 kg stearic
acid was added in the second stage. These panel radiators were tested at 50
o
C excess
temperature in order to attain their standard heat outputs. The excess temperature mentioned
above is the difference between the average water temperature and the reference air
temperature. Heat output tests for the radiators were carried out after all of the PCM had
molten. The heat output tests were carried out only to determine the standard heat outputs.
After the heat output tests the water flow was cut off and the radiators were left to cool under
the test room temperature. The heating surfaces of the panel radiators were monitored by
thermal camera during the melting and solidification of the PCM.

ENERGY AND EXERGY EVALUATION OF THE SYSTEM

Performance parameters for the energy evaluation are calculated by means of the heat
utilization ratios which are given with the equations below [13]:

(1)

(2)

Related exergy calculations of the system are performed by using the equations (4-13).
Exergy provided by the heat transfer fluidindicates the minimum useful energy content until
dead state is reached and is obtained by Eq. (4) [14]. In this equation,
indicates the mass flow rate, specific heat and inlet temperature of the heat transfer fluid
respectively. symbolizes dead state temperature.

(4)

The total exergy stored in PCM during charging is derived from the Eq. (5) [15] where ,
, L, , , represent the melting temperature, mass, latent heat, solid
and liquid specific heats, initial and final temperatures of PCM respectively.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

275

(5)

Exergy lost to the surrounding is calculated by using the Eq. (6). Here, is the rate of heat
loss from the storage unit due to temperature difference between the storage unit and
surrounding [14].

(6)

Entropy generation is estimated by using the Eq. (7) [16].

(7)

Exergy due to the flow of the heat transfer fluid is calculated by using the Eq. (8) [15]. In this
equation, , , is used to designate the outlet and inlet
temperatures and inlet and outlet pressures of the heat transfer fluid. symbolizes the
density of the heat transfer fluid.

(8)

Entropy changes for the heat transfer fluid (HTF), phase change material (PCM) and wall are
calculated by using the Eqs. (9), (10) and (11) [17, 18]. Here, shows the volume of the
heat transfer fluid and represents the time.

(9)
(10)
(11)
Destroyed exergy and exergy efficiency are calculated by the Eqs. (12) and (13) which are
given below [14]:

(12)
(13)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

276

RESULTS

Temperature and flow rate values taken measurements during the tests are given in the Table
2.

Table 2. Temperature and flow rate values obtained during the tests of the radiators.

Standard panel
radiator
Panel radiator with 9 kg
PCM
Panel radiator with 13
kg PCM
Average
value
Standard
deviation
Average
value
Standard
deviation
Average
value
Standard
deviation
Air
Temperature
(
o
C)
20,024 0,015 20,008 0,0399 20,006 0,00831
Inlet Water
Temperature
(
o
C)
74,982 0,034 75,02 0,01879 74,982 0,02713
Outlet Water
Temperature
(
o
C)
64,936 0,024 65,053 0,0103 64,922 0,00787
Flow rate
(kg/s)
0,0226 0,00004 0,0195 0,00005 0,01999 0,00004

Figure 4. Comparison of the standard heat output results of the raditors.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

277

Table 3. Comparison of radiators with PCM by means of results in energy and exergyevaluation.

Results of Energy and ExergyEvaluation PCM
9 kg 13 kg
Charging time (s) 14400 50400
Discharging time (s) 5400 9000
Charge Energy Efficiency (%) 11.46 8.97
Discharge Energy Efficiency (%) 8.92 8.45
Charge Exergy Efficiency (%) 15 8.53
Discharge Exergy Efficiency (%) 82.4 81.47

The results found in this study can be summarized as below:
At the end of the heating process, the average surface temperatureof standard panel radiator
and panel radiator with storage unit are specified to be 65 C and 60
o
C respectively. Water
has a thermal conductivity which is approximately 3 fold of the PCMs thermal conductivity,
thus it will explain the temperature difference.
Surface temperature distributions of radiators in terms of the difference between the highest
and lowest temperatures were compared.The temperature difference was 4
o
C lower as a
result of 13 kg PCM usage compared with standard panel radiator.
Panel radiator with the storage unit provided a 3.5 and 4.5 times reduction in the average
cooling rate with the use of 9 kg, 13 kg of PCM respectively.
The highest heat output value of panel radiator with PCM was 103 W lower than the heat
output value of the standard panel radiator as it can be observed from the Figure 4.
As the storage time increased, there had been a reduction in energy and exergy efficiencies.
Increased storage time gave rise to heat losses and entropy generation.

DISCUSSION

The effects of PCM usage to the thermal performance of a panel radiator are studied. The
following conclusions can be drawn from the above analysis:
As a result of experimental studies on the thermal performance of the panel radiator with
storage unit it is concluded that this system can be applied in practicebased on data obtained.
However, some of the issues have to be considered in the area of use. A similar system can
perform usefully in two cases. The first case is the one when there is a heat source of
renewable energy or waste heat with an availabilitywhich is higher than the demand. The
excess energy can be stored in this case. On the other hand, the second case occurs, when
theheat source, especially waste heat is available and the demand has not yet emerged. In this
case, all of the energy could be stored in the extent of the system's efficiency.

REFERENCES

[1] He B., Setterwall F. 2002. Technical grade paraffin waxes as phase change materials for cool
thermal storage and cool storage systems capital cost estimation, Energy Conversion and
Management 43, , 17091723.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

278

[2] Dincer, I., Rosen, M., 2011. Thermal Energy Storage: Systems and Applications, 2nd edition,
Wiley.
[3] Velraj R, Seeniraj RV, Hafner B, et al. 1999. Heat transfer enhancement in a latent heat storage
system. Sol Energy, 65:17180.
[4] Stritih, U. 2004. An experimental study of enhance heat transfer in rectangular PCM thermal
storage. International Heat Mass Transfer, 47(1213):28417.
[5] Kousksou T., Strub F. CastaingLasvignottes J . et al. 2007.Second law analysis of latent thermal
storage for solar system Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells, 91, 12751281.
[6] Koca A., Oztop H.F., Koyun T., et al. 2008. Energy and exergy analysis of a latent heat storage
system with phase change material for a solar collector, Renewable Energy 33, 567574.
[7] El Qarnia, H. 2009. Numerical analysis of a coupled solar collector latent heat storage unit
using phase change materials for heating the water, Energy Conversion Management,; 50:247
54.
[8] Shabgard H.,Robak C. W., Bergman, T.L., et al. 2012. Heat transfer and exergy analysis of
cascaded latent heat storage with gravity-assisted heat pipes for concentrating solar power
applications, Volume 86, Issue 3, pp 816830.
[9] ok, T., 2012. Experimental Study of a Panel Radiator with Phase Change Material, Masters
Thesis, 71p.
[10] Sari A., Kaygusuz K., 2001. Thermal energy storage system using stearic acid as a phase
change material, Solar energy, vol. 71, no. 6, pp. 365376.
[11] EN 45001 General criteria for the operation of testing laboratories.
[12] TS EN 442-2 Radiators and convectors-Part 2: Test methods and rating.
[13] Kaizawa, A., Kamano, H., Kawai A. et al. 2008. Thermal and flow behaviors in heat
transportation containerusing phase change material, Energy Conversion and Management, 49,
pp. 698706.
[14] J egadheeswaran, S., Pohekar, S.D. and Kouskou, T., 2010.Exergy based performance
evaluation of latent heat thermal storage system: A review,Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, 14: 25802595pp.
[15] MacPhee D. and Dincer I., 2009, Thermodynamic analysis of freezing and melting processes in
a bed of spherical PCM capsules, ASME J Sol Energy Eng, 131:031017/1131017/.
[16] Erek A, Dincer I. An approach to entropy analysis of a latent heat storage
module. Int J ThermSci 2008;47:107785.
[17] El-Dessouky H, Al-J uwayhel F. Effectiveness of a thermal energy storage
system using phase-change materials. Energy Convers Manage 1997;38:60117.
[18] Kousksou T, Strub F, Lasvignottes J S, J amil A, Bedecarrats J P. Second law
analysis of latent thermal storage for solar system. Sol Energy Mater Sol Cells
2007;91:127581.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

279

A GREEN MUSEUM FOR OTTOMAN ARTEFACTS

J an G Holmberg
1
, Bengt Kylsberg
2

1
Ph.D., Gotland University, Sweden, life member ASHRAE,
2
Curator at Skokloster Palace, Sweden

Corresponding: jan.holmberg@hgo.se

SUMMARY
The Skokloster Palace in Sweden is a zero energy museum. The palace has no heating or
electrical systems installed, except a few rooms on the ground floor. The very heavy
construction of the palace is buffering outdoor temperature variations. The indoor temperature
sets the relative humidity (RH). Strong wind may increase the infiltration of outdoor air in the
building, and that can cause temporary fluctuations of RH. Change in RH gives change in
moister content (MC) in organic materials. But the process is remarkly slow. The deformation
(elongation) of objects of organic materials is below 0,4% and thus not permanent. The
change rate of MC is low. That is the reason why objects of art, like the Ottoman collection,
have survived so well at Skokloster Palace for more than 300 years. The collection contains
objects mainly of organic materials and metals.

INTRODUCTION
On a wooded peninsula in Lake Malaren, not far from Uppsala and Stockholm, rises the
impressive white faade of Skokloster Castle, one of the largest 17
th
century buildings in
Sweden. At the top is a segment gable with the coat of arms of its founder, Count Carl Gustav
Wrangel (1613-1676). Wrangel was a Field Marshal of the Swedish army and Admiral of the
Fleet, and a leading figure during Sweden`s period as a Great Power in the 17
th
century. The
urge to build was shared by many of the centurys warriors. Construction began on the palace
in 1654 and was almost complete by the mid-1670`s. The palace was given an old-fashioned
layout; a gentleman like Wrangel was probably quite conservative, despite his education and
knowledge about building construction.

Figure 1. Photo Kylsberg Figure 2. Photo Kylsberg

The palace was constructed of brick on a granite foundation and sandstone as a leveller. It is a
square structure built around a central courtyard, so that there are two sets of outer walls.
Between them is a core wall, forming a corridor around the courtyard. The presence of the
core wall considerably limits the flow of draughts through the castle and thus reduces air
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

280

infiltration. The courtyard walls rest on arcade columns. The beams supporting the floors are
of 15 m long pine beams at two feet intervals. The walls become a half stone thinner at each
floor, so they are four stones thick at the bottom floor and two stones at the top floor. Above
the attic beams is a steep roof truss construction. The faade is plastered, with a large amount
of the original plaster still intact. It is a very chalk-rich, somewhat clayey plaster. The faade
has single glass windows that are quite leaky. The Swedish state purchased the whole castle in
1967 in order to keep the collections together. Kylsberg [1] [2].

METHODS

Identifying climate differences
Braudel [3] describe the Mediterranean climate as a physical unit. He advocates for a region
limited by the groves of the olive tree. The 10 C J anuary isotherm follows on the whole the
north coast of the sea. We are in the subtropical dry summer area. But the Ottoman Empire
had its north borderline at the Donube River, why a yearly isotherm of 15 C is more
appropriate when we compare with the Nordic climate around Uppsala, located at the yearly
isotherm of 5 C. We have to remember that Uppsala and Skokloster Palace are close to the
border of the subartic region. A climate difference between Istanbul and Uppsala is the
water content in the air. Istanbul has in wintertime 0.002 kg water/kg dry air and in
summertime 0.022 kg/kg (at 60% RH). Uppsala has 0,001 kg/kg in wintertime and
0,012 kg/kg (at 60% RH) in the summer. The climate map below reflects this.

Figure 3. Source World Book Encyclopedia

According to ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals are the heating design data for Istanbul
-6 C and for Uppsala -20 C. The maximum temperatures are for Istanbul 35 C and for
Uppsala 28 C. Strong winds are recorded to 10,4 m/s respectively 10,6 m/s with annual
percentiles of 1%. Istanbul is located 37 m above sea level and Uppsala 41 m.[4]

The climate for these locations during the last 300 years is difficult to obtain. Temperature
series for Istanbul are known since 1830 and for Uppsala since 1730. Bergstromhas plotted
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

281

the yearly means for both locations during the period 1830 to 2010.[5] The about 10 C yearly
difference is obvious.

Figure 4. Source NOAA/NCDC ver 3.2.0.GHCN. Compiled by Hans Bergstrom Ph.D.in
Meteorology at Uppsala University [5].
The collection
Skokloster palace contains about 50 000 objects of which 20 000 are old books in the library.
The collections are from the families Wrangel, Brahe, Bielke and Scheffer. Wrangel bought
in his time the latest modern objects and new books, but as a Field Marshal and an officer of
the victorious Swedish army in the 17
th
century, he could also benefit from the spoils of war.
Sweden invaded Poland and ravaged the country for several years and in the year 1656, after a
three days long battle, the new Capital Warsaw with the royal palace was looted by the
Swedish troops. There was a shield and two sabres with scabbards among the war booty that
got its way to Wrangel. According to early tradition the shield and sabres were a gift to
Stephen Bthory (1533-1586) King of Poland from the Turkish sultan. These splendid
Ottoman arms have had a top position in the armoury at Skokloster Palace since 1670.
Field Marshal Count Nils Bielke (1644-1716) is another contributor to the amazing collection
of Turkish artefacts at Skokloster Palace. Bielke served as a General in the Habsburg
Emperors cavalry during the fights in Hungary against the Ottoman Empire. In the second
battle at Mohcs (Ngy-Harsany) 1687, Bielke commanded a raid towards the main camp of
Grand Vizier Sleyman Pasa. The camp was looted by the Swedes and Bielke could send
tents, silver, carpets, red coloured horsetails (used outside a commanders tent as a sign of his
rank), silver coated saddles and weapons back to Sweden. Among the weapons were a
number of composite bows of very high quality.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

282

Figure 5. Inventory no 14699. Composite bow of glowed wood, sinews and Water Buffalo horn.
Photo Kylsberg. There are ten more bows exposed on a wall. The objects in figure 5, 7 and 8 have all
been in the Bielke armoury on the 4
th
floor at Skokloster Palace since 1755.

Figure 6 Figure 7

Inventory no 7321. Turkish round shield, Inventory no 12653. Silver mounted Turkish
Kalkan, 16
th
century. Leather with gold- and saddle with red silk velvet and silver and
silver threads and 643 turquoises, 28 emeralds, gold threads. 17
th
century. Photo Kylsberg
62 cabochon rubies and 10 jade plaques. The
lining is of violet velvet. Photo Kylsberg
This object has been hanging on a wall in the
Wrangel armoury on the 4
th
floor since 1670.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

283

Figure 8
Inventory no 3494. Ottoman tent from the17
th
century. Round form. Outer shell of verdigris tent cloth.
The inside is of red cotton and richly decorated in appliqu technique. Carpets are forming the floor.
The tent rests on pools of wood. It is 3 by 2,6 m and 3,3 m in height. Photo Kylsberg

RESULTS

Care taking
The grandchild to the proprietor, count Abraham Brahe, was the first tenant in tail. His mother
transferred the property to an estate in tail 1701. To do this she had to make a detailed
register, a catalogue, over the whole establishment. That register was based on the first
catalogue listed in the inventory deed after count Wrangel who died in 1676.

The staff sergeant listed every item in every room in the catalogue and made comments about
the condition of the room, the furniture, textiles, pictures and other objects. We know for
example that some large cut-glass chandeliers were sick already when they were brought to
the palace in the 17
th
century. Detailed catalogues were then written after almost every
generation i.e. 1716, 1728, 1756, 1794, 1823, 1845, 1919, 1930 and 1967.
We have evidence of preventive conservation at Skokloster Palace long before Gary Thomson
and Bernard Fielden launched the conception in the 1970s among others.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

284

Regarding conservation problems we can confirm that mould on books at lower shelves in
room Bremen in the library has been observed and measures have been taken. [6]

Objects of organic materials have suffered little from physical stress. The heavy construction
of the castle is buffering change in outdoor temperature. Summertime the indoor temperature
can be more than 25 C and wintertime the temperature can be well under -5 C, but the
change rate is low.[6]

Indoor RH follows of course the indoor temperature, but during strong winds we have an
increased air change rate which gives rapid fluctuations in RH. Pikes of 15 % RH has been
observed. The change of RH gives change in MC in organic materials and risk for
deformation (swelling or shrinking). Change in MC has been observed but the response in
MC takes several days, almost a week at room temperatures below 10 C (i.e. in a 1 inch thick
wood panel). And the over a season change in MC in wood gives not elongations over 0.4 % .
It is obvious that low indoor air temperature has an influence on the diffusion coefficient and
thus the response time for i.e. wood increases. [6][7]
Chemical deterioration is decreasing at lower temperatures, thus Skokloster Palace benefits
from the lack of heating.
Daylight has never been a problem at Skokloster Palace because the staff sergeants have
always kept the windows closed and covered by shutters and dark curtains.
Insects and pests have been a problem from time to time. Moths have gone into some saddles
in modern time. We can take for granted that the armourers, the staff sergeants, always keep
cats around the castle, why four leg guests have been infrequent visitors. Birds have nested in
the chimneys, they were cleaned years ago and debris was removed. Today all chimneys are
open and controlled by dampers.
Air infiltration is a problem. Strong winds penetrate the leaky windows. As already
mentioned strong winds can change the RH quite fast in rooms exposed to winds. On the
other hand ar strong winds are normally of short duration, less than a day.[5]
Air pollution is not well investigated at Skokloster Palace. The location on the countryside
must be an advantage. Corrosion coupons have been used in recent time to check if the
armouries are affected by air pollution. Acetic acid and Formic acid are measured to be less
than 40 g/m
3
and the ISO 11844 class of the indoor air is between 1 and 2, very close to1.
Condensation has been observed on windows but the water evaporates direct to the room air.
All the Ottoman artefacts in the Palace are still in a very good condition

DISCUSSION

After several consequently rainy summers in the 1990s, Skokloster Palace had a mould
attack in the library as already mentioned, mainly on books in lower shelves in smaller rooms
with poor air circulation. But in the armoury, located in the top floor corner room, we can
today not find any evidence of mould or permanent deformation of objects of organic
material. Corrosion occurred 1911 but is not reported since. One answer to the favourable
indoor climate at Skokloster Palace is expressed by ASHRAE. [6] The very low temperatures
in winter allow for higher RH. The conservators technique, to use the curtains and the
windows for airing Skokloster Palace in summer, keep the Air Change Rate per Hour, ACH,
on a suitable level. The ACH is around 0.4 in the lower part of the building but upper rooms
in the towers have an ACH around 0,8 (dark blue staples, figure 10), where the armoury is
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

285

located. In springtime there is always a risk for condensation, but the curators and
conservators put in a lot of effort to avoid microclimate behind paintings, curtains and in
cabinet drawers.

Figure 9. Source ASHRAE Applications 2007 Figure 10. Source Gavle University,
Chapter 21 1/h =ACH

Measurements of indoor temperature 1996-2000 as well as of RH, ACH and MC and
deformation (as cupping and elongation () of an old panel of pine) gave as a result that of
the test object was less than 0,4% and thus, according to the experimental findings at
Smithsonian Institute, Museum Conservation Institute, below the limit for permanent
deformation. [7][6] Regularly inspections of the objects in the collection as well as inventory
reports from the last 300 years confirm that fact.
The Ottoman artefacts at Skokloster Palace have survived the climate around Uppsala for
several hundreds of years now. The sun is a dynamic player in local and global climate
change. The conservators at Skokloster Palace use the sunshine on windows to air rooms.
They open up curtains halfway to let in the radiation on the floor close to the window to
increase the floor temperature. That increases the room air temperature slightly as well as the
air movement in the room.
The question is if the building and its collection will be able to meet the predicted temperature
increase of 1-3 C in annual mean temperature. The buildings capacity to buffer and level out
climate variations, to the benefit of the collection, gives us some hope. The predicted future
temperature rise will increase the water content in the outdoor air in the Subartic region. The
wind conditions in the vicinity of Skokloster Palace may change. But the very heavy
construction of Skokloster Palace will hopefully make sure that the Palace will remain as a
green museum, reasonable well protecting its collection. The library has suffered from mould
as already mentioned, mainly on books in shelves in smaller rooms with poor air circulation.
But in the armoury, located in the top floor corner room, we can today not find any evidence
of mould or permanent deformation of objects of organic material. Corrosion occurred 1911,
as already mentioned but is not reported since. One answer to the favourable indoor climate at
Skokloster Palace is expressed by ASHRAE. [4] The very low temperatures in winter allow
for higher RH. The conservators technique, to use the curtains and the windows for airing
Skokloster Palace in summer, keep the ACH, on a acceptable level. The ACH is around 0.4 in
the lower part of the building but upper rooms in the towers have an ACH aroun 0,8, were the
armoury is located. In springtime there is always a risk for condensation indoors, but the
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

286

curators and conservators put in a lot of effort to avoid microclimate behind paintings,
curtains and in cabinet drawers.
Skokloster Palace has all advantages to remain as a green museum,

REFERENCES
[1] Kylsberg, B., 1997, Skokloster, reflektions of a Great Era, Byggfrlaget, Stockholm.
[2] Kylsberg, B., et.al. (1991), Bevarandets hemlighet, konsten att vrda, bevara och konservera, LSH,
Stockholm.
[3] Braudel, F., 1990, La mditerrane et le monde mditerranen lpoque de Philippe II. Paris.
[4] ASHRAE Applications 2007, chapter 21, Atlanta
[5] Bergstrm, H. and Moberg, A., 2002, Daily air temperature and pressure series for Uppsala (1722-
1998), Climate Change, 53, page 213-252.
[6] Holmberg, J . G., 2001, Environment Control in Historical Buildings, Bulletin No 53, Royal
Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Building Services Engineering.
[7] Mecklenburg, M., et.al.,1998, Structural response of wood panel paintings to change in ambient
relative humidity. In painted wood: History and Conservation, Getty Conservation Institute, Los
Angeles.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

287

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF HYDROTHERMAL
CHARACTERISTICS AND FLOW MALDISTRIBUTION FOR A
GASKETED PLATE HEAT

Cagin Gulenoglu
1*
, Selin Aradag
1
, Nilay Sezer Uzol
1
, Sadik Kakac
1

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, TOBB University of Economics and Technology,
Ankara/Turkey

Corresponding email: cgulenoglu@etu.edu.tr

SUMMARY

Gasketed plate heat exchangers are widely used devices in industries such as chemical
processing, nuclear power plants, micro channels, food and brewery processing. They also
replaced shell and tube heat exchangers where low and medium pressures are used due to
their effective heat transfer capacities. In this study, experimental data is obtained for a
chevron type industrial gasketed plate heat exchanger having 30 degrees chevron angle with
wide range of Reynolds numbers (from 300 to 5000), and Prandtl numbers (from 2.3 to 6.4)
for five different number of plates (21, 31, 41, 51, 61). Experiments were carried out for
steady state isothermal conditions and tap water was used at both hot and cold sides of the
heat exchanger. Correlations were developed for thermal and hydraulic characteristics and the
effect of number of plates to flow maldistribution is experimentally and theoretically
investigated.

INTRODUCTION

Flow distribution in plate heat exchangers is of great importance due to hydraulic and thermal
performances of plate packs. Non-uniform flow distribution lowers the performance by
reducing the quality of the product. Ideal flow in a gasketed-plate heat exchanger is achieved
by equally distributed flow and flow rates in channels regardless of the number of passes and
number of channels. If the ideal flow conditions are not achieved, a flow maldistribution in
the channels exists. Flow maldistribution brings on low flow rate regions in channels; this
incident causes fouling and corrosion in these regions, and lowers material quality, thermal
conductivity and overall thermal performance of the heat exchanger.

For gasketed-plate heat exchangers, there are mainly three types of flow maldistributions; port
flow maldistributions, flow maldistribution resulting from non-identical channel design and
channel flow maldistribution [1]. Second and third types are nearly impossible to observe
experimentally. CFD analysis and numerical simulations are probably an efficient alternative
way but this procedure needs excessive computer capacity [2].

Tereda et. al. [3] conducted experiments to analyze the flow and pressure distribution in a
plate heat exchanger by measuring local port pressure distribution for different port locations
and port dimensions. Results offered for different port dimensions and Reynolds numbers
show that it is important to consider the flow maldistribution for better design of heat
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

288

exchangers. Tsai et. al. [4] numerically investigated distribution of flow in two cross-
corrugated channels of plate heat exchangers and validated their results with the
measurements taken by laboratory experiments within a Reynolds number range 170 to 1700.
They showed that the experimental results for pressure drop are 20 % higher than numerical
predictions and the flow rate of first channel is 1 % higher than the second. However, results
of this work for two channels do not seem enough evidences to draw a conclusion; more
advanced computer technology would be helpful for further investigations by CFD. Nielsen
et. al. [5] investigated the influence of flow maldistribution on the performance of
inhomogeneous parallel plate heat exchangers. They conducted their investigation with an
established model for a sample of 50 random stacks having equal average channel thickness
with 20 channels each are used to provide a statistical base. They showed that flow
maldistribution significantly reduces thermal performances of stacks of parallel plates.

There are several studies about flow maldistribution and its effects on heat exchanger
performances [6-15]. They all conclude that flow maldistribution has to be examined to
consider thermal and hydraulic characteristics of heat exchangers.

METHODOLOGY

An experimental set-up is constructed to measure temperatures and pressure differences at
inlet and outlet ports of both fluids and volumetric flow rates of the hot and cold fluids. Tap
water is used as the working fluid for both hot and cold sides of chevron-type gasketed plate
heat exchangers. The water filling hot and cold water tank is provided from city water supply
and pumped through the heat exchanger as shown in Figure 1. For hot side of the
experimental set-up, there is a closed loop. Water in hot water tank, heated up with resistance
heaters, circulates through this closed loop before gathering data, thus the temperature
distribution in the tank becomes even. Pressure transmitters measure the pressure differences
between inlet and outlet ports for both sides. Temperature values are measured with J -type
thermocouples from the ports and measured data is directly recorded to a computer by a data-
taker. Pumped water passes through an electromagnetic flow-meter for both sides, which
measures the volumetric flow rates. Different number of plates (21, 31, 41, 51 and 61 plates)
with 30 degree chevron angle, , and 1.17 enlargement factor, , are tested for U-type flow
pattern shown in Figure 2.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

289

Figure 1. Experimental set-up

Figure 2. Flow pattern (P
in
for inlet pressure, P
out
for outlet pressure, U
m
for mean fluid
velocity, U
c
for fluid channel velocity, Z for distance along port, L for total length of the port,
D
p
for port diameter).

With the experimental data gathered, basic heat transfer and pressure drop equations from
literature are used to develop a correlation for Fanning friction factor [16]. For bulk
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

290

temperatures for both sides (T for temperature and subscripts in for inlet, out for outlet, h for
hot side, c for old side, b for bulk and w for wall):

( )
, , ,
/ 2
c b c in c out
T T T = + (1)

( )
, , ,
/ 2
h b h in h out
T T T = + (2)

( )
, ,
/ 2
w c b h b
T T T = + (3)

By using the temperature differences, thermophysical properties ( for density, for
viscosity, C
p
for specific heats, Pr for Prandtl number, k for thermal conductivity) of the fluid
and the wall can be found. Reynolds number, Re, which is a non-dimensional number that
characterizes the flow regime is found by using channel mass velocity, G
c
, equivalent
diameter, D
e
, and dynamic viscosity, , number of channels, N
cp
, mean channel gap, b and
plate width, L
w
as follows:

( )
/
o
c
c cp w
G m N bL = (4)
( ) /
c e
Re G D = (5)

Fanning friction factor, f, varying with pressure drop, P, can be found by:

( )( )( )
0.17
2
4 / / 2 /
eff p h c b w
P f L N D G

= (6)

where N
p
is number of passes, L
eff
is effective length, D
h
is hydraulic length. The friction
factor correlation developed is shown in Figure 3.

The mathematical model developed for flow maldistribution is based on the assumptions of
Baussiony distribution model [9, 10]. Bassiuony and Martin [9, 10], defined a characteristic
parameter, m, and a dimensionless channel flow rate, u
c
for flow maldistribution in plate heat
exchangers having identical inlet and outlet port dimensions:

2
2
1
cp lp
p
N A
m
f A

=

(7)

cosh (1 )
sinh
p
c
cp lp
A
m z
u m
N A m

=

(8)

Where A
lp
is the projected area of one plate, A
p
is effective corrugated heat transfer area of the
plate, z=Z/L, is dimensionless distance along the port. Dimensionless channel velocity term
can be written as [3]:

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

291

c
c
m
U
u
U
= (9)

If equation 5. and correlation developed for friction factor are written in equation 6., the
channel pressure drop term becomes:

0.17 0.5483
2
2 30.96 1.045
eff p
m h b
c m
h w
L N
U D
P U
D

= +

(10)

The relative fluid maldistribution parameter, S, that Tereda et. al. [3] developed is written by
means of average fluid velocity of the channels, U
av
, and fluid channel velocity at specific
location, U
c
as follows:

c av
av
U U
S
U
= (11)

By using these equations for different distance values along the port, fluid velocities and
pressure drop values can be calculated for different number of plates and the effect of flow
maldistribution for varying number of plates can be discussed.

RESULTS

The objective of this study is to investigate the flow maldistribution for five different number
of channels. In order to examine this, the correlation for Fanning friction factor has to be
found first. The friction factor correlation is shown in Figure 3. and the uncertainties for
measurements are shown in Table 1. There can be clearly seen that friction factor decreases
with increasing Reynolds number.

Table 1. Uncertainties in experimental measurements.
Variable
Max
Uncertainty %
Pressure drop, P [kPa] 9.2
Reynolds number, Re 12.4
Fanning friction factor, f 11.8

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

292

Figure 3. Friction factor correlation

For the flow maldistribution parameter, m, that Bassiuony and Martin [9, 10] developed there
can be seen in Figure 4 that flow maldistribution decreases with decreasing Reynolds number
and increases with increasing number of plates, also the slope of the maldistribution level
surges with increasing Reynolds number. The maldistribution is very low for 21 and 31
plates, 41 plates is utilizable too but after 51 plates, the maldistribution of plates goes to an
unacceptable level especially for high Reynolds numbers.

The relative flow maldistribution parameter at 5 different locations along the port for different
number of plates and Reynolds number values are shown in Figure 5. The channel near two
end channels of heat exchanger has more maldistribution due to flow friction and rapid
momentum change at the manifold and wall. The middle channels are supposed to have more
uniform flow dispersion but after 51 plates, this phenomenon becomes invalid so it can be
said that the limit for number of plates is nearly 51 plates for presented plate dimensions. For
three different Reynolds number values, the slopes and relative maldistribution values of
different plate numbers are nearly the same so relative flow maldistribution values do not
change with Reynolds number within the range of this study.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

293

Figure 4. Flow maldistribution characteristics of five different plates

a)

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

294

b) c)
Figure 5. Relative flow maldistribution parameter along port at several Reynolds number, a)
Re =500, b) Re =850, c) Re =1200.

DISCUSSION

Experiments are carried out, steady state heat transfer and pressure drop measurements are
made within a Reynolds number range of 300 to 5000 for gasketed plate heat exchangers with
five different number of plates (21, 31, 41, 51, 61) having 30 degrees of chevron angle and an
enlargement factor of 1.17. A correlation is obtained from experimental data for Fanning
friction factor. Flow maldistribution for 5 different number of plates and 5 different distances
along the port are observed. With increasing number of plates and Reynolds number, amount
of maldistribution increases. The mid-plates, in applicable range, have relative flow
maldistribution value closest to zero; therefore channels closest to end plates have higher
maldistribution due to rapid momentum exchange and fluid friction in the manifold and
impact at the wall. The pressure drop fluctuations at the port causes disturbances in channel
flow. The fluid friction and pressure drop in the inlet port increases along the port; however
decreasing fluid velocity - according to momentum theory - increases the pressure drop
regionally in the direction of flow. This study will be improved using numerical simulations
to observe flow dispersion and maldistribution in the channels.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This study is financially supported by TEKTES Teknolojik Tesisat Sistemleri Sanayi ve
Ticaret A.., Turkish Ministry of Science, Industry and Technology and TOBB University of
Economics and Technology as a Santez project under grant number: STZ 2009-1-347 and by
TUBA GEBIP Distinguished Young Scientists Awards Programme of Turkish Academy of
Sciences and Turkish Scientific and Research Council under grant 112M173.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

295

REFERENCES

1. Huang, L., 2001. Port Flow Distribution in Plate Heat Exchangers, in Compact Heat Exchangers
and Enhanced Technologies for the Process Industries, ed. R. K. Shah, A. W. Deakin, H.
Honda, and T. M. Rudy, Begell House, New York, pp. 259-264.
2. Wang, L., Sunden, B., Manglik, R., M., 2007. Plate Heat Exchangers Design, Applications and
Performance, ISBN 978-1-85312-737-3, WIT Press, Boston.
3. Tereda, F., A., Srihari, N., Sunden, B., Das, S. K., 2007. Experimental Investigation on Port to
Channel Flow Maldistribution in Plate Heat Exchangers, Heat Transfer Engineering, vol. 28 no.
5, pp. 435-443.
4. Tsai, Y., Liu, F. Shen, P., 2009. Investigations of the Pressure Drop and Flow Distribution in a
Chevron-Type Plate Heat Exchanger, International Communications in Heat and Mass Transfer,
vol. 36, pp. 574-578.
5. Nielsen, K. K., Engelbrecht, K., Bahl, C. R. H., 2013. The Influence of Flow Maldistribution on
the Performance of Inhomogeneous Parallel Plate Heat Exchangers, International J ournal of
Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 60, pp. 432-439.
6. Kho, T., 1998. Effect of Flow Distribution on Scale Formation in Plate Heat Exchangers, PhD
Thesis, University of Surrey, Surrey, UK.
7. Acrivos, A., 1959. Babcock, B., D., Pigford, R., L., Flow Distribution in Manifolds, Chemical
Engineering Science, vol. 10, no. , pp. 112-124.
8. Wilkinson, W., L., March1984. Flow Distribution in Plate Heat Exchangers, The Chemical
Engineer, pp. 280-293.
9. Bassiouny, M., K., Martin, H., 1984. Flow Distribution and Pressure Drop in Plate Heat
Exchangers I: U-type Arrangement, Chemical Engineering Science, vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 693-
700.
10. Bassiouny, M., K., Martin, H., 1984. Flow Distribution and Pressure Drop in Plate Heat
Exchangers II Z-type Arrangement, Chemical Engineering Science, vol. 39, no. 4, pp. 701-
704.
11. Shen, P., I., 1992. The Effect of Friction on Flow Distribution in Dividing and Combining Flow
Manifolds, ASME J ournal of Fluid Engineering, vol. 114, pp. 121-123.
12. Heggs, P., J ., Scheidat, H., J ., 1992. Thermal Performance of Plate Heat Exchangers with Flow
Maldistribution, in Compact Heat Exchangers for Power and Process Industriesi ed. R. K. Shah,
T. M. Rudy, J . M. Robertson, K. M. Hostetler, HTD-vol. 201, ASME, New York, pp. 87-93.
13. Lalot, S., Florent, p., Lang, S. K., Bergles, A. E., 1999. Flow Maldistribution in Heat
Exchangers, Applied Thermal Engineering 19, pp. 847-863.
14. Das, S., K., Roetzel, W., 1995. Dynamic Analysis of Plate Heat Exchangers with Dispersion in
Both Fluids, International J ournal of Heat and Mass Trasfer, vol. 38 no.6, pp. 1127-1140.
15. Roetzel, W., Ranong, C., N., 1999. Consideration of Maldistribution in Heat Exchangers Using
the Hyperbolic Dispersion Model, Chemical Engineering and Processing, vol. 38, pp. 675-681.
16. Kakac S., Liu H., 2002. Heat Exchangers Selection, Rating and Thermal Design. CRC Press.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

296

APPLYING ENERGY STORAGE IN BUILDINGS OF THE FUTURE

Fariborz HAGHIGHAT, Ph.D., P.Eng., Fellow ASHRAE, Fellow ISIAQ
Professor

Department of Building, Civil and Environmental Engineering
Concordia University, Montreal, QC H3G 1M8, Canada

Corresponding e-mail: Fariborz.Haghighat@Concordia.ca

SUMMARY

The Net-Zero Energy Buildings (NZEB), advanced buildings of tomorrow, need to take
advantage of renewable energy sources (RES) to provide the required heating/cooling load.
The main drawback of RES is the variability and intermittence which causes significant
mismatches between demand and supply. Thus, to make the NZEB a viable solution it must
be integrated with thermal energy storage (TES). The International Energy Agency- Energy
Conservation through Energy Storage implementing agreement (IEA/ECES) has recognized
the significant knowledge gap in the energy storage and initiated a new research project
entitled Applying Energy Storage in Building of the Future. This paper reports the
outcomes of this international research project.

INTRODUCTION

Recently, thermal energy storage (TES) has attracted increasing attention due to the potential
benefits it can offer in energy efficiency, in shifting load from peak to off-peak, in emergency
heating/cooling load, in economics and in environmental impact. The Energy Conservation
through Energy Storage (ECES) implementing agreement of the International Energy Agency
(IEA) recognized that further research in this area is needed: it initiated a research project
called Applying Energy Storage in Buildings of the Future Annex 23. Application of
energy storage in building is not new and has often been applied in standard buildings:
Building envelope and central thermal storage have been used as thermal energy storage
(TES). This Annex started its activity in 2009 and the following countries participated and
contributed to the work of this Annex: Canada, China, France, India, New Zealand, Norway,
Spain, Sweden and UK.

Advanced design tools and technical improvements are required in TES technologies and
systems. Indeed the design of the building and TES are often not coordinated. A building
integrated with distributed thermal storage materials could shift most of peak load to off-peak
time period. It is important to plan for the requirements of the buildings of the future. Hence,
research is needed to ensure that the actual performance of buildings with TES in use matches
expectation and predictions more closely. The use of TES requires smart energy management
in buildings to achieve the overall goal of nearly-net-zero energy buildings. It is desirable to
develop technical solutions and tools that incorporate advanced TES material to provide
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

297

alternative option to conventional solutions and to meet the energy demands of buildings of
the future. The objective of this Annex was to demonstrate that the energy storage techniques
could be successfully applied to optimize the building performance. Indeed, the design of the
building and the design of the energy storage were often not coordinated, and energy storage
simply supplied the building demand whatever it might be.

The specific objectives of Annex 23 include:
assess the use of energy storage to optimize the efficiency of distributed generation;
develop and evaluate energy storage conceptual designs suitable for specific
applications; and
develop guidelines and procedures to estimate the environmental performance of
energy storages when applied in ultra-low energy buildings and communities

METHODOLOGY

To reach these objectives, the annex is structured in five subtasks:
Subtask A: Coordinated national reviews of energy storage use in energy efficient
buildings
This Subtask coordinated review of energy storage use in each participating country. The
review included the performance assessment, the advantages, requirements and limitations.
The subtask was able to collect information on 22 projects: 6 from Canada, 6 from France, 3
from China, 3 from Sweden and 4 from Spain. The investigated projects used various thermal
storage materials and cover a wide range of applications. Overall, 10 projects use sensible
heat storage technologies, while 12 use latent heat storage. The projects were mostly
dedicated to space cooling (12), despite five being developed for space heating and 2 systems
could be used for both heating and cooling. In addition, three systems were designed mainly
for domestic hot water management. The Subtask report concluded that from the presented
results we can discern a trend that would need to be confirmed that is several projects tend to
be intended to manage the demand (diminish peak power consumption). This implies the
importance of energy storage in the context of smart buildings and smart grid, where the
control of the power demand is as important as the energy efficiency. Also, the necessity to
improve the knowledge of storage material has been identified seven times as the most
important information to improve the technology. In almost all cases, latent heat storage
systems face this problem (lack of knowledge). This observation provides an important
insight about why this technology is not yet mastered. In addition, for 13 systems, it has been
noted that optimization is necessary for the control, sizing, system integration and
modification. Finally, in one case, new application niches need to be found. All these
comments indicate that more fundamental and applied research is needed to remove the many
hurdles in the large scale applications of these technologies.

Subtask B: Collaborative evaluation of energy storage usage and proposed efficient
systems based on Subtask A and other Annex results

This Subtask B carried out an extensive literature review and studied the existing techniques
in order to develop a common evaluation technique for comparison of different energy
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

298

storages. A comprehensive review of energy storage use, the existing technologies,
requirements, limitations, etc. was completed. The report consists of five chapters. The first
chapter gives an overview of thermal properties of sensible and latent of building materials.
The second chapter concerns passive thermal energy storage used for cooling and heating
applications in buildings, while chapter three describes active thermal storage at low and
medium temperature including short-term storage (daily) and long-term storage (seasonal).
Chapter four focuses on the active storage systems at high temperatures, and the methods
used for high temperature storage namely sensible storage, latent storage and thermo-
chemical storage. The last chapter concentrates on technologies used to store electrical
energy.
The qualitative cross analysis between inventories of real applications (subtask A
survey) and literature review (subtask B) indicated that the survey was comprehensive
and almost included all the existing thermal storage except for the snow stored in a
shallow pond. In addition, none of buildings of the subtask A is equipped with thermo-
chemical storage or electrical storage.

Subtask C: Development of Sustainable Energy Storage Designs for a variety of
Ultra-low energy building thermal and phase change materials

This Subtask dealt with the development of new sustainable TES or improvement of
promising existing systems that have potentials to be successfully integrated with a variety of
ultra-low energy buildings. A comprehensive literature review was carried out and it was
concluded that the existing modeling approach of PCM is not computationally efficient for
annual building energy load calculation and for application in the design of energy storage in
buildings of the future, and it was agreed that some effort should be made in this area.
To achieve this goal it was first necessary to analyze the application of TES in the market. It
was however very difficult to extract general design rules or even simple practical results
from the scientific literature. This problem arises from the fact that there is almost no inter-
comparison between various designs. In most studies, the optimization of a single particular
configuration is studied. Even for models, each group tends to use its own in-house solution
without systematic comparisons with others. In addition, performances of energy storage
systems are strongly related to local climatic conditions, which adds to the difficulty of the
reutilization of previously published results in subsequent research as a comparison basis.
Several TES models have been developed/analyzed and the main results are:

1. Numerical benchmarking has been developed for the validation of numerical models
dealing with solid-liquid phase change process. Two numerical benchmarking were developed
and proposed to participants. The first one (Figure 1) represents the surface temperature
evolution for a wall integrating a PCM whereas the second (Figure 2) deals with the
temperature evolution inside a box. The figures show the comparison between experimental
and numerical results obtained by different teams.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

299

Figure 17: PCM integrated wall
Figure 18: PCM integrated in a cubic box

2. Field measurements data from Task D were used to further validate the developed
models. 1hls 8enchmark ls based on real experlmenL bulld ln uevgard de Llelda, Spaln.
LxperlmenLal resulLs are avallable boLh for free floaLlng LemperaLure and wlLh a coollng
sysLe

There was a good agreement between the prediction made by the model and the experimental
data, Figure 3.

Figure 3 Indoor temperature profile of the benchmark cubicle with/out PCM (outdoor sinusoid change of
temperature)
3. Further simulations have been performed to evaluate the performance of TES in low
energy buildings. PCM wallboard can be used to shift the peak load to the off-peak period
(night time). Either the thickness or the thermo-physical properties of the wallboard can be
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
-100000 0 100000 200000 300000 400000
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
C
)

Time (s)
Indoor
without
PCM Exp
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

300

selected as design parameter in order to properly find the charging time. In order for the PCM
wallboard to take advantage of its latent heat, the PCM needs to be liquefied in a sufficient
time to be utilized during peak period. Therefore, to select an appropriate PCM wallboard, a
design tool was developed to relate the PCM thickness and its thermo-physical properties to
the charging time which is one of the key parameters in such design. The tool can be used
either as a scale to select the appropriate thickness of the PCM wallboard or to modify its
thermo-physical properties to satisfy the design objective.
A Canadian team developed a design tool to relate the thermal dynamic of a PCM wallboard
mounted inside a building envelope with the Bi, Ste, and Fo numbers. The relationships
between Fo of a completely liquefied PCM and the other dimensionless numbers were
identified. It was presented that the Fo is increasing linearly by decreasing the Ste number for
a given Bi number. Moreover, increasing the Bi number of a PCM wallboard resulted in the
reduction of Fo measured for fully melted PCM. In the next step, a new correlation between
the Fo and both Bi and Ste numbers was developed. The developed correlation or the graphs
can be employed to specify the appropriate design thickness of a PCM wallboard with its
determined thermo-physical properties which can be charged in a sufficient time during off-
peak period, see Figure 4.
Figure 4. Fourier number of completely liquefied PCM wallboard as function of Bi and
(Ste)
-1
numbers

Moreover, in the case of some restrictions for the thickness of the wall or space limits, the
correlation can be utilized to characterize the appropriate thermo-physical properties of a
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

301

PCM wallboard with pre-determined thickness. Finally, the results of the effect of melting
range conclude that a 2-3C range has the highest Fo of the completely liquefied PCM in a
certain Bi and Ste numbers.

4. Further investigations are underway to study the performance of a Centralized Latent
Heat Thermal Energy Storage System (LHTES) system. A three-dimensional heat transfer
model of a LHTES system was developed to investigate the quasi-steady state and transient
conjugate heat transfer problem of phase change materials (PCMs). The prediction of model
was in good agreement with the available experimental data.
Parametric study was carried out to study the effect of the PCM phase change temperature
range, and the temperature difference of the incoming air and PCM melting temperature on
thermal performance of PCM. The temperature difference between the air and the melting
point has a significant effect on the performances of a centralized LHTES system. The highest
simulated performance of a centralized LHTES system is observed when the temperature
difference between the air and the PCM melting point is about 10K. Figure 5 and 6 show a
typical evolution of PCM during charging and discharging. Figure 5 shows a typical evolution
of solidification solid-liquid phase distribution as a function of time for vicinity of the fins.
Solid layers start developing in parallel of the cooling walls at the top and bottom of the
LHTES system. The solid interface shape is formed in a way resembling the lateral fin
surface. The position of solid interface can be determined to identify the speed of
solidification evolution.
The validated computational fluid dynamics simulation tool is used to study the long term
performance of a centralized latent heat thermal energy storage system (LHTES). The LHTES
system is integrated with a building mechanical ventilation system. Paraffin RT20 was used
as a phase change material (PCM) and fins were used to enhance its performance.

Figure 5: The liquid fraction and phase distribution of PCM as a function of time during
melting process of energy release at the inlet air temperature of 36
o
C and the velocity of
1.5m/s .

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

302

Figure 6. The liquid fraction and phase distribution of PCM as a function of time during
solidification process of energy storage at the inlet air temperature of 36
o
C and the velocity of
1.5m/s

Subtask D: Apply, monitor and evaluate demonstrations of these designs in a number of
countries and climates
The focus of this subtask was to collect and document reliable data from a number of
demonstration projects. The collected data are used to study the performance of the system
and are used by subtask C for model verification. During the last year, several prototypes have
been identified as potential targets. The systems that are already built and running or even
experimentally evaluated included:
Sensible passive systems
1. Sensible storage in real buildings (passive/active system?) Chalmers
University of Technology
2. Ventilated concrete wall (HVAC system) University of Savoie
3. Vegetal facade (passive system) University of Lleida
4. Vegetal roof (passive system) University of Lleida
5. Water tank storage Poitiers High school
PCM passive systems
1. PCM in conventional brick facade (passive cooling) University of
Lleida
2. PCM in alveolar brick facade (passive cooling) University of Lleida
3. PCM in concrete facade (passive cooling) University of Lleida
4. PCM in wallboards ( passive system) INSALyon
5. PCM in timber (passive system) University of Auckland
PCM active systems
1. PCM in ventilated facade (active HVAC) University of Lleida
2. PCM in alveolar slab (active HVAC) University of Lleida
3. Heat pump with PCM storage tank (active HVAC) University of
Lleida
4. Heat pump with PCM storage tank (active HVAC) Buro Happold
5. PCM packed bed (cold storage) University of Lleida
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

303

6. Water+PCM storage tank (Domestic Hot Water DHW) University
of Auckland & University of Lleida
7. Heat exchanger University of Auckland
8. Collector storage University of Savoie
9. PCM in a radiant floor University of Zaragoza
10. Ice storage Anna University

Subtask E: Identify technologies and applications needed in the long-term to achieve
2030 building objectives and develop typical Sustainable Energy Storage Designs
The main goal of this subtask was to evaluate and analyze the information obtained from
previous subtasks to identify technologies able to achieve the objective of this Annex.
Work is under way to identify the requirements for the application of these technologies for a
wide range of future market, such as renovation of existing buildings, new building which
will be constructed based on existing building code, and future buildings with new technical
devises and solutions. Tools and information are needed for the assessing the performance of
these technologies. The required information included: detailed information about thermal
properties of these materials, validated calculation tools, tools for assessment of economic and
ecological benefits for decision makers, LCA analysis, off-gassing, recycle-ability, fire
behavior and health issues, etc. This information is needed to identify the most appropriate
technologies and applications, and the development of design guidelines.

DISCUSSION
The significant knowledge gap in the application of energy storage for the building of future
was recognized by the International Energy Agency- Energy Conservation through Energy
Storage implementing agreement (IEA/ECES) and initiated a new research project entitled
Applying Energy Storage in Building of the Future. The Annex started its activity in 2009
and the final report is planned to be submitted in Dec. 2013. This paper reported a summary
of the work that has been by this Annex so far.

Acknowledgements
The author would like to acknowledge contributions of Annex 23 participants, especially the
Annex Subtask leaders for leading managing the Annex. The subtasks were led by: Mr. Alain
Moreau, Laboratoire des technologies de l'nergie d'Hydro-Qubec, Canada (Subtask A),
Professor Christian Inard, La Rochelle University, France (Subtask B), Dr. Kevyn J ohannes,
CETHIL, INSA, France (C) professor Albert Castell, GREA Innovaci Concurrent,
University of Lleida, Spain (Subtask D), and Professor Bijan Adl-Zarrabi, Chalmers
University of Technology, Sweden (Subtask E). The authors would like also to express his
gratitude to the Public Works Government Services Canada and Concordia University for
supporting this research project.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

304

NUMERICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE PERFORMANCE OF A
TYPICAL CONDENSER

L. Berrin Erbay
1
, Haluk Ylmaz
2

1
Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Eskisehir
2
Anadolu University, Eskisehir

Corresponding email: lberbay@ogu.edu.tr

SUMMARY

In this study, the thermal and hydraulic performance of a wire-on-tube type dynamic air
cooled condenser of a refrigerator was investigated. Setting a model by usingnumerical
solution method in order to calculate heat transfer from the condenser to air under operating
condition was main objective.A protective lid covering the condenser surface and operating as
a fan protector was taken into consideration for numerical solution. While air was used as the
working fluid, condenser surface temperature was obtained from the experiments. In the
numerical analysis, total amount of heat transfer, temperature, pressure,velocity gradients and
streamlines were studied in detail. The theoretical calculation was compared with the results
obtained from the numerical solutions. 191W heat transfer into the air from the condenser was
seen in the condenser area via numerical model under tropical climate conditions. As a result
of the theoretical calculation, it is found that the heat gain of refrigeration cycle is 198W.

INTRODUCTION

A refrigerator is a common household appliance that consists of a thermally insulated
compartment and refrigeration components that transfers heat from the inside of the
refrigerator to the external environment so that the inside of the refrigerator is cooled to a
temperature below the ambient temperature of the room.Cooling process is made with the
help of refrigerants and by spending energy from outside. In vapor-compression cooling cycle
refrigerators heat is also extracted from compartment of the refrigerator which has low
temperaturein accordance with the ambient temperature. There are four main components in
the vapor-compression cooling system; a compressor, a condenser, an expansion valve (or
capillary tube), and evaporator. Refrigerant used in the cycle, transfers the heat from low
temperature zone to high temperature environment with its change of state during the cycle
and thus cooling its zone.

Performance evaluation can be done separately for every components of the system. Since
condenser is the most sensitive system component to the external environment, it matters
great importance for the system performance within others.

The direct effect of condenser to the cooling performance can be summarized. Increase in the
amount of heat that thrown out from condenser causes the refrigerant to subcooling. So,
evaporation temperature will decrease, dryness fraction of the fluid that enters to evaporator
approaches to zero and this will provide more productive cooling. In addition, with the
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

305

increase of the enthalpy difference between evaporator - compressor entries, it will be
possible to cool the refrigerator at a lower condensation pressure. Therefore, it will also
possible to catch lower energy consumption because compressor will need less electrical
energy for conveying the refrigerant to the condensation pressure. [1]

a) b)
Figure 1.Cooling cycle. a) Schematic [2], b) Vapor compressed cycle P-h diagram [3].

J oaquim M. Gonalves et al. (2007),generated a semi-empirical model for simulating the
steady state conditions of vapor-cooling systems used at homes. Data which they obtained
from experiments were essential for the development and validation of the component sub-
models. Gonalves et al. proposed the effects of some key parameters on the system
performance using EES software [4].Chi-Chuan Wang et al. 2010, made an examiningstudy
of the heat transfer coefficient and flow type by changing tube diameters of heat
exchangers,fin thicknesses and layer number on the fins between 1 and 16. They investigated
the effect of tube row and Reynolds number on the heat transfer performance and influence of
tube row on the frictional performance. Wang et al. determined a notable drop of heat transfer
performance when the number of tube row was increased and higher heat transfer and
frictional performance was associated with that of the larger fin pitch [5]. G. Lozza and U.
Merlo (2000), researched the heat transfer performance of air-cooling condensers and liquid
coolers with using different fin surface morphologies. They proposed the type of fin adopted
strongly influences the heat exchanger performance and louvered fins generally provided the
best results in their experiments [6]. B. Youn and N. H. Kim (2005),experimentally studied
the heat transfer and friction factor in heat exchangers for different fin geometries (sinusoidal
and zigzag). Youn and Kim reported that the sinusoidal wave geometry provides higher heat
transfer coefficients and friction factors than the herringbone wave geometry, and the
difference increases as the number of row increases [7]. P.K. Bansal and T.C. Chin
(2001),studied the heat transfer, pressure drop and cooling capacity of vapor-compression
cooler condenser that used in homes for different working conditions, by numerically
generating experimental and FEM models, and comparing the results. Bansal and Chin found
that the modeling results were disagree with the experimental results by about 10%, and they
attributed this discrepancy to the unmodelled heat infiltration from the condenser into the
refrigerating compartment [8]. Y. Chokeman and S. Wongwises (2004), aiming to examine
the effects of heat exchanger fin geometry over heat transfer coefficient and friction, carried
out an experimental study by using air and hot water in wind tunnel. Chokeman and
Wongwises found from the experimental results that the fin pattern has a significant effect on
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

306

the heat transfer and flow characteristics[9]. R. Bassiouny (2008),made a numerical and FEM
analysis research for detecting the effects of distance between domestic refrigerator condenser
and the wall, upon heat quantity given to the environment. Bassiouny reported that having an
enough surrounding space width leads to a decrease in the temperature of the air flowing
vertically around the condenser coil and this situation allows increase the amount of heat
rejected. Moreover, blocking surrounding space retards the buoyant flow up the condenser
surface, and hence increases the air temperature around the condenser and this situation also
leads to decrease the heat rejected from the condenser [10]. C. Melo et al. 2007, they tried to
obtain a non-dimensional correlation in order to calculate the natural convection coefficient
between outer surface of static wire-on-tube type condenser and environment air. The
correlation which was determined by Melo et al. was used to explore the effects of tube
diameter and number of tube rows and wires on the condenser heat released rate. They found
that the heat transfer coefficient decreases with the increase of the number of wires, and that
the effect of tube diameter is only significant for a large number of tube rows [11].
In this study, the thermal and hydraulic performance of a wire-on-tube type dynamic air
cooled condenser of a refrigerator was investigated. Setting a model by using numerical
solution method to calculate heat transfer from the condenser to air under operating condition
was main objective. A finite element package program of computational fluid mechanics
(CFD) ANSYS14 was used for the numerical analysis. The fundamental fluid and energy
equations were solved at the steady state, three-dimensional and turbulence conditions. A
protective lid covering the condenser surface and operating as a fan protector was taken into
consideration for numerical solution. Heat transfer from the condenser to air was examined by
considering many parts of this enclosure. While air was used as the working fluid, condenser
surface temperature was obtained from the experiments. Condenser surface temperature range
is between 328K and 343K. Pressure gradient as a result of fans rotational motion at a current
rpm, is defined as inlet boundary condition for the system. Holes, on the surface of the
protective lid, are defined as outlet and opening to atmosphere. In the numerical analysis, total
amount of heat transfer, temperature, pressure and velocity gradients, streamlines were
studied in detail. In addition, the theoretical calculation was compared with the results
obtained from the numerical solutions.
Additionally in this study, not only condenser but alsobottom of the refrigerators cabinregion
volumes were completely modeled. Condenser cooled by the swirl flow air generated by fan
action and bottom of the cabinsprotectionlid is not neglected. Tropical climate condition is
considered in modeling because it is the most required condenser performance
neededforrefrigerator cooling cycle.

METHOD

In this study, the flow investigated in cartesian coordinates and assumed as 3-D, steady state
and single phase.In the solution,computational fluid dynamics (CFD) package programme and
Realizable k- (RKE) turbulent model arechosen. In addition, Enhanced Wall Treatment
Option is used. For the numerical solution of conservation equations, finite volumes method
is used. Asthe SIMPLE algorithm and second order discretization and multiple step precision
are preferred, convergences are limited to around 10
-5
forthe solutions. Also, solver options
are chosen, Segregated Solver, Least Squares Cell Based and Hybrid initialization.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

307

A finite element package program of computational fluid mechanics (CFD) ANSYS14 was
used for the numerical analysis. The fundamental fluid and energy equations were solved at
the steady state, three-dimensional and turbulence conditions. Heat transfer from the
condenser to air was examined by considering many parts of this enclosure. Condenser
surface temperature range is between 328K and 343K. Pressure gradient as a result of fans
rotational motion at a current rpm, is defined as inlet boundary condition for the system.
Holes, on the surface of the protective lid, are defined as outlet and opening to atmosphere.

Geometry and terminology are given in the Figure 2.Compressor shell temperature is taken as
360K which was obtained experimentally. Holes on the protection lid located on the back of
the product are described as the outlet to the atmosphere. Different temperatures of refrigerant
in condenser experimentally measured during condensing process (Figure 1, between 3-
6points), (Table1). These measurements are carried outfrom the each area on the condenser
which is divided into 22 different areas. Swirl flow motion in entrance section is directed onto
condenser. The air,whose temperature is 316K, at the inlet is not linear due toswirl flow
motion caused by the pressure differences in the cross section. Tropical climate conditions are
considered during calculations.

Figure 2.Boundary conditions for the model. [1]

Table 1.Condenser surface temperatures of parts.
Condenser Part Surface Temp. (K) Condenser Part Surface Temp. (K)

1 343 12 331.2

2 340 13 330.8

3 338 14 330.3

4 336.3 15 330.2

5 335.1 16 329.8

6 335 17 329.5

7 334.2 18 329.2

8 333.5 19 328.9

9 332.8 20 328.6

10 332.2 21 328.3

11 331.7 22 328

Pressure Outlet
Compressor
Condenser
Pressure Inlet
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

308

Because of many curved surfaces like condenser and compressor surfaces in the geometry,
tetragonal mesh structure is preferred and it is generated with curvature feature (Figure 3).
Thus, more nodes were provided for the precise solution for curved surfaces.

Figure 3.
Mesh structure in thebottom of cabin. [1]

RESULTS

In this study, external flow and thermal-hydraulic performanceofwire-on-tube type dynamic
air cooled refrigerator condenser are investigated. Whole parts in the bottom of cabin aretaken
into account for the model andboundary conditions are introduced from the experimental data.
The air blown upon to condenser is like swirl flow that occurred by the pressure difference
generated by fan. We can summarize the findings fromthe HAD project, whose primary aim
is to simulate a commercial refrigerator and provide a proximity to the actual model, as
followings;

1) It is found that heat transfer ratio from condenser to air is 190.9388W by using CFD package
programme. It is seen that this result is coherent with those obtained from the theoretical
calculations (198.318W), and is correspondto operating conditions.
2) Heat transferred from compressor surface to fluid is calculated as 72.58(W). This
resultsshows that compressor is not being cooled with only oil, in this type of condensers, it is
understood that the compressor is cooled by forced convection at the same time.
3) Wire and cost reductions can be made in the condenser middle area where stable fluid occurs
because of fan positioning and design.
4) In order to delay fluid exit from bottom of the cabin can be done by closing the holes (taken
place on the condenser level) in the bottom of the cabin protection lid so heat transfer can be
enhanced.

DISCUSSION

When streamlines and velocity vectors are examined in Figure 4and Figure 5, it is seen that
the air passing through condenser by rotary motion is moving towards outlet section, which is
at lower atmosphere pressure than the pressure at entrance section. During this action it also
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

309

passes over compressor and provides cooling to the compressor.While the fluid moves faster
at the condenser area due to constriction, it is seen that major part of the fluid which enters to
bottom of the cabin, exits from bottom of the cabin before reaching to compressor area.Also
the air, which has increased internal energy and decreased density by gaining heat from
condenser, is prone to get out from the first hole it come across. This case is a disadvantage
for the heat transfer because of the fluid that leaves the area before making heat transfer with
hotter surfaces than itself.

Figure 4.Stream line occurred at bottom of the cabin volume.[1]

Figure 5.Velocity vectors at bottom of the cabinvolume. [1]

A part of the fluid which moves as it gets heat from condenser surface and thus helps to
cooling of condenser also makes heat transfer with compressor surface, which is hotter than
the condenser surface, and helps with the cooling of compressor.

Results obtained from numerical solutions were compared with actual products heat gain and
compressor work in experimental conditions in order to prove numerical models accuracy.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

310

Total heat gain of the product is calculated by Heat Gain packageprogram and such results
obtained.While these calculations are made, it was taken into account that product can have
section temperatures below customers standard needs understeady state conditions.

Freezer section heat gain: 36(W), Fresh food section heat gain: 67(W)
In order to calculate work done by compressor which provides cycle by compressing the fluid,
experimental data results for under %100 operating conditions product at 43C is used.

Temperature and pressure values at the compressor outlet (Figure 1, point 3), temperature and
pressure values at the compressor inlet (Figure 1 point 2) obtained from experimental data are
used.

Table 2.Refrigerant thermo-physical properties at compressor inlet and outlet. [13]

Temperature (K) Pressure (Mpa) Density (kg/m
3
) Enthalpy (kj/kg)

Inlet 310 0.05 1.15 736.7

Outlet 400 0.8 14.8 887.4

Compressor frequency, 50 f Hz = , Compressor Stroke Volume
3
11.5 V cm =

Compressor volumetric flow rate;
Q fV =
3 3 6 3
50 11.5 550 / 550 10 / Q Hz cm cm s x m s
= = =
, (1)

In order to calculate the mass flow of refrigerant that is passing through the cycle by
compressor, thermo-physical properties of fluid was considered that is filling the stroke
volume fully while compressor was sucking, and as an open system, conservation of mass
was also considered.

, comp in
m Q =
3 6 3 6
1.15 / 550 10 / 632.5 10 / m kg m x m s x kg s

= = , (2)
Compressor work;
2 1
( )
comp
W m h h =

6
632.5 10 / [887.4 / 736.7 / ]
comp
W x kg s kj kg kj kg
, (3)
0.095318 95.318
comp
W kW W = =

is calculated as above.As a result, heat transferred to the fluid;
f ref comp freezer freshfood comp
Q Q W Q Q W = + = + +

, (4)
36 67 95.318 198.318
f
Q W W W W = + + =

is calculated as above. [12]

Heat transfer ratio from condenser is found as 190.9388W by using CFD package
programme. It is seen that this result is coherent with the ones obtained from theoretical
calculations (198.318W), and iscorrespond to operating conditions. Difference between these
two results is %3.86 and it is because of;
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

311

Hysteresis made by user while reading thermo-physical properties diagram of gas R-600.

Neglected heat transfer in the simulation of small connection pipes which are components of
condenser.
In the latest analysis, mesh structure quality couldnt be advanced further because of the
insufficient computer hardware.

In addition, when mass and energy conservation are examined, there is;

0.0244W loss in total heat transfer.
3.47x10
-7
kg/s loss in total fluid mass transfer.

These differences show that, mass and energy conservation is secured and analysis provides
quite good results.

In this study, it is understood that, by focusing more on numerical solutions of condenser
thermal-hydraulic performances, fin design, fin pitch-closeness, fan-condenser distance and
protection lid hole profile must be considered, and more attention should be paid on these for
future studies. Condenser performance depends on many variables, thus experimental studies
must be carried on too. While investigating these variables, safety, sufficient hardware and
especially sound generated by fan must be considered.

REFERENCES

1. Ylmaz, H. 2012.Numerical investigation of the performance of condenser in domestic
refrigerator, Master Dissertation, Osmangazi University Institute of Science
2. http://www.geo4va.vt.edu/A3/A3.htm
3. http://www.thermopedia.com/content/1086/
4. Gonalves, J M, Melo, C, and Hermes, C J L. 2008.A semi-empirical model for steady-state
simulation of household refrigerators.Applied Thermal Engineering. 29, 16221630.
5. Wang, CC, Liaw, J S, and Yang, B C. 2011.Airside performance of herringbone wavy fin-and-
tube heat exchangers data with larger diameter tube.International J ournal of Heat and Mass
Transfer. 54, 10241029.
6. Lozza, G, and Merlo, U. 2001.An experimental investigation of heat transfer and friction
losses of interrupted and wavy fins for fine-and-tube heat exchangers.International J ournal of
Refrigeration. 24, 409-416.
7. Youn, B, and Kim, N H. 2007. An experimental investigation on the airside performance of
fin and tube heat exchangers having sinusoidal wave fins. Heat Mass Transfer. 43, 12491262.
8. Bansal, P K, and Chin, T C. 2002. Design and modeling of hot-wall condensers in domestic
refrigerators.Applied Thermal Engineering. 22, 16011617.
9. Chokeman, Y, and Wongwises, S. 2005.Effect of fin pattern on the air-side performance of
herringbone wavy fin-and-tube heat exchangers.Heat Mass Transfer. 41, 642650.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

312

10. Bassiouny, R. 2009.Evaluating the effect of the space surrounding the condenser of a
household refrigerator.International J ournal of Refrigeration. 32, 1645-1656.
11. Melo, C, and Hermes, C J L. 2009. A heat transfer correlation for natural draft wire-and-tube
condensers.International J ournal of Refrigeration. 32, 546-555.
12. Moran, M J , and Shapiro, H N. 2004.Fundamentals of engineering thermodynamics. J ohn
Wiley and Sons. U.S.A., 874 p.
13. ASHREA. 1997. Fundamentals Handbook: American Society Of Heating, Refrigerating And
Air Conditioning Engineers.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

313

NUMERICAL STUDY OF SMOKE DISTRIBUTION IN A HIGH-RISE
BUILDING WITH ATRIUM

Feyza ebi
1
, Yakup Erhan Bke
2

1
Friterm A.., Istanbul
2
Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul

Corresponding email: cebifeyza@gmail.com

SUMMARY

Since smoke is the most significant threat to human life in fires; today, this has lead to studies
on the subject. A part of a high-rise building which contained atrium was modeled. The
building contained jeweler workshops, those had very conducive environment for fire. Smoke
rised in the atrium was collected at the top and exhausted. As an assumption, at the top of the
building, there was no natural ventilation and at the top and bottom floors of the building
there were exhaust fans. The smoke movements were analyzed with the CFD code named
Fluent. It was assumed that started a fire in the workshops. The fire pools are placed in the
workshops at the three different floors. There were some openings which allowed smoke to
leave and fresh air inlets were defined. Some fire scenarios were built up to investigate smoke
movements.

INTRODUCTION

A building is designed based on the multiple storey structures that are used for different
purposes. Different fire scenarios are established with in the structure and the mass fraction of
smoke is investigated. With the solution scenarios, it is intended to reduce the mass fraction
of smoke.

Gutierrez-Montes et al. [1] studied numerical model of the 1.3 and 2.3 MW fires conducted
in a 20 m cubic enclosure and determined the experimental data. They implement three
different tests. For the first two tests, they use 1.32 MW and 2.28 MW heat release rates
(HRR). Mechanical and natural ventilating is used for both tests. For the third one 2.34 MW
HRR and only natural ventilating is used. For the same HRR, if the tests, used both
mechanical and natural ventilating and only natural ventilating are compared, it can be seen
that the mechanical ventilation affects the temperature of the smoke accrued at the top of the
atrium (19% lower temperature), and the velocity (40% reduction) of the smoke layer.

Qina et al. [2] studied smoke distribution within an atrium for different smoke exhausted
systems. Fire dynamics simulator (FDS) is used. Fire pool sized 2m x 2m, and 1 MW/m
2
is
used for the fire scenarios. 12 pieces 1.2x 1.2 m windows located at the walls, 8 pieces 1.2x
1.2 m ventilation opening located at the roof. 12 different smoke exhausted methods are
investigated within the atrium. Simulation results shows that if the smoke exhausted system is
located at the top of the structure, natural smoke exhausted system should be used. On the
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

314

other hand, if the smoke exhausted systems are located at the walls, it is realized that results
are better if the locations of the openings are higher.
To investigate the location of the fire source on the smoke distribution, three different fire
source locations are used; central, at the edge of the wall and at the corner. All windows are
opened and the two doors are closed. Results shows that if the fire located at the corner of the
atrium, it grows slowly, HRRs are similar for three locations and after 80 s. it is stable.

Smoke and Smoke Management

Smoke is a mixture which consists of solid, liquid, gas particles and fresh air entrainment
during combustion of a material [3]. Smoke threats human lives directly with the toxic
materials and deadening gases. Moreover, with the solid and liquid particles damage the eyes
and breathing organs. Panic and reduced visibility caused by smoke play a vital role that
increases the danger. With toxic gases there are tear gas and irritant gases in the smoke. These
gases extend the length of time exposed to the smoke and the risk of death increases.

Smoke that occurs by combustion is a potential threat of human lives. Statistically studies
shows that more than 90% of the deaths regarding to the fire are because of the smoke. The
two vital properties of smoke are containing toxic gases and reducing visibility. These two
properties are generally related with each other. Intense smoke is toxic significantly and
reduces visibility critically. During the building of the enclosure space, a design criterion is
established to discharge people securely and to achieve a visibility for fire fighters to
intervene when a fire occurs. In this context, it is aimed to establish a clear area with averting
smoke to move down under a specific height.

Atriums and circulation areas are commonly using in malls. These are the discharge ways for
people to exit a secured place out of the building. Generally, covered, a few floors or higher
gaps are called atrium. Atriums are around by the usage areas and they have connection gaps
between the floors therefore it has a serious risk to spread the fire and the smoke [4].

It is very important and critical part to prevent smoke spread over the building and to clean
the air from smoke. It affects the life safety, damage to property and easy intervenes to fire.
On the other hand safe egress time and flashover terms are very important parameters for the
fire.

It is technically known that the temperature of the smoke layer must be at least 18C higher
than the ambient temperature. Otherwise the smoke layer comes closer to the floor. Also the
temperature gap between the smoke layer and the ambient make it is easy to discharge the
smoke. However if the smoke layer temperature is higher than 200C, the heat radiation
becomes very high, it becomes very dangerous for the people who are trying to escape from
the fire.

Oxygen minority is a specific case of gas poisoning. About 15% concentration of oxygen
makes difficulty in breathing. Not only the oxygen concentration is reducing during the fire
conditions, in addition to this carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and other toxic gases effects
are increases.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

315

A column of smoke that rises above a fire is called plume. Plume can be classified in three
groups: Axisymmetric plume, balcony spill plume and window plume. It is assumed that the
fire that may occur within the model structure will compose a balcony spill plume.
A balcony spill plume is one that flows under and around a balcony before rising, giving the
impression of spilling from the balcony, from an inverted perspective, as illustrated in
Figure 1 [4].

Figure 1. Balcony Spill Plume

The width of the plume, W, shall be permitted to be determined by considering the presence
of any physical barriers such as draft curtains protruding below the balcony to restrict
horizontal smoke migration under the balcony. In the absence of any barriers, the equivalent
width shall be calculated using Equation 1 as follows:

(1)

Where W is the width of the plume (m), w is the width of the opening from the area of origin
(m) and bis the distance from the opening to the balcony edge (m).

Figure 2. Typical Balcony Plume

Where the smoke plume is a balcony spill plume and the height, z
b
, of the smoke layer is <15
m, the mass rate of smoke production shall be calculated using Equation 2 as follows:

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

316

(2)

Where m is the mass flow rate in plume (kg/s), Q is the heat release rate of the fire (kW), W is
the width of the plume as it spills under the balcony (m), z
b
is the height above the underside
of the balcony to the smoke layer interface (m) and H is the height of balcony above base of
fire (m).

Equations 2 shall not be used when the temperature rise above ambient (T
p
T
o
) is less than
2.2C.

FIRE SCENARIOS AND SMOKE DISTRIBUTION

A part of a high-rise building with atrium was modeled. The building contained jeweler
workshops, which had very conducive environment for fire. Some fire scenarios were built up
to investigate smoke movements. On the other hand two solution scenarios were iterated. It
was aimed to obtain with these two solution scenarios lower mass fraction of the smoke than
the other solutions when the smoke flow became stable. The smoke movements were
analyzed with the CFD code named Fluent.

The building contained corridors reach out from the atrium area to right and left side, and
jeweler workshops located linearly at the corridors. Only one workshop was modeled at the
left side corridors of the storey as it is seen in Figure 3. Fire pools were located at the
workshops of the 5., 8. and 10. storey and smoke distribution was investigated with some
boundary conditions.
Figure 3 shows 4 exhaust fans and the fire pools. Two of the exhaust fans are located at the 5.
floor and named right5exhaust and left5 exhaust, the other two were located at the top of
the structure and named front exhaust and back exhaust. Fire pools were named
according to the floor.

Figure 3. Structure Model

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

317

Figure 4 shows the floor model with the opening at the right corridor ends designed for 5., 8.
and 10. floors. These openings were named as 5rightc, 8rightc, 10rightc and atrium space at
the 5. floor was named as 5oa. There were an atrium space at the middle, circulating space
to the atrium, right and left side corridors and workshop at the end of the left side corridor for
each floor.

Mass rate of smoke was calculated using Equation 2. For 300 kW heat release rate 36 kg/s
smoke flow was determined for the pools.

Figure 4. Storey Model

Different fire scenarios were established for the construction model and the boundary
conditions were determined. Smoke was modeled as carbon monoxide. Combustion and
chemical reactions were not analyzed. The smoke sources were the fire pools placed in the
workshops. It was assumed that the fresh air was coming from the bottom storey (5. storey)
through the up storey. The amount of air volume was calculated from the vents at the lower
storey and it was nearly 36 kg/s. The exhaust fans placed at the fifth storey and the top storey.

Different exhaust fans were activated for the different scenarios. Wind pressures were ignored
and the smoke distribution was investigated for steady state conditions. Table 1 shows the
smoke sources, air inlets, smoke and air outlets for 7 different fire scenarios. Table 2 shows
same criterions for two solution scenarios.

Table 1. Fire scenarios
Smoke Source Air Inlet Smoke+Air Outlet
Reference Pool 5 5oa Front exhaust, back exhaust
Case 1 Pool 10 5oa Front exhaust, back exhaust
Case 2 Pool 5 5oa Front exhaust, back exhaust,10rightc,8rightc,5rightc
Case 3 Pool 5 5oa Front exhaust, back exhaust,right5exhaust,left5exhaust
Case 5 Pool 5 5oa Front exhaust, back exhaust,10rightc
Pool 6 Pool 5 5oa Front exhaust, back exhaust,8rightc
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

318

Table 2. Solution scenarios
Smoke Source Air Inlet Smoke+Air Outlet
Case 7 Pool 5 5oa, 5u,6u, 7u, 8u,9u, 10u Front exhaust, back
exhaust,10rightc,8rightc,5rightc

RESULTS

To investigate the movement of the smoke analytically, assumptions were made and the CFD
(Computational Fluid Dynamics) method was used. In the model, the movement of smoke is
investigated as if there is a fire in a multi storey structure contains atrium. Combustion and
chemical reactions were ignored. To investigate smoke movements, 9 different fire scenarios
were established and for different boundary conditions mass fraction of smoke and velocity
vectors were observed at steady state conditions. Figure 5 shows the mass fraction of smoke
for seven different fire scenarios depending on the height of the atrium. For the similar fire
scenarios, Case 2 and Case 7, smoke source was the fire pool at the workshop of the bottom
storey (5. storey). So that distribution of smoke was observed at all floors. For Case 2 and
Case 7, it was assumed that the air enters to the atrium through the bottom storey (5. storey).
Air amount was equal to the total air flow of the fresh air vents below the 5. storey. Smoke
was exhausted by two fans at the top of the atrium and through the openings at the right side
corridors of 5., 8. and 10. storey. It was also accepted that the exhaust fan at the 5. storey is
not in use. Differently, for Case 7, the entrance of fresh air through vents at circulating spaces
is allowed. If these two cases are compared, it can be realized, for the case in which vents are
in use at circulating spaces, the mass fraction of smoke is lower at the same height of atrium.
In both two cases, smoke amount increase similarly until smoke mixes with the fresh air that
comes through the atrium lower surface at 5. storey. After the mixing, in both cases, mass
fraction of smoke decrease similarly. It can be seen that the mass fraction of smoke changes
similarly for both cases. However after the fresh air vents at the circulating spaces affects the
smoke amount, for Case 7, which presented as a solution scenario, the mass fraction of smoke
is decreased 5% compared to Case 2.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

319

Figure 5. Mass fraction of smoke depending on the height at the atrium

For the similar fire scenarios, Case 2 and Case 6, smoke sources were the fire pool at the
workshop of the bottom storey (5. storey) as like the reference fire scenario. It was assumed
that the air entered to the atrium through the bottom storey (5. storey). Air amount was equal
to the total air flow of the fresh air vents below the 5. storey. It was assumed that there was no
air inlet from the fresh air vents at the storey which the smoke distribution was investigated.
Smoke was exhausted by two fans at the top of the atrium. It was also accepted that the
exhaust fan at the 5. storey was not in use. In addition to this, air exhaust was allowed through
the openings at the right side corridors of 5., 8. and 10. storey for Case 2. Figure 6 shows the
mass fraction of smoke for Case 2. The opening at the end of the right side corridor in the 8.
storey was in use for Case 6.

Figure 6. Mass fraction of smoke for Case 2
Height (m)
M
a
s
s

f
r
a
c
t
i
o
n

o
f

s
m
o
k
e

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

320

Figure 7 shows the mass fraction of smoke for Case 2 and Case 6 depending on the height of
the atrium. It can be seen that the mass fraction of smoke is lower for Case 2, because it was
allowed to air exhausting through the opening at the right side corridor of the 5. storey.

Figure 7. Mass fraction of smoke depending on the height at the atrium for Case 2 and Case 6

Table 3 shows the influence of oxygen concentration on human health. In order to investigate
the effect of oxygen concentration on human health, the oxygen concentration at the entrance
of 6. and 10. storey was calculated and compared with the reference value. The results give us
an idea to comment about air quality for human health for cases modeled.

Table 3. Influence of the Oxygen concentration on human health
O2 (%) Effect
21 Normal breathing
19 Almost normal breathing
17 Acceleration of breathing and straining
15 Dizziness, lightheadedness, blurred vision
9 Fainting and loss of consciousness

Mass fraction of smoke and the oxygen at the entrance of the 6. and 10. storey workshop are
given with the Table 4 for reference fire scenario, Case 2, Case 7 and Case8.

Table 4. Mass fractions of smoke (MFS) and volumetric oxygen concentrations
MFS at 6. Storey
workshop
entrance
O
2
concentration
MFS at 10.
Storey workshop
entrance
O
2
concentration
Reference 0.7 6% 0.47 11%
Case 2 0.25 15% 0.15 17%
Case 7 0.1 18% 0.07 19%
Case 8 0.02 20% 0.01 20%

For the reference fire scenario, mass fraction of smoke at the entrance of the 6. storey
workshop is 0.7 and the oxygen concentration is 6%. This amount of oxygen concentration
can cause sudden death. For Case 2, which the openings at the right corridors of storey 5, 8
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

321

and 10 are in use, mass fraction of smoke at the entrance of the 6. storey workshop is 0.25%
and the oxygen concentration is 15%. Oxygen concentration at this amount can cause
dizziness, lightheadedness, blurred vision.

DISCUSSION

With the solution fire scenarios, except the floor that fire occurs, at the entrance of the
workshops of the other floors, normal oxygen concentration is achieved. It is realized that if
the air flow is limited, oxygen concentration can reduced to 10% and at the fifth and sixth
floor it threats the human health. If the air flow is not limited, oxygen concentration is 14%
minimum and it is clear that at the most part of the structure mass fraction of smoke is not a
risk for human health.

REFERENCES

1. Gutierrez-Montes,C., Sanmiguel-Rojas,E., Viedma,A., Rein,G. (2008). Experimental data and
numerical modelling of 1.3 and 2.3MW fires in a 20 m cubic atrium, Murcia, Spain
2. Qina, T.X., Guoa, Y.C., Chanb, C.K., Lina, W.Y. (2008). Numerical simulation of the spread of
smoke in an atrium under fire scenario, China
3. NFPA-92B. (1999). Guide for smoke Management Systems in Malls, Atria and Large Areas,
National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Massachusetts.
4. Kl, A., Alveri Merkezleri Duman Kontrol Sistemleri (2008), TTMD Dergisi, 57, p11-17.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

322

DEVELOPMENT OF AN ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY FOR LOW
ENERGY RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS DEVELOPMENT IN NORTH OF
MOROCCO

Romani Zaid
1,2
, Abdeslam Draoui
1
,
and Francis Allard
2

1
Research Team in Thermal and Energy Transfer (UAE/E14FST), Faculty of Sciences and
Techniques of Tangier, AbdelmalekEssadi University, Morocco.
2
LaSIE, FRE CNRS 3474, Science and Technology Faculty, University of La Rochelle,
France.

Corresponding email: romani.zaid@gmail.com

SUMMARY

Given the large numberofparameters to be takeninto account in thedesign phase ofbuildings
with lowenergy consumption, an optimal choiceamong the many possiblesolutionsturns out to
bea very complex problem. In this study, we describe a method based on simple polynomial
functions that estimate the annual of heating demand based on envelope settings in order to
searchforan optimumdecision supportat the stageofdesign. This modelis determinedusing
theexperimentdesign method and dynamicsimulationsusingTRNSYSsoftware.The
modeldevelopedprovides informationand recommendations forthe design
ofindividualhouseswith low energyconsumptionfor targetedclimate zone.In order to check the
reliabilityof this model, severalnumerical simulationswere performed. Wehave chosen asacase
study a single family house locatedin Tangier(Mediterraneanclimate).

1. INTRODUCTION

The building sector is the largest consumer of energy in Morocco with a share of about 36%
of the overall energy consumption of the country, with 29% reserved for the residential sector
and the rest for the tertiary sector. These values may increase if new buildings are not well
designed with respect to the energy demand from the sketch phase. However, the design of
low energybuildingsisdifficult to achieve,and thereforean optimal choiceamong the
manyoptionsproves to be acomplex problem, requiring an assessment ofthe influence of
manyparameters influencingthe energy performance ofbuildings.Recently, various
optimization methods have been proposed in order to select the best solutions during the
design phase such as genetic algorithms minimizing a cost function [1]. But this method is
not able to estimate the performance for all levels of solutions that exist in the computational
domain. In addition, it may converge to a local minimum(falseoptimum). In our study,we
chose theexperiment design method, which is a structured,organizedmethod for determining
therelationship between thefactors that affectasystem or aprocessand its output, giving
maximuminformationwitha minimum number oftries[2]. From asample ofsimulations, it
ispossible to establish apolynomial modelthat describes the behaviorof the studied system.
Differentauthors [3-8] have used this method in our domain. Thesestudies have shownthe
effectiveness of themethod for identifyingpolynomial modelsby limitingthe number of
simulationsto be performedwith good accuracycompared todynamic simulationsoftware.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

323

However, these methodsare usually limitedto the case studied. J affalet al[8]have developed
amodelvalidfor anyresidential buildingforthree climatic zonesinFrance.The objective of
ourwork is to developanestimateof the conditioningneeds (heating and /or cooling)that is fast,
accurate and ergonomic designedto helparchitects andengineersin the development oflow-
consumption buildingsin Morocco.

2. METHODOLOGY

2.1 The experiment design method

The purpose ofusing thedesigns ofexperimentsmethod (DOE) isto search a linkbetween the
response of a system(Y),which is influenced byvariablesX (with X [X
min
,X
max
]). Thislink is
expressedingeneralby a polynomial function Y=f(X
i
). A first-order model can be written as
follows:

(1)

Where Y isresponse of a system, the various X
i
arevariables, a
0
is a valueof the responseat the
center ofthe field of study, a
i
is the effect of variableX
i
and a
ij
is theeffect of interaction
between the variables X
i
andX
j

The coefficients a
i
and a
ij
must be determined by experiments or simulations; the optimal
number of the latter is determined by the DOE theory.[2].

2.2 Application to heat transfer analysis in buildings

A building heating demand Q
heat
during a time tdepends on heat energytransferred
throughout the building Q
i
. These heat loads can be divided into threecategories: the heat
transferred by conduction, , the internal gains and heat due to air change. To apply
DOEmethod,we assume that the heating needs can be expressed as a polynomial function,
such as:

(2)

Heat transfer by transmission
If we consider a steady state, the thermal energy transmitted through the opaque wall is
expressedby:

(3)

WhereU
o
and A
o
are the U-value and the area of the wall, respectively, T
is
is the indoor set-
point temperature, T
oe,o
is the outdoor airtemperature to which the opaque wall is exposed, E
e,o

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

324

is the solar irradiance on the external surface of the opaque wall,
e,o
and h
e,o
respectively are
the solar absorbance and the combined heat transfer coefcient of the external surface.
U
0
varies as a function of several parameters, such as the wind speed (due to variable
convective surface coefficients) ,wall temperature and humidity, which may vary in time [8].
Thus, we assume that U
0
can be modeled by:

(4)

Where U
0,o
and U
o
(t) are the constant and the dimensionless time dependent components of
U
o
, respectively.
In after writing equation 3, wecannot apply polynomialmodeling to take into account both U-
value and the solar absorbance as Q
i
must contain only one variable, for this reason we divide
Q
tr,o
on two parts as follows:
(5)

(6)

Considering the energy transferred at the thermal bridges; assuming that the absorption
coefficients are constant theenergy transmitted through a linear thermal bridge is given by:

(7)

Where and are the constant and the dimensionless time dependent components
ofthe coefficient of linear transmission and L
tb
is the characteristic length of thermal bridge.
In a similar manner, the energy transmitted through glazingis written:

(8)

Where and are the constant and the dimensionless time dependent components ofthe
U-value of the window, A
w
is the area of the window, and T
oe,w
is the outdoor airtemperature
to which thewindow is exposed.

The solar energygained through a window canbe expressedby :

(9)

Where and are the constant and the dimensionless time dependent
componentsof the solar heat gain coefficient,A
w
is the area of the window, and E
e,w
is the solar
irradiance on theexternal surface of the window.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

325

Heat transfer due to air change
The energy transferred byinfiltration is given by:

(10)

componentsofinltration air change rates,
a
and c
a
are the air density and specic heat
capacity, respectively, and T
oa
is the outdoor air temperature.

The energy transferred by ventilation is given by

(11)

componentsofventilation air change rates

For amechanical ventilationsystem, using a heat exchanger for heat recovery, the energy
recovered is expressed as follows:

(12)

Where
vmc
isthe efficiency of the heat exchanger.

We note that each energy defined previously can beexpressed as theproductof three terms:
A term related to internal heat gains, temperature differences, solar irradiance, and time-
dependent parameters, as represented by the scenarios (s
i
).
A term related to physical parameters or factors (p
i
).
A term related to geometric parameters (g
i
).
Thus, we can write:

(13)

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

326

Table 1.Expressions for the different heat transfer terms.
Qi (KWhm`.yeai) si pi gi

2.3 The constraints factors

After an analysis of the energy vectors, we can deduce that there are three variables (p
i
)
resulting from the multiplication of two factors (Eq6 and Eq12) ,we note:

(14)
Where
o,ew
becomes the constraints factor for the transmission through the external walls,
(15)
Where
o,rf
becomes the constraints factor for the transmission through the roof,U
o,rf
and
o,rf

are respectively the U-value and thesolar absorbance of the roof surface.
From equation (12) we can also define
(16)
Where
vent
is the constraints factor for the energy recovered by mechanical ventilation.

Then, it is necessary todefine for each constraints factor thedomains wherethese
parametershave to be defined . The polynomialsdefiningthese areasfor our threefactorsunder
constraintsdefined above areas follows:

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

327

(17)

(18)

(19)

Figure 1shows the included andexcludedareas, thecomputational domainfor the
threefactorsunder constraints:

Figure 1.Domains of definition of the three parametersofconstraints

Finally the model is written as:

(20
)

3. CASE STUDY: heating needs of a single family house located in Tangier

The energy fluxes identified in the model arehighly dependent onweather conditions.In this
study,we makean application tothe climate of thecity of Tangierin the north ofMorocco. The
selectedbuilding isa single family housewith an areaof 100 m (Figure 2).
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

328

Figure 2.View of the single-family house under study.

Each selectedparameter given in table 1 variesbetweena low anda high limit (Table 3). The
minimum valuesare chosenin accordance with therequirements of theelements of the
thermalregulation of buildingsin Morocco for thetransmission coefficientsof the walls
andsolar factor[10]. To calculate therate ofinfiltrationand the calculation ofthermal bridges,
and given theabsenceoflocal codes, we used theFrenchthermal regulation [11].

Table 2.The minimum and maximumvalues for each parameter
Factor Low limit Hightlimit Unit

0,2 0,8 W/mC

0,04 0,64 W/mC

0,2 0.8 W/mC

0,04 0,64 W/mC

0,5 2,5 W/mC

0 5 W/mC

2,3 5,7 W/mC

0,3 0,7 ---

0,3 0,7 ---

0,3 0,7 ---

0,3 0,7 ---

0,26 0,8 1/h

0,5 1,1 1/h

0,3 0,99 1/h

The number ofdynamic simulations needed to identifythe coefficients of themodeldescribed
previously depends on the numberofparameters considered and of thepolynomial
functionchosen.Ifwe consider twolevels (extreme of the computational domain)for each
parameter, andwe make acompleteparametric studyfor 14selectedparameters, the number of
possible combinationsis16 384(2
14
).Identifyinga model withthisnumberofdynamic
simulationsisvery time consuming. Using the DOE method to reduce the
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

329

numberofsimulationsto perform,we obtain in total anumber of 106 simulations, which a
strong reduction of time and simulation effort. [2].

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In order to identify the coefficientsof our polynomial model,we performedthe necesary106
simulationsusingTRNSYS[12]. Finally, the heating needs of this house can be written using a
polynomialequation using the 14 parameters already defined.

(21
)

After identifying thecoefficientsof the simplifiedmodel, it isnecessary to checkits
accuracy.This is doneby comparingtheresultsof 50dynamicssimulationsof
randomcombinationsfor the levelsof the parameters studied. Figure 4 showsa very good
behavior of our model compared to direct simulations. Thus, in order to predict very quickly
the energy needs of a single family house in Tangier, it is only necessary to enter 14 values of
the various variables defined in our model.

Figure 3. Annual heatingcomputed with TRNSYS and polynomial functions
model.

The results ofthis exampleare encouraging,and showon the one hand the ability of theDOE
methodto determine,using alimited number ofsimulations,apolynomialmodelwithan
appreciableaccuracy. And the othe hand, thispolynomialmodel appears to be robust and it
canbe used to performsensitivity analysisand optimization.It can be usedalsoto definechartsfor
selectingsolutionsas shown inFigure 5.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

330

Figure 4. Contour plotforheating demand

Each chart represents contour plot curves function of two variables, other parameters are the
minimum levels. This type of chart can be used as a rapid graphical method for selecting
optimal in terms of energy efficiency solutions. For example, setting the value of the
transmission coefficient of the roof to 0.5 W/ m.C, and deciding that the value of
consumption should not exceed 35 kWh/m.Year, then we can determine the The coefficient
of transmission of the walls, which in this case is equal to 0.45 W/m.C knowing that other
factors are at minimum.

CONCLUSION

The main objective of this work was to develop a methodology to optimize the design of
buildings with low energy consumption in northern Morocco. The idea was to develop a
polynomial model for the evaluation of heating needs using dynamic simulations based on the
DOEmethod. The choice of this approach was motivated by its ease of implementation and its
effectiveness in simplifying parametric studies, while keeping satisfactory precision of the
results. In this paper, we demonstrated only the feasibility of our strategy..After this first test,
we intend to apply this approach to other types of buildings, residential or tertiary, and for all
climate zones in Morocco. In order to complete the energy analysis of these buildings, we are
presently developing models for estimating the energy needs for cooling, lighting and
domestic hot water productionwhile assessing the economic and environmental impact. The
final tool will be easy to use and robust enough to support architects and engineers for the
design of energy efficient buildings in Morocco.

REFERENCES

1. E. Znouda, N. Ghrab-Morcos, A. Hadj-Alouane, Optimization of Mediterranean building design
using genetic algorithms, Energy and Buildings, Volume 39, Pages 148-153, 2007.
2. J . Goupy, L. Creighton, Introduction aux plans d'expriences, Dunod, Paris, 2009.
3. A. Tsanas, A. Xifara,Accurate quantitative estimation of energy performance of residential
buildings using statistical machine learning tools, Energy and Buildings, Volume 49, Pages 560-
567, 2012.
4. F. Chlela, A. Husaunndee, C. Inard et P. Riederer, Development of regression equations for
predicting energy and hygrothermal performance of buildings, Energy and Buildings, Volume 41,
Pages 982-990, 2009.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

331

5. R.Freire, G. Oliveira, N. Mendes, Development of regression equations for predicting energy and
hygrothermal performance of buildings, Energy and Buildings, Volume 40, Pages 810-820, 2008.
6. T. Catalina, J . Virgone et E. Blanco, Development and validation of regression models to predict
monthly heating demand for residential buildings, Energy and Buildings, Volume 40, Pages 1825-
1832, 2008.
7. E. Gratia et A.DeHerd, A simple design tool for the thermal study of an office building, Energy
and Buildings, Volume 34, Pages 279-289, 2002.
8. I. J affal, C. Inard, E. Bozonnet, Toward integrated building design: A parametric method for
evaluating heating demand, Applied Thermal Engineering, Volume 40, Pages 267-274, 2012.
9. M. Doya, E. Bozonnet, F. Allard, Experimental measurement of cool facades performance in a
dense urban environment, Energy and Buildings, Volume 55, Pages 42-50, 2012.
10. Les lments techniques du projet de la rglementation thermique du btiment au Maroc,
ADEREE, Maroc, 2011.
11. RglementationThermique 2012, CSTB, France, 2012.
12. TRNSYS 17, A Transient System Simulation Program, User Manual, Solar Energy Laboratory,
University of Wisconsin Madison, 2010.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

332

SORPTION TECHNOLOGY IN VENTILATION AND AIR-
CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

In hot and humid regions like Mediterranean the energy recovery systems are widely used in
Ventilation and Air-condition systems. Still very frequently only sensible energy recovery
systems are used in both residential and commercial buildings. Due to initial investment cost
optimization, the installers and planners are looking for cheapest possible initial cost that fits
to the specifications or regulations.

In the recent years several technical solutions have been presented on the market to allow
energyrecovery also the latent energy, which has a very important role in the system design
parameters.

In the Mediterranean climate the latent cooling load is 30-50% of the total cooling load in the
fresh air ventilation system. Using modern effective sorption or desiccant energy recovery
systems and components the cooling load can be reduced by 2-4 times more than in sensible
energy recovery systems. In sensible energy recovery systems the cooling capacity recovery is
typically between 7-11 kW/m3/s airflow. When using also possibility to recover latent
cooling capacity we reach 25-40kW/m3/s airflow savings. The improvement potential is
there with 18-33 kW/m3/s.

The marginal (saved cooling capacity) cooling capacity cost in chillers and condensers can be
estimated to 70-200 /kW. The additional saving potential between sensible and total
(sensible and latent) is 1260-6600 /m3/s air flow.

The estimated additional cost for using total (sensible +latent) energy recovery technology is
between 500-1000 /m3/s airflow (Rotary energy recovery). Only in the costs of chillers and
condensers the savings in the cooling capacity are covering the additional investment cost of
total energy recovery technology.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

333

The additional benefits of reduced cooling capacity in the building projects are coming in
piping, valves, electric power supply.

An extra dimension on the saving potential is coming from power generation. Typically the
electric network peak load in Mediterranean region is on hot summer dimensioning
conditions. The electric utility companies (government or private) need to build up their
electric power capacity to fit the demand.

As air-conditioning and ventilation is part of the peak load problem we can just estimate the
benefits to society. The 18-33 kW/m3 cooling capacity saving can be transferred to 6-11 kW
electric power capacity saving (COP=3). The cost of new power plant investment can be
estimated to be 800-1500 /kW.There with the saving potential in electric power capacity is
15000 - 50000/m3 air flow.

Its obvious that the saving potential only in the investment phase is immense. The additional
investment cost of total energy recovery systems are just friction of the costs of benefits and
savings in the building project and to electricpower suppliers.
Unfortunately we have a tradition in HVAC industry in planning and execution phase to do
sub optimizing on the discipline level. Lack of easily available cost information and the
unfortunate business drives of our industry are making the HVAC design often sub optimized.
The driver isinitial cost on the products (and only the product in comparison) without much
consideration of consequential costs.

In this paper I have only described the potential of initial cost savings in cooling capacity. The
initial costs are lower for the complete HVAC system when using sorption technology in
energy recovery systems. The huge benefits in energy saving are going to be bonus for the
building owners years to come.

Enventus is calling Mediterranean research institutes, engineering associations, governmental
authorities anduniversities to cooperate in making scientific and practical studies to get
accurate data, analyze and guidelines of this saving potential. This should generate
governmental regulations and recommendations for the industry and specification
recommendations for the planners and investors.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

334

DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS USING PEM TYPE FUEL CELLS

Semih Kurular
1
,Melike Glbahe
2
,Mustafa Kemal Sevindir
3
and Ahmet Yurtseven
4
1
Yldz Technical University

smhkurular@gmail.com

SUMMARY

Domestic applications creates a large portion of energy consumption,therefore fuel cells for
use in applications has become important.Advantages and disadvantages of this system are
discussed in many applications at the present time.In this study,the findings of the research
reviewed for an explanation of the discussions.PEM type fuel cell system is applied to a home
in stanbul and resources use more efficient, saving,damage to the environment are researched
and result of this research how much can be reduced this effects are
discussed.Accordingly,energy needs were identified by prototype home.15-year period in
accordance, the amount of savings during usewith including the time value of money is based
on the net present value methodand pay back period is calculated with simple payback period
method and how much damage to the environment as a result of fossil energy used were given
and reduced rate of damage to the environment were determined with the resulting data and
the assumptions.

As a result of all this study,the fuel cell system according to a conventional system with the
advantages and disadvantages are shown graphs.

INTRODUCTION

Fuel cell systems have high efficiency conversion technologies with high conversion rate and
there is no harmful environmental effects of fuel cell systems. Due to the increasing demand
for small powers,fuel cell systems have been used for domestic applications as the power
source.Therefore, fuel cell systems can be used as resources to help for long-term use of
renewable energy sources.[1]The most appropriate scenario for the fuel cell system desing is
using real data from an annual energy demand for home. Energy consumption in generally for
house, electrically and thermally can be categorized in two ways.Because of, energy demand
of a house is types of building materials and supplies directly a function of the atmosphere
around the heat transfer capabilities.Accordingly, very important to have an energy efficient
design for houses due to the fact that, efficient design provide to reduce the energy demand of
the house and renewable hydrogen production and economical use of system configurations to
be designed in a way that will help.[3]There are two main parameters that determine the
performance of a fuel cell system.Efficiency is the first and most important of them. The
second parameter,decrease in system performance[1].Natural gas source of fuel cells,working
also provide a lower efficiency of partial load and initially require pre-heating and can not
respond quickly to fluctuating demands.[2]

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

335

Several fuel cell systems are proposed and analyzed in the literature.Both solid oxide (SOFC)
and proton exchange membrane (PEMFC) fuel cells can be used for residential
applications.Krist and Gleason analyzed the feasibility of fuel cell cogeneration systems for
residences [6]. The analysis suggests that fuel cell based cogeneration systems are suitable for
residential applications. However, the analysis by Krist and Gleason only considered the load
requirements of the residence on peak summer and winter days, and the analysis of the
system is based on the performance at these conditions.Fuel cells are considered as a very
good alternative to current technologies in many power generation applications.
Hirschenhofer [7] and Kordesch [8] describe the basics of PEMFC systems.The companies
claim that their products will produce electricity competitive with current residential
electricity rates and that they will introduce significant cost savings especially at locations
where electricity is more expensive and natural gas cheaper than the national average [9].
Figure 1 and Table 1 show Fuel Cell Sub-System design and properties of fuel cell for
residence

Figure 1.Fuel Cell Diagram, Heat Pump, and Thermal Storage
Table 1.Residential properties of a fuel cell system[4]

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

336

As a result ,in future,ifthe provision of housing by the hydrogen distribution
networks,widespread use of fuel cells will become houses.[2]

METHODS

When results of this study also creating,design was based on the life of a family of
4.Accordingly,detached house with 206 m
2
living area and a double-decker design was
used.Consider the terms of this design in Istanbuland the energy performance of buildings,
insulation materials and thicknesses are determined in accordance with regulations.In this
design,2 people for a period of 10 hours,4 people for a period of 24 hours live and in daily use
at home and desing uses16 kwh of electricity and average of 300 liters hot water in one
day.All these data are identified Hourly Analysis Program a need for total energy entering the
prototype design.Hourly Analysis Program (HAP) is an energy load calculation program.HAP
is an internationally recognized and uses ASHRAE standards with databases.To meet these
needs, conventional system and fuel cell system is designed for prototype home.In
conventional system,condensing boiler is used for heating and hot water, chiller unit is used
for cooling and energy moved to the fan coil in spaces with all watery system.Electrical needs
met by the city network.In fuel cell system, heat pump is used for heating,hot water,cooling
and energy moved to the fan coil in spaces with all watery system.Depending on their,heat
pump's electrical needs and electric load for equipment in home supplied from fuel
cell.System uses natural gas for fuel cell.Operating cost identified for conventional and fuel
cell system.Investment costs are determined and than according to this data,all savings are
identified for annual and for 15 years with using net present value method.Net present value
method , calculate cost on the long view and thanpay back period is identified with simple
payback period method.At the same time,environmental effects and carbon emissions are
identified for conventional and fuel cell system.When,natural gas andelectricityare identified,
whole process of production is considered.In other words,when natural gas and electricity are
generated ,emissions released are considered. Emissions are calculated from international
carbon foot print databases.

Figure 2. Prototype House Plan
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

337

RESULTS

Table 2. Heating and Cooling Loads by Months
Loads/Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Heating(kWh) 2031 2195 1428 330 - - - - - - 1033 1909
Cooling(kWh) - - - 844 5211 5836 6190 6168 5948 2760 - -

Figure
3.Heating and Cooling Loads

Table 3.Operating Costs by Months
Costs/Months Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Conventional($) 195 203 163 139 293 318 332 331 322 197 143 188
FCS($) 88 91 44 76 165 179 187 186 181 112 70 86
Saving($) 107 112 119 63 128 139 145 145 141 85 73 102

0
1000
2000
3000
4000
3000
6000
7000
L
o
a
d
s
(
k
W
h
)

MonLhs
heaung
coollng
0
30
100
130
200
230
300
330
u
o
l
l
a
r
(
$
)

MonLhs
convenuonal
fuel cell
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

338

Figure 4.Operating Costs
Table 4. Emissions Carbon Foot Print (CO
2
) by Months
Emissions/Mont
hs
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Conventional
(kgCO
2
)
693 725 575 468 955 1034 1079 1076 1049 645 498 669
FCS (kgCO
2
) 341 352 301 297 631 682 710 709 691 431 275 333

Figure 5.Carbon Foot Print

Table 5. All results
Investment
($)
Operating
Cost
($)
Net Present
Value
($)
Simple
Payback
Period
($/year)
Carbon Foot
Print
(kgCO2)
Conventional 7000 42370 17795 2825 141990
FCS 23210 22472 9435 1498 86295
Savings -16210 19898 8360 1327 55695

Equations

g
Q
Bh
Hu
=
(1)
e
Q
Bh
COP
= (2)
OC Bh t UP = (3)
Payback Period 12,2 year
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
k
g

C
C
2

monLhs
convenuonal
fuel cell
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

339

Where
g
Bh is the mean amount of natural gas to be used,
e
Bh is the mean amount of
electricity to be used and Q is heating or cooling load , Hu is the mean lower heating value
of the natural gas, is efficiency of boiler and COP is coefficient of performance.OC is the
mean operating cost,t operating time and UP is unit price.
(1 ) 1
(1 )
n
n
i
NPV Saving
i i
+
=
+
(4)
Saving
SPP
nvestment
= (5)
Where NPV is the mean net present value,i is annual discount rate,n is operating year and
SPPis the mean simple payback period.

DISCUSSION
In the first place,according to the data obtained in this study.Fuel cell system is pretty more
advantageous than convantional system.Looking at the data for 15 years,fuel cell system has
been saving a substantial amount of operating costs and rate of carbon footprint has decreased
with fuel cell system.This technology is very important for the development of energy laws
and renewable energy efforts.
What is more,in principle, fuel cells use hydrogen atom.Accordingly,hydrogen is obtained
from various sources in fuel cells.These are liquid or gaseous hydrogen, methanol, ethanol,
natural gas.Withal,the greenest of them which utilizing hydrogen as a fuel and they have zero
emissions.In this study,liquid or gas hydrojen source fuel cell is thought instead of natural gas
source hydrojen.However,as yet there is not very common nowadays hydrogen for this reason
,hydrojen is not preferred because it is an expensive source.
Despite all the advantages of fuel cell systems have some disadvantageous.Most important of
these, fuel cell technology is still under development and expensive technology for domestic
applications withal this technology is difficult to use.Therefore,an adaptation process is
necessary in domestic applications.
If, as a result of all these factors in mind, through the high efficiency,fuel cell system for use
in domestic applications provide saving operating cost.Furthermore,electricity energy is very
valuable.When, fuel cell produces electrical energy,it consume far less fuel than ordinary
power generation systems so fuel cell pretty environmentally friendly technology.In the short
run,the use of fuel cells much more widespread,if the initial investment costs will decrease.

REFERENCES
1. Ferraro, M.,Sergi, F., Brunaccini, G., Dispenza, G., Andaloro, L., Antonucci, V.,
Demonstration and Development of a Pemfc System For Residental Use.
2. Aki, H., Yamamoto, S., Kondoh, J ., Maeda,Yamaguchi, H., Murata, A., Ishii, I., A
Networkof Residential Fuel Cells and Operational Strategies: Evaluation with a PC Simulator
and anExperimental System, National Institute ofAdvanced Industrial Science and
Technology(AIST), KRI Inc.
3. Moujaes, S., Deshmukh, SS., An evaluation of aresidential energy conserving HVAC
system anda residential energy demand/managementsystem, Energy Eng J Assoc Energy
Eng.,102(6):3957, 2005.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

340

4. Aki, H., The Penetration of Micro CHP inResidentialDwellings in J apan,
Member,IEEE,2007.
5. Gunes,M.,B. Investigation of a Fuel Cell Based Total Energy System for Residential
Applications Master of Science in Mechanical Engineering Blacksburg,Virginia 2001
6. Krist, K., Gleason, K. J ., "SOFC-based Residential Cogeneration Systems,"
Electrochemical Society Proceedings99, Iss. 19 107-115 (1999).
7. Fuel Cell Handbook, US-DOE, Office of Fossil Energy, FETC, Morgantown, WV
(1998)
8. Kordesch, K., Simader, G., "Fuel Cells and Their Applications," New York, NY
(1996).
9. Valenti, M., "New Avenues for Electrochemistry," Mechanical Engineering
(ASME)123, Iss. 2 46-51 (2001).
10. Carrier,Hourly Analysis Program (HAP)8760 International Version Hour Load &
Energy Analysis
11. Larminie,J .,Dicks,A., "Fuel Cell Systems Explained ", 2.Edition

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

341

OPTIMAL CONTROL METHOD FOR A HEAT SOURCE SYSTEM
CONSISTING OF CENTRIFUGAL CHILLERS

Satoshi Nikaido
1
, Kenji Ueda
1
and Takaaki Miura
1

1
Centrifugal & Absorption Chiller Department, MITSUBISHI HEAVY INDUSTRIES, LTD.,
Hyogo, J APAN

Corresponding email: satoshi_nikaido@mhi.co.jp

SUMMARY

This paper proposes an optimal control method for a heat source system and clarifies
its effectiveness by verifying its performance in an actual heat source system. This system
control method is effective in reducing energy consumption in a heat source system.
However, when units are controlled individually, optimizing the performance of one unit may
cause the energy consumption of another unit to increase. Therefore, a complex control design
is usually required to attain optimal operations. In our previous study, an optimal operation
method was developed, and its effectiveness was verified using simulation models with
simple equations and parameters. We constructed a system control program, on the basis of an
optimal control method and installed it into an actual control panel. Thereafter, we verified
the method through field operation from 2012. The system achieved a high efficiency with an
annual system coefficient of performance (COP) of 7.7.

1. INTRODUCTION

Reducing power consumption is a pressing issue for preventing global warming and
mitigating the depletion of energy resources. Typically, air conditioning accounts for 50% of
the total power consumption in buildings. Consequently, many studies have been attempted to
improving the efficiency of air-conditioning processes and equipment.
Centrifugal chillers are large capacity heating and/or cooling machines that are
employed in heat source systems in factories, district heating and cooling (DHC) plants, and
large buildings. Chiller performance has been significantly improved in recent years by
reducing mechanical losses and introducing the speed-control function in centrifugal
compressors. Therefore, attention has shifted to problems encountered in controlling heat
source systems. Several control methods for reducing energy in system operations are already
known; for example, quantity controls have been applied to chiller units, and flow-rate
controls have been applied to pumps. However, when controls are applied to individual units
in a system, optimizing the performance of one unit may cause the energy consumption of
another unit to increase. Furthermore, a variable-speed centrifugal chiller shows the highest
coefficient of performance (COP) when operating under partial load, and the optimal partial
load varies with the cooling water temperature. Therefore, complex designs are usually
required to achieve optimal control of heat source systems.
In our previous studies [1] [2], we developed an optimal control method that consisted
of simple equations and parameters, and we verified the energy conservation obtained by
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

342

applying this method by using simulation models. To put that method to practical use, we
developed a system control program and installed it in an actual control panel.
The purpose of this paper is to clarify the effectiveness of the proposed optimal control
method by verifying its performance in an actual heat source system. In this paper, first, the
optimal control method for a heat source system is discussed by taking the characteristics of a
centrifugal chiller into account. Then, field verification in an actual heat source system (a
recording medium manufacturing facility) is described. Finally, the results obtained from the
annual operation of the equipment are reported and discussed.

2. OPTIMAL CONTROL METHOD

We previously reported the development of an optimal control method for heat source
systems [1] [2]. In this section, we outline the proposed optimal control scheme.

2.1 Chiller quantity control

As shown in Figure 1, the performance characteristics of a variable-speed (inverter
driven) centrifugal chiller differs significantly from that of a fixed-speed chiller. The COP of
a fixed-speed centrifugal chiller reaches its highest value at 100% load, which is a known
characteristic. In contrast, a variable-speed chiller has its highest COP at a particular partial
load (hereafter referred to as the optimal load). The optimal load varies with the cooling
water temperature. The number of operating chiller units needed consider its configuration to
achieve the highest COP. A fixed-speed chiller is controlled toward to the rated load operating
point, while a variable-speed chiller is controlled toward to its optimal load operating point.
The partial load characteristics of a variable-speed chiller depend on compressors, heat
exchangers, cooling capacity, and so on. On the basis of the specifications and operating data
obtained from a centrifugal chiller, we developed an equation for calculating the optimal load
[1]. Figure 2. shows calculation result of optimal load for an particular variable-speed
centrifugal chiller. The number of chiller units should depend on the optimal load.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

343

Figure 1. General performance curves for fixed-speed (left) and variable-speed (right)
centrifugal chillers

Figure 2. Performance curves of optimal load for a variable-speed centrifugal chiller

2.2 Control of auxiliaries

Table 1 shows how changes in selected system parameters affect the energy
consumption of individual auxiliary components: chiller, chilled water pump, cooling water
pump, and cooling tower fan. Control of these individual units may be performed in
combination for each heat source system. However, there is a possibility that optimal control
for one unit may hinder the optimal control of another unit. Nevertheless, we proposed the
following control method [1] in which each unit can be dealt with independently according to
the following rules.
O
6
1O
16
2O
26
JO
O 2O 4O 6O 8O 1OO
C
O
P

|
-
|
ParLlal Load ||
J7'
J6'
JO'
26'
2O'
1J'
16'
calculaLed opLlmal load raoge
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

344

(a) The chilled water variable flow rate is controlled with respect to the chilled water
demand of the load.
(b) The cooling water variable flow rate is controlled with respect to the cooling load,
as shown Figure 3.
(c) The air flow rate is controlled via the wet-bulb temperature. If the cooling water
pipework is integrated within the cooling tower (at the headers), the cooling tower capacity is
controlled on the basis of the cooling load and the wet-bulb temperature.

Table 1. Energy saving methods and their effects on components of a heat source system
Auxiliaries
Chilled water
pump
Cooling water
pump
Cooling tower
Method
Decreased
chilled water
flow
Decreased
cooling water
flow
Decreased
cooling air flow
Increased
number of
cooling towers Item
Energy consumption of
chiller
No Change Increase Increase Decrease
chilled water pump
Decrease
cooling water pump
Decrease No change No change
cooling tower fan
No change Decrease Increase
heat source system
Decrease
Increase or
Decrease
Increase or
Decrease
Increase or
Decrease

Figure 3. Optimal control of cooling water flow rate

2.3 Whole system control
The proposed optimal control method can be summarized as follows. At first, the
number of chiller units is set depending on the optimal load of the centrifugal chillers. Then,
the auxiliaries (chilled water pump, cooling water pump, and cooling tower) are controlled
independently by the abovementioned rules.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

345

3. FIELD VERIFICATION

To put the foregoing method to practical use, we constructed a system control program
and installed it into an actual control panel. To confirm the validity of the control program,
field verification was conducted [3] [4]. This section shows the results obtained from field
verification.

3.1 Outline of the target system

Figure 4 shows a schematic diagram of the target heat source system (hereafter
referred to as the target system), and Table 2 shows the equipment specifications. This heat
source system provides the cooling load required for a manufacturing facility. The factory,
located in the Miyagi Prefecture in J apan, produces recording media and has a total floor area
of approximately 18,000 m
2
. This factory operates for the entire day throughout the year.
The principal equipment has the following features:

1) Centrifugal chiller
The latest variable-speed centrifugal chiller was used. The chiller achieves a maximum
COP of 23.8 under partial load at a supply water temperature of 7 C. To suppress the chilled
water flow rate, the difference between the entering and leaving temperatures of the chilled
water was set to 8 C. The number of chillers (1 or 2) was controlled on the basis of the
calculated optimal load for the chiller.

2) Pumps (secondary chilled water pump, primary chilled water pump, cooling water pump)
All pumps were equipped with inverter motor drives. Each pump was controlled
according to the rules given in Section 2.2.

3) Cooling tower
The cooling tower was equipped with an inverter to save energy and to appropriately
control the cooling water temperature. Cooling tower is integrated at the header pipe; the
design allows for the operation of two cooling towers with use of a single chiller. This made it
possible to supply cooling water to a centrifugal chiller at a temperature lower than usual.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

346

Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the target heat source system

Table 2. Machine specifications
Equipment
Tag
name
Specification
Driving
method
Input Num
Centrifugal
chiller
TR-1
TR-2
Capacity: 1,758 kW
Chilled water: 189 m
3
/h 15/7 C
Cooling water: 355 m
3
/h 32/37 C
Inverter 298 kW 2
Cooling tower CT-1
CT-2

Capacity: 2,066 kW
Cooling water: 355 m
3
/h
Inverter 15 kW
(7.5 kW 2)
2
Primary chilled
water pump
CP1-1
CP1-2
189 m
3
/h

Inverter 18.5 kW 3
Secondary
chilled water
pump
CP2-1
CP2-3
189 m
3
/h

Inverter 37 kW 2
Cooling water
pump
CDP-1
CDP-2
355 m
3
/h Inverter 45 kW 2

3.2 Verification period

Operating data were measured every minute and were analyzed annually from April
2012 to March 2013. Because of an error in the measuring sensor, data for several days (from
May 3
rd
to May 9
th
and from August 12
th
to August 19
th
) were not considered for the analysis.

3.3 Field operating data

Monthly operating data for the target system are shown in Table 3 and Figure 5. The
chiller COP increased to a high value in winter. There were two reasons for this: (a) the
TR-1
CDP-1
INV
CP1-1
INV
TR-2
CDP-2
INV
CP1-2
INV
Cooling water
bypass valve
CT-2
INV
CT-1
INV
Production area Production area
Supply header
Return header
CP2-1
CP2-2
CP2-3
INV
Pressure
control valve
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

347

cooling water temperature was lower and (b) during winter, the chilled water supply
temperature was reset to 9 from 7 C. The annual average system COP was 7.7 (maximum
system COP was 12.2 in February 2013), and the annual average chiller COP was 13.0
(maximum chiller COP was 25.0 in February 2013). These are very high values compared to
other general heat source systems. This system is compared with other plants in Section 3.4.
Figure 6 shows the relationship between chiller partial load, COP, and cooling water
outlet temperature. The dotted line in Figure 6 is the chiller performance curve for chilled
water supply at 7 C. Chiller performed design performance in whole, except at the low
cooling water temperature point; 13C and 16C. At this point, the chilled water supply
temperature was changed from 7 to 9 C. Settling a high supply temperature leads to the
improvement of chiller performance. Therefore, the performance of the chiller is higher than
that represented by the performance at this point.
Now, consider the effect of such control on the number of chillers. As shown in Figure
6, the chillers were operated under optimal load by chiller quantity control; the partial load
becomes lower as the cooling water temperature decreases. However, data on the optimal load
are not identified: for example, there are low load operating data despite high cooling water
temperatures. This is because the system load was not in a suitable state; if the load on one
chiller was slightly higher than the rated capacity or too lower than the optimal load,
controlling the number of chillers was not sufficient for operating the chiller under optimal
load.

Table 3. Monthly operating data

Figure 5. Operating data in each month
Apr. May J une J uly Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. J an. Feb. Mar.
Avearge systemCOP [-] 7.2 5.7 6.7 5.5 4.5 5.4 6.2 7.6 10.1 11.5 12.2 10.1 7.7
Avearge TR-1 COP [-] - 11.3 9.8 7.5 6.2 7.1 11.0 15.3 21.4 - 25.0 - 12.8
Avearge TR-2 COP [-] 11.8 8.7 8.5 7.6 6.2 6.7 10.9 12.3 21.9 21.2 23.0 19.7 13.2
Leaving chilled water temp average [] 7.0 7.2 7.0 7.0 7.2 7.2 7.0 7.0 8.5 8.9 8.4 7.0 7.4
Leaving cooling water temp average [] 21.9 23.1 26.2 29.2 31.4 30.7 23.6 19.3 15.3 15.0 15.2 15.1 22.2
Average chiller load factor [%] 53.8 64.6 70.4 53.4 43.4 50.4 61.9 54.6 35.0 34.4 38.0 41.9 50.2
Integrated chiller energy consumption [MWh] 69.3 68.2 99.4 148.6 137.6 156.3 79.8 52.2 23.2 21.6 20.9 29.3 906.3
Integrated pump energy consumption [MWh] 10.8 17.6 16.6 25.0 21.8 27.9 19.3 15.0 13.1 12.6 11.7 16.0 207.5
Integrated tower energy consumption [MWh] 10.9 13.0 16.7 13.5 9.8 14.8 17.8 12.0 4.6 3.1 3.3 6.9 126.5
Integrated systemenergy consumption [MWh] 91.1 98.8 132.7 187.1 169.2 199.1 116.9 79.3 40.9 37.4 35.9 52.2 1240.3
Integrated systemheat loads [GJ ] 2373 2316 3194 3705 3052 3848 3046 2500 1597 1548 1579 1896 30654
Average outside temp [] 10.3 16.5 19.2 23.4 26.7 24.5 17.0 10.0 3.3 0.9 1.3 5.9 13.3
Unit
2012 2013 Annual
Average
(Integrate)
0
30
100
130
200
230
0
3
10
13
20
23
30
Apr. May !une !uly Aug. SepL. CcL. nov. uec. !an. leb. Mar.
2012 2013
L
|
e
c
t
r
|
c

p
o
w
e
r

c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
|
o
n
[
M
W
h
]
C
C
[
-
]
,

C
u
t
s
|
d
e

t
e
m
p
[
]
Chlller energy consumpLlon ump energy consumpLlon 1ower energy consumpLlon
SysLem CC Chlller CC CuLslde Lemp
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

348

Figure 6. Chiller performance

3.4 Comparison with another heat source system
Y. Song et al. [5] studied another heat source system (hereafter referred to as the
reference system). The reference system received an award for its efficient energy
conservation in J apan. The reference system also used inverter chillers, inverter-driven
auxiliaries, and integrated cooling towers. Of course, there are numerous differences between
the two systems in terms of cooling load, the weather in which they were operated, chiller
performance, and so on. Although these simple comparisons are not sufficient for verifying
the effectiveness of the proposed system, the comparisons add value to the research.
Figure 7 compares the target and reference system COPs at various outside
temperatures. The target system achieves higher system COP than that of the reference
system, especially at low outside temperatures. This difference is caused by the improvement
in chiller performance and the decrease in cooling water flow rate. On comparing the annual
system COP values, it was found that the system performance increased by 23.4% (the target
annual system COP was 7.7, while the annual reference system COP was 5.9).

Figure 7. Comparison of COPs for target and reference systems
Partial load [%]
C
O
P

[
-
]
Outside temp. []
S
y
s
t
e
m
C
O
P

[
-
]
Target
system
Reference
system
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

349

4. CONCLUSION

This paper proposes a method for controlling heat source systems and presents the
results obtained from a field verification of the method. By analyzing operating data obtained
over 12 months, the high efficiency of the target system became apparent. The annual average
system COP was 7.7, and the annual average chiller COP was 13.0. The system COP was
23.4% higher than that of another heat source plant controlled by a different protocol. These
results indicate the ability of the proposed method to control a real-world heat source system.

REFERENCES

1. K. Ueda, Y. Togano, Y. Shimoda, 2009, Energy Conservation Effects of Heat Source Systems
for Business Use By Advanced Centrifugal Chillers, ASHRAE Transactions 2009, pp. 640-653
2. S. Nikaido, Y. Togano, Y. Kanki, K. Ueda et al, 2010, Optimal control method of heat source
system with centrifugal chillers, The International Symposium on New Refrigerants and
Environmental Technology 2010, pp. 96-99
3. K. Ueda, S. Nikaido, Y. Togano, Y. Kuwahara et al, 2012, Development of performance
evaluation method for optimal controlled heat source system Part1, Introduction of research
object system, SHASE Transactions 2012, P2677-2680 (in J apanese)
4. Y. Tai, Y. Akashi, D. Sumiyoshi, Y. Kuwahara et al, 2013, Development of performance
evaluation method for optimal controlled heat source system Part2, Analysis of measurement
data, SHASE Transactions 2013 (in J apanese)
5. Y. Song, Y. Akashi, J . Lee, 2007, Energy Performance of a Cooling Plant System Using the
Inverter Chiller for Industrial Building, Energy and Buildings 2007; 39, pp. 289-297.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

350

THE EFFECT OF CHANGING THE DESIGN PARAMETER AND
USING VSD CHILLERS ON THE ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND
PROJECT ECONOMIC, CASE STUDY FOR A PROJECT UNDER
DESIGN.

Eng. Rafik Tharwat
1
, Eng. M.O. Khalil
1
and Eng. Mohamed Alaa
1

1
SHAKER Consultancy Group, Cairo, Egypt

Corresponding email: rafiktharwat@hotmail.com

SUMMARY

This study discusses the effect of changing a certain parameters used in Air-conditioning
system design such as, Cooling water and Chilled water temperature difference. Also the
energy saving due to using the variable speed driver chillers. It is a case study for a project
under design
Detailed feasibility study is done for each parameter variation. Tariffs for the utilities as water
and electricity are considered to develop the financial models, based on the life cycle cost.
The results end to; these parameters can be optimized to save energy.
The combination of using the changed parameters (Increasing Cooling water temperature,
increasing Chilled water temperature difference and using the variable speed driver chillers)
saves the energy consumption rate of the system equipment by 12 % , and initial cost saving
of 5% .
This leads us to recommend using this changes from environmentally and economically point
of view.

INTRODUCTION

This study is concerning on a certain Air-conditioning system design parameters such as,
Cooling water temperature difference, Chilled water temperature difference. Also the energy
saving due to using the variable speed drivers in chillers.
The main comparisons discussed in this study are follows:
Cooling water temperature difference 5.6 [C] and 8.3 [C]
Chilled water temperature difference 5.6 [C] and 8.9 [C]
Using Variable speed drive (VSD) chillers and solid state drives chillers (SSD).
Also study the energy consumption rate and economical cost of the air-conditioning system
equipment which are affected by these design parameter changes.
The case study is a project under design located in Egypt, Middle east, consists of multi-
purpose buildings of a total cooling load of 10500 [KW] and 4400 Total equivalent peak load
hours profile.
This study has a certain configuration for the Air-conditioning system, and this configuration
is used for all cases, this configuration is:
3 chillers 1000 TR capacity each.
Chilled water primary-secondary pumps system.
- 3 secondary pumps.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

351

- 3 primary pumps.
3 cooling water pumps
3 cooling towers
Terminal Units AHUs.
Also the Pipes sizes are affected by temperature difference, Such as:
Cooling water loop Pipes network
Chilled water loop pipes Network

The results are presented for each parameter changing individually, and the combination of
the recommended options to discuss the actual ability of combining those changes in
parameters.
The energy consumption results are presented as a percentage of the baseline option for each
case.
The life cycle cost for each case is calculated and a comparison is done relative to the baseline
cases to illustrate the difference, related to the change of each parameter.

METHODS

This study examine each design parameter individually , with the frequently used parameter
option as a baseline to check relative to it any changes in this parameter and to examine this
changes effect on the energy consumption and the initial cost.
The Case study project Air-conditioning system is designed according to international codes
and standards [1].
For each case the calculation of changes in the initial cost and energy consumption are done
only for the equipment affected by the new parameters.
A life cost financial evaluation is done according to the initial cost and the series payments
which are calculated according to Equation (1).
+
+
=
n
i 1
e 1
1
e) (i
1
A P , (1)
Where: P is present worth value of money, A is the series of payments, i is interest rate, e is
escalated value, n is years, reference [2]

The best results of each case are combined together to create a new case for study.
The data used in this study were gathered from the manufactures technical data for each
equipment, and from the actual measurements of the pipes network and terminal unit numbers
according to the project geometry.
The results are presented in percentages value relative to the baseline option to give a general
over view for the changes impact on the energy consumption and the cost regardless the local
specification of the project.
The main engineering fundamental discussed in this study is the optimization of energy
equation parameters, shown in Equation (2), Also the study discuss the parameter changes on
environmental resources such as water and this changes influence to reach the optimum
energy saving , taking into consideration the economic value for these changes.

T m Q = , (2)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

352

Where: Q is heat rate [KW], m is mass flow rate [Kg/s], T is temperature difference [C]
reference [3]

RESULTS

Cooling Water Temperature Difference

Cooling water temperature difference affects the chillers performance and energy
consumption due to changing the condensing temperature range referring to simple Carnot
cycle applied on the chiller, cooling water pumps flow rate and cooling water pipe network
size due to changing the water volume flow rate according to Equation 2
The comparison is done between two systems, which are as follows:
Cooling water temperature difference of T 5.6 [C] (29.4-35)[C] As baseline option.
Cooling water temperature difference of T 8.3 [C](29.4-37.7)[C].
These results to changing the energy consumptions and size for some equipment as: chillers,
cooling towers, cooling water pipes network size and cooling water loop pumps, Figure (a)
With total energy consumption increasing of (6.7 %)
Total Makeup Cooling water increasing of (1 %)
Also results in changing the initial cost for those equipment, Figure (b).
With the effected equipment total initial cost saving of (9.7 %)

Figure (a): Shows the Energy Consumption
Changes percentages For Equipment

Figure (b): Shows the Initial Cost Changes
percentages For Equipment

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

353

Figure (c) : Shows the relation between cost (initial and running)as a percentage of the
baseline option initial cost of effected equipments over the years

It is shown from these results that increasing the cooling water temperature difference causes
energy consumption increment , however the benefits of this option is the reducing of the
initial cost
Chilled Water Temperature Difference

Chilled water temperature difference affects the chillers performance and energy consumption
due to changing the evaporating temperature range referring to simple Carnot cycle applied on
the chiller, Chilled water pumps flow rate and chilled water pipe network size due to changing
the water volume flow rate according to Equation 2
Chilled water temperature difference of T 5.6 [C] (5.4-11.1)[C] As baseline option.
Chilled water temperature difference of T 8.9[C](3.3-12.2)[C].
These results to changing the energy consumptions and sizes for some equipment as: chillers,
chilled water pipes network size, chilled water loop pumps and AHUs , Figure (d)
With total energy consumption saving of (4.6 %)
Also results in changing the initial cost for those equipment as shown in Figure (e) ,
With the effected equipment total initial cost saving of (8 %)

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

354

Figure (d): Shows the Energy Consumption

Figure (e): Shows the Initial Cost Changes

Figure (f) : Shows the relation between cost (initial and running)as a percentage of the

An economical life cost study is shown in figure (f).
It is shown from these results that increasing the Chilled water temperature difference causes
energy consumption saving, also this option reduces of the initial cost.

Using a Variable Speed Drive (VSD) Chillers

Using the Variable speed drive chillers instead of the solid state drive chillers affects the
chillers performance and energy consumption of the chillers due to the ability of the chiller
motor to operate on partial load with better efficiency due to changing the motor speed
according to load profile
The comparison is done between two sytems, which are as follows:
Solid state drives motor driven chillers As baseline option.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

355

Variable Speed drive motor driven chillers
These results to changing the energy consumptions for chillers covering the total load profile
for the buildings also affect the makeup of cooling water consumption due saving the total
input energy to the system, which leads to changing the vaporization latent heat needed by the
system.
- With total energy consumption saving of (15.2 %)
- Total cooling water Makeup saving of (2 %)
Also results in changing the initial cost for those equipment
- With chillers initial cost increasing of (7.3 %)

Figure (g) : Shows the relation between cost (initial and running)as a percentage of
the baseline option initial cost of effected equipments over the years

It is shown from these results that Using of Variable Speed drive chillers instead of Solid state
drive chillers leads to an enormous energy saving of 15.2 %.
This option causes an increment of the initial cost of the chillers by 7.3 %; however this
increasing is recovered within a payback period of 3 years as shown in figure (g).

Combination of design parameter changes system

Finally from the previous results, to examine the real ability of achieving the recommended
options According to the manufactures data , a combination of the studded parameter , are
used to show the total achievable energy consumption saving and its influence on the initial
cost .
In this section an Air-conditioned system with a combination of increasing the cooling
temperature deference, increasing the chilled water temperature deference and using of
variable speed drive chiller was studded.
Cooling water temperature difference of T 5.6 [C] (29.4-35)[C]
Chilled water temperature difference of T 5.6 [C] (5.4-11.1)[C]
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

356

Solid state drives motor driven chillers As baseline option.
Cooling water temperature difference of T 8.3 [C](29.4-37.7)[C].
Chilled water temperature difference of T 8.9[C](3.3-12.2)[C].
Variable Speed drive motor driven chillers
These results to changing the energy consumptions and sizes for some equipment as: chillers,
cooling towers, Chilled water pipes network size cooling, water pipes network size and chilled
water loop pumps, cooling water loop pumps and AHUs as shown in Figure (h)
With total energy consumption saving of (12 %)
Total Makeup Cooling water saving of (1 %)
Also results in changing the initial cost for those equipment as shown in Figure (i) ,
With the effected equipment total initial cost saving of (5 %)

Figure (h): Shows the Energy Consumption

Figure (i) : Shows the Initial Cost Changes

Figure (j) : Shows the relation between cost (initial and running)as a percentage of the
It is shown from these results that the combination of these parameters leads to an energy
consumption saving, also leads to an initial cost saving.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

357

DISCUSSION

From the previous results, it is obviously clear that changing some design parameters in the
Air-conditioning system can lead to energy saving and cost saving although the total capacity
of the system still the same.
The combination of certain parameter such as increasing the cooling water temperature
difference, increasing chilled water temperature deference and using a variable speed drive
chillers can lead to energy saving of 12%, and initial cost saving of 5%, which is an
environmentally and economically recommended option.

The results of this study could be varied from location to another as well as from project to
another according to the weather profile, load profile, labor cost and taxes.

REFERENCES

1. ASHRAE. 2010. ANSI/ASHRAE/IES Standard 90.1-2010, Thermal Environmental Conditions
for Human Occupancy, Atlanta: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-
conditioning Engineers, Inc.
2. Wilbert Stoecker, Design of Thermal Systems.
3. W.P. J ones, Air Conditioning Engineering.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

358

IMPACT OF MOISTURE BUFFERING ON INDOOR CLIMATE FOR
MECHANICALLY VENTILATED OFFICES

Amos Ronzino
1
, Maximilian Neusser
2
, Paul Wegerer
2
, Thomas Bednar
2
, Vincenzo Corrado
1

1
Department of Energy, Politecnico di Torino, Italy
2
Department of Building Physics, Technische Universitt Wien, Austria

Corresponding email: amos.ronzino@polito.it

SUMMARY

The aim of this work is to demonstrate the reliability of a simplified model in predicting the
RH variation inside a room, taking into account the indoor material buffering effect.
Starting from the characterization of the main hygroscopic properties of wood fiber an
analysis of reliability of measured data for vapour permeability and sorption isotherm and
their influence on numerical simulation is carried out. The determination of measured
Moisture Buffer Value for the wood fiber is carried out through the simulation of the MBV
test for uncoated elements. The results are compared to those from literature.
The ventilation influence as room factor is taken into account for the whole room hygroscopic
performance. More scenarios for different mechanical ventilation rates are foreseen
considering a demand controlled and a fixed volume airflow. Simulations are carried out
considering Turin weather data.

INTRODUCTION

Although numerical models for whole building HAM (Heat Air and Moisture) advance, a
general need for more experimental data able to quantify the hygroscopic performance of
porous building material remains. Recent benchmark data for validating 1-D HAM simulation
models produced in international project [1] are based on numerical and analytical data, while
well-documented and accurate data are scarce. In IEA Annex 41 [2] numerical models have
been implemented and used to simulate HAM interaction between indoor air and hygroscopic
materials during transient changes in indoor humidity due to internal moisture gains. Aim of
these works is the validation of previous studies which have shown that moisture buffering
can improve comfort, air quality and energy consumption in buildings [3-7]. In order to
validate models that simulate the moisture buffer of materials, new experimental data are
needed to quantify the heat, air and moisture transfer between humid air and hygroscopic
media during transient changes in air humidity itself. Experimental data are available from
literature, but only carefully planned laboratory experiments are best suited for model
validation [4,6,8-12].
As in many cases the thermal transient dominates the problem, to benchmark models that
consider the moisture buffering of hygroscopic materials in contact with indoor air,
experimental data where dynamic humidity regime must be obtained as presented in this
study.
In previous studies [14] experimental data were fitted with numerical simulation in order to
determine the most influencing hygroscopic material properties in HAM modeling. However,
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

359

apart from the lack of good benchmark cases also performing a reliable fitting of material
properties remains difficult [13] and the simulation may be affected by the choice of the right
values. For this reason a sensitivity analysis on the fitting of measured properties relevant for
indoor moisture buffering, such as the water vapor permeability and the sorption isotherm,
and on their influence on HAM simulation was carried out. Material data have been
monitored using a climate chamber device especially designed for this purpose.

METHODS

Measuring system

In order to evaluate the hygroscopic properties of wood fiber, some sorption/desorption step
cycles were planned. The measurement system used to measure the change in mass due to
cyclically varying humidities consists in a plexiglass climate chamber where conditioned air
is supplied trough a pre and return hose deriving from a mixing box, where moist air is set at
specified levels of temperature and relative humidity through a remote control system
(Figures 1a-1b). The specimen inside the climate chamber is sealed in a box made of XPS,
where only the front surface is subjected to the conditioned air. The wood fiber specimen has
been automatically weighed every 60 seconds for 45 days, setting its dry density as Tara;
temperature and relative humidity were also continuously monitored through sensors
positioned in front of and behind the XPS box. To minimize the external influences the
measuring system has been built in a controlled climate room with a temperature of 22C and
a relative humidity of 50%.

a) b)
Figure 1. The measuring device. a) The climate chamber, b) The remote control system

Relative humidity in front and behind the specimen and change in mass were monitored for 3
different relative humidity ranges (21-45%, 46-70%, 71-90%), during both increasing and
decreasing trends of air humidity (Figure 2). The covered range of relative humidity will
allow the evaluation of the material behavior in the hygroscopic region, excluding liquid
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

360

transport ( > 98%). Temperature was maintained constant throughout the experiment
(23C).

Figure 2. Measured sorption and desorption step cycles during the experiment.
Numerical model

The adopted methodology for the calculation of the vapor permeability and of the equilibrium
moisture content at the different relative humidity steps is based on the control volumes
method, where the 10 mm thick specimen was discretized in 5 internal nodes and 2 surface
nodes (Figure 3).

Figure 3. The control volumes discretization of wood fiber.

According to Ficks law equation, the density of water vapor flow g
v
reads:

x
p
g
v
v
=
, (1)

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

361

where is the vapor permeability of the material, p
v
is the vapor pressure difference between
the material surfaces, x is the specimen total thickness. The change in mass, or moisture
content w in discretized form reads:

cell
right cell v cell left v
x
t g g
w

=

) (
, ,
, (2)

where t is the time step and x
cell
is the thickness of the cell. According to the permeance M
equation:

e i
x
M

1 1
1
+ +
=
, (3)

and considering M
surf,i
=
i
and M
surf,e
=
e
at the boundaries, the density of water vapor flow
g
v
in discretized form reads:

) (
, , , cell v left v
cell left
cell left
cell left v
p p
M M
M M
g
+
=
, (4a)
) (
, , , right v cell v
cell right
cell right
right cell v
p p
M M
M M
g
+
=
, (4b)

where the permeance of the cell M
cell
is:

cell
cell
cell
x
M
=
2
, (5)

The moisture content w
cell
(t
1
) at time step t
1
is:

t
x
p p
M M
M M
p p
M M
M M
t w t w
cell
right v cell v
cell right
cell right
cell v left v
cell left
cell left
cell cell

+
+
+ =
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
, , , ,
0 1
, (6)

where w
cell
(t
0
) is the moisture content at the previous time step.

As the simulation approach neglects the effect of hysteresis in the sorption/desorption process
and does not fulfill the assumption of a local equilibrium, a sensitivity analysis on the fitted
measured properties relevant for indoor moisture buffering, such as the water vapor
permeability and the sorption isotherm, was carried out in order to demonstrate their influence
on HAM simulation for whole room hygroscopic performance.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

362

RESULTS

Simulation of sorption and desorption cycles

By using the described numerical model, the simulation of the sorption and desorption cycles
at different relative humidity levels was carried out (Figure 4), considering the measured
boundary conditions. As the hysteresis effect is neglected, the moisture uptake and release has
been fitted by two different curves for each RH transient step; both curves range between the
upper and lower edge of the measured cloud of data (Figure 5)

Figure 4. Numerical simulation of sorption/desorption cycle for 21-45% RH step change

Figure 5. The upper and lower fitting curves of sorption/desorption cycle for 21-45% RH step
change.

The described fitting process lead to the determination of different clouds of permeability
values (Figure 6), depending on the moisture content of specimens (Figure 7) and function of
the mean relative humidity level from the transient sorption/desorption step. In order to
determine how uncertainty on measured vapor permeability influence the hygroscopic
behavior of indoor finishing, the maximum and minimum value of the measured cloud were
coupled with sorption and desorption curves (Table 1), performing a sensitivity analysis with
the different couplings.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

363

Table 1. Simulation scenarios.
N Curve Permeability [kg/(m s Pa)]
CASE 1 sorption 3,30E-11
CASE 2 sorption 5,50E-11
CASE 3 desorption 3,30E-11
CASE 4 desorption 5,50E-11

Figure 6. The calculated vapor permeability values for 33-58-80,5% mean RH levels.

Figure 7. Moisture contents of wood fiber for sorption and desorption RH steps.

Whole room simulation

The whole room simulation was performed by using HAM-Tools, a library for dynamic
simulation on the Simulink platform of building physics phenomena in transient regime. A
simple room with 3 layers exterior walls was chosen as case study: 10 cm foam insulation, 25
cm aerated concrete, 3 cm wood fiber. Apart from the measured properties of wood fiber, the
material data were taken from Annex 24 (Material Properties - Final Report, Volume 3). A 1-
D HAM (Heat Air and Moisture) transfer simulation has been carried out for the first week of
J anuary with Turin weather data.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

364

In the 55 m
3
volume room the air temperature was maintained constant (20C), while the
relative humidity was left floating and monitored; no solar radiation through openings is taken
into account from the Turin weather data. An office moisture gain schedule of 80 g/h per
person was set for a 10 people occupation from 9 to 17 h. The outdoor and indoor moisture
transfer coefficient are
e
=210
-7
and
i
=210
-8
kg/(msPa) respectively; an air change rate
of 0,3-0,5-0,75 h
-1
through a mechanical ventilation system with outdoor air conditions is
simulated.
Figure 8 shows the 4 different trends of relative humidity according to the scenarios reported
in Table 1 and with a 0,5 h
-1
ventilation rate.

Figure 8. The relative humidity trends for the 4 scenarios with a 0,5 h
-1
air change rate.
The sensitivity analysis showed that no significant variations were found by using the coupled
values of vapor permeability and sorption curves, as proved by the average values and the
standard deviations of relative humidity (Figure 9).

Figure 9. Average and standard deviations values of relative humidity for the four scenarios
with 0,3-0,5-0,75 h
-1
air change rate.

Names and units

A =area [m
2
]
g
v
=density of water vapor flux [kg/(m
2
s)]
M =water vapor permeance [kg/(Pa m
2
s)]
p
v
=water vapor pressure [Pa]
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

365

RH =relative humidity [-]
t =time [s]
V =volume [m
3
]
w =water content [kg
v
/m
3
]
x =spatial coordinate [m]
=moisture surface transfer coefficient [kg/(Pa m
2
s)]
=water vapor permeability [kg/(Pa m s)]

i =internal
e =external
j, k =element index
cell =volume control cell
surf =surface

DISCUSSION

The experimental determination of the hygroscopic properties of porous materials is needed to
quantify the HAM-transfer between moist air and building envelope during transient changes
in relative humidity. The main aim is to validate models able to simulate the moisture buffer
of materials. Although experimental data are available from literature, only carefully planned
measurements are best suited for this model validation.
This case study showed how vapor permeability and sorption isotherm can be determined by
sorption and desorption cycles in transient regime. As uncertainty on measurements is given
by neglecting the assumption of a local equilibrium, an analysis on reliability of data was
carried out by simulating the sorption cycles for the different steps of RH and fitting the
material properties. Afterwards a sensitivity analysis was carried out by taking into account
the generated cloud of data to find out how much the spread on measurements influences the
HAM simulation.
The simulation of an office room during a typical winter week in Turin, with an 9-17 h
occupation schedule for moisture production, showed that no significant deviation of results
was affected by using the different fitted sorption properties of wood fiber. Therefore, in our
opinion the investigation on the moisture buffer effect of hygroscopic materials should focus
more on the position of such materials in the room and on the influence of ventilation, rather
than deepening the modeling of hysteresis. Even the RH levels used for the measurements can
be reduced and an average value of permeability can be used as representative of the
measured product, avoiding time-consuming experiments.

REFERENCES

1. Hagentoft, C E, Kalagasidis, A S, Adl-Zarrabi, B, et al. 2004. Assessment method of numerical
prediction models for combined heat, air and moisture transfer in building components:
benchmarks for one dimensional cases. J ournal of Thermal Envelope and Building Science.
Vol. 27 (4), pp 327352.
2. Woloszyn, M, Rode, C. 2008. IEA Annex 41 Whole Building Heat, Air, Moisture Response.
Modeling Principles and Common Exercises, K.U.LEUVEN, Belgium.
3. Rode, C, Mendes, N, Grau, K. 2004. Evaluation of moisture buffer effects by performing whole
building simulations. ASHRAE Trans. Vol. 110 (2), pp 783794.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

366

4. Holm, A, Kunzel, H, Sedlbauer, K. 2004. Predicting indoor temperature and humidity
conditions including hygrothermal interactions with the building envelope. ASHRAE Trans.
Vol. 110 (2), pp 820826.
5. Simonson, C J , Salonvaara, M, Ojanen, T. 2004. Heat and mass transfer between indoor air and
a permeable and hygroscopic building envelope : Part 1 Field measurements. J ournal of
Thermal Envelope and Building Science, Vol. 28 (1), pp 63101.
6. Simonson, C J , Salonvaara, M, Ojanen, T. 2004. Heat and mass transfer between indoor air and
a permeable and hygroscopic building envelope : Part 2 Verification and numerical studies. J
J ournal of Thermal Envelope and Building Science, Vol. 28 (2), pp 161185.
7. Osanyintola, O F, Simonson, C J . 2004. Moisture buffering capacity of hygroscopic building
materials: experimental facilities and energy impact. Energy and Buildings, Vol. 38, pp 1270
1282.
8. Tariku, F, Kumaran, K. 2007. Hygrothermal modeling of aerated concrete wall and comparison
with field experiment, in: Fazio, P, et al. Research in Building Physics and Building
Engineering. Taylor and Francis Group, London, pp. 321328.
9. Talukdar, P, Olutimayin, S O, Osanyintola, O F, et al. 2007. An experimental data set for
benchmarking 1-D, transient heat and moisture transfer models of hygroscopic building
materials, Part I: experimental facility and material property data. International J ournal of Heat
and Mass Transfer, Vol. 50, pp 45274539.
10. Talukdar, P, Olutimayin, S O, Osanyintola, O F, et al. 2007. An experimental data set for
benchmarking 1-D, transient heat and moisture transfer models of hygroscopic building
materials, Part II: experimental, numerical and analytical data. International J ournal of Heat and
Mass Transfer, Vol. 50, pp 49154926.
11. Roels, S. 2008. IEA Annex 41 Whole Building Heat, Air, Moisture Response. Experimental
Analysis of Moisture Buffering, K.U. LEUVEN, Belgium.
12. Roels, S, J ames, C, Talukdar, P, et al. 2009. Reliability of transient heat and moisture modeling
for hygroscopic buffering, ASHRAE Trans. Vol. 115 (2).
13. Roels, S, Talukdar, P, J ames, C, et al. 2010. Reliability of material data measurements for
hygroscopic buffering. International J ournal of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 53, pp 53555363.
14. Ramos, N M M, Kalagasidis, A S, de Freitas, V P, et al. 2012. Numerical simulation of transient
moisture transport for hygroscopic inertia assessment. J ournal of Porous Media, Vol. 15 (8), pp
793804.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

367

SEASONAL EFFICIENCY, THE NEW ENERGY LABEL OF AIR
CONDITIONERS AND HOW TO COMPARE PRODUCTS

Dr. Anda YAKUT
1

1
Daikin Turkey

Corresponding email: a.yakut@daikin.com.tr

SUMMARY

As of 1/1/2013 the new Eco-Design Directive and also the new Energy Labeling of Air
Conditioners Regulation has come into force in EU. The Eco-Design directive sets minimum
efficiency requirements for energy related products. According to Eco-Design Directive all
manufacturers of air conditioners have to;

Meet the minimum efficiency requirements in terms of SEER/SCOP and maximum
requirements in terms of sound power level.
Calculate and present the new seasonal efficiency ratings for cooling (SEER) and
heating (SCOP), the new energy label (from A+++ to D), the annual energy
consumption (AEC) in cooling and heating and the indoor and outdoor sound power
levels on a new energy label.
Make related data of products (energy label, Eco-design table, product fiche) available
on a free access website.

In this study first Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (SEER) andSeasonal Coefficient of
Performance (SCOP) are introduced. Also calculation methods of SEER and SCOP are
described. Afterwards the new Energy Label of Air Conditioners explained in detail. Finally
comparison steps are described for comparing the efficiency of products and an example of
product comparison is given.

INTRODUCTION

The European Commission has set challenging targets for improving energy efficiency in the
EU. These so-called 20-20-20 targets aim at a 20% reduction in CO
2
emissions, 20% share of
renewable energy and a 20% reduction in the use of primary energy, all by the year 2020.

To realise these objectives, European Commission issued the Eco-Design Directive. This
directive sets minimum efficiency requirements for energy related products [1]. The method
used to measure this performance for air conditioners below 12kW has changed to better
reflect real-life conditions.

The result is a new energy label for EU. The new energy label includes multiple
classifications from A+++to D reflected in colour shadings ranging from dark green (most
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

368

energy efficient) to red (least efficient). Information on the new label includes not only the
new seasonal efficiency ratings for heating (SCOP) and cooling (SEER), but also annual
energy consumption and sound levels.
From 2013, products unable to comply with the minimum efficiency requirements (such as
non-inverter air conditioners) will lose their CE marking and thus may no longer be sold in
Europe (Table 1).

Table 1. Minimum efficiency requirements for air conditioners [2].
Minimum Seasonal Efficiency Requirements
If GWP >150 Minimum SEER Minimum SCOP
Maximum
sound
power indoor
dB(A)
Maximum
sound
power outdoor
dB(A)
From 1/1/2013<6kW 3,6 3,4 60 65
6-12kW 3,6 3,4 65 70
From 1/1/2014<6kW 4,6 3,8 60 65
6-12 kW 4,3 3,8 65 70

SEASONAL ENERGY EFFICIENCY RATIO (SEER)

Energy efficiency ratio (EER) means the cooling capacity of the unit at 35C divided by the
power consumption of the unit at 35C.

C) (35 n consumptio Power
C) (35 capacity Cooling
= EER , (1)

According to the European EN 14825 standard [3], SEER (seasonal EER) is defined as
follows:

modes auxiliary during input power cooling during input power Annual
demand cooling Annual
+
= SEER , (2)

In the standard SEER calculation is based on the climate data of Strasbourg. The design
temperature is 35C and lower limit for the cooling is assumed to be 16C outdoor
temperature. The cooling requirement is defined by the line between the design load at 35C
and zero at 16C. The cooling load for each outdoor temperature occurring during the cooling
season is calculated.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

369

Figure 1. SEER takes entire cooling season into account.

At the design temperature the cooling capacity of the air conditioner equals the cooling
requirement of the building (Figure 1).There are 4 test points are defined for calculating the
SEER (Table 2). Because the cooling requirement changes at different outdoor temperatures
the unit can operate in partial load conditions. So the unit is also tested at different partial load
conditions. Thanks to inverter heat pump technology the unit can adopt its capacity to the
required partial load conditions easily.

Table 2. Test conditions for SEER [3].
olnL arL Load 8aLlo ()
CuLdoor alr dry bulb
1emperaLure
(C)
lndoor alr dry bulb
(weL bulb) LemperaLures
(C)
A 100 33 27(19)
8 74 30 27(19)
C 47 23 27(19)
u 21 20 27(19)

While calculating SEER frequency of temperature occurrence and auxiliary modes are also
taken into account.

Because the number of hours that occurs at different outdoor temperatures are not the same in
cooling season, the frequency of temperature occurrence is an important factor that should be
used in calculations of SEER.

Also here auxiliary modes means the power consumption of the unit when it is not used to
fulfill the cooling or heating demands such as during thermostat off mode, standby mode, off
mode and that of the crankcase heater. This invisible power consumption also has a
considerable effect to the efficiency of the air conditioner.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

370

SEASONAL COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE (SCOP)

Climate Zones

Since the climate varies across Europe, The European EN14825 standard defines three
different reference climate zones for the calculation of SCOP. These are:

Average Climate Zone, which is based on the city of Strasbourg (A)
Warmer Climate Zone, which is based on the city of Athens (W)
Colder Climate Zone, which is based on the city of Helsinki (C)

In European Energy Labeling Regulation, it is mandatory to indicate SCOP for the Average
Climate Zone, whereas SCOP for the two other climate zones are optional.

The number of hours that each temperature occurs (frequency) for the three climate zones are
shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2.The number of hours that each temperature occurs for the three climate zones.

Heating Demand

The heating demand at the design temperature is called Pdesign
h
and the design temperature
depends on the chosen climate zone. The design temperatures for the different climate zones
are given in Table 3:

Table 3. Design temperatures for the different climate zones.
4veroqe wormer co/der

The heating demand curve, which determines the heating demand at a given temperature, and
which the heat pump must meet in the SCOP calculation, is defined by a linear line between
the determined heating demand at the design temperature (Pdesign
h
) and a heating demand of
0 kW at 16C.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

371

Test Temperatures

According to EN14825, 4 test points are defined for the calculation of SCOP. Also capacity
requirement differs between the different temperatures.

The percentage of the required capacity at the different test temperatures is determined by the
demand curve and can be calculated using the following equation:

16
16
%
Tdesignh-
ature - Test tempr
Pdesignh = , (3)

For instance, with the Average Climate Zone (Tdesign
h
=-10C) and a test point C (7C), the
percentage will be equal to 35% of the determined heating demand at the design temperature.
This value is called part load and describes the capacity to be applied when part-load testing
the heat pump.

The test temperatures and part load conditions for the different climate zones are shown in
Table 4. Part load conditions are shown in brackets.
Table 4. Test conditions for SCOP.

Figure 3. Demand and capacity curves in heating

The regulation introduces a new term called bivalent point. The Bivalent point is the point
where the heating capacity of the unit equals to the heating requirement of the building. At the
temperatures below the bivalent point, the heat pumps capacity has to be supplemented by
backup heating. In SCOP calculation this is included as pure electric heating with a COP
value of 1, regardless of whether or not the heat pump has an electric heating element. For
higher temperatures the heat pump will deliver sufficient capacity to fulfill the requirement
and run in part load, which SCOP also takes into account. For the Average Climate Zone
these conditions are shown in Figure 3 [4].
Calculating SCOP

Coefficient of Performance (COP) means the heating capacity of the unit at 7C divided by
the power consumption of the unit at 7C.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

372

C) (7 n consumptio Power
C) (7 capacity Heating
= COP , (4)

While the new regulation defines the Seasonal Coefficient of Performance (SCOP) as; the
annual heating demand is divided by the power consumption required to deliver this heating
demand and the power consumption of the auxiliary modes.

modes auxiliary during input power heating during input power Annual
demand heating Annual
+
= SCOP , (5)

When calculating the SCOP value the calculated or measured part load efficiency values are
used. While calculating SCOP the main purpose is finding a COP value for each temperature
within the temperature interval of the selected climate zone. This COP gives the electricity
consumption needed to meet the heating demand at each temperature.

When calculating electricity power consumption, the COP values of heat pump at the test
points are measured. Interpolation is used for temperatures between the test points or
extrapolation for the temperatures outside the test points for calculating the COP values at
each temperature.

SCOP also takes into account the frequency of temperature occurrence, part load correction,
electricity consumption of backup heater if needed and auxiliary modes (thermostat off mode,
standby mode, off mode and that of the crankcase heater)consumption in which the heat pump
consumes a limited amount of electricity. Therefore, when calculating SCOP these effects
should be considered.

THE NEWENERGY LABEL

As of 1/1/2013 Energy Labeling of Air Conditioners Regulation (<12 kW) came into force in
EU [5]. The energy label for air conditioners is shown in Figure 4 and the new energy classes
are shown in Table 5. As can be seen in the left side of Figure 4 the SEER label, in the left
bottom side the Sound Power label and in the right side the SCOP label is placed on the
energy label.

In the SEER label, the first value is called P
design
that shows the design load at the design
temperature which is equal to the cooling capacity at 35C. The next value shown on the label
is the SEER value which is also represented in a label category between D and A+++in the
black arrow. The last value on the label is the annual energy consumption during cooling.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

373

Figure 4.The new energy label for air conditioners [6].

In the SCOP label, the three climate zones are shown. In the middle part of the label the
Average Climate Zone (green color) which is mandatory is shown. In the left and right part of
the label the Warmer (orange color) and the Colder Climate Zones (blue color) are shown.
While manufacturers have to put seasonal efficiency data for the Average Climate Zone on
the energy label, the other two climate zones are optional.

Table 5.The new energy classes.

The first value on the SCOP label is the Pdesign
h
which is the required capacity at the design
temprature of the selected climate zone. This value does not necessarily equal the heating
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

374

capacity of the unit because it may include some capacity from an backup heating device
(Figure 5).

Figure 5. Difference between Pdesign and Punit

The next value shown on the label is the SCOP value which is also represented in a label
category between D and A+++in the black arrow. The last value on the label is the annual
energy consumption during heating. Also SCOP and the annual heating energy consumption
include the energy consumption of the imaginary backup heating device.

HOW TO COMPARE PRODUCTS?

First it should be noted that only products that have a similar Pdesign in cooling can be
compared. This rule applies for both cooling and heating energy efficiency comparison of
products.

Cooling

When we want to compare cooling efficiency of two products first we have to check Pdesign
in cooling of these products on the energy label. If Pdesign of the two products are similar or
equal (with some tolerance) this means that we can compare these two products but if they are
not this time it is impossible to make any comparison.

After checking the Pdesign value we have to look for SEER values of the products on the
energy label. The higher the SEER value means the more efficient the product is while the
lower Annual Energy Consumption AEC the better. Comparison of units in cooling is shown
step by step in Figure 6.

Pdesign of products in cooling
is equal (with some tolerance)?
SEER can be compared:
The higher the SEER
value, the more efficient
the product.
AEC cooling can be
compared: The lower the
AEC cooling, the more
efficient the product.
IF YES
Comparison is impossible.
IF NO
Figure 6. Comparison steps for cooling.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

375

Heating

When we want to compare heating efficiency of two products it is impossible to compare
SCOP of two units by only looking at the energy label because each manufacturer can choose
a different bivalent point. Bivalent point is not mentioned on the energy label. Also Pdesign in
heating does not mean the capacity of the heat pump but also includes the capacity of the
imaginary backup heater. Therefore, when comparing the heating capacity of two products the
Pdesign heating on the energy label should not be used. For capacity comparison and bivalent
point, capacity tables of the products and information available on free access website
(datasheet, product fiche) should be used.Comparison of units in heating is shown step by step
in Figure 7.

Pdesign of products in cooling
Comparison is impossible
IF NO
Tbivalent is equal?
IF YES
Comparison is impossible
IF NO
Pdesign of products in heating
IF YES
SCOP can be compared: The higher the
SCOP value, the more efficient the product.
IF YES
SCOP can be compared: The
higher the SCOP value, the more
IF NO
AEC heating can NOT be compared.
AEC heating can be compared: The
lower the AEC heating, the more
Figure 7. Comparison steps for heating.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

376

AN EXAMPLE FOR COMPARISON OF PRODUCTS

Lets assume that we read the following data from energy label of two similar products.

Table 6. Data from energy label of products.
71 C|ass Un|t roduct 1 roduct 2
Coo||ng deslgn kW 6,8 6,8

SLL8 3,30 3,11
ALC kWh/a 433 466
Label A A
neat|ng deslgn (-10C) kW 6,3 6,3
SCC 3,86 3,81
ALC kWh/a 2297 2327
Label A A

For the comparison of cooling efficiency of these two products first we have to check Pdesign
value in cooling. As can be seen from table these products have the same Pdesign value of 6,8
kW. This means that we can compare these products. Because Product 1 has a higher SEER
value and lower AEC value than Product 2 we can conclude that Product 1 is more efficient
than Product 2 even they both have the energy Label A for cooling.

When comparing the heating efficiency of these two products it is impossible to compare only
by looking at the energy label. We have to refer to capacity tables and information available
on free access website (datasheet, product fiche) of these products. Lets suppose that we have
obtained these values.

Table 7.Data from capacity tables and free access website of products.
71 C|ass Un|t roduct 1 roduct 2
Capac|ty Coollng kW 6,8 6,8
PeaLlng kW 7,3 7,3
Coo||ng deslgn kW 6,8 6,8
SLL8 3,30 3,11
ALC kWh/a 433 466
Label A A
neat|ng - Average deslgn (-10C) kW 6,33 6,33
SCC 3,86 3,81
ALC kWh/a 2296 2327
Label A A
1blv C -7 -7
uecl.cap aL -10C kW 3,73 3,73

After checking the Pdesign cooling, we have to check bivalent point of these products. As can
be seen from the table above bivalent points of these two products are equal therefore we can
proceed with checking Pdesign heating. Pdesign heating of these products are equal too so we
can compare the SCOP values of these two products. Because Product 1 has a higher SCOP
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

377

value and lower AEC value than Product 2 we can say that Product 1 is more efficient than
Product 2 even they both have the energy Label A for heating.
REFERENCES

1. DIRECTIVE 2009/125/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL
of 21 October 2009,Eco design Requirements for Energy-Related Products.
2. COMMISSION REGULATION (EU) No 206/2012 of 6 March 2012, implementing Directive
2009/125/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council with regard to Eco design
Requirements for Air Conditioners and Comfort Fans.
3. EN 14825:2012, Air conditioners, liquid chilling packages and heat pumps, with electrically
driven compressors, for space heating and cooling Testing and rating at part load
conditions and calculation of seasonal performance.
4. Calculation of SCOP for heat pumps according to EN 14825,Prepared for the Danish Energy
Agency by Pia Rasmussen, Danish Technological Institute 31 December 2011.
5. COMMISSION DELEGATED REGULATION (EU) No 626/2011 of 4 May 2011 supplementing
Directive 2010/30/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council with regard to Energy Labeling
of Air Conditioners.
6. http://www.daikineurope.com/

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

378

HEAT TRANSFER ANALYSIS OF THE ADSORBENT BED OF A
THERMAL WAVE CYCLE USING SILICA GEL

Ahmet alar
1
, Cemil Yamal
2

1
Mechanical Engineering Department, Akdeniz University, Antalya, Turkey
2
Mechanical Engineering Department, Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey

Corresponding email: acaglar@akdeniz.edu.tr

SUMMARY

Heat transfer analysis of the adsorbent bed of a thermal wave adsorption cooling cycle is
performed using white silica gel as adsorbent. 2D model is used for the heat transfer analysis.
Governing equations for energy, mass and momentum transfers are solved by Comsol
Multiphysics simultaneously. Temperature variation in the adsorbent bed is presented with
multicolored plots. An experimental work is also performed for the validation of the model
using a single bed adsorption cooling cycle. The effect of heat transfer fluid velocity on the
heat transfer inside the adsorbent bed is also investigated. The results showed that a good
agreement between the theoretical and experimental works is achieved. Results also showed
that with increasing heat transfer fluid velocity, temperature of the adsorbent material reaches
the cycle maximum temperature earlier.

INTRODUCTION

The demand for cooling is increasing, especially in rapidly growing economies, and meeting
this new demand using electrically driven refrigeration systems increases the consumption of
electricity. Adsorption cooling technology being a heat driven system can be a sustainable
solution as it can use waste or solar energy instead of electricity. However, basic adsorption
cooling cycles have a single adsorbent bed and hence they have intermittent operation and no
regeneration. Thermal wave cycles with at least two beds are both continuous and
regenerative.

Several researchers have focused on the adsorbent bed of adsorption cycles since heat and
mass transfer inside the bed strongly affects the system performance. Significant increase in
COP appears when the enhancement of mass and especially heat transfer inside the bed is
achieved. Therefore, by investigating system parameters affecting the performance, several
models were proposed in the literature to solve poor heat and mass transfer problems. COP
limits were predicted by Baker [1] for an ideal cycle with thermal regeneration using energy
and exergy models. Local equilibrium assumption was used and the effects of resistances on
heat and mass transfer were neglected to provide the asymptotic maximum performance
obtainable from a thermal wave cycle [2]. Using two different adsorbent/refrigerant pairs,
Amar et al. [3] investigated the effects of several design and operating parameters including
adsorber radius, cycle time, heating temperature, heat transfer parameters and permeability on
COP and SCP for a straight tube adsorber in the case of both axial and radial gas flow.
Thermal regeneration processes were characterized by two dimensionless parameters, number
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

379

of transfer units and dimensionless outlet fluid temperature for a straight tube adsorber in a
study performed by Pons et al. [4]. In the existing literature, approaches based on one-
dimensional models are generally used. However, no studies were identified that present the
progression of the thermal wave along the bed in a two dimensional domain. A two
dimensional model for coupled heat and mass transfer analysis was presented in a previous
work [5]. The model is applied to predict the formation and shape of a thermal wave in a
finned tube adsorbent bed. On the other hand, there is very few studies that their model is
validated by experimental studies. In the present study, the heat transfer inside the adsorbent
bed is also investigated experimentally. The theoretical and experimental results are
compared. Furthermore, the effect of heat transfer fluid (HTF) velocity and on temperature
profile is represented.

METHODS

Figure 1 represents the model geometry and the arrangement of the thermocouples. HTF tube
and fins are made of copper and thickness for both is 2 mm. 20 radial circular fins are used.
The adsorbent bed is mainly consists of three subdomains: HTF, finned HTF tube and
adsorbent materials filled between the fins. Due to tangential symmetry in the cylindrical
geometry of HTF tube, 3D model can be reduced to 2D geometry. The model can also be
simplified such that only the half of the tube is enough to simulate due to the axial symmetry
of the HTF tube.

Figure 1. Model geometry and thermocouple arrangement.

Three thermocouples (Points 1, 2 and 3) are placed radially at the same distances in the
middle of the adsorbent bed (L/2). K-type thermocouples with the accuracy of 0.5
o
C are
used.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

380

Mathematical model

The mathematical model for the adsorbent bed of a thermal wave cycle is a little complex. A
coupled analysis that includes energy, mass and momentum transfer equations should be
conducted using a simultaneous solution approach. The assumptions made in the model can
be summarized as follows:
Local temperature equilibrium approach is used in which the temperatures of the
adsorbent (solid), adsorbate (liquid) and adsorptive (vapor) are assumed equal locally.
The thermal conductivities, densities and specific heats of the HTF, tube and
adsorbent material are assumed to be constant.
The vapor phase behaves as an ideal gas.
The specific heat of the adsorbate is considered to be of liquid phase.
Tube-to-fin thermal resistance and radial gradients in the fin are neglected.

Energy equations for the HTF, HTF tube and adsorbent material (porous media) can be
written as follows for a transient analysis, respectively [5]:

2
2
( ) 0
t
f
f f f f f f f f i f r r t
t
T
c k T c v T h T T
t r

=
+ + =
(1)

2
( ) ( ) 0
t i i o o
t t t t t f t s
t t
T h A h A
c k T T T T T
t V V

+ + =

(2)

, ,
2
,
(1 ) (1 ) (1 )
( ) 0
s s s
s s v p v s p l s
o o
s s v p v s s t
s
T T T X
c c Xc H
t t t t
h A P
k T c T T T
t V

+ +

+ + =
u
(3)

where , c, T, k and v are density, specific heat, temperature, thermal conductivity and
velocity, respectively. Subscripts f, t, s and v are HTF, tube, adsorbent material and vapor,
respectively. c
p,l
and c
p,v
are specific heats of liquid water and water vapor, respectively. h
i

and h
o
are heat transfer coefficients between HTF-tube and tube-adsorbent material. and H
are porosity and heat of adsorption, respectively. The mass transfer equation for the porous
media can be written as follows [5]:

(1 ) ( ) 0
v
s v
X
t t

+ + =

u (4)

For the momentum equation, Darcy equation is used and the vapor velocities in the radial and
axial directions (r and z components of u velocity) are as follows:

,
P P
u v
r z

= =

(5)

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

381

where P, and are pressure, permeability and dynamic viscosity, respectively. The Linear
Driving Force (LDF) model, is used for solving for the amount adsorbed, X, by applying the
following expression [5]:

( )
m e
X
k X X
t

(6)

k
m
and X
e
are the internal mass transfer coefficient and equilibrium adsorption capacity and
can found by the following expressions, respectively:

2
15
exp
a
m o
p s
E
k D
r RT

=

(7)
exp 1
n
s
e o
sat
T
X X B
T

=

(8)

where the coefficients D
o
, E
a
, X
o
, B and n are 2.54 x 10
-4
m
2
/s and 4.2 x 10
4
J /mol, 0.346, 5.6
and 1.6, respectively for silica gel-water pair [6].

Initial and boundary conditions

The temperature distribution in the entire domain, and the pressure and amount adsorbed
distributions in the porous media are considered to be initially uniform yielding the following
initial conditions:

( 0, , ) ( 0, , ) ( 0, , )
f t s i
T t r z T t r z T t r z T = = = = = = , ( 0, , )
c
P t r z P = = , ( 0, , )
o
X t r z X = = (9)

At the inlet and outlet of the adsorbent bed, the HTF tube is assumed to be adiabatic due to
the insulation. Temperature gradients along the tube at z=0 and z=L are therefore zero.
Additionally, the temperature of the HTF leaving the tube remains constant in the axial
direction due to the insulation. The axial temperature gradient of HTF is therefore zero at the
outlet. The adsorbent bed is also insulated at both ends in the axial direction. Due to the low
pressure of the vapor, the heat transfer from the outer boundary to the vapor is assumed
negligible and the outer boundary is therefore assumed to be adiabatic. All these conditions
can be written as follows:

( , , 0) ( , , ) ( , , ) 0,
( , , 0) ( , , ) ( , , ) 0
f
t t
s s s
bed
T
T T
t r z t r z L t r z L
z z z
T T T
t r z t r z L t r r z
z z r

= = = = = =

= = = = = =

(10)

The details for the mathematical model and the initial and boundary conditions can be seen
from reference [5]. Base parameters and dimensions used in the simulations are given in
Table 1.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

382

Table 1. Model base parameters.
Parameter Value Unit
c
f

c
p,l
c
p,v
c
s
c
t
k
f
k
t

k
s

s

R
P
c

T
i
H

r
p

L
d
l
bed

r
t
1930
4180
1180
920
385
0.115
400
0.63
914
8700
720
8314
4.247
30
2800
0.635
1.36e-8
1e-5
2e-3
0.42
0.02
0.025
0.023
J /(kg K)
J /(kg K)
J /(kg K)
J /(kg K)
J /(kg K)
W/(m K)
W/(m K)
W/(m K)
kg/m
3

kg/m
3

kg/m
3

J /(mol K)
kPa
o
C
kJ /kg
-
m
2

kg/(m s)
m
m
m
m
m

RESULTS

Comsol Multiphysics software package is used to solve the model. A fully coupled model
including heat, mass, and momentum transfers is simultaneously solved. Temperature
distribution for the HTF, HTF tube, and adsorbent material is presented by 2D multicolored
plots for the desorption process. Furthermore, the effect of HTF velocity on the heat transfer
inside the adsorbent bed is studied both theoretically and experimentally. For the experimental
work, white silica gel is used as adsorbent material. Figure 2 is a view from the experimental
setup. Results from two studies are compared and discussed. The radial temperature
distribution for the adsorbent material in the middle of the adsorbent bed is also compared for
predicted and measured values.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

383

Figure 2. Experimental setup.

Extremely fine mesh option is used to mesh the model geometry and the mesh is refined
twice. The mesh has 279,152 triangular elements. The model also simulated with increasing
number of mesh elements to test the mesh quality. As a result of checking the mesh quality,
refining the mesh to 1,116,608 elements changed the results only 0.1% at most. The solver
parameter has relative and absolute tolerances of 0.001 in both assuring high accuracy and
convergence. For solver details, readers are referred to [5]. Results are presented for only the
times t = 100, 250, and 1000 s for brevity.

Figure 3 shows the temperature distribution for the adsorbent bed for the times 100, 250 and
1000 s. Time increases rightward. Design and operating conditions are listed in Table 1. An
ideal thermal wave bed should be radially isothermal and has steep axial temperature
gradients since heat regeneration between the two beds of thermal wave cycle is maximized in
case of step wave temperature front progression. It can be seen that the thermal wave
progression in Figure 3 is away from the ideal case. This is mainly due to the low thermal
conductivity of adsorbent material. Fins reaches higher temperatures than adsorbent material
at any time and show a better heat transfer due to their higher thermal conductivity. The bed
completely reaches a uniform temperature at the maximum cycle temperature (413 K) after
about 1500 s.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

384

Figure 3. Temperature distribution inside adsorbent bed at various times.

Figure 4 shows the effect of HTF velocity on the temperature of adsorbent material at the
middle of the adsorbent bed (Point 2). Velocities 0.001, 0.01 and 0.1 m/s are examined. When
HTF velocity increases, heat is transferred faster. However, this does not mean that heat is
better transferred in the radial direction for higher HTF velocities. If lower velocities are used,
HTF can transfer more heat in radial direction yielding a straighter thermal wave. Thus, heat
regeneration and cycle performance can be enhanced [7]. Theoretical results are presented by lines
while experimental results are presented by points. Figure 4 indicates that the theoretical and
experimental results are in good agreement. When the theoretical and experimental results are
compared, the experimental results are seen to be lower than the theoretical results by maximum 5% in
Kelvin and 17% in
o
C at most. Total uncertainty for the temperature measurements is calculated
as 0.51
o
C. Readers are referred to [7] for the details of uncertainty analysis.

Figure 4. The efect of HTF velocity on the temperature distribution in the adsorbent bed.
Figure 5 shows the temperature distribution along the radial direction inside the adsorbent
bed. The agreement between the theoretical and experimental results is generally good. The
coupled model that analyzes the heat and mass transfer inside the bed is validated once more
by the comparison of theoretical and experimental radial temperature distributions. Due to the
limited area between the fins, temperatures at only three points are measured in the middle of
the bed (points 1, 2 and 3 in Figure 1).
300
320
340
360
380
400
0 200 400 600 800 1000
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
K
)

t (s)
v=0.001
m/s the.
v=0.001
m/s exp.
v=0.01 m/
s the.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

385

Radial Direction (m)

Figure 5. Temperature distribution along the radial direction inside the bed.

DISCUSSION

A finned tube adsorbent bed has been analyzed two dimensionally for the coupled heat and
mass transfer for a thermal wave adsorption cooling cycle. Temperature distribution and
thermal wave progression is presented by 2D multicolored plots. It is seen that the heat
transfer from the HTF to the adsorbent material is poor and an effective thermal wave cannot
be formed in radial direction. Despite the finned tube, thermal resistances inside the bed are
still high. An experimental study has also been carried out to validate the model. The effect of
HTF velocity on the temperature distribution has been investigated. HTF velocity has a
significant effect on the formation of the thermal wave. A HTF with low velocity provides a
straight thermal wave in the adsorbent and progresses at a temperature close to HTF
temperature. However, for higher velocities, a proper thermal wave is not formed and the
HTF heats the bed uniformly. The results showed that there is good agreement between the
theoretical and experimental studies.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This work is supported by The Scientific & Technological Research Council of Turkey
(TBTAK) project 110M378.

REFERENCES

1. Baker, D K. 2008. Thermodynamic limits to thermal regeneration in adsorption cooling cycles.
International J ournal of Refrigeration. Vol. 31, pp 55-64.
2. Sward, B K, LeVan, M D, and Meunier, F. 2000. Adsorption heat pump modeling: the thermal
wave process with local equilibrium. Applied Thermal Engineering. Vol. 20, pp 759-780.
330
340
350
360
370
380
390
400
410
420
0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

(
K
)

t=100 s the.
t=100 s exp.
t=250 s the.
t=250 s exp.
t=1000 s the.
t=1000 s exp.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

386

3. Amar, N B, Sun, L M, Meunier, F. 1996. Numerical analysis of adsorptive temperature wave
regenerative heat pump. Applied Thermal Engineering. Vol.16 (5), pp 405-418.
4. Pons, M, Feng, Y. 1997. Characteristic parameters of adsorptive refrigeration cycles with
thermal regeneration. Applied Thermal Engineering. Vol. 17 (3), pp 289-298.
5. alar, A, Yamal, C. 2013. Analysis of heat and mass transfer in the adsorbent bed of a
thermal wave adsorption cooling cycle. Computational Thermal Sciences. Vol. 5 (2), pp 97-106.
6. Solmu, , Rees, D A S, Yamal, C, et al. 2012. Numerical investigation of coupled heat and
mass transfer inside the adsorbent bed of an adsorption cooling unit. International J ournal of
Refrigeration. Vol. 35, pp 652-662.
7. alar, A. 2012. Design and experimental testing of an adsorbent bed for a thermal wave
adsorption cooling cycle. PhD Thesis. Middle East Technical University. Turkey.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

387

PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF A SOLAR ASSISTED HVAC
SYSTEM FOR A MEDIUM-SIZED OFFICE BUILDING IN LARNACA,
NORTH CYPRUS

zgr Bayer
1
,Doan Mert Gldiken
2

1
Middle East Technical University, Ankara
2
Moskay Engineering, Ankara

SUMMARY
The present study investigates performance of 2-axes tracking, non-concentrated solar power
(NCSP) assisted HVAC system (SAHVAC) designed for one-storey office building located in
Larnaca, North Cyprus. Rankine cycle (RC), main unit of SAHVAC system, is used for
sensible heating of outside air. RC drives vapor compression refrigeration unit (VCR) whose
fluid performs cooling and dehumidification. Local year-round meteorological data
determines real time outside air state. Numerical analyses of SAHVAC system have been
performed for both winter and summer indoor air design conditions. Energy gain, investment
cost parameters are considered.Optimum aperture area of non-concentrated solar collectors
(NCSC) has been assessed by integrating an excess energy storage unit (ESU) to the system
or excluding it. Monthly energy demand from the network and percentage of working hours
of elementary psychometric processes performed in SAHVAC system have been executed.
Results show that for theSAHVAC system without ESU, the amortization times for solar
panels of 100 m
2
, 200m
2
and 300m
2
aperture areas are about 7.5 years, 12.5 and 25 years
respectively. Cost of the collector with 166 m
2
aperturearea is redeemed in 4.5 years if ESU is
used. Using a NCSP unit with 166 m
2
aperturearea reduces the need for electricity from the
network if ESU is available. According to the results, humidification and cooling processes
are performed more than 85% and 95% of the total running hours of the system respectively.

INTRODUCTION

Heating, ventilating and conditioning of the outside air for a living space are high energy
consuming processes and for the human beings, they should be performed for indoor comfort
conditions in every season of the year. On the other hand, as the energy needs increase, people
are dealing with the problem of depletion of energy resources and also the global warming
issue. In the world, contribution of carbon emission to the global warming is about 80 % [1].
On this basis, usage of carbon based fuels, as the energy source must decrease as much as
possible. Therefore, there exist many researches about new energy sources and their
availability [2,3]. Solar energy is one of the most important energy resources. Using different
types of collectors, the energy coming by sun lights is transferred into heat energy. In this
project, a 2-axes tracking non-concentrating solar collector is used. This type of collector is
able to catch both beam and diffuse radiations [4]. HVAC applications are high energy
consuming processes, especially in regions where the ambient conditions are extreme like
Russia, Southern China, Saudi Arabia, etc. [5-9]. Therefore, researchers are focusing on the
thermodynamic analyses of integrated HVAC systems. Chan et al. explained the types of
passive solar technologies for space heating and cooling by reviewing previous studies[10].
Ortiz et al. performed experiments in a high-desert climate situated building and found out
that the maximum performance can be achieved by the operation of solar assisted system
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

388

within a much larger district energy system according to their experiments[6]. Li et al. have
analyzed the temperature stratification in the thermal storage tank. They realized that; in order
to increase the system performance, the heat removal factor is more effective than the thermal
stratification for a less collector area [11]. Syed et al. conducted field tests for a solar
energized cooling system and experimentallyobtained that in dry and hot climatic conditions
the technology works better[12].Li et al. conducted experiments about the performance of a
solar powered absorption air conditioning system with a partitioned hot water storage tank to
compare it with the conventional one[13]. The results show that for the system operating in
partitioned mode, solar cooling effects can be observed nearly 2 hours earlier than the
conventional one. Budaiwi et al. investigated the impact of operational zoning and operating
strategies of HVAC on the energy performance of mosques to maintain thermal comfort.
They figured out that, annual cooling energy can be reduced up to 23% and with the
contribution of operational zoning, reduction increased to 30%[14].Kalkan et al. investigated
the efficiency of solar cooling systems and ways to reduce footprint of systems for integration
with substantial and future buildings[15].

The present study aims to perform the performance analyses of an HVAC application of an
office located in Larnaca, Cyprus. Outside air is conditioned to indoor comfort levels for both
winter and summer. Psychrometric processes of heating, cooling, humidification and
dehumidification are considered and the annual energy demand for different aperture area
SAHVAC system has been modeled by integrating and excluding an ESU. The optimum solar
collector aperture area, total energy demand for winter and summer seasons and
corresponding working hours of the cooler, heater, humidifier and dehumidifier are
determined.

Table 1. Nomenclature
Symbol Description Units
Beam insolation Wh/m
2

Diffuse insolation Wh/m
2

Angle of incidence radians
z Zenith angle radians
Inclination angle radians
Declination angle radians
Hour angle radians

Mass flow rate of supply air kg/s

Enthalpy of the i
th
state of

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

389

METHODS
Conditioned Space Model
The conditioned space is a bank office located in Larnaca, Cyprus as seen in Figure 1.

Figure1. The architectural plan of the office-building, bank (all dimensions are in
centimeters)

Table 2. Overall heat transfer coefficients, U (W/m
2
K)
Symbol Unit (W/m
2
K) Description Construction Materials
U
wall
0.35 Side walls Brick (13.5 cm), Insulation mat.(8 cm), Brick (13.5 cm)
U
c
0.45 Ceiling Plaster (2 cm), Insulation mat. (6 cm), Concrete (20 cm)
U
f
0.45 Floor Concrete (20 cm), Insulation material (8 cm)
k
window
2.558 Windows Aluminum double glazed
k
door
5.814 Ext. door Aluminum

In energy demand calculations all transmission heat gains or losses of the building and
the sensible and latent heat gains from equipment and occupancy are considered. The
heat interaction due to transmission when the HVAC system is off (between 6 PM and
9 AM) is assumed to be compensated in the first operating hour of the next day
between 9 AM-10 AM.

Table 3. Energy dissipation rates of the heat sources in the office

Source Dissipated Energy per Source[Watt] Number of Source
Human 130 20
Computer 135 10
Photocopy Machine 320 2
Printer 130 7

Equipment Diagram for Energy Conversion and HVAC System

The schematic view of the energy conversion and SAHVAC system is presented in Figure 2.
The NCSP and the RC are presented in Fig 2, part (a). In the NCSP, the solar energy, which is
gathered by the collectors, is transformed into thermal energy and is transferred to the
working fluid of the RC through the evaporator. Depending on the requirement; the working
fluid of the RC might be used to heat up the outside air through the heat exchanger or RC may
drive the VCR shown in Fig 2, part (b). RC is used for dehumidifying and sensible cooling of
outside air in its condenser and evaporator respectively. In Fig 2, part (c), the HVAC system
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

390

is presented. For the office, flow rate of the supply air is selected as 0.2 m
3
/s-person [16].

Figure 2. The schematic view of the SAHVAC system

The energy collected from sun is calculated from formulas presented in literature
[19].Insolation per hour for 2-axes non-concentrating solar collector can be determined from;

Z
collector DNI Diffuse
1 cos
Q I cos 0 I
2
(1)
To find the corresponding angles in Eqn. 1, which are zenith, declination and hour angles,
some classical equations are used [20].Day number is selected as 1 for 1
st
of J anuary and 365
for 31
st
of December.For the total electrical energy efficiency, a nominal thermal efficiency of
15 % for the RC is assumed corresponding to heat transfers at hot reservoir temperature, T
H
of
373 K and cold reservoir temperature, T
C
of 298 K. The actual running conditions for the
RCare assumed to be designed to operate with very little variation in T
H
, and therefore in the
analyses, T
H
is assumed to be constant. Moreover, the actual thermal efficiency (
th
) is
assumed to be varying only with T
C
according to the following model based on the Carnot
efficiencys variation with T
C
.
th db 0
th,o H H
T T
( 1 ) / ( 1 )
T T
(2)
Energy Demand for HVAC System

Electricity demand only depends on the outside air conditions. While the bank office is open
between 9 AM and 9 PM, the indoor air conditions are obtained by conditioning the outside
air through the SAHVAC system. All of the demanded energy is assumed to be just for the
HVAC system and the losses caused by the pumps and the other losses are neglected. The
states labeled as 1 and 2 on the psychrometric chart in Fig. 3 are the indoor comfort
conditions for winter and summer respectively. Indoor air comfort levels are selected to be 50
% relative humidity for both winter and summer and dry bulb temperatures of20
o
Cand 23
o
C
for winter and summer respectively.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

391

Figure 3. The process lines on the psychrometric chart for winter comfort state

In Fig. 3, four different states of outside air are selected as A, B, C and D. The outside air is
conditioned through the combination of elementary psychrometric processes following the red
(1), blue (2), green (3) and orange (4) paths in order to reach the indoor comfort conditions. In
Fig. 3, just the process sequences to reach the winter indoor design condition are shown for
simplicity but similar analyses have been performed for different outdoor data to obtain the
summer season indoor comfort state.The sequence of the processes so as devices where the
outside air is to be conditioned are presented in Fig 2, part (c) and in Table 4 as well. If the
ambient air is exactly at the same state with the indoor air, the supply air bypasses the
equipment A, B and C and is directly sent to the bank office. On the other hand, if the specific
humidity of the supply air is higher or lower than the desired state, the air is conditioned at A
or C, respectively. Relative to the comfort state, the supply air is cooled or heated at part B or
by-passes that part. It is assumed in this study that the fresh outside air at state 15 and
recirculated air at state 26 are equally mixed on mass basis.
Table 4. Air process sequences SAHVAC system
Path
No
State Properties
According to Comfort
Level
Equipment Passing
Through
Conditioning Processes
A w is high and T
db
is low Wet Coil HEX Dehum. Sensible Heating
B w is high and T
db
is high Wet Coil HEX Dehum. Sensible Cooling
C w is low and T
db
is low HEX Air
Washer
Sensible Heating Humid.
D w is low and T
db
is high HEX Air Washer Sensible Cooling Humid.

For the wet coil design, sensible heat ratio (SHR) line presented on the protractor scale on
psychrometric chart is assumed to be constant for each hour and evaluated as:
(3)
In SAHVAC system analyses; real time outside air data has been used [21, 22]. In Fig. 3 and
Table 4, four different process sequences labeled as A, B, C and D are presented to reach the
winter indoor design condition. Eqns. 4 to 7are used while determining the energy demand of
the system. The subscripts in the equations represent the corresponding states of the air in Fig
2. Path A represents the combination of cooling-dehumidification process in the wet coil and
sensible heating process in the heater. Total power consumed can be determined as:
(4)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

392

For the combinations of cooling-dehumidification process in the wet coil and sensible cooling
process in dry coil (path B), sensible heating process inHEX and cooling and humidification
process in the air washer (path C) and sensible cooling process in the dry coil and cooling and
humidification process in the air washer (path D), equations 5 to 7 are used respectively.
(5)
(6)
(7)

RESULTS

The analyses performed have revealed the energy values demanded from the network, the
optimum solar collector aperture area, amortization time of the initial investment costs and
total working hours of elementary psychrometric processes.In Table 6, energy values
demanded from the network for each month of the year with different aperture areas of solar
panels are tabulated for the HVAC system without ESU.Since the excess energy gained
cannot be stored, using solar panels with larger aperture areas than required increases initial
cost. Results clarify that the annual energy need for HVAC system, which acclimatize the
office building, has been decreased about 40% when 100 m
2
aperture area solar panel is used.
The saving reaches up to 57.6% and 66% if 200 m
2
and 300 m
2
aperture area solar panels are
used respectively. Moreover, when the local unit electric price, about 0.22$,is considered, the
annual electric cost savings can be estimated as 5.370$, 7.915$ and 9.072$ when solar panels
with aperture areas of 100 m
2
, 200 m
2
and 300 m
2
are used respectively [23].

Table 6. Energy needs from network for different solar panel aperture areas without ESU

Without any
collector
With Collector of
100 m
2
aperture
area
With Collector of
200 m
2
aperture
area
With Collector of
300 m
2
aperture
area

[MWh] [MWh] [MWh] [MWh]
J anuary 5,90 4,29 3,76 3,39
February 5,13 3,81 3,38 3,08
March 5,42 3,94 3,42 3,02
April 5,06 3,22 2,71 2,31
May 5,27 2,80 1,96 1,53
J une 5,55 2,66 1,20 0,72
J uly 6,33 3,47 1,07 0,35
August 6,26 3,62 1,38 0,65
Septembe 5,08 2,26 1,03 0,59
October 3,40 1,41 0,85 0,56
Novembe 3,71 2,38 1,99 1,64
Decembe 5,37 4,19 3,74 3,39
Total 62,47 38,06 26,50 21,23

At first glance, solar panel with larger aperture area seems to be the most beneficial.
However, initial investment costs should be considered. In this study, solar panel price of
20.000 $ for 100m
2
aperture area [24, 25] and installation cost of 400 $/kW for the turbine is
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

393

accepted [26]. In the cost analyses for SAHVAC system with ESU, whose results are
presented in Table 7, the cost of ESU is neglected and the interest rate is assumed to be 10%.
Table 7. Initial investment costs and annual savings with different systems
HVAC System Definition Initial Investment Cost
[$]
Annual Saving [$]
With 100 m
2
solar panel, without
ESU
27.480 5.370
With 200 m
2
ESU
54.960 7.915
With 300 m
2
ESU
82.440 9.072
With 100 m
2
solar panel, with ESU 27.480 8.290
With 166 m
2
With 200 m
2

Figure 4 depicts the amortization years for HVAC system with different solar panel aperture
areas by excludingESU. Without using ESU, the amortization times are about 7.5, 12.5 and
25 years for 100 m
2
, 200m
2
and 300m
2
aperture areas respectively. However, when ESU is
used, amortization time reduces to 4.5 years. In Fig. 5, monthly distribution of the harvested
energy for different size solar panels and total energy needed to run the system are presented.
Figure6 presents distribution of peak energy demanded from the network in summer season.

Figure 4. Amortization years of HVAC systems with no ESU
The most stunning result obtained from Figures 5 and 6 is that; the usage of 300 m
2
aperture
area solar collector is non-sense for the office building.Although the system with 300 m
2

aperture area solar collector gains much more energy than needed, energy demanded from the
network is almost the same with the system of 200 m
2
aperture area solar collector.

Figure 5. Energy gained by solar collectors and required energy to run the SAHVAC
0
20,000
40,000
60,000
80,000
100,000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
I
n
|
n
a
|

I
n
v
e
s
t
m
e
n
t

C
o
s
t

a
n
d

A
n
n
u
a
|

a
y
m
e
n
t
s

[
5
]

ear
Annual Savlng wlLh 100 m^2
Solar anel
Solar anel
Solar anel
lnvesLmenL CosL wlLh 100
m^2 Solar anel
m^2 Solar anel
m^2 Solar anel
0
3,000
10,000
13,000
1 2 3 4 3 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
L
n
e
r
g
y

g
a
i
n
e
d

b
y

s
o
|
a
r

p
a
n
e
|

[
k
W
h
]

Months
Lnergy Calned wlLh
100m^2 panel
Lnergy Calned wlLh
200m^2 panel
Lnergy Calned wlLh
300m^2 panel
1oLal Lnergy Load
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

394

Figure 6. Energy demanded from network between the 140
th
and 200
th
days of the year (1995)

The outcome is because of non-existence of any kind of energy storage device integrated to
HVAC system. On the other hand, when an energy storage unit is implemented the results in
Table 8 are obtained. In this part of the analyses; 100 m
2
, 166 m
2
and 200 m
2
solar collectors
are selected and it is assumed that all of excess energy available can be used when necessary.
According to the results, for such an office in these environmental conditions, usage of 166
m
2
solar collector leads to no energy requirement from the grid throughout the year.The last
issue searched in this study is total working hours of processes applied in SAHVAC system.

Table 8. Energy needs from network for different solar panel aperture areas withESU

Without any
collector
[MWh]
With Collector
of 100 m
2

aperture area
[MWh]
With Collector
of 166 m
2

aperture area
[MWh]
With Collector
of 200 m
2

aperture area
[MWh]
J anuary 5,90 3,26 1,52 0,62
February 5,13 2,93 1,48 0,73
March 5,42 2,53 0,62 -0,37 *
April 5,06 1,58 -0,72 -1,90
May 5,27 1,59 -0,84 -2,10
J une 5,55 1,74 -0,78 -2,08
J uly 6,33 2,61 0,15 -1,11
August 6,26 2,88 0,65 -0,49
September 5,08 1,40 -1,04 -2,29
October 3,40 0,13 -2,03 -3,14
November 3,71 0,93 -0,91 -1,85
December 5,37 3,22 1,81 1,08
Total 62,47 24,79 -0,08 -12,89
*Negative valuesrepresent the magnitude of stored enrgy by ESU

Fig. 8 represents that, humidification process, which is performed in the air washer, holds
more than 80% of the total working hours. Therefore, the air washer works more than dry and
wet coils. This suggests that the maintenance of the air washer should be critical.Fig. 8 also
clarifies that the cooling process is much more occupied compared to heating process.
Therefore, the turbine and all of equipment placed in the VCR cycle should also be kept under
attention. The results verify the existence of hot and arid climate in Larnaca.

0.00
30.00
100.00
130.00
200.00
230.00
140 130 160 170 180 190 200
1
o
t
a
|

L
n
e
r
g
y

D
e
m
a
n
d
e
d

I
r
o
m

G
r
|
d

[
k
W
h
]

Day Number |n ear (199S)
WlLh 100 m^2 Solar anel
WlLh no anel (1oLal Lnergy
Load)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

395

Figure 8. Work rates of the processes applied in the HVAC system

DISCUSSION

Application of an HVAC system aided with solar energy in an office in Larnaca, Cyprus is
conducted. As the energy resource, solar energy and network energy are used. One of the
purposes of the study is to observe the most efficient aperture area of the solar collector. The
results show that, larger aperture area collectors may not be the best solution in terms of
efficiency, especially when there is not any energy storage unit integrated to the system.
Present study also covers the analyses with implemented energy storage unit to the HVAC
system. The energy storage device used in this study is assumed to be able to store all of the
excess energy and this energy can be used any time. For this purpose, 100 m
2
,166 m
2
and 200
m
2
solar panels are preferred. When 166 m
2
solar panel is used, whole excess energy is nearly
equal to total energy required to run the HVAC system. Percentages of the working hours
determined revealed that the air washer as well as the refrigeration cycle units is the critical
equipment for such a SAHVAC system used in for bank office building located in Larnaca.

REFERENCES
1. S. Scholes, Discuss. Faraday Soc. No. 50 (1970) 222.
2. A.V. Herzog, T.E. Lipman, D.M. Kammen, Renewable Energy Sources, EOLSS, Vol.
Perspectives and Overview of Life Support Systems and Sustainable Development Part 4c.
3. J . Twidell, T. Weir, Renewable Energy Resources, 2
nd
Ed., Taylor &Francis, 2006.
4. O.V. Mazurin and E.A. Porai-Koshits (eds.), Phase Separation in Glass, North-Holland,
Amsterdam, 1984.
5. Luis Prez-Lombard, J os Ortiz, Christine Pout, Grupo de Termotecnia, Escuela Superior de
Ingenieros, Universidad de Sevilla, Spain, 2007
6. M. Ortiz, H. Barsun, H. He, et al. Modeling of solar-assisted HVAC system with thermal
storage, Energy and Buildings, Vol. 42, 2010.
7. M.T. Balta, . Diner, A. Hepbal, Performance and sustainability assessment of energy
options for building HVAC applications, Energy and Buildings, Vol 42, 2010.
8. A. Mammoli, P. Vorobieff, H. Barsun, R. Burnett,Energetic, economic, and environmental
performance of a solar-assisted HVAC systems, Energy and Buildings, Vol 42, 2010.
9. Y. Dimitriev and E. Kashchieva, J .Mater. Sci. 10 (1975) 1419.
10. H. Chan, S.B. Riffat and J . Zhu, Review of passive solar heating and cooling technologies,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews,2009.
11. Z.F. Li, K. Sumathy, Performance study of a partitioned thermally stratifiedstorage tank in a
solar powered absorption air conditioning system, Applied Thermal Engineering, 2002.
12. A. Syed, M. Izquierdo, P. Rodriguez, et al. A novel experimental investigation of a solar
1
2

D
e
h
u
m
|
d
|
f
y
|
n
g

0
10
20
30
40
30
60
70
80
90
100
W
o
r
k
|
n
g

n
o
u
r

e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

o
f

n
V
A
C

r
o
c
e
s
s
e
s

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

396

coolingsystem in Madrid, International J ournal of Refrigeration, 2005.
13. Z.F. Li and K. Sumathy, Experimental Studies on a Solar Powered Air Conditioning System
with Partitioned Hot Water Storage Tank, Solar Energy V:71, 2001.
14. I. Budaiwi and A. Abdou, HVAC system operational strategies for reduced energy
consumption buildings with intermittent occupancy: The case of mosques, Energy Conversion
and Management, 2013.
15. N. Kalkan, E.A. Young and A. Celikbas, Solar thermal air conditioning technology reducing
the footprint of solar thermal air conditioning, Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews,
2012.
16. ASHRAE Strandards, American Society of Heating, Refrierating and Air Conditioning
Engineers, 90, 2010.
17. W.B. Stine, M .Geyer, Power from the sun, J ohn Wiley and Sons, 2001.
18. A.K. Soteris, Solar thermal collectors and applications, Progress in Energy and Combustion
Science, Vol. 30, 2004.
19. D. Goswami, F. Kreith, J . Kreider, Principles of Solar Engineering, 2nd. Ed., Taylor & Francis,
1999.
20. J . Duffie, W. Beckman, Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, J ohn Wiley & Sons, 16-25,
1980.
21. F.C. McQuiston, J .D. Parker, J .D. Spitler, Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning Analysis
and Design, 6th. Ed., J ohn Wiley & Sons, 2004.
22. B.H. J ennings, Happer and Ro, The Thermal Environmental - Conditioning and Control, 1st.
Ed., Harper & Row, 1978.
23. http://www.kibtek.com/Tarifeler/tarife04112011.pdf
24. http://www.powerfromthesun.net
25. http://www.eere.enrgy.gov/
26. http://turbosteam.com

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

397

A SIMPLIFIED HOURLY MODEL FOR ENERGY
CHARACTERISATION OF TRANSPARENT ACTIVE FAADES. A
COMPARISON BETWEEN SIMULATION RESULTS AND
MONITORED DATA

Lorenza Bianco, Ylenia Cascone, Alice Gorrino, Vincenzo Corrado, Valentina Serra

Politecnico di Torino, Department of Energy, TEBE research group, Italy

Corresponding email: valentina.serra@polito.it

SUMMARY

Transparent faades are widely applied in commercial buildings, even though a highly glazed
building envelope can increase energy needs and reduce the indoor thermal comfort. In order
to reduce energy demand and overcome discomfort problems of traditional glazing systems,
active transparent faades can be adopted. Anyway, this technology is characterised by a
dynamic behaviour and it requires an integrated design approach and dynamic energy
simulations, which represent a barrier to a wider adoption of these technologies.
The aim of this work was to develop a simplified hourly energy model for evaluating the
energy performance of active transparent faades (e.g. double skin faades), which would be
useful during the preliminary design stage. Starting from a CSTB hourly energy model, a new
tool was developed for calculating the energy performance of active transparent faades with
solar shading devices and ventilated cavities. The model was validated against monitored data
retrieved during an experimental campaign on a full-scale mock-up room of an office building
equipped with a mechanically ventilated double skin faade.

INTRODUCTION

Transparent faades are widely applied in commercial buildings, even though a highly glazed
building envelope can increase energy needs and reduce the indoor thermal comfort. In order
to reduce the energy demand and overcome the discomfort problems of traditional glazing
systems, active transparent faades (ATF) can be adopted. Double skin faades (DSFs) are a
type of ATF capable of reducing the heat flow through the transparent envelope and improve
thermal, visual and acoustic comfort [1].
Anyway, the application of this type of faade implies an integrated design approach due to
fact that the faade is strictly connected to other elements of the building, especially to the
conditioning systems. For this reason, to optimise the ATF energy behaviour, an accurate
design of this technology is essential since the early design stage [2]. Energy performance
assessment of an active transparent system is not a trivial exercise [2,3] because the physical
phenomena involved in the heat transfer process are complex, various and characterised by a
dynamic behaviour.
Many simulation models for assessing the energy performance of DSFs can be found in
literature. Detailed models such as computational fluid dynamics (CFD) [4, 5, 6, 7] or
network method approaches [8] predict the energy behaviour of the faade reliably but
simulations are usually time consuming and they are not economically convenient. Moreover,
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

398

CFD models do not necessary ensure accurate results and a difficult process of validation and
interpretation of results is required [9]. For these reasons, detailed methods are not usually
suitable for use in early design phases.
On the other hand, some simplified models were also developed. Using control volume and
zonal approaches [11, 12, 13], each layer of a DSF is divided into a number of volumes to
which mass and energy conservation laws are applied. In this way, the temperature
stratification is taken into account.
The most simplified approaches consider each glazed layer and cavity as a node characterised
by a single temperature. Some research works aimed at correcting a simple lumped model
with a grey box approach by adjusting the physical equations through parameters estimated
from experiment results [10].
In this paper, a simple lumped model is proposed for evaluating the hourly energy
performance of an active transparent faade in steady-state conditions. The purpose of this
work was to develop a fast and user friendly model, based on European Standards, that
requires only input data commonly available to professionals during the preliminary design
phase. Alternatively, the flexibility of the model allows the user to calculate the performance
of a glazed system starting from monitored data. The model provides both thermal and solar
properties as well as the surfaces temperature profiles at each node.
The model, written in Matlab language (R2011a), was validated against monitored data
retrieved during an experimental campaign on a full-scale mock-up room of an office building
equipped with a mechanically ventilated DSF.

METHODS

The model proposed in this paper is based on a CSTB hourly energy model [14] which allows
to calculate the energy performance of transparent faades through a resistance network
(Figure 1). Different configurations of glazed systems can be calculated including external,
internal and intermediate shading devices as well as unventilated and mechanically ventilated
cavities.
Through the solution of the resistance network and the shortwave heat balance equations, the
temperature of each node (surface temperature of a glass or shading component, air
temperature of the cavity) and the heat fluxes exchanged through the nodes can be calculated.
Thermal and solar properties of the glazed system can be evaluated as well.
The steps of the methodology are:
1. calculation of the short wave radiation absorbed by each node (QI
n
);
2. calculation of the heat transfer coefficients between all adjacent nodes;
3. calculation of the node temperatures and of the convective and radiative heat fluxes
exchanged between the nodes;
4. iteration of steps 2 and 3 due to the link between heat transfer coefficients and node
temperatures;
5. calculation of the thermal and solar properties of the glazed system.

Heat balance equations

According to Figure 1, each node (1, 2, 3, etc) represents a component (pane or shading
device) characterised by a single temperature value. Heat capacity of the panes and of the
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

399

shading devices was assumed negligible. Conduction heat transfer within the panes was also
neglected.
Nodes 12, 23, etc represent the air cavities which are characterised by an average temperature.
The outdoor environment was modelled as a single node (ext) whereas the indoor
environment was described by two nodes representing the indoor air (int) and the indoor
surfaces characterised by a mean radiant temperature (rm).

The outdoor environment was described by an hourly air temperature, an hourly solar
radiation and a monthly average wind speed affecting the convective heat transfer coefficient.
The external surface heat transfer coefficient (h
e
) was calculated as the sum of convective (h
c
)
and radiative (h
r
) components. The extra heat flow due to thermal radiation to the sky was
also taken into account through a correction of the external surface radiative heat transfer
coefficient (h
r
). Convective and radiative heat transfer coefficients were calculated in
accordance with EN ISO 6946 [15] while the sky temperature was calculated according to EN
ISO 13791 [16]. Indoor convective and radiative heat transfer coefficients were considered
constant according to ISO 10292 [17].
The thermal resistance between each node was split into the radiative (R
12
, R
23
, etc) and the
convective amounts (R
1i
, R
2e
, etc) respectively involving each node surface, and node surfaces
and air cavity. Radiative heat exchange was calculated according to the Stefan-Boltzmann law
using the surface infrared hemispherical emissivity and temperature. Sealed cavity heat
transfer coefficients were calculated from empirical equations of the Nusselt number.

Figure 1. Resistance network of the case study.

To account for convective heat exchange due to mechanical ventilation, the solution of the
balance equation of the cavity node was retrieved according to ISO 15099 [18].
Convective heat exchanges (h
c2i
and h
c3e
) were considered as the sums of convective heat
exchanges due to natural ventilation and terms that are functions of mechanical ventilation
speed.

Shortwave energy balance

Starting from the measured values of total horizontal and vertical solar radiation, the total
solar radiation incident on the faade was decomposed into direct, diffuse and reflected
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

400

components through the relations in [19]. Isotropic distribution of the sky radiance was
assumed.
The solar radiation incident on the ATF system is partially transmitted, reflected and absorbed
by each layer according to the solar properties (, and ) of the glasses and of the shading
devices. Direct solar radiation was considered transmitted and reflected as direct radiation
(I
S,, I
S,) whereas diffuse solar radiation was considered transmitted as diffuse radiation
(I
S,d
, I
S,d
).
Starting from the reflectance and the transmittance at normal incidence of each pane, the
angular dependence of their optical properties (
S,,
S,) was calculated with Fresnels
equations [20]. Furlers approximation was adopted to calculate wavelength averaged values
of and [21]. The validation was carried out using Furlers equation although the monitored
system has non homogenous layers.
Shading devices were considered to allow both diffuse and direct solar radiation to be
reflected (
S,,
S,d
) and transmitted (
S,,
S,d
).
By solving the longwave energy balance equations, the absorbed heat flow due to solar
radiation (QI) was calculated for each layer taking into account the multiple infinite
reflections within the glazed system. Absorbed heat flow simultaneously influences
convective and radiative heat exchange, therefore an iterative process was required.
Solar properties of the glazed system were eventually calculated. The measure of energy
transfer due to solar radiation is the Solar Heat Gain Coefficient, which was calculated from
the optical properties of the glazing system and the portion of absorbed solar energy that is
transmitted indoor. The equivalent solar transmission coefficient of the entire glazed system
(
S,eq
) was calculated as the ratio of the total transmitted solar radiation on the incident solar
radiation. Experimental values were retrieved from data monitored by internal and external
vertical pyranometers. For sake of conciseness, the specific procedure and method for data
collection used during the experimental campaign is not here reported. Detailed information
can be found in [22].

CASE STUDY

The tested technology is a double skin faade having a cavity mechanically ventilated with
exhaust air from the indoor environment. The external skin is a double glazed unit with
selective laminated glass, air cavity and clear glass (10 10.4 mm +16 mm +10 mm). The
ventilated cavity is 24 cm wide and a roller screen is positioned 7 cm far from the external
glazed skin. The internal skin is a laminated clear class (5 5.2 mm). To calculate the
convective heat transfer due to mechanical ventilation, an air flow rate of 0,0155 m
3
/s was
considered. Some input data such as the air flow rate and the solar coefficients of the
laminated glasses, which are not commonly available on the market, were probably affected
by uncertainty. The uncertainty derives from the experimental characteristic of the tested
faade system. The monitored data were collected in a full scale office room mock-up (3.20 m
width, 5.90 length, 3.45 m height), whose faade hosted ATF modules south/south-west
oriented in Torino (lat. 45.02 and long. 7.65). The air temperature in the test cell was
controlled through a combined air system and radiant heating/cooling panels, with a set point
of 20 C in winter. ATF modules and both indoor and outdoor boundary conditions were
monitored by means of more than 70 sensors previously calibrated and/or verified in
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

401

laboratory. Data were collected by a data logger every 15 minutes. Hourly values were
calculated and used for subsequent elaborations.

a) b) c)

The sensors in the mock-up were positioned at three different heights. Average monitored
temperatures and heat fluxes over the whole height of the faade module were used for
comparison against simulated values. The simulated temperature of the ventilated gap was
instead compared against the value interpolated at a height corresponding to the average
ventilated gap temperature.
Cooling and heating daily energies were calculated through the integral of positive and
negative heat fluxes respectively.
The above mentioned resistance network in Figure 1 schematises the analysed case study
shown in Figure 2. Nodes 1, 2 and 4 represent panes whereas node 3 is a shading device. Air
cavities are nodes 12, 23 and 34. Since the analysed double skin faade has a cavity that is
mechanically ventilated with exhaust air from the indoor environment, nodes 23 and 34 are
thermally linked to the indoor air node through thermal resistances R34i and R23i.

RESULTS

The model validation was carried out comparing monitored data against the simulation
outputs during three different winter days: a sunny day, a cloudy day and a partially overcast
day. The model was validated both in presence and absence of the shading device. Boundary
conditions of the selected days are synthetically reported in Table 1. Hourly values of external
air temperature and solar irradiation on vertical and horizontal plane were used as inputs for
the model. To calibrate the optic and solar characteristics of the model the solar transmission
coefficient of the faade was calculated. The average daily discrepancy between monitored
and simulated values of solar transmission coefficient with open shading device during day 3
is only about 0,002.

Figure 2. Mock up tested faades (a). Detail of the monitored faade (b). Schematic vertical section
of the transparent system with the main sensors position (c).
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

402

Table 1. Boundary conditions of the selected days.
Configurations
Average external
daily air
temperature
Average daily
wind speed
Daily solar
irradiation on
south vertical
plane
Daily solar
irradiation on
horizontal
plane
[C] [m/s] [Wh/m
2
] [Wh/m
2
]
Day 1_screen ON (sunny) 0,9 1,1 2213,0 4476,9
Day 2_screen ON (cloudy) 2,3 1,1 318,3 126,3
Day 3_screen OFF 1,4 0,9 1175,7 1519,2

Node temperatures

Figure 3a shows the surface internal and external temperatures during the sunny day (day 1).
During night the simulated temperatures are slightly higher than the measured ones
(maximum difference of +1.5 C at 05:00). The same behaviour is confirmed during the
cloudy day (Figure 4a). Both the internal and external surface temperature profiles simulated
during the day are shifted of 1 h whereas measured peak values are comparable to the
simulated ones. The shifted trend is probably due to the fact that the model does not consider
the thermal capacity of the system. Higher errors are committed in presence of solar radiation
when predicting the temperatures of nodes 2 and 3 (internal pane of the external skin and
shading device). In particular, the temperature of node 2 is overestimated while that of node 3
is underestimated. The difference between the peak temperatures is +5 C for node 2 and -5
C for node 3. Sources of error are the heat storage phenomena and/or measurement errors
due to the influence of the solar radiation on the sensors. During the cloudy day (day 2)
measured and simulated temperatures are similar (Figure 4a and b). The predicted
temperatures during the cloudy day are slightly higher than the measured ones but the
difference is negligible.

Ventilated cavity temperature

The temperature of the mechanically ventilated cavity is overestimated during the night of day
1 (Figure 5a) and the entire day 2 (Figure 5b). During day 2 the error is constant with an
average value of 2.4 C. Underestimation of the gap temperature is instead registered in
presence of solar radiation. A difference of 5 C between the peak values can be observed.
The simulated gap temperature is probably influenced by the error in predicting the
temperatures of nodes 2 and 3.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

403

a) b)

a) b)

a) b)
Heat fluxes and daily energy

During day 1 the trend of the predicted heat flux overlays perfectly on the solar radiation
profile. The simulated value overestimates the heat flux until 15.00, when the solar radiation
starts to decrease. The difference between the heat flux peaks is 13,2 W/m
2
. Attenuation and
Figure 3. Surface external (T1) and internal (T4) temperatures (a); internal pane of the external skin
(T2) and roller screen (T3) temperatures (b): monitored and simulated values day 1.
Figure 4. Surface external (T1) and internal (T4) temperatures (a); internal pane of the external skin (T2)
and roller screen (T3) temperatures (b): monitored and simulated values day 2.
Figure 5. Mechanically ventilated gap temperature day 1 (a), day 2 (b): monitored and simulated
values.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

404

time-shift of the heat flux are not properly taken into account because the heat storage
capacity of the system is neglected by the model. The heat flux during the cloudy day is
slightly underestimated of an average daily value of -4,3 W/m
2
(Figure 6b) and the average
monitored heat flux value is around -10,2 W/m
2
. Daily energy for cooling during day 1 is
overestimated of about 27% whereas daily energy for heating is underestimated of about 13%.

a) b)

CONCLUSION

A simplified lumped model for simulating active transparent faades was implemented and
validated against experimental data. Results show that, although there is still margin for
improving the accuracy of the model especially in presence of solar radiation, this novel tool
can be useful for defining transparent active envelopes at a preliminary design phase.
Although the tested system is a glazed faade, the heat storage capacity seems to play an
important role on the heat transfer.
Future development of the work will be the validation of the model on a more extended time
period and during different seasons. Different faade technologies will be tested and the
simplified energy model will be calibrated and validated through experimental data collected
during other experimental campaigns. A sensitivity analysis will be performed to evaluate the
main sources of error. To avoid the time shifting of temperatures and heat fluxes, further
analyses could define a time constant to apply to the simulated results.

REFERENCES

1. Poirazis, H. 2004. Double-Skin Faades for Office buildings-Literature Review. Lund
University,Sweden.
2. Manz, H and Frank, Th. 2005. Thermal simulation of buildings with double-skin faades.
Energy and buildings 37, pp. 1114-1121.
3. Hensen, J , Bartak, M, and Drkal, F. 2002. Modeling and simulation of a double- skin faade
system, ASHRAE Transactions. Vol 108 (2), pp 1251-1259.
4. Pappas, A and Zhai, Z. 2008. Numerical investigation on thermal performance and correlations
of double skin faade with buoyancy-driven airflow. Energy and Buildings 40, pp. 466-475.
5. Safer, N, Woloszyn, M, and Roux, J J . 2005. Three-dimensional simulation with a CFD tool of
the airflow phenomena in singlefloor double-skin faade equipped with a venetian blind. Solar
Energy 79, pp 193-203.
Figure 6. Monitored and simulated surface heat fluxes during day 1 (a) and day 2 (b).
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

405

6. Ye, P, Harrison, S J , and Oosthuizen, P H. 1999. Convective heat transfer from a window with a
venetian blind: detailed modeling. ASHRAE Transactions, pp 1031-1037.
7. Pasut, W and De Carli, M. 2012. Evaluation of various CFD modeling strategies in predicting
airflow and temperature in a naturally ventilated double skin faade. Applied Thermal
Engineering 37, pp. 267274.
8. Tanimoto, J and Kimura, K. 1997. Simulation study on an airflow window system with an
integrated roll screen. Energy and Buildings 26, pp. 317325.
9. Chen, Q and Srebric, J . 2002. A procedure for verification, validation, and reporting of indoor
environment CFD analyses. HVAC&R Research 8, pp. 201-216.
10. Park, CS, Augenbroe, G, Messadi, T, et al. 2004. Calibration of a lumped simulation model for
double-skin facade systems. Energy and Buildings 36, pp. 111730.
11. Faggembauu, D, Costa, M, Soria, M, and Oliva, A. 2003. Numerical analysis of the thermal
behaviour of ventilated glazed facades in Mediterranean climates. Part I. Development and
validation of a numerical model. Solar Energy 75, pp. 21728.
12. Faggembauu, D, Costa, M, Soria, M, and Oliva, A. 2003. Numerical analysis of the thermal
behaviour of ventilated glazed facades in Mediterranean climates. Part II. Applications and
analysis of results. Solar Energy 75, pp. 22939.
13. J iru, TE and Haghighat, F. 2008. Modeling ventilated double skin facadea zonal approach.
Energy and Buildings 40, pp. 156776.
14. Chauvel, P and Millet, J R. 1991. Lappreciation des caracteristiques des protections solaires
des baies. I-Modelisation thermo-optique et exigences de confort, CSTB, Marne-La-Vallee.
15. EN ISO 6946. 2007. Building components and building elements Thermal resistance and
thermal transmittance Calculation method.
16. EN ISO 13791. 2012. Thermal performance of buildings Calculation of internal temperatures
of a room in summer without mechanical cooling General criteria and validation procedures.
17. ISO 10292. 1994. Glass in building Calculation of steady-state U values (thermal
transmittance) of multiple glazing.
18. ISO 15099. 2003. Thermal performance of windows, doors and shading devices Detailed
calculations.
19. Duffie, J A and Beckman, W A. 2006. Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes. J ohn Wiley &
Sons.
20. Born, M and Wolf, E. 1980. Principles of optics, 6
th
ed. New York, Pergammon Press.
21. Furler, R A. 1991. Angular dependence of optical properties for homogeneous glasses,
ASHRAE Transactions. Vol 97(2).
22. Zanghirella, F, Perino, M, and Serra, V. 2011. A numerical model to evaluate the thermal
behaviour of active transparent faades. Energy and Buildings 43, pp. 1123-1138.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

406

A SIMPLIFIED CALCULATION METHODOLOGY FOR
CONTROLLED NATURAL VENTILATION

Tobias Schulze
1
, Ursula Eicker
2
and Zerrin Aye Ylmaz
1

1
Istanbul Technical University, Turkey
2
University of Applied Sciences Stuttgart, Germany

Corresponding email: schulze-tobias@gmx.de

SUMMARY

This article mainly describes the underlying calculation methodology of a natural ventilation
pre-design tool with fixed boundary conditions. The procedure can be applied for various
application scenarios such as to realise the hygienic minimum air exchange, to protect from
moisture damages or for intensive summer ventilation. The methodology developed allows
the calculation of air change rates for various window opening configurations and window
types and therefore exceeds the procedure in the standards DIN 1946-6 and EN 15242. Due to
the free input either of flow rates or the opening geometry common natural ventilation flow
configurations can be planned for residential and non-residential buildings.

INTRODUCTION

The natural ventilation air change rate through windows and other openings of a building is a
crucial parameter for the indoor climate. The air exchange is needed to evaluate the moisture
protection, indoor air quality, summer room temperature and for the dimensioning of
ventilation levels according to German standard DIN 1946-6.
According to this standard, the preparation of a ventilation concept is required for residential
buildings with a tight building envelope: "For newly constructed or modernized buildings
with ventilation-relevant changes a ventilation concept is required."
For those airtight buildings with low infiltration, a user independently guaranteed minimum
airflow for moisture protection and hygienic indoor air quality is required. Natural ventilation
however is considered only as a user-independent variant with outdoor air apertures (cross
orshaftventilation), not however with controlled window openings. The planner needs to
ensure the amount of incoming air by fixed predetermined amounts of pressure differences.
Since window ventilation is considered as dependent on the active user's behaviour, it can
contribute according to the standard solely to guarantee health standards and to discharge
peak loads by e.g. cooking and washing.
However, controlled natural ventilation offers excellent potential for single-sided ventilation,
and of course also for cross and stack ventilation due to the possibility of large opening cross-
sections.But there is still considerable uncertainty in planning because in the DIN 1946-6 this
opening elements are not treated and the European standard EN 15242 is limited to user-
dependentsingle-sided bottom-hung window ventilation. To prepare for an extension of the
standards and to support the planning of ventilation applications also in non-residential
buildings the authors developed an Excel-based planning tool to facilitate the creation of
controlled natural ventilation concepts with window ventilation. This was done on behalf of
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

407

the German Electrical and Electronic Manufacturers' Association (ZVEI) with their working
group of natural ventilation.
Planners can simply dimension window openings and overflow air vents to the different
levels of DIN 1946-6 as well as for the provision of fresh air and passive cooling in office
buildings or schools. The tool is validated against steady state Air Flow Network AFN
simulations with fixed boundary conditions.

METHODS

The method for the design of the openings based on simplified empirical equations to
calculate the volume flow rates with unchanging boundary conditions[1-3].Openings are
always designed for a single flow path. For cross-ventilation this path may consist of many
different rooms. The single-sided ventilation is treated exclusively for one room. If in a unit
several distinct regions are present, these can be analysed sequentially and separately. A case-
controlled input mask helps the planner to enter the input-data.

Setting Amounts of Air for Opening Dimensioning
Ventilation levels are selectable by the designer according to the DIN 1946-6 whichare the
ventilation for moisture protection, the reduced ventilation, the nominal ventilation and
intensive ventilation. Depending on the room type, a minimum air exchange rate is calculated
for the nominal ventilation. For the other ventilation levels the value is changed
proportionally. The calculation methodology can be extractedfrom the standard[4].
In addition to the specified quantities of air according to DIN 1946-6 it may be of interest to
the planner toarbitrarily specify outdoor air flow rates. The free input allows external
windows and air passages to be dimensioned e.g. in office buildings for hygienic air change
(e.g. 12,5 litres per second per person[5]) or for high summer Air Change Rates ACH to e.g.
remove heat and for cooling the building structure at night (e.g. 10-20 h
-1
based on the volume
of the building [6]).
The infiltration, differently from the calculation according to DIN, isnot initially taken into
account when specifying volume flows. Infiltration can also be estimated by the designer on
the basis of table B.1 in EN 15242 [7]and then subtracted from the initial value.
The ventilation duration per hour specifies whether e.g. ventilation is intermittent
(5-10 min h
-1
) or continuously (60 min h
-1
) to ensure the required volume flow per hour.
Sincethe inflowof one faadeorientation withcross ventilationmust exit on the otherfaade
orientation again, the area sum ofthe in-and outletsmust besized accordinglyfor each
orientation, no matter e.g. how many rooms to be ventilated on each orientation.

Explicit Calculation Methodology ofthe Volume Flow
The driving forces for natural ventilation of rooms and buildings are pressure differences
caused by buoyancy and wind. Ventilation rates are dependent on the magnitude and direction
of these forces and the flow resistance of the flow path.
Simplified calculation methodsforcross ventilationcan beapplied when thepressure conditions
attheinletsand at outletsarethe same orat least similar for each orientation, and thus a relatively
constantpressure differencepcan be supposed. For thermally driven ventilation theinlets and
outletsshould each be locatedat the sameor at leasta similarheight level, for wind
inducedventilation the wind pressurecoefficients and the wind speedsat the
opposingopeningsshould havea similar value each.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

408

Occasionallyone willencounterconfigurations that cannot be covered bya simple tool like
presented here. Examplesaresolarchimneysoratriumswith inletsondifferentfloorsandwith a
common outletor complexwindpressure conditions atdifferentfaadeorientations.In such cases
itis advisable tocalculate theair flowfor themost effectiveflow path.Ifeven thatis no longer
possible due tothecomplexityof the flow path, it is recommended to utilize themore complex,
but still explicit "Envelope-flow" method[6, 8]ordynamicmulti-zoneflow models[9, 10],
which areincludedin programs such asTRNSYSorEnergyPlus[11].

Cross ventilation
Simplifiedempiricalformulas estimate thevolume flow rateq
v
of a singleopeningdependent on
theeffective areaA
S,eff
of the whole flow path, the pressure differencepbetween theadjacent
sidesand thereference airdensity
0
.Thebasic equationfor the volumetric flowthrough a single
openingcan be expressed by:

(1)
Where thetotal pressure differencepis the sum ofwind p
w
and buoyancyp
b
differences.
It is assumed, that the referenceair density for wind induced pressure is the outside air density
ext
and for thebuoyant share the mean air density from inside andoutside .This equationcan
also be usedto estimateexclusively wind or thermally induced flow by setting those sharesto
zero.

Wind induced pressure differences
The air flow due to wind pressure differences is dependent on the pressure coefficients C
p

depending on the wind direction and on the local wind speed U
w
at the height of the opening:

(2)
Values of the pressure coefficient depend on the building shape, the wind direction, the
environment (nearby buildings and vegetation) and the specific location on the building
surface (e.g. height and distance from the middle). C
p
data can be obtained from primary or
secondary sources. Primary sources are expensive and time intensive full scale measurements,
wind tunnel measurements or CFD simulations. Less reliable secondary sources are tables
like in the EN 15242 [7] standard or C
p
-generators which are based on interpolation and
extrapolation of generic knowledge and previously measured data and are therefore best
applicable on standard building geometries.
The local wind speed at opening height is depending on the metrological wind speed and the
roughness characteristics of the surrounding terrain. It can be calculated based on the
ASHRAE power-law calculation[12] or from an similar approach in EN 15242[7].

Buoyancyinduced pressure differences
The volume flow caused by buoyancy forces through multiple openings in the building
envelope is proportional to the square root of the pressure difference depending on the room
air and the external air temperature. Density differencesdue to temperaturedifferencescreate
adensity gradient. The flowdirection changesat the height levelof the
neutralpressureplane.Below thisplane, the air flows from the coldto the warm sideandabove
this planevice versa. An overall measureof thebuoyancypressure differencewith openingson
twodifferent height levelsis:
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

409

(3)
For the subsequentsizing of theopening area, it is important to use a relativelyaccurate value
forthe density difference. The absolute value for thedensity or the average density is
less important. Therefore,it is common practiceto expressthe densitydifference by
thetemperature differencein Kelvin:

(4)
The flow path
Forcrossventilationwith multipleopeningsin a flow path, the total effective areaA
S,eff
is
calculatedconsisting of allapertures. The totaleffective areaincludes theopening areasinparallel
and serialarrangement and theirflow coefficientsand thusthe internal resistanceof the flow
path. Depending onthe complexity of the path, itcan includeseveralparallel planesbut exactly
on in series (see exampleFigure 2):
If openings areavailablein a parallel arrangement, first the
effectiveparallelareaA
P,eff
iscalculated:

(5)
For openingsin a serialarrangement, the totaleffective areaA
S,eff
is calculated by:

(6)
Thistotaleffective area represents area and resistance of the whole the flow paththrough the
building,and may finally inserted in formula (1).

Single-sided ventilation
The integration of the flow profile over the height results in the constant of 1/3 in the
following equation, as only part of the window opening area A
W
is available as air inlet and
the neutral pressure plane is assumed at half of the effective opening height h
eff
level.
Anyinfluenceofwind (e.g.due to turbulence) isnot initiallyconsidered here:

(7)
Contrary in EN15242, the single-sidedventilation is calculated using threecoefficients forwind
turbulence, wind speed andthermal buoyancy.

Dimensioning Boundary Conditions
Forwind-inducedventilationtheDIN1946-6 gives unchanging design pressuredifferences.
Thus,the methodology for the calculation ofcross ventilation describedaboveis
greatlysimplified bynotcalculating thepressure difference appliedto the building,
butbyestimating themviacorrection factors. Pressure differencesare calculateddepending on
theWind RegionWR (annual statistical mean at the meteorological station),according
totheheight of thestorey in the building
H
and according to windshielding by thebuilding
surroundings
A
. Thedesign pressuredifference accordingto DIN is calculated as follows:

(8)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

410

Table 2. Correction factors and wind pressure differences according to DIN 1946-6
H

A
p
WR

h 15m 1 open 1,7 strong (>3,3m/s) 4 Pa
15m <h 50m 1,8 normal 1 weak( 3,3m/s) 2 Pa
h>50m 2,8 shielded 0,5

For the calculationoftemperature-induced ventilationit is recommendedto specify adesign
temperaturedifference, e.g.forthe wintermoisture protectionofT
W
=17K. This exemplarily
valuecorresponds to anassumedfixedroomtemperature of 20 Cminus thetemporal
andlocalmeanoutside temperatureof 3Cin the coldestfour monthsfor nineGermanlocations.
Forthe minimum hygienicair changeandfor passivecooling in summerCIBSE[8]recommends a
temperature difference ofT
S
=3K. This summer value may be adopted, depending on e.g. if
the air changes are rather high (smaller T
S
) or if the heat gains are rather high (bigger T
S
).

Openings Types
The geometry of theopenings (height, width, angle of tilt, etc.) determines the
floweffectiveopening area A
eff
. For givenflow ratesandflow pathseffectiveareascanbe
determined, which thencan be converted intothe geometryparameters of theopening.
Bottom-, top- and side-hung windows simplified consist of the geometry variables height,
width and tilt-angle. Two of these parameters are specified by the inputs; the third value can
be calculated. Sliding windows on the other hand consist of the variables height, width and
opening factor (0 is fully closed and 1 is fully open).

Figure 1: Geometric representation of the different window types and the resulting effective opening height and
area (a) top- and bottom-hung (b) side-hung (c) sliding

Simplified methods for the effective area calculation may be found in literature. The standard
EN 15242 makes the simplified assumption that the volume flow through a tilted window
only depends on the tilt angle and is independent of the ratio of heighth to width w:

(9)
A formula for bottom- and top-hungalso considering the ratio of height to width was
developed in the context of the NatVent study [13]and fits reasonably well to the EN 15242
formula for low height windows:

&
(10)
These formulascan be adaptedfor the calculationof side-hungwindows:

&
(11)
w
eff
h
h
e
f
f
A
e
f
f
h
e
f
f
h
e
f
f
A
eff
h
w
A
eff
w
h

h
w
A
e
f
f
w
eff
(a) (b) (c)
A
w
A
w
A
w
A
w
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

411

Opening Sizing
For single-sided buoyant ventilation with one large opening in addition to the effective
opening area A
eff
also the effective opening height h
eff
is relevant to calculate the volume
flow. The effective opening height for bottom-hung windows and the effective opening width
for side-hung windows are dependent on the tilt angle. By rearranging formula (7) the
variable of interest may be found according to the following equation:

(12)
For cross ventilation, in a first step the serial total effective area A
S,eff
of the flow path,
depending on the given total flow rate of all spaces in the path q
v,tot
is calculated by
rearranging the equation (1):

(13)
Subsequent the effective total area of the parallel planes A
P,eff
can be calculated using
equation(6). The assumption made here is that a maximum of two levels of overflow air
ventsn
OFV
are existent (corresponding to a corridor) and that two parallel planes of external
windows(n
W
= 2) are each dimensioned equally. A relative planning ratio factor f
OFV

expresses the cross-sectional relationship between indoor (index OFV) and outdoor air
window passages (index W). Thus, if for example OFVs are twice as large dimensioned as
the effective window area, the calculated areas of the windows become smaller because of
lower internal resistance, but the total flow rate remains constant. Leaking doors are
considered to DIN 1946-6 Table 13.

(14)

(15)
In a third stepallgeometric opening areas A
W,n
of one parallel plane are calculated based on
equation (5). Here, the total opening area of a parallel plane A
P,n
is proportionally
distributeddependent on the required volume flow rate of individual roomsq
v,n
as part of the
total flow of all rooms of one faade orientation q
v,P
:

(16)

(17)
The number of rooms in a single flow path also indicates how many rooms are arranged in
series and in parallel. If there are more than two rooms in the flow path, it is assumed that a
corridor is present. If only one room is cross-ventilated, it is assumed that no overflow air
vents are existent.
Now all geometric orifice areas A
W
are known and the desired geometry variable (e.g. height,
widthor angle) can be calculated according to the window-type.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

412

RESULTS

Example Calculations

(1) given: single-sided T=17,0C Tin=20,0C Cd=0,60
side-hung u=1u,u qv=200m
3
/h h=1,50m
find: w=? via equations (12a) & (11) iterative goal seek
solution:weff=0,198m Aeff=0,296 m w=0,936m

(2) given: cross qv,1=100m/h qv,2=50m/h qv,3=200m/h p=2,00Pa
bottom-hung p0=1,20kg/m nOFV=2 fOFV=2 Cd=0,60
hn=0,20m un=2u,u
find: An=? wn=? via equations (13-17) & (10) iterative goal seek
solution:AS,eff=0,053m AP,eff,W=0,084m AP,eff,OFV=0,169mAP,W=0,141m AP,OFV=0,281m
AW,1=0,094m w1=1,254m AOFV,1=0,187m AW,2=0,047m w2=0,545m
AOFV,2=0,187mAW,3=0,141m w3=1,969m AOFV,3=0,094m

Figure 2: Schematic representation of theroomand openingdistribution in theexample calculation(2) for cross
ventilation with bottom-hung windows
Validation
Theanalytical calculationmethodologydescribed has beenvalidated against thewidely
recognised building energysimulation softwarewith integrated AFN EnergyPlus[11]. The
relative deviationof the simulatedflow rateswith same opening configuration and fixed
boundary conditionslike in the examples beforeis3,2%forthe single-sidedand 0,04% for the
cross ventilation scenario.Thevalidationmethodology canbe found inanother article
bytheauthors[14].

Annual Dynamic Simulations
The potential energy conservation, indoor air quality and thermal comfort performance of
different controlled natural ventilation designs were additionally evaluated.Computed
ventilation rates under various fixed conditions depend mainly on the opening cross section,
but also strongly on the location of the openings and their geometry. For example, cross
ventilation and chimney-supported buoyancy-driven natural ventilation generally result in
high air exchange rates. Single-sided ventilation works best, if the openings are high or split
at different height levels. For bottom-hung windows with effective opening heights as low as
0,18m, the air exchange rates are mostly high enough to provide good indoor air quality, but
cannot guarantee good thermal comfort conditions in the summer. With the same effective
opening area of 3% of the net floor area and a temperature difference of 2 K between inside
and outside the ventilation rates vary from 1,0 to 5,4 h
-1
for single-sided designs.
A
S,eff
A
P,OFV
A
P,W
room 3
q
v,3
c
o
r
r
i
d
o
r
room 1
q
v,1
room 2
q
v,2
A
P,W
A
W,1
A
W,2
A
OFV,1
A
OFV,2
A
OFV,3
A
W,3
f
a
a
d
e

1
f
a
a
d
e

2
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

413

For the annual dynamic performance evaluation a complex 21-zone EnergyPlus simulation
model was introduced for an exemplary low energy office building with a single-sided natural
ventilation strategy. Whether adaptive thermal comfort can be achieved strongly depends on
the thermal load situation of the room, which again is a function of the buildings heat losses
and gains, sun shading performance, internal loads etc. The higher the loads, the greater the
needed effective opening area and height to improve summer comfort in moderate climate.
The annual degree hours above the adoptive thermal comfort limit category II[15]during
occupancy in Istanbul could be reduced from 115 to 8 by replacing a sliding window with a
height of 1,6 m with split openings with a height level difference of 2,6 m, whereas a bottom-
hung window with an effective opening height of 0,18 m results in unacceptable 2166 degree
hours. It was also concluded, that there is a necessityfor control of the openings to prevent
overcooling of rooms and to provide enough fresh air in the heating season.
For the estimation of the cooling energy conservation controlled natural ventilation was
compared with mechanical cooling and ventilation. Simulation output showed that well-
designed natural ventilation systems save between 13 and 44 kWh/m cooling net energy per
year for the three locations Stuttgart, Turin and Istanbul. The savings in fan ventilation
electrical energy is about 4 kWh/m per year.
More information on potentials of controlled natural ventilation in office buildings may be
found in another article by the authors [14].
DISCUSSION
Analytical equations for the air flow rates are very consistent with simple steady state airflow
network simulations. Therefore, in the architectural design phase of natural ventilation,
potentials of different opening configurations may be estimated by those equations.It would
be beneficial to complement relevant standards such as DIN 1946-6, EN 13779 or EN 15242
with the described calculation method to bring energy efficiency and comfort potentials of
controlled natural ventilation intensified into practice.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Financial support was provided by the German Electrical and Electronic Manufacturers'
Association (ZVEI) with their working group of natural ventilation and is highly
acknowledged.
REFERENCES
1. Etheridge, D.W. and M. Sandberg, Building ventilation: theory and measurement.
1996, Chichester, UK: J ohn Wiley & Sons.
2. Awbi, H.B., Ventilation of Buildings. 1991, London, UK: Taylor and Francis.
3. BS 5925 (British standard), Code of Practice for Design of Buildings: Ventilation
principles and designing for natural ventilation. 1980, British Standards Institution:
London.
4. DIN 1946-6 (German standard), Ventilation and air conditioning Part 6: Ventilation
for residential buildings General requirements, requirements for measuring,
performance and labeling, delivery/acceptance (certification) and maintenance. 2009.
p. 125.
5. EN 13779 (European standard), Ventilation for non-residential buildings -
Performance requirements for ventilation and room-conditioning systems. 2007.
6. Etheridge, D., Natural Ventilation of Buildings: Theory, Measurement and Design.
2011: Wiley.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

414

7. EN 15242 (European standard), Ventilation for buildings - Calculation methods for
the determination of air flow rates in buildings including infiltration. 2007.
8. CIBSE, Natural Ventilation in Non-domestic Buildings. CIBSE Application Manual.
Vol. AM10. 2005, London, UK: Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers.
9. Walton, G.N., AIRNET A Computer Program for Building Airflow Network Modeling.
1989ff, U.S. Department of Commerce.
10. Feustel, H.E., COMIS - an international multizone air-flow and contaminant transport
model. Energy and Buildings, 1999. 30(1): p. 3-18.
11. EnergyPlus. 2001 ff, United States Department of Energy. p.
http://apps1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/energyplus/.
12. ASHRAE, Handbook of Fundamentals. 2009, Atlanta, USA: American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
13. van Paassen, A.H.C., S.H. Liem, and B.P. Grninger, Control of night cooling with
natural ventilation: sensitivity analysis of control strategies and vent openings, in 19th
AIVC conferance, NatVent, Editor. 1998: Oslo, Norway. p. 438-447.
14. Schulze, T. and U. Eicker, Controlled natural ventilation for energy efficient
buildings. Energy and Buildings, 2013. 56(0): p. 221-232.
15. EN 15251 (European standard), Indoor environmental input parameters for design
and assessment of energy performance of buildings addressing indoor air quality,
thermal environment, lighting and acoustics. 2007.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

415

THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF COLD
BUILDINGS DURING THE HEATING UP PERIOD

Mehmet Emin ARICI
1
and Birkut GLER
2

1
Karadeniz Technical University, TRABZON
2
Giresun niversity, GRESUN

Corresponding email: arici@ktu.edu.tr

SUMMARY

Heating up period of living spaces is an important duration of whole heating process in terms
of fuel consumption and thermal comfort requirements. Conventional heating system design
approaches usually deal with steady-state condition of heating process and rarely concerns
about the transient heating up period. Depending on the building parameters and climate
conditions, duration of this period may vary from a few hours to several days. Because of the
heating up period and the periodic variant nature of the external air temperature, a time
dependent system is considered. The system configuration of the presented work consists of
three circuits; the water circuit, the air circuit and the building structure circuit. Conservation
of energy equations for the circuits are represented by three ordinary differential equations
and are simultaneously solved by the Fourth Order Runge-Kutta method. Predicted results
show that two key parameters; the magnitude of external air temperature and the structure
time constant, have remarkable effects on the other system parameters.
INTRODUCTION

Heating methodology is one of the well defined subjects among the engineering documents
such as handbooks, standards, manuals etc. These documents deal with the mean and the
steady-state values of dependent variables; the heater (or the working fluid) temperature, the
living space temperature and the environmental temperature. A basic engineering approach
may accept this approximation under long term and non-interrupted heating applications. In
practical cases, however, short term heating processes and the process interruptions are
inevitable because of the energy saving concerns and some other reasons.

Limited number of study has been carried out to deal with the transient effects of heating on
the system parameters. Mendes et. al [1] performed a numerical analysis to find out influence
of thermal parameters on the building air temperature. They considered an electrical heater
inside the living spaces, and used the lumped approach for room temperature and multi-layer
method for the building envelope. Antonopoulos and Tzivanidis [2] developed a finite-
difference solution based correlation for the thermal delay of indoor air temperature over
mean outdoor temperature of buildings. They concluded that if the type, the heat capacity and
the heat loss coefficient of a building are specified, the thermal delay may be expressed as a
function of the mean indoor temperature increase, the building heating power density and the
total floor area of the building. Their test cases study showed that the thermal delay of fully-
insulated buildings is considerably shorter than that for the non-insulated ones. A building
time constant based study by the same authors [3] uses infiltration heat loss effect to
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

416

determine the building time constant, Antonopoulos and Koronaki [4] obtained the apparent
thermal capacitance of a building by the distributed specific heats of all building elements.
They claim that the apparent thermal capacitance differs considerably from the effective
thermal capacitance.

A novel approach to the problem in the current work is presented. Basic idea behind the
approach is to take the building as a whole system: the water, the air and the building
structure as subsystems (circuits) and relates them each other in terms of energy balance
concern. The procedure has capability of predicting time varying dependent variables of the
circuits during both heating up (HU) and periodically steady-state (PSS) processes. With this
respect, the work outputs show comparative results between the HU and the PSS processes.

METHODS

The building heating system of the current work is considered as a whole system which
consists of circulating water through the piping, the radiators and the boiler, the air within the
living spaces and the building structural components such as floors and internal partitions.
Heating mechanism takes place between those three subsystems; the water, the air and the
solid structure. The system has thermal energy input or heat generation within the boiler and
heat loss to the surrounded environmental air. During the process, heat exchanges between the
subsystems also occur. A lumped capacitance approach for each subsystem with respect to
Figure 1 can be stated as follows:

, (1)

, (2)

. (3)

The thermal capacitance and the thermal resistance of each subsystem are represented as
follows:

, (4)

, (5)

, (6)

, (7)

, (8)

(9)

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

417

In the above equations; , V and c stand for density, volume and specific heat, respectively.
Subscripts w is for water, a is for air and s is for structure of the building material. The
symbol represents the heat generated within the water system (low heating value of the fuel
multiplied by fuel consumption in unit time) and qs are for the heat that flow through the
systems as indicated in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Schematic representation of energy balance between the subsystems

Substituting thermal capacitances and thermal resistances into the equations (1), (2) and (3)
respectively and after rearranging them, the corresponding equations are obtained as follows:

(10)

(11)

(12)

The set of ordinary differential equations, equations (10), (11) and (12), are equations to be
solved. These equations are coupled and need to be solved simultaneously to get time varying
water, air and the structure temperatures. There are several solution procedures to obtain
temperature variations for such set of equations. A numerical integration based procedure, the
Fourth-Order Runge-Kutta method is used to solve the above equations. The environmental
temperature is taken for sol-air (solar-air) temperature [5] as follows:

(13)

Here, p is the 24 hour period, T
max
and T
min
are existing maximum and minimum temperatures
during the day and t is time in second.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

418

RESULTS

By simultaneous solution of equations (10) to (12), time varying temperatures of water, air
and the structure are obtained for three different amplitudes of the environmental temperature
T =(T
max
- T
min
) and for three different structure time constants (
s
= R
s
M
s
). The effects of
sinusoidal variation of the sol-air temperature on water, air and structure temperature are
indicated in terms of the time delay (of water for example: t
Tmax,w
- t
Tmax
) variation and the
magnitude variation (of air for example T
max,a
- T
max
) are also obtained. All presented results
are obtained for a specified value of water time constant
w
=10
3
s and total heat input of
.

The effect of the amplitude of outer air temperature on the variation of water temperature,
time delay of water temperature and amplitude of water temperature is illustrated on Figure 2.
Similarly, the effect of the amplitudes on the same parameters of air and structure is presented
on the Figures 3, 4. The effect of structure time constant on variation of water temperature,
time delay of water temperature and amplitude of water temperature is illustrated on Figure 5.
Corresponding illustrations for air and structure are shown on Figures 6, 7.

Time, t, h
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
W
a
t
e
r

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

T
w
,

K

320
330
340
350
360
370
T= 5
o
C
T= 10
o
C
T= 15
o
C
Period
1 2 3 4 5
t
d
,
w

,

h

2
4
6
8
10
12
14
T = 5
o
C
T = 10
o
C
T = 15
o
C

Period
1 2 3 4 5
T
w
,

o
C
0
20
40
60
80
100
T = 5
o
C
T = 10
o
C
T = 15
o
C

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 2. The effect of the amplitude of outer air temperature on; a) variation of water
temperature, b) time delay of water temperature, c) amplitude of water temperature

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

419

Time, t, h
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
A
i
r

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

T
a
,

K
270
275
280
285
290
295
300
305
T = 5
o
C
T = 10
o
C
T = 15
o
C
Period
1 2 3 4 5
t
d
,
a

,

h

2
4
6
8
10
12
14
T = 5
o
C
T = 10
o
C
T = 15
o
C
Period
1 2 3 4 5
T
a
,

o
C
0
5
10
15
20
25
T = 5
o
C
T = 10
o
C
T = 15
o
C

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 3. The effect of the amplitude of outer air temperature on; a) variation of air,
temperature, b) time delay of air temperature, c) amplitude of air temperature

Time, t, h
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
S
t
r
u
r
e

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

T
s
,

K
270
275
280
285
290
295
300
305
T = 5
o
C
T = 10
o
C
T = 15
o
C
Period
1 2 3 4 5
t
d
,
s

,

h

4
6
8
10
12
14
T = 5
o
C
T = 10
o
C
T = 15
o
C
Period
1 2 3 4 5
T
s
,
o
C
0
5
10
15
20
25
T = 5
o
C
T = 10
o
C
T = 15
o
C

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4. The effect of the amplitude of outer air temperature on; a) variation of structure
temperature, b) time delay of structure temperature, c) amplitude of structure temperature

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

420

Time, t, h
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
W
a
t
e
r

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

T
w
,

K
320
330
340
350
360
370
s
= 0.5x10
4
s
= 1.0x10
4
s
= 2.0x10
4
Period
1 2 3 4 5
t
d
,
w
,
h
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
s
= 0.5x10
4
s
= 0.5x10
4
s
= 2.0x10
4

Period
1 2 3 4 5
T
w
,
o
C
0
20
40
60
80
100
s
= 0.5x10
4
s
= 1.0x10
4
s
= 2.0x10
4

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5. The effect of structure time constant on; a) variation of water temperature, b) time
delay of water temperature, c) amplitude of water temperature
Time, t , h
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
A
i
r

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

T
w
,

K
270
275
280
285
290
295
300
305
s
= 0.5x10
4
s
= 1.0x10
4
s
= 2.0x10
4
Period
1 2 3 4 5
t
d
,a
, h
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
s
= 0.5x10
4
s
= 1.0x10
4
s
= 2.0x10
4

Period
1 2 3 4 5
T
a
,
o
C
0
5
10
15
20
25
s
= 0.5x10
4
s
= 1.0x10
4
s
= 2.0x10
4

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 6. The effect of structure time constant on; a) variation of air temperature, b) time
delay of air temperature, c) amplitude of air temperature

Time, t, h
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
S
t
r
u
c
t
u
r
e

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

T
s
,

K
270
275
280
285
290
295
300
305
s
= 0.5x10
4
s
= 1.0x10
4
s
= 2.0x10
4

Period
1 2 3 4 5
t
d
,
s
,
h
4
6
8
10
12
14
s
= 0.5x10
4
s
= 1.0x10
4
s
= 2.0x10
4

Period
1 2 3 4 5
T
s
,

o
C
0
5
10
15
20
25
s
= 0.5x10
4
s
= 1.0x10
4
s
= 2.0x10
4

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7. The effect of structure time constant on; a) variation of structure temperature, b)
time delay of structure temperature, c) amplitude of structure temperature
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

421

DISCUSSION

The obtained results clarify the effect of the periodically varying environmental temperature
on the other system variables. As seen on figures 2/a, 3/a and 4/a, water, air and structure
temperatures cannot reach the PSS condition up to 50 hours from the initiation of the heating
process. Corresponding time delay and magnitude variations are also take the same duration
to reach the PSS condition. As it expected, higher magnitude of external temperature creates
higher magnitudes on water air and structure temperatures. The magnitude effect of external
temperature is strong on the air and structure temperatures, but is weak on the water
temperature. Time delays of dependent temperatures shown on figures 2/b, 3/b and 4/b are
influenced by the magnitude of external temperature during the HU process and almost
independent from the magnitude level of the external temperature during the PSS process.
The magnitude effect of external temperature on the dependent temperature magnitudes is
shown on figures 2/c, 3c and 4/c. Unlike the time delay behavior, the magnitude variation of
external temperature is almost ineffective on the dependent temperature during the HU
process and quite effective during the PSS process. These effects are as follows: The smaller
external magnitude causes longer time delays during the HU process, and it creates lesser
magnitude during the PSS process.

Practical interpretation of above indication concludes that the HU process is more sensible to
the climate condition than the PSS process in terms of time delay of the system variables; the
water temperature, the air temperature and the structure temperature. On the other hand, the
HU process is less sensible to climate condition than the PSS process in terms of the
magnitudes of the system variables.

Figure 5 to 7 show the effect of the structure time constant on variation of the dependent
temperatures, the time delays and the magnitudes. Figures 5/a, 6/a and 7/a indicates that the
increasing time constant extends the HU process for all dependent temperatures. The effects
on the time delay are shown on figures 5/b, 6/b and 7/b. The higher time constants result in
higher time delays during the HU process and lesser during the PSS process for air and water
temperatures. Structure time constant effect on the structure time delay are proportional
almost both processes. Corresponding effects on the magnitude of dependent temperatures
are shown on figures 5/c, 6/c and 7/c. The magnitude of water temperature is almost
independent from the variation of the structure time constant during the PSS process. The
structure time constant has noticeable effect on the magnitudes of air and structure
temperatures.

As a final remark, material selection for the structural elements of a building is needed to be
taken into account in terms of shortened time delay and reduced magnitude concerns.

REFERENCES

1. Mendes, N., Oliveira, G. H. C. and Araujo, H. X., Building thermal performance analysis by
using matlab simulink, Seventh International IBPSA Conference, pp 473-480.
2. Antonopoulos, K. A. and C. Tzivanidis, A correlation for the thermal delay of buildings,
Renewable Energy, Vol. 6(7), pp.687-699.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

422

3. Antonopoulos, K. A. and C. Tzivanidis, Finite-difference prediction of transient indoor
temperature and related correlation based on the building time constant, International J ournal of
Energy Research, Vol. 20, pp. 507-520.
4. Antonopoulos, K. A. and Koronaki, E., Apparent and effective thermal capacitance of
buildings, Energy, Vol. 23(3), pp. 183-192.
5. Thelkeld, J . L., Thermal environmental engineering, Englewood, Cliffs, NJ , Prentice-Hall,
1070.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

423

CONTRIBUTION TO THE THERMAL RENOVATION OF OLD
BUILDINGS: NUMERICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH FOR
CHARACTERIZING A DOUBLE WINDOW

Mohamed El Mankibi
1
, Richard Cantin
1
, Riccardo Issoglio
1
,

1
University of Lyon, ENTPE, France

Corresponding email: mohamed.elmankibi@entpe.fr

SUMMARY

In a global context of climate change and greenhouse gas emissions, the construction sector
has a great potential for energy savings and environmental impact reduction. In particular,
nearly two-thirds of French buildings were built without any thermal regulation exists:
thermal renovation of these buildings is a priority. However, some of these buildings are
classified as "historical heritage remarkable architecture"; this strong constraint does not
allow the use of traditional renovation methods. Double window may be a solution of
renovation while respecting this constraint.
This study aims investigate this solution and characterize the thermal behavior of a double
window: a numerical thermal model is developed taking into account the heat and mass
transfer in the double window. A specific experimental platform has also been designed and
built in order to experimentally characterize the behavior of the double window and to
validate the numerical model. A simulations protocol was then defined and implemented in
order to outline the key parameters and therefore make recommendations for double window
implementation and their design.

INTRODUCTION

In France 65% of the buildings were built before 1975; the rehabilitation of these old
buildings plays an important role in energy and CO
2
emissions reduction strategies.
Architectural constraints and functional and urban constraints, prevents an optimal
rehabilitation of old buildings.
The goals of the research carried out at LGCB laboratory, are to:
Find rehabilitation solutions in order to obtain energy performance closer to new
buildings energy performance
Adapt actual constructions techniques to energy performance closer to new buildings
energy performance
In addition to these energy and societal considerations, researches in the field of rehabilitation
of existing buildings are encouraged by a lack of knowledge and procedures (Carlos, 2010).
Within the project ECBCS - Annex 36 of the International Energy Agency (IEA) dedicated to
the rehabilitation of school buildings, we have contributed to the development and the
adaptation to the French context of a decision making tool (ECA) (EL Mankibi, 2012). The
use of this tool has been useful to choose the orientation of future investigations on
rehabilitation.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

424

Some techniques are not consistent with the constraints of rehabilitation (facades, windows):
this led us to study the double windows and compact ventilation systems (French ANR
Habisol VABAT Projects).
The historic patrimony preservation represents a strong challenge in old buildings
rehabilitation: the appearance and external characteristics of the building must be maintained.
To avoid this problem, double windows are more frequently used: double windows
rehabilitation technique consists in the installation of an additional window inside the old
building; this solution is very interesting because keeps the old windows frames visible from
the outside.
The objectives of the research presented in this paper are the characterization of the thermo-
aeraulic behavior using a detailed model and an experimental characterization of different
configurations of the double window.

METHODS

A double window (Figure 21) consists in the combination of two windows spaced a few tens
of centimetres. The first window is old, typically a single glazed with wooden frame, the
second window is often a double glazed PVC window, placed in the inner side of the
building.

The platform used for the experimental characterization is called BECARE (Banc dEtude de
Composants Araulique et de leur Rgulation: Experimental facility to characterize thermal
and aeraulic behaviours of enclosure components).It is modified hot calibrated box. Its made
of a Plexiglas parallelepiped so air movements can be viewed. The inner volume is 3 m
3
(3 m
* 1 m * 1 m).

Figure 21: Exemples of doble window
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

425

BECARE can be used for:
ventilation air flow visualization
natural ventilation air flow measurements
experimental control of boundary conditions for the validation of numerical models
control of active components (heating and ventilation)
In addition to the data acquisition system (temperature sensors, relative humidity, CO
2
, air
velocity and pressure difference), BECARE is equipped with a control system which can
regulate the relative humidity, the CO
2
injection, the air flow rate and the sensible heat.
The platform was adapted to characterize the behaviour of a double window prototype. The
prototype contains spacers, so many configurations exists in order to test the influence of the
air gap thickness, the wall inertia and ventilation configurations (Figure 22). The spacers
allow varying the thickness of the air gap between 10 cm to 40 cm; the thermal inertia of the
opaque wall can be changed as it can be filled with sand, water or extruded polystyrene
(Figure 25).
The surfaces temperatures of opaque and glazed walls are measured by means of eight
temperature sensors; three temperature sensors and two air velocity sensors are installed into
the air gap (Figure 24); a projector simulates the solar radiation (Figure 23).

Figure 25 : Realization of spacers and variable thermal inertia
Figure 22 : BECARE platform for the study of double windows
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

426

The BECARE platform can test four different ventilation strategies by means of small holes
or larger openings (Figure 26).

An experimental protocol was created and implemented; 65 configurations were tested taking
a simple window as reference case. The average duration of each test was about 6 hours.

The results put in evidence some facts:
the type of window frame (PVC or wood) has a little influence
Increasing the thickness of the air cavity stabilizes the amplitude between the maximum
and the minimum value of air temperature
o Without ventilation and solar radiation the air temperature amplitude decreases
slightly with the thickness
o With ventilation the air temperature amplitude is constant
Figure 26 : Configurations of ventilation using the double window
Figure 4 : double window Figure 5 : projekteurs
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

427

o With radiation: the air temperature amplitude increased by 4 C from 10 cm
thickness to 30 cm thickness
In all configurations of the double window, the air
temperature amplitude is reduced by half filling with
sand the opaque wall (Figure 27)
The double window can improve the summer comfort
The double window has potential to reduce energy
consumptions

The Table 8 summarizes the design recommendation revealed by these tests.

Number of spacers Materials
No radiation no heating 2 Sand
radiation 2 Sand
Heating 1 Polystyrene
Heating + radiation 0 (open window) Polystyrene
Ventilation 1 Polystyrene
Ventilation + Radiation 2 Sand
Ventilation + Heating 3 Polystyrene
Heating + Ventilation + Radiation 3 Sand
Table 8: Summary test results
Thermal modeling of the enclosure of the double window
A three dimensional model of the double window was created. The models can handle simple
or double glazed windows, with different solar factors. The originality of the model (Figure
28) lies in the fact that considers the energy balance of each surface of the double window
inspired by a study of an urban canyon (Pignolet-Tardan et al 1997). As example, the
following equation (1) describes the inner surface of the external glass:

(1)

With:
Figure 27 Sand Spacer
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

428

: Volume of element 1
: Density of element 1
: Heat capacity of element 1
: Thermal conductivity of element 1
: Thickness of the glass 1
: Temperature of the outer surface 7
: Temperature of inner surface 1
: Air temperature of the enclosure
: Coefficient of convection
: Short wavelength radiation absorbed by surface 1
: radiation of the surface 1
: Emissivity of the surface 1

The heat balance of the air volume is described by the equation 2 :

(2)

The validation of this model was made using data from the experimental tests. The Figure 29
shows the relative errors comparing the numerical and experimental results for the air and the
surface temperature.
Figure 28 : model of the double window
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

429

CONCLUSION

The objective of the study was to experimentally and numerically characterize the behaviour
of a double window. The challenge is to propose solutions to rehabilitate existing buildings.
An experimental device was designed and created in order to test different configurations of
double windows; a numerical model has been developed in order to make parametric studies.
The first results showed the potential of the double window in terms of winter energy
performances and summer comfort.
Further studies are being carried out in other to improve the numerical model and test the
double window in real situation

REFERENCES

1. F. Pernodet Chantrelle., H. Lahmid., W. Keilholz., M. El Mankibi., and P. Michel. (2011).
Development of a multicriteria optimization tool for building refurbishment, Applied Energy
Vol 88, n4, p 1386 p 1394.
2. Mohamed. El Mankibi. (2012), Optimisation Multicritre et Gestion Globale des Btiments
Faibles Impacts, Habilitation Diriger des Recherches, Universit Claude Bernard LYON I.
3. Carlos J ., Helena Corvacho H., Pedro Da Silva. P.D. and Castro-Gomes. J .P., Modelling and
simulation of a ventilated double window, Applied Thermal Engineering, 31, pp. 93102, 2011.
4. Pignolet-Tardane F., Depecker P. and Gantina J .C., Modlisation du comportement thermique
dun espace urbain : calcul de la rponse en temprature des structures et de lair ambiant, 15
mai 1997. 13p.
Figure 29 : relative error comparison between numerical model and experimental measures
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

430

A SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF THE SHADING FACTOR FOR
BUILDING ENERGY PERFORMANCE

Ylenia Cascone
1
, Alfonso Capozzoli
1
, Vincenzo Corrado
1
and Valentina Serra
1

1
TEBE Research Group, Department of Energy, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy

Corresponding email: alfonso.capozzoli@polito.it

SUMMARY

A proper evaluation of shading is of great importance for predicting solar gains in buildings.
A correct design of shading systems can lead to sensitive energy savings especially during the
summer months. In this paper, in order to investigate how shading influences the building
energy need, a sensitivity analysis of the monthly shading factor was carried out. The
calculation of the shading factor was performed with a model capable of accounting for
complex boundary conditions, such as a horizon profile, generic-shaped obstructions and
vegetation. Through the ANOVA-FAST technique, the building design variables which have
the highest impact on the variance of the shading factor were evaluated for a set of urban
external contexts and geographic locations. The design variables that were considered for the
sensitivity analysis are related to the geometrical features of shadow-casting objects
(overhangs, fins, parts of the building itself, etc.). The geometry of surrounding buildings was
taken into account for the characterisation of the urban context. Results for all the orientations
showed that the design variables which should be carefully considered for the control of solar
gains through shading in buildings are mainly the distance and depth of an overhang. The
reveal depth plays an important role too, especially in a dense urban context.

INTRODUCTION

In the majority of countries around the world buildings require large amounts of energy both
for heating and cooling. Cooling loads due to solar gains represent about half of the global
cooling loads for residential and non-residential buildings [1]. In addition, the ratio of glazed
area on the total area of a buildings faade represents one of the most important variables
influencing the energy need for heating and cooling [2].
Since solar gains through windows contribute largely to these loads, any method which aims
at decreasing them through shading should be properly considered. Furthermore, since the
influence that solar gains have on the total energy balance can vary significantly during the
year, a full description of the role played by fixed shading and of how it affects the
management of movable shading devices would be necessary. In fact, decreasing cooling
loads by shading may drastically raise heating loads and vice versa. To correctly design
shading systems, a characterisation of the effects that shading has on the overall energy
requirements both for heating and cooling should be performed. For an accurate calculation of
solar heat gains in buildings, a detailed analysis would often be required and the urban context
in which the building is located should also be taken into account.
In this paper, the relative importance of permanent shading design variables was investigated
through a sensitivity analysis of the monthly shading factor. Using the ANOVA-FAST
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

431

technique, the design variables which have the highest impact on the variance of the monthly
shading factor were evaluated for a specific urban context, different geographic locations and
orientations.
The selected design variables allow to characterise the geometrical features of fixed shadow-
casting objects such as overhangs, fins, parts of the building itself, external part of the wall
where the glazed element is mounted, etc.
For each input design variable, a range of variation that covers most of the recurrent building
envelope design solutions was considered and a specific probability density function was
taken into account. Different configurations of the windows vertical position on the faade
were investigated.
To perform the sensitivity analysis, a significant number of representative cases (about 950)
was first generated for each configuration using FAST sampling technique. Each
configuration consisted of a set of input variables generated according to a uniform
probability distribution. The monthly shading factor was then calculated with a detailed
model [3]. Subsequently, the sensitivity analysis was performed by means of the ANOVA
(Analysis of Variance) technique [2], with the aim of assessing the contribution of each
design variable to the deviation of the monthly shading factor.
The aim of the sensitivity analysis is to provide designers and policy makers with a practical
way to identify the main design variables which affect fixed shading, improving in this way
the building design and the prediction of the effect that shadow-casting objects have on solar
gains throughout the year. The analysis focused on residential buildings.

METHODS

Description of ANOVA

The sensitivity analysis was carried out by generating a random sample of possible
combinations of input parameters that determine the monthly shading factor. The sample was
generated with SimLab 2.2 [4] and the sensitivity analysis was conducted using the ANOVA-
FAST technique [2, 5, 6].
The FAST method is based on a transformation that converts the variance of a variable Y,
which is a k-dimensional integral, to a single dimensional integral with respect to a scalar
variable s, by transforming each input factor X
i
into the form X
i
=G
i
sin(
i
s). The different
sensitivity indices can be evaluated for an appropriate set of transformation functions, G
i
, and
integer frequencies,
i
, by using the Monte Carlo method [6].
About 950 cases were generated for each configuration using a combination of input variables
and considering a variation for each of them within the ranges specified in Table 2.
The ANOVA technique was used to split the variance of the output variable between the
different input variables. The variance is a measure of the dispersion of the output variable,
represented in this case by the monthly shading factor.
Using this technique, the contribution of each input variable to the variability of the monthly
shading factor can be evaluated from a quantitative point of view. The effect of the
interactions between the input variables on the variability of the output can also be
investigated. Consequently, an analysis to assess the relevance of each input design variable
can be carried out. The ANOVA technique is based on the decomposition of the model
variance into:
a first order sensitivity index, SI
i
, caused by each input factor;
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

432

a second order sensitivity index, SI
i,j
caused by the interaction between any pair of
input factors i and j ( i), which cannot be explained by the sum of the individual
effects due to the two factors;
higher order sensitivity indices (SI
1ik
) caused by the interaction between more than
two factors.
Moreover, a total sensitivity index can be defined for each input variable, SIT
i
, which is the
sum of the first order sensitivity index of the factor under investigation and the higher
sensitivity indices involving the same variable.
Some of the effects on the output variable are caused by the interactions between the input
variables and are hence not explained by the first order index. The share due to mutual
interaction represents the portion of the variance of the monthly shading factor that is not due
to linear effects and which can therefore be interpreted as a measure of the nonlinearity of the
model. To account for both linear and nonlinear effects, the total order sensitivity index of
each variable is presented in this paper.

Description of the model

The shading factor is defined as the ratio of the global solar radiation received on a surface in
presence of shading obstacles on the global solar radiation received in their absence. Its
average value, with respect to a reference period, is given by:

r d b
r d m d b m b
m
H H H
H H Fs H Fs
Fs
+ +
+ +
=
, ,
, (1)

where Fs
b,m
and Fs
d,m
are, respectively, the average geometric shading coefficients for direct
and diffuse radiation.
The calculation of the shading factor was performed with a model capable of accounting for
complex boundary conditions, such as a horizon profile, generic-shaped obstructions and
vegetation. Anisotropy of sky was also taken into account but solar radiation reflected from
obstructions was evaluated in a simplified way.
The monthly shading factor was calculated by assuming its value coincident with the daily
shading factor of the average day of the month. For each month, the average day was
considered the one with average sun path, corresponding also to the one with average duration
of the day. The calculation time step was set to an hour. Further details on the shading factors
calculation model, which was developed in Matlab language [7], can be found in [3].
The inputs to the model which are not part of the sensitivity analysis are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Fixed inputs of the shading factor calculation model.
Inputs
Month
Location (latitude, longitude, altitude and time zone)
Ground albedo
Orientation, tilt angle and area of the window
Geometry of the surrounding buildings
Hourly monthly mean values of direct normal and horizontal diffuse irradiance

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

433

Selection of the design variables for the sensitivity analysis
The design variables that were considered for the sensitivity analysis are related to the
geometrical features of shadow-casting objects (overhangs, fins and parts of the building
itself). The geometry of surrounding buildings was taken into account for the characterisation
of the urban context. Each analysis was carried out for five orientations and three latitudes.
The chosen orientations are south, south-east/south-west, east/west, north-east/north-west and
north. The chosen locations are Madrid (40 N), Brussels (50 N) and Helsinki (60 N).

A set of urban contexts were assumed as fixed obstructions.
Context 1: isolated building. The analysed window belonged to a single-storey building with
no surroundings.
Context 2: uniform urban pattern. The analysis was carried out for a window at a time on the
first, forth and seventh floor of a seven-storey building surrounded by buildings of the same
height. The height of all buildings was 21 m.
All the buildings were assumed with a square base of side 12 m. The ratio of the height of the
buildings on the width of the street was set equal to 1.5, thus the width of the street was 14 m.
For each orientation, the urban pattern was assumed parallel to the plane of the window and
repeated four times perpendicularly to the window and four times for each side of the
window. Each combination of urban context, position of the window and orientation was
investigated for every location.

Solar radiation data sources were the EnergyPlus weather files for the selected cities. Hourly
monthly mean values of direct normal and horizontal diffuse irradiance were used as inputs. A
fixed albedo value of 0.15 was used for each simulation [8].

A few assumptions were made to characterise some fixed geometry values. The height of each
storey was set to 3.00 m and the thickness of the floor slabs was set to 0.30 m. The base of the
window was set 1.00 m above the floor surface and horizontally centred on the faade. Reveal
surface of the window, overhangs and fins were assumed as the investigated obstructions. The
role of overhang was given to a hypothetic balcony or ledge above the window. The role of
fin was given to a hypothetic protrusion of the building itself. For this reason, the fin was
assumed not to extend any higher than the top of the building. Reveal surfaces, overhangs and
fins were assumed perpendicular to the plane of the window.

Nine design variables were chosen for the analysis. Details on their range of variation and
distribution function are reported in Table 2.
Variable 1: window aspect ratio, W/H, which is the ratio of the width of the window on its
height. The area of the window was set to a constant value of 1.45 m which, according to the
fixed geometry assumptions, led to the maximum allowable height of the window with the
lowest W/H.
Variable 2: depth of the reveal, s, which represents the distance between the plane of the
window and the outer plane of the wall.
Variable 3: depth the overhang, W
o
, which is the distance of the outer edge of the overhang
from the plane of the window. For structural reasons, the maximum depth of the overhang
was set to 2.00 m.
Variable 4: distance of the overhang, D
o
, which is the distance between the overhang and the
highest edge of the window. Its maximum value is a function of how many storeys are above
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

434

the window. Hence, different limits were chosen for each configuration. Considering that
overhangs that are very far from the window would have a negligible influence on shading,
the maximum distance was set to 4.00 m (as if the balcony were two storeys above the
window). For windows on the highest floor or in the isolated building, the maximum distance
was set to 0.85 m, which is the distance between the floor slab and the top edge of the
window with the highest W/H. For lower values of W/H the presence of a small attic can be
hypothesised.
Variable 5: overhang extension ratio, W/W, which represents the ratio of the lateral
extension of the overhang beyond the vertical sides of the window on the width of the
window.
Variable 6: depth of the fin, W
f
, which is the distance of the outer edge of the fin from the
plane of the window. For comparison with the overhang, the maximum depth of the fin was
set to 2.00 m as well.
Variable 7: distance of the fin, D
f
, which is distance between the fin and the closest lateral
edge of the window. For comparison with the overhang, the maximum distance of the fin was
set to 4.00 m as well.
Variable 8: height of the fin, H
f
, which is the distance between the base of the window and
the highest edge of the fin. Different limits for each configuration were considered.
Variable 9: position of the fin, p
f
, which is a flag variable that indicates whether the fin is
placed on the right or left side of the window.

Table 2. Design variables and their range of variation.
Design variable Range of variation Unit Probability distribution
Window aspect ratio
Depth of reveal
Overhang depth
Overhang distance:
no storey above the window
three storeys above the window
six storeys above the window
Overhang extension ratio
Fin depth
Fin distance
Fin height:
no storey above the window
three storeys above the window
six storeys above the window
Fin position
[1/2:2]
[0:0.25]
[0:2]

[0:0.85]
[0:4]
[0:4]
[0:3]
[0:2]
[0:4]

[0:2]
[0:11]
[0:20]
[right, left]
-
m
m

m
m
m
-
m
m

m
m
m
-
uniform
uniform
uniform

uniform
uniform
uniform
uniform
uniform
uniform

uniform
uniform
uniform
uniform

Methodology

The sensitivity analysis was performed according to the following phases:
for each configuration, definition of the range of variation of each variable to cover a
wide range of building envelope design solutions (see Table 2);
definition of a probability density function for each input variable (see Table 2). A
uniform distribution was chosen so that every value between the bounds had an equal
probability to occur;
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

435

definition of fixed input parameters and boundary conditions of the simulations (see
Table 1);
generation of a matrix whose number of rows (n) corresponded to the number of cases
whereas the number of columns (k) corresponded to the number of input variables;
application of the shading factor calculation model to generate an output vector of the
values of the monthly shading factor with a number of rows equal to n;
evaluation of the total order sensitivity indices for each input variable by means of the
ANOVA-FAST analysis.

RESULTS

In general, results showed that the overhang was the kind of obstruction that led to the
greatest variance of the shading factor. For isolated buildings and for the highest floors, where
the range of variation of the overhang distance was limited, the overhang depth was the most
important variable for every orientation especially in summer (Figures 1 and 2). Although,
with the increase of the latitude, moving from south to east/west the importance of the
overhang depth decreased sensibly for the winter months.
For isolated context, the relative importance of the overhang distance tended to be
predominant in winter, especially for high latitudes and south exposition, whereas it dropped
during summer in favour of the overhang depth. Moving from south to north, the trend of the
total order index of the overhang distance throughout the months tended to flatten. In winter,
for expositions from south to east/west, the more the latitude increased the more the reveal
depth played an important role too. For north exposition and every location all the variables
showed a quite uniform trend during the year, with the exception of Madrid which presented a
decrease of the importance of the overhang depth in favour of the reveal depth during the
summer months. For expositions from east/west to north, the importance of the overhang
extension in Madrid gained some importance too. The fin related variables and the window
aspect ratio tended to have a negligible influence for all the orientations and locations.

Figure 1. Total order index for south exposition with isolated context in Madrid and Helsinki.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

436

Figure 2. Total order index for east exposition with isolated context in Madrid and Helsinki.

Results for the seventh floor of a seven-storey building were very similar to those of the
isolated building. A negligible influence of the urban context for the highest storeys in
buildings of dense cities, as well as for suburbs with low urban density and low buildings, was
hence observed.

Figure 3. Total order index for a window facing S on the first floor in Madrid and Helsinki.

Figure 4. Total order index for a window facing E on the first floor in Madrid and Helsinki.

Results for the forth and first floor of a seven-storey building (Figures 3 and 4) were instead
quite dissimilar from those of the isolated context. The relative importance of the overhang
distance was always predominant on the overhang depth and often comparable with that of
the reveal depth, especially in winter for orientations from south to east/west. This was also
due to its higher range of variation in comparison with the isolated context configuration.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

437

In winter, the more the latitude increased the more the fin depth played an important role too.
In Brussels and Helsinki the total order index of the fin depth was indeed always higher than
that of the overhang depth, with the only exception of the summer months for orientations
from south to east. In such cases, the importance of the overhang depth tended to be slightly
higher, although very similar to that of the fin depth. Rotating towards north, the annual
trends of all the variables tended to flatten. From the highest to the lowest, the total order
indices for north exposition were overhang distance, reveal depth, fin depth and overhang
depth for all the analysed locations. All the other variables had a negligible impact on the
variance of the shading factor. Only the overhang extension reached a total order index
greater than 0.2 for orientations east/west in winter and NE/NW during mid-season in Madrid.

It is important to notice that the variance of the shading factor decreases drastically due to the
effect of the urban context. Furthermore, the shading factor alone does not give information
on the absolute irradiance value (Figure 5).
When the sun path is so low that direct irradiance does not ever impinge on the window due
to the presence of the surrounding buildings, the effect of any obstruction is just that of hiding
the sky dome, hence to diminish the diffuse radiation reaching the window. In such an
occurrence, the presence of an overhang would cause that small portion of visible sky to be
hidden. The same would be in presence of reveal; although its small range of variation, it has
a strong influence on shading because its surfaces are placed on the edges of the window.

Figure 5. Effect of the urban context on the irradiances range of variation.

CONCLUSION

A sensitivity analysis to evaluate which design variables have the greatest impact on the
variance of the shading factor was carried out for a set of urban external contexts and
geographic locations. The analysis was performed by means of the ANOVA-FAST technique
and it focused on common fixed shading devices in residential buildings.
Results for all the orientations showed that the design variables which should be carefully
considered for the control of solar gains through fixed shading in buildings were mainly the
distance and depth of an overhang. The reveal depth played an important role too, especially
in a dense urban context. The range of variation of the irradiance reaching the window due to
the presence of shading devices decreases drastically due to the effect of surrounding
buildings especially during winter. In this circumstance, the fin depth gained importance too,
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

438

above all in Brussels and Helsinki. Moving from south to north, the annual trends of the total
order index of all the variables tended to flatten.
Future work will analyse how the variance of the shading factor influences the building
energy need for heating and cooling. Furthermore, an optimisation will be performed taking
into account also the energy need for lighting.

REFERENCES

1. Gouri D. 2001. Effect of fixed horizontal louver shading devices on thermal performance of
building by TRNSYS simulation. Renewable Energy. Vol. 23, pp 497-507.
2. Mechri, H E, Capozzoli, A, and Corrado, V. 2010. Use of the ANOVA approach for sensitive
building energy design. Applied Energy. Vol. 87, pp 3073-3083.
3. Cascone, Y, Corrado, V, and Serra, V. 2011. Calculation procedure of the shading factor under
complex boundary conditions. Solar Energy. Vol. 85, pp 2524-2539.
4. J RC. 2002. European Commission J oint Research Centre. <http://simlab.jrc.ec.europa.eu>.
5. Fang, S, George, Z, et al. 2003. Improved generalized Fourier amplitude sensitivity test for
model assessment, Statistics and Computing, Vol 13, pp 221-226.
6. Saltelli, A, Chan, K, and Scott, E M. 2000. Sensitivity analysis: gauging the worth of scientific
models. J ohn Wiley & Sons.
7 MATLAB. 2011. Users Guide. MATLAB R2011a, The MathWorks Inc.
8. Chimklai, P, Hagishima, A, and Tanimoto, J . 2004. A computer system to support Albedo
Calculation in urban areas. Building and Environment. Vol. 39, pp 1213-1221.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

439

PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS AND ADVANCED EXPERIMENTAL
DEVICE TO IMPROVE MOROCCAN PUBLIC BUILDINGS ENERGY
EFFICIENCY

Nezha Elbied
1
, Mohamed El Mankibi
2
, Zineb Benmoussa
1
, Abdellah Bouhouche
1,

Abdelouahab Bakadiri
1,
Nour Eddine Mahfoud
1
, Amine Elkahhak
1
, Ricardo Issoglio
2
.

1
Direction des Equipment Publics, Hay Nahda 2, Rabat, Morocco
2
Universit de Lyon, Lyon, F-69003, France, Ecole Nationale des Travaux Publics de lEtat,
Laboratoire Gnie Civil et Btiment, 3, rue Maurice Audin, Vaulx-en-Velin, F-69120, France
Corresponding email: nelbied@mtpnet.gov.ma
SUMMARY
The purpose of this study is to calibrate the simulation model of a building on two
cities (Ifrane and Marrakech), improve it by integrating scenario (heating scenario in winter)
and show the effect of the integration of an insulator on the order of power consumption, and
then show the impact of experimental results on the accuracy of simulation results. A parallel
study in-situ diagnostic is made to characterize the thermal condition of the building studied.

So, a real residential building has been instrumented during one year in order to collect
data and calibrate a TRNSYS [1] thermal model. Once validated, this model has been used to
lead a parametric study. Finally, another real scale advanced experimentation called DEFI
will be used for the characterization of occupants behavior, shading devices and natural
ventilation strategies, and its impact on buildings performance.
INTRODUCTION
Climate cutting Morocco for comfort winter is based on the concept of
heating degree days (HDD), and the reference value is taken equal to 18 C. The
study by the Public Laboratory for Testing and Public Studies (LPEE
Laboratoire Public dEssais et des Etudes) carved Morocco into four main areas
in winter, when cutting climate in summer is based on the temperature dry base,
and its carved in three areas, as shown in the following map:

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

440

Winter Summer

Area 1 : HDD >1300
Area 2 : 900 <HDD <1300
Area 3 : 500 <HDD <900
Area 4 : HDD <500

HDD : heating degree days

Area A : T
b
35C
Area B : 35C < T
b
38C
Area C : T
b
>38C

T
b
: Temperature dry base

Figure 1: Climatic zoning of Morroco [1]
The choice of cities is done in such a way to see an extreme climate,
Ifrane city is characterized by a cold climate in winter when the city of
Marrakech is characterized by a warm climate in summer.
METHODS
The study is focused on a real residential building consists of a living room, two
bedrooms, a kitchen, a bathroom, a toilet, corridor and courtyard.
Seven sensors of temperature and humidity in the building are installed to cover the
sets of defined areas.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

441

Figure 2: Installing temperature sensors
A diagnosis is made for an infrared camera to see an idea about the thermal attrition.

Figure 3: Loss of heating (children's room)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

442

The figures above show a photograph of the exterior of the house and its thermal
picture. The latter provides an example of lack of insulation losses inducing significant
heating (yellow part of the wall) in the children's room. The heating being stuck to the wall,
the power output is dissipated directly into the wall (not isolated) which explains the cold
discomfort felt by the occupants of the room.

Figure 4: Thermal bridges revealed by thermal camera

The infrared camera tests also revealed significant problems with thermal bridges.
The simulation is done using the TRNSYS software (figure below), and is generated
by ambient parameters Meteonorm. Except temperature which was built from the results of
thermal sensors.

Figure 5: Assembly Types with TNSYS
The rooms were grouped into seven thermal zones:
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

443

Figure 6: Thermal areas
RESULTS
1- Themodel calibration
After modeling the building, the comparison of the simulation temperature results and
those of the experiment temperature (From 1
the
March to 15
the
April), as the following
(Example: sitting room and bedroom)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

444

Figure 7: Comparison of experimental and simulated temperature of sitting room (From 1
the
March to 15
the
April)

Figure 8: Comparison of experimental and simulated temperature of the childrens bedroom
(From 1
the
March to 15
the
April)
We usually notice a difference between the simulated and experimental temperature of the
order of 3 C.
The results before and after improve integrating the heating scenario, as noted below into the
hall for a period of winter:

0
3
10
13
20
23
1
4
1
6
.
1
7

1
4
4
8
.
6
7

1
4
8
1
.
1
7

1
3
1
3
.
6
7

1
3
4
6
.
1
7

1
3
7
8
.
6
7

1
6
1
1
.
1
7

1
6
4
3
.
6
7

1
6
7
6
.
1
7

1
7
0
8
.
6
7

1
7
4
1
.
1
7

1
7
7
3
.
6
7

1
8
0
6
.
1
7

1
8
3
8
.
6
7

1
8
7
1
.
1
7

1
9
0
3
.
6
7

1
9
3
6
.
1
7

1
9
6
8
.
6
7

2
0
0
1
.
1
7

2
0
3
3
.
6
7

2
0
6
6
.
1
7

2
0
9
8
.
6
7

2
1
3
1
.
1
7

2
1
6
3
.
6
7

2
1
9
6
.
1
7

2
2
2
8
.
6
7

2
2
6
1
.
1
7

2
2
9
3
.
6
7

2
3
2
6
.
1
7

2
3
3
8
.
6
7

2
3
9
1
.
1
7

2
4
2
3
.
6
7

2
4
3
6
.
1
7

2
4
8
8
.
6
7

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
n

C

Comparison of simulated and experimental temperature
SlmulaLed LemperaLure
LxperlmenLal LemperaLure
0
3
10
13
20
23
30
1
4
1
6
.
1
7

1
4
4
8
.
6
7

1
4
8
1
.
1
7

1
3
1
3
.
6
7

1
3
4
6
.
1
7

1
3
7
8
.
6
7

1
6
1
1
.
1
7

1
6
4
3
.
6
7

1
6
7
6
.
1
7

1
7
0
8
.
6
7

1
7
4
1
.
1
7

1
7
7
3
.
6
7

1
8
0
6
.
1
7

1
8
3
8
.
6
7

1
8
7
1
.
1
7

1
9
0
3
.
6
7

1
9
3
6
.
1
7

1
9
6
8
.
6
7

2
0
0
1
.
1
7

2
0
3
3
.
6
7

2
0
6
6
.
1
7

2
0
9
8
.
6
7

2
1
3
1
.
1
7

2
1
6
3
.
6
7

2
1
9
6
.
1
7

2
2
2
8
.
6
7

2
2
6
1
.
1
7

2
2
9
3
.
6
7

2
3
2
6
.
1
7

2
3
3
8
.
6
7

2
3
9
1
.
1
7

2
4
2
3
.
6
7

2
4
3
6
.
1
7

2
4
8
8
.
6
7

T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

i
n

C

Comparison of simulated and experimental temperature
SlmulaLed LemperaLure
LxperlmenLal LemperaLure
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

445

Before After

Figure 9: Result of temperature before and after integration of the heating scenario in a hall
The difference between the simulated and experimental temperature of is reduced to 2 C

2- Impact of insulation on energy consumption

Now after model calibration, we integrate an insulator (polyurethane), with a thickness
of 0.06 m [2], to see the order of difference in energy consumption over the period of a month
and a half in winter (From 1
the
March to 15
the
April).
Experimental Simulated temperature
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

446

Figure 10: Needs heating with and without insulation in winter (From 1
the
March to
15
the
April).
The same for the summer period in Marrakech, the following results were obtained for the
cooling requirements

Figure 11: Cooling need with and without insulation in summer (From 1
the
March to
15
the
April).

0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1
4
1
6

1
4
4
8
.
3

1
4
8
1

1
3
1
3
.
3

1
3
4
6

1
3
7
8
.
3

1
6
1
1

1
6
4
3
.
3

1
6
7
6

1
7
0
8
.
3

1
7
4
1

1
7
7
3
.
3

1
8
0
6

1
8
3
8
.
3

1
8
7
1

1
9
0
3
.
3

1
9
3
6

1
9
6
8
.
3

2
0
0
1

2
0
3
3
.
3

2
0
6
6

2
0
9
8
.
3

2
1
3
1

2
1
6
3
.
3

2
1
9
6

2
2
2
8
.
3

2
2
6
1

2
2
9
3
.
3

2
3
2
6

2
3
3
8
.
3

2
3
9
1

2
4
2
3
.
3

2
4
3
6

2
4
8
8
.
3

H
e
a
t
i
n
g

n
e
e
d

i
n

K
W
h

Comparison of heating need
WlLhouL lnsulauon
WlLh lnsulauon
0
30
100
130
200
230
300
330
4
3
6
8

4
3
9
0
.
6
7

4
4
1
3
.
3
3

4
4
3
6

4
4
3
8
.
6
7

4
4
8
1
.
3
3

4
3
0
4

4
3
2
6
.
6
7

4
3
4
9
.
3
3

4
3
7
2

4
3
9
4
.
6
7

4
6
1
7
.
3
3

4
6
4
0

4
6
6
2
.
6
7

4
6
8
3
.
3
3

4
7
0
8

4
7
3
0
.
6
7

4
7
3
3
.
3
3

4
7
7
6

4
7
9
8
.
6
7

4
8
2
1
.
3
3

4
8
4
4

4
8
6
6
.
6
7

4
8
8
9
.
3
3

4
9
1
2

4
9
3
4
.
6
7

4
9
3
7
.
3
3

4
9
8
0

3
0
0
2
.
6
7

3
0
2
3
.
3
3

3
0
4
8

3
0
7
0
.
6
7

3
0
9
3
.
3
3

C
o
o
l
i
n

N
e
e
d

i
n

K
W
h

Comparaison of cooling need
WlLhouL lnsulauon
WlLh lnsulauon
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

447

3- The impact of the experimental results on the results of the simulation
Now we will show the impact of the experimental results on the results of the
simulation (by integrating the actual outside temperature instead of the temperature generated
by Metenorm)

Figure 12 : Comparison of cooling need by using the experimental results and those
of Metenorm
We note that we use the results of Meteonorm, we receive an underestimation of
cooling requirements.
DISCUSSION
Inserting scenario heating improve the model calibration. The insertion of insulation
contributes to the reduction of energy consumption, but for an effective assessment the
experimental results are very important for the accuracy of the simulated results.
A project called DEFI is located in a city in Morocco characterized by a hot summer and a
cold climate in winter to control all the parameters that can intervene in improving the energy
consumption. Our example in this article is limited to the integration of the temperature. DEFI
project is beyond of that, and even integrate a advanced experimental values ( like the solar
radiation, Wind speed ).
ACNOWLDGEMENT
This project is part of a partnership between the Moroccan Ministry of Equipment and
Transport and the National School of Public Works of France. Financing of the project is
made by Moroccan Ministry of Equipment and Transport
0
30
100
130
200
230
300
330
4
3
6
8

4
3
9
2
.
1
7

4
4
1
6
.
3
3

4
4
4
0
.
3

4
4
6
4
.
6
7

4
4
8
8
.
8
3

4
3
1
3

4
3
3
7
.
1
7

4
3
6
1
.
3
3

4
3
8
3
.
3

4
6
0
9
.
6
7

4
6
3
3
.
8
3

4
6
3
8

4
6
8
2
.
1
7

4
7
0
6
.
3
3

4
7
3
0
.
3

4
7
3
4
.
6
7

4
7
7
8
.
8
3

4
8
0
3

4
8
2
7
.
1
7

4
8
3
1
.
3
3

4
8
7
3
.
3

4
8
9
9
.
6
7

4
9
2
3
.
8
3

4
9
4
8

4
9
7
2
.
1
7

4
9
9
6
.
3
3

3
0
2
0
.
3

3
0
4
4
.
6
7

3
0
6
8
.
8
3

3
0
9
3

C
o
o
l
i
n
g

n
e
e
d

i
n

K
W
h

Comparison of cooling need
wlLh experlmenLal LemperaLure
WlLh meLenorm LemperaLure
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

448

REFERENCES
[1] TRNSYS Version 17 (A TRaNsient SYstems Simulation), an extremely flexible
graphically based software environment used to simulate the behavior of transient systems
[2] Carte de dcoupage climatique au Maroc , Avril 2002, LPEE
[3] Les lments techniques du projet de la rglementation thermique du btiment au Maroc
(RTBM) , Agence Nationale pour le Dveloppement des Energies Renouvelables et de lEfficacit
Energtique (ADEREE)
[4] Metenorm version 6, a comprehensive meteorological reference.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

449

THE NEED FOR RENEWABLE ENERGY FOR TURKEY AND THE
LATEST DEVELOPMENTS IN HEAT PUMPS

Turgay Yay
1
, Muhammed Mehdi Tayz
2
1
Consulting Sales Department Manager, Daikin Turkey
2
Consulting Sales Engineer, Daikin
Turkey
t.yay@daikin.com.tr, mehdi.tasyuz@daikin.com.tr

SUMMARY
International communitiessignedthe Kyoto protocolin order to stabilizegreenhouse
gasintensity (2005). EUcountrieshavedecided collective action on this issue, to implement
the20-20-20policyby the year 2020(2007). All EU countriesannouncedtheiractions on
thissubjectbytheyear 2010. Thus, in Europe,the 20-20-20 policythataimed 20% reductionin
greenhouse gas emissions, 20% increase of energy efficiencyand renewableenergy usewas
adopted. All of thesegoalswill be realized in 2020. Turkeywill be one of
thecountriesthatmostaffectedbyclimatechange,
energysourcesforthefuturestrategyshoulddeterminedaccordinglythissituation.
Inthisstudy,
Theimportance of renewableenergyforTurkeywasexplained.
Alsothelatestdevelopments in heatpumpswerediscussed.
(Variablerefrigeranttemperature, continuousheatingduringdefrost)
Theuse of heatpumps in industrialcoolingprocesswasdescribed.
Thedevelopments of airtowaterheatpumptechnologieswasexplained.

Keywords: Renewableenergy, heatpumps, globalwarming, efficiency.

1. INTRODUCTION

The globaltemperature risewillcausesea level rise, glaciersmeltand unusualweather conditions.
Increasing concentrations ofgreenhouse gasesinthe atmosphere is thereal reason of global
warming. 20-20-20 policy implemented in various ways, for example, volunteer programs
such as Eco-label is to promote the best products with high energy efficiency and energy
savings higher than the level of the entire market is prepared to direct mandatory programs.
EcoDesign directive is an example of mandatory programs.
Going back to Turkey proper, with the effect of climate change, especially the reduction of
water resources, drought, desertification, forest fires and the resulting ecological degradation
observed. The dams are built on our rivers, rivers and lakes used for transport, water ecology
is disturbing.
GLOBAL WARMING
For Eastern Mediterranean basin, Turkey will be one of the countries that most affected by
climate change.Due to global warming, the temperatures will increase (1C -3C) in 90% of
our country. As a result of this, vegetation and water resources will be damaged. Due to the
effects of greenhouse gas, up to 25% reduction of water resources and up to 2,5% decrease in
the production of agricultural products is expected. In order to reduce the effects of global
warming in Turkey, energy conservation and energy efficiency, renewable energy
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

450

technologies, with a maximum benefit of Turkey in the future, will be strategic facilities. To
do this, in Turkey, efficient use of energy, the development of new projects and companies to
provide these services should be encouraged.
With the energy performance of buildings(EPB) regulation in Turkey (May 2010), the EU
member states, such as solar, wind, geothermal energy and heat pumps were included in the
renewable energy sources. Significant progress in reducing greenhouse gas emissions of
climate-friendly technologies, developments in the past five years has shown more quickly
than expected. In simple terms, the EUs targets are aimed at reducing the amount of energy
consumed, reducing the use of fossil and other natural mineral fuels used in the production of
energy, and the reduction of the amount of greenhouse gases (particularly CO2 and water
vapour) produced. And if we are to be successful in doing this, then new regulations,
production and performance standards, and energy usage rules will be needed.[1]
The EU has not been slow in recognizing this need. New directives have been developed and
issued on the subject of energy labelling of domestic appliances this must show the true
energy usage of equipment across the whole year: for air-conditioning equipment this
includes the introduction of a Seasonal Energy Efficiency Rating (ESEER) energy efficiency
in buildings to reduce their impact on the environment through improved insulation, improved
heating and lighting systems and the increased use of renewable energy sources
environmental performance of products throughout their life-cycle by the systematic
integration of environmental aspects at a very early stage in the product design fluorinated
greenhouse gases (F-gas) and ozone depleting substances which aim to phase out certain
refrigerants and tighten up on the checks needed to ensure that such gases are not being
leaked into the atmosphere and contributing to the greenhouse effect.[2]

AIR TO AIR HEAT PUMPS VRF SYSTEMS
VRF systemis high-efficiencytransmissionsystem, due to thehigh thermalefficiency of
refrigerantand by not using the pump. VRFheat pumpsystemscan
reachover7ESEER,forheatrecoveryseries 9 or 10ESEERcan be possible.
The term variable refrigerant flow refers to the ability of the system to control the amount of
refrigerant flowing to each of the evaporators, enabling the use of many evaporators of dif-
fering capacities and configurations, individualized comfort control, simultaneous heating and
cooling in different zones, and heat recovery from one zone to another. This refrigerant flow
control lies at the heart of VRF systems and is the major technical challenge as well as the
source of many of the systems advantages. Thanks to the building management system,
energy consumption can be shared. [3]
LATEST DEVELOPMENTS IN VRF SYSTEMS
a) VRT (VARIABLE REFRIGERANT TEMPERATURE)
Up to now for all VRF industry, evaporation temperature is constant (6C). But with the new
technology, refrigerant temperature can be controlled automatically depending on the outside
temperature an internal loads. Today, the evaporation temperaturecan be
adjustedbetween6Cand 11C. Thus,at partial loads, compressor can be runhigher
evaporationtemperature condition in order toprovidethe comfort. Herewith,
lessenergyconsumption andmore efficiencyis provided.The refrigeranttemperature
(blowingtemperature) can beautomaticallyadjusted.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

451

Figure 1.Variable Refrigerant Temperature

Lowercapacityneeds in themiddle of theseasonandtherequiredheatload is
adjustedwithvariablerefrigerantflow rate anddepending on theweatherandload,
automaticadjustment of refrigeranttemperature.

Figure 2.Variable Refrigerant Temperature on Mollier Curve

Variablerefrigeranttemperaturesystembalancestheefficiencyandtheheatload.
Thisgraphshowstheenergysavewhenevoparationtemperature is changed.
b) CONTINIOUS HEATING DURING DEFROST
In the outdoor unit, there is heat store that includes phase exchanger material. During the
normal heating, cycle passing through the heat store and the phase exchanger takes into heat
and stores. When the refrigerant cools down during defrost, this material emits heat stores.
This heat solves the defrost of outdoor units and it also provides the continuation of heating
from indoor units. Minimum 25C temperature provided for each indoor unit and thanks to
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

452

this technology, indoor comfort is maintained. Thanks to new developments, the efficiency
and the use of renewable energy are increased. [4]

THE USE OF HEAT PUMPS IN INDUSTRIAL COOLING PROCESS
Food retailing in a state of change, some development trends;Increased competition,
expansion, take-overs and restructuring, redeployment in the shop product portfolio in J apan,
UK, Belgium from the supermarket to the convenience store. As a result increased
environmental requirements;

The climate change awareness and increased pressure of consumers and governments has
pushed the refrigeration industry and the food retailing companies to adopt energy efficient
and environmental friendly solutions and development of corner shops and convenience
stores also led to higher sound emission constraints in the city centers, as well as space
issues.In this new market environment, companies has developed a range of compact
refrigeration condensing units, combining performance, low energy running cost and low
sound emissions.Up to now systems for normal/deep-freeze refrigeration and air
conditioning/heating have been separated from one another, but today companies integrated
them in a total solution.
In this application, air conditioning requirements ofthe site orcabinetsremedied bya single
systemandthankstothissystem, efficiencyincreasedandoperating costs reduced.[5]

Figure 3.Up to now systems for normal/deep-freeze refrigeration and air conditioning/heating
have been separated from one another.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

453

Figure 4. In new system, some manufacturers integrated them ina total solution.It makes % 36
energy saving according to the figure 3 (for 6 months winter period). And it also
provideapproximetly 5 years payback period.[6]

AIR TO WATER HEAT PUMPS

People are becoming more aware of the cost of heating. Traditional heating systems and
boilers use fossil fuels, making them an expensive and not sustainable option for the
environment. Since heat pumps consume less energy than traditional heating systems, they
also generate less CO2 emissions. Air to water and air to air heat pumps use energy from
renewable sources: the ambient air. These energy sources are renewable and inexhaustible. Of
course, heat pumps also need energy to function (mostly electricity), but increasingly this
electricity can also be generated from renewable energy sources (solar energy, wind energy,
hydropower, biomass)
In less than a decade practically all properly insulated buildings from Italy to Norway will be
heated with heat pumps. Millions of heat pumps have already been installed in residential and
commercial applications.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

454

Figure 5. Simple system scheme of Altherma

Air to water heat pumps are more eco-friendly, energy efficient and cost conscious. There is a
growing demand from home owners for replacement of heating systems, especially the
replacement of gas boilers, with more efficient, more cost effective and more environmentally
friendly systems that reduce CO2 emissions, reduce energy consumption and protect the end-
users budget. In combination with solar collectors some of air to water heat pumps, uses
thermal energy from the sun which will keep up its good work for another five billion years.
[6]

Figure 6. CO2 emissions for the a sample villa*

* Assumptions; The required thermal energy is 26.659kWh, Villa is located in Istanbul. Conditioned surface is
165 m
2
. Consumed electric energy is 7.807 kWh.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

455

The graph shows a comparison of the annual CO2 emissions for air to water heat pump, an
electric heating system, a gas boiler and an oil boiler sized to cover the yearly heat load for
the simulated building.

Figure 7. Air to water heat pump simple system scheme

Neither air to water heat pump nor the electric heater will have any direct emissions. The
emission from these systems is based on calculations according to the average CO2 emission
from the selected country's electricity production.
Today, outdoor units extracts heat from the outdoor air, even at -25 C. The outdoor unit
extracts heat from the ambient outdoor air.
This heat is transferred to the indoor unit via refrigerant piping. The indoor unit receives the
heat from the outdoor unit andfurther increases the temperature, allowing water temperatures
up to 80C for heating through radiators and for domestic hot water use. There is a new
technology that is known cascade compressor system to the heat pumps (one in the outdoor
unit/one in the indoor unit) means optimum comfort at even the coldest outdoor temperatures,
without the need for an electric heater.
Providing total climate control in such places as schools, hospitals, libraries, spas, gyms and
hotels presents particular challenges in that there are frequently a large number of rooms of
greatly varying sizes that need heating and cooling while, at the same time large volumes of
hot water are also needed. Some air to water heat pump brands range is designed with these
sorts of challenges. Each outdoor unit can be linked to up to ten indoorunits with each indoor
unit being individually controlled to enable the perfect comfort temperature to be maintained
at all times.
In addition, by making integrated and optimal use of VRF, cascade and heat pump
technologies, the system efficiently generates hot water in both heating and cooling modes.

WATER TO AIR HEAT PUMPS

In cooling .mode, indoor units carries the heat from indoor to condensers, in this section the
heat is transferred the water cycle. Due to the gas transmits the heat to the water, it condenses
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

456

and turns into liquid phase and the heat in water cycle is transferred to the ambient by the
cooling tower.

Figure 8.Water cooled VRF simple system scheme

Watercooledheatpumpsystemsareone of themostefficient,
environmentallyfriendlywaystoheatandcoolbuildingsbecauseeachunitrespondsspecificallytoth
eheatingorcoolingload oftheindividualzone it serves.Heat is absorbedbythewater in
theheatingmodeandboilersupportsoutdoorunits. Itkeepswatertemperature minimum 10C.
Herewith, watertoairheat transfer is completed. Theinterestingpoint,at thesame time
bothheatingandcoolingcan be necessary.When there is such a requirement, in the refrigerant
circuit and the water circuit, thedoubleheatrecovery is performed.At this point, the main heat
sources (cooling tower, boiler), will be usedmoreeconomically. Thesesystemsare ideal
forofficebuildings, hotels, health care facilities, schools, condominiums and apartments. The
benefits are outstanding - excellent comfort, better efficiency and lower operating
costs.Inadditiontothe normal air-cooled systems, due to the double heat recovery of the water
circuit that can be reached 10 or11 ESEER.

CONCLUSION
Heat pumps are renewable energy sources that use the energy from ground, water or air. With
the heat from these sources, heat pumps reduce the influence of greenhouse gas and they also
provide less CO2 emissions.
Foreign countries dependent natural gas requirements of our country (7 billion $) will be
reduced and will make a positive contribution to the our economy.Therefore, heat pumps
should be included in government incentive programs, for the producer and the consumer.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

457

REFERENCES

[1] Kyoto protocol documents, 2005
[2] Energy performance of buildings directive, 2008
[3] Daikin general catalogue, 2013
[4] VRF IV databook, 2013
[5] The use of heat pumps in industrial cooling process, Daikin Europe documents, 2012
[6] Daikin heating catalogue, 2013
[7] EU objective COM (2008) /30 final
[8] 2004 ASHRAE Handbook, Section 45.9

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

458

VALIDATION OF THE STOCHASTIC MODELS TO GENERATE
ACTUAL OCCUPANCY BEHAVIOR SCHEDULES FOR ACCURATE
PREDICTION OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION

GUERNOUTI Sihem
1
, LE GUEN Solenn
2
, El MANKIBI Mohamed
3
and HUMBERT
Myriam
1

1
CETE de louest - France
2
DGEC France
3
ENTPE - France

Corresponding email: sihem.tasca-guernouti@developpement-durable.gouv.fr

SUMMARY

A large number of simulation tools are available for the estimation of a buildings energy
consumption. Nevertheless, several studies show that there are significant discrepancies
between measured and calculated energy consumptions. It is therefore necessary to reliably
estimate the fluctuations in energy consumption. The stochastic variables linked to the climate
and to the behaviour of the buildings occupants have important influences on those
fluctuations. While climate data are available by measures with a correct accuracy,
corresponding data linked to the occupant in all its stochastic activities are still lacking. The
aim of this work is to evaluate how the existing occupancy stochastic models can contribute
to a better accuracy in the prediction of energy consumption. The algorithms tested concern
the occupancy hours and rate, use of blinds, artificial Lighting and windows. To calibrate the
tested models, the occupancy is monitored on existing buildings. The monitoring results are
compared to the tested models.

INTRODUCTION

A large number of simulation tools are available for the estimation of a buildings energy
consumption (such as TRNSYS or ENERGYPLUS). These tools may produce yearly profiles
of the energy needed by a building, for heating, cooling, lighting and ventilation as well as for
hot water and electrical appliances. Nevertheless, several studies show that there are
significant discrepancies between measured and calculated energy consumptions by these
simulation tools (1). It is therefore necessary to reliably estimate the fluctuations in energy
consumption. A study of 290 homes with the same size in Denmark (2) has showed that the
heating consumption had a very large range of variation. The highest recorded consumption is
twenty times greater than the lowest. This study shows the significant impact which have
occupants on buildings energy consumption. The stochastic variables linked to the climate
and to the behaviour of the buildings occupants have important influences on those
discrepancies. While climate data are available by measures with a correct accuracy,
corresponding data linked to the occupant in all its stochastic activities are still lacking. The
aim of this work is to adapt and to implement a method to realistically model the behaviour of
the occupants of an office building. Thus, the aim would be to replace the standard patterns of
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

459

occupants currently used in thermal simulation tools with those obtained using the proposed
method of occupancy assessment. This, to try to reduce the discrepancies between calculated
and measured consumptions.

STATE OF THE ART

Lightswitch model has been the first program which had developed stochastic modelling of
occupants presence. Newscham (3) and Reinhart (4) have assumed that office building
occupants had times of departure and arrival distributed more or less 15 minutes around the
office schedules. A recent study by Page (5) detailed the randomness of occupants presence
by using a more sophisticated stochastic process: Markov chain. This process is used to
determine the system state only from the previous state through the transition probabilities.
The developed model in this paper is based on this approach. Lightswitch 2002 (4) algorithm
allows predicting electric lighting use based on probabilistic behavioural patterns. It use the
models developed by Hunt (6), Pigg (7) and Reinhart and Voss (8) respectively for the arrival,
departure and the intermediate occupants presence. The blind control is also modelling with
this algorithm. The main limit of the blind control model is that they can be opened only once
a day. Haldi (9) uses Markov chain for more realistic modelling of these actions (light and
blind controls). Fritsch (10) developed the first mathematical model to predict the windows
state (window openings). He implemented a Markov model with transition probabilities
between six states corresponding to different classes of windows opening angles without
considering the outside temperature. Herkel [ (11), (12)] proposed sub-models of actions
depending on the arrival, the intermediate presence and departure of the occupants. However,
these sub-models consider outdoor temperature as the driving stimulus. But, these sub-models
can generate probabilities greater than 1. Haldi (9) developed a hybrid model combining
Markov chains with the prediction of a magnitude of the action in terms of opening time. This
approach will be used in the present work.

MODELLING OF OCCUPANTS PRESENCE
Page (5) has developed an occupancy model. This model uses Markov chain with four
transition functions:
T
01
: the probability that the occupant being present knowing that he is absent.
T
00
: the probability that the occupant stays absent.
T
10
: the probability that the occupant being absent knowing that he is present
T
11
: the probability that the occupant stays present.
For each step-time, the Monte Carlo method will be applied to the probability of state change
depending on occupants presence or not. A random number will be compared to this
probability. So, if it exceeds that number, we consider that the occupant will change it state: it
will be absent if he was present and vice versa. This model allows treating the event that the
occupant takes a long absence period. It means an absence more than 24 hours but that does
not correspond to a weekend. This treatment of long absences assumed additional input data.
In the model of Page, there were four main data:
- the probability profile of weekly presence,
- the mobility parameter. It means, the ratio between the sum of the probabilities of
changing state and the sum of the probabilities of staying in the same condition,
- the long absence number,
- the distribution of durations of long absence periods.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

460

In this work, we deal with long absences in a different manner from Page. We chose to use
the distribution of intervals between long periods of absence; while Page used the occurrence
of these periods. Otherwise, we have also changed the algorithm. Initially, at the beginning of
each step-time, we checked if the occupant decides to begin a long absence period, but by
doing that these periods occurred too often. So we moved this checking in the time of
departure of the occupant.

MODELLING OF BLINDS USAGE
For the prediction of blinds usage, we used the model developed by Haldi (9). This model
used the Markov chain by making difference between the arrival and the intermediate
presence of the occupant. This implies four probabilities transition. The used model requires
the indoor luminance data on the work plan. However, it varies with the fraction of the
window obscured by the shading device. It was therefore necessary to calculate it at each
step-time of simulation based on the percentage of down blinds. The indoor luminance can be
achieved through the daylight factor DF. It is the ratio of indoor light level to outdoor light. It
is defined as follows:
E
E

E
E
E
E
DF
diffuse ext,
diffuse window, vertical,
diffuse window, vertical,
int
diffuse ext,
int
= = (1)
For uniform and covered sky conditions, the diffuse irradiance ratio on the vertical window to
the outdoor diffuse luminance is given as a first approximation, according to experts, equal to
1/2. In fact, it would have been necessary to consider the vertical diffuse irradiance on the
window. This has been done at first, but there were too little actions compared to the
monitoring. The reason is that the odds were too low. So, on the one hand, it was necessary to
increase the probabilities and on the other hand to take into account the direct radiation, its
multiple reflections in the room, and to consider the whole window / blind as a diffuse
elements. That is why; the global vertical radiation on the window will be substituted to the
diffuse radiation on the vertical window. We obtained then, the following relationship.
2
1
E
E
DF
global window, vertical,
int
= (2)
Therefore, with these daylight factors, it is possible to assess the indoor level light on the
work plan. These DF were obtained using the DIAlux software (13).

MODELLING OF ARTIFICIAL LIGHT USAGE
In this work, the basis of artificial light use modelling is the Lightswitch2002 model. So,
according to the occupancy period, the three follows models were used: the model of Hunt
(6), Reinhart and Voss (8) and Pigg (7). These models respectively determine the probability
that the occupant puts on light upon arrival, during his presence, and turn off at the time of
departure.

MODELLING OF WINDOWS USE

The Haldi model (9) based on Markov chain was used for windows use modelling. This
model makes difference between the arrival, the intermediate presence of the occupant and
the departure. This implies six transition probabilities. But, some studies (9) have shown that
a hybrid model that includes an open time of windows have a better results. Therefore, we
will not use the closing probability at the arrival of the occupant and at his presence. Instead,
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

461

we will determine an open time of windows, respectively at the arrival if the window is open,
and during the present when the occupant decides to open. At the end of this period, he closes
the window.

RESULTS
Before the presentation of the results, we do a brief description of the buildings in which the
data were collected and that provided the basis for the development of our models.
Offices of school: we used eight offices from a French high school which have been
monitored in 2004 (10). Each office has been equipped, for thirty weeks, with occupancy
sensors, blind position sensors and artificial lighting detection sensors. These offices are
located in the second and third floors of the school. All their exteriors facings are southeast.
The selected offices on the second floor (offices D203, D204, D205, D206, D207 and D208)
are simple offices which dimensions are 2.4 m wide and 4 m deep. While, on the third floor
rather are double with 5.19 m wide. Despite this distinction, these offices are occupied
individually. The windows have Venetian blind as shading devices.
University classroom: A classroom of a French University is used in this study. It is located
on the second floor and faces south. It measures 9m long by 6m in width (a floor area of
54m). The classroom has four windows measuring 1.50 m wide and 1.50 m high. The
monitoring in this class concerned the occupancy (it means if there was courses of not), the
inside ambient temperature, the states of windows. The weather data were also monitored; the
presence of rain was recorded as well as outdoor temperatures (14). The monitoring period
that will interest us will last twelve days, i.e. Friday 27 September to Monday, October 8,
2010.
Office building: the office studied (B27) is located in a French office building. It is oriented
southeast. It measures 4.90 m long and 3.65 m wide and 2.87 m high. It has two windows of
1.20 m wide and 1.88 m high. Each window is divided into three parts; only the middle one
can be opened. The artificial lighting is provided by six square blocks each consisting of four
fluorescent tubes and having reference TFP 18W BRL/840 G6. This office is occupied by a
single occupant. The monitoring in this office concerned the occupancy. It means the presence
of occupants, their actions on the windows, the artificial lighting and the blinds uses. Data
collection is being doing from the occupant report. Moreover, this office was equipped with
sensors for temperature and humidity, a CO
2
sensor and a light meter to measure the inside
lighting. The data were collected on the following periods:
from J anuary, 22nd, 2011 at midnight to February, 21st, 2011, at midnight;
from March, 8th, 2011 at 10 am to March, 28th, 2011, at midnight.

Results of occupants presence modelling

Data were available for eight offices over a period of thirty weeks. Therefore, we determined
the input parameters for four offices. The remaining offices were used to test the model. The
criteria that we selected are: the distributions of times of first arrival and final departure, and
the cumulative frequency of the length of weekly presence. For the latter criterion, we have
superimposed the standard scenarios distribution and we calculated the sum of squared
deviations between the measures and the model. We have also made the same calculation with
the standard scenarios. Figure 1 shows the results of one office. Figure 2 presents the
summary table for the four studied offices. So, the model reproduces the diversity of observed
presence profiles with a fairly good precision. The hours of first arrival and last departure
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

462

which were simulated are consistent with the observations made in September 2002. This
model would therefore be able to generate the actual profiles by adding a randomness part to
occupancy, unlike the standard used methods. As well, we can see the enhancement of
modelling profiles compared to standard scenarios. At any rate, this algorithm allowed to
obtain a major input data for further study and which determines the occupant actions: the
presence profile. It is now possible to work on the prediction of actions of the occupants on
the blinds, artificial lighting and windows.
Results of blinds use Modelling

For the comparison of collected profiles with the model, four classes were defined based on
the rate of windows shade:
- The shade device rate is zero;
- The shade device rate is greater than 0 and less than 54% (the venetian blind is in an
intermediate position);
- The shade device rate is between 55 and 75%;
- The shade device rate is strictly greater than 75%.
- Both monthly measured and simulated data were analyzed for the whole period of
monitoring (from February 1 to August 31). To compare the results obtained by the
simulations and those from measurements, we recorded for each class defined above,
the time spent in each state. Then a ratio has been calculated to achieve the frequency
of each class over the period of monitoring.
- Overall, the results are rather mixed, as shown in Figure 3. Either the results represent
reasonably well the observations in terms of both status and frequency or modelling
does not have very similar to the observations
First arrival Last departure Duration of weekly presence

Figure 12:Comparison of model results and observations regarding the distribution of first
arrival times (left), the last departure (center) and the duration of weekly presence (right) for
the office D204 (red: model; blue: measures; yellow: standard data)

Sum of squared deviations of the cumulative frequency
Offices Model presence scenarios Standard scenarios
D204 0,49 9,06
D207 0,35 10,28
D208 2,48 7,34
D302 1,20 5,79
Figure 13: Summary table of the sum of squared deviations of the cumulative frequency of
weekly presence between the measures and the model

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

463

Figure 14: Comparison of blinds states from the model (in red) and from the observations
(blue) in terms of shading class for offices D208 (left) and D206 (right)

As mentioned before, the model predicts randomly the actions on the blinds but it does not
seem to be able to reproduce the variety of all actions. Indeed, the responses of the model
show an occupant which keep the blinds most of the time, contrary to what we observe in
measurements. These problems can be explained by several reasons. The first is the blinds
device considered. Indeed, this kind of blinds (Venetian) is particular because they have a
variety of positions. It is possible to use them in an intermediate position (by lowering blinds
without touching the slats) very frequently in order to reduce some brightness in the area
without reducing the natural light penetration. A second reason would be the presence of
considerable length of sunshades arranged around the offices. They can, therefore, change the
lighting conditions in the offices, which could alter the future occupants actions on the
blinds. This parameter is not considered in modelling. A final reason may be that the model
developed by Haldi used one building to determine these probabilities. Thus, they fail to
provide a good predictive result for other offices.

Results of windows use modelling

To test the algorithm of windows actions, we have used the collected data from the university
classroom. For this test case, the presence occupancy model has been developed to an office
occupied by one person. So, we have several problems. The first is that the test case is not an
offices building but an academic building (classroom). This implies that there is not
variability in absence: schedules are fixed and they must to be met. In order to respect this
constraint, we have not used the model previously developed to provide occupants presence
as an input of windows use model. Instead, we have used directly, the available data
monitoring. It means that if occupant is present, the status is equal to 1, and 0 otherwise. The
second encountered problem is the multi-occupancy problem. In other words, a confrontation
of views regarding the assessment of the environment and the actions needed to achieve
comfort conditions. It was therefore, necessary to consider this phenomenon by modifying
somewhat the decision process of Monte Carlo. We have chosen two main criteria to perform
the analysis of results from the model. The first is to record per day, the time with the same
number of open windows. Then, calculate a weighted percentage of opening days for the
twelve days considered. Indeed, this may lead to the following equation (eq.3):

(3)
The second considered criterion is the actions number per day on all the windows. Three
assumptions have been tested. First of all, we have used Fanger model, PPD index (Predicted
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

464

Percentage Dissatisfied Index) for thermal comfort prediction. Indeed, we consider that if the
percentage of dissatisfied is less than 10%, then the environmental conditions of comfort are
acceptable. As a consequence, whenever it is necessary to use the Monte Carlo method in a
decision process, we proceed to a vote of all occupants. It means that a random number is
drawn and stored for each occupant. Then we count the number of dissatisfied which would
like to act on the windows. That is to say the total of random numbers that is lower than the
considered probability. If this total rate is greater than 10%, then we accept the action.
Otherwise, there will be no action on the windows. However, in this case, there were too few
actions compared with what has been observed. Moreover, the opening windows percentages
by day were too low. The second assumption is the presence of one unsatisfied person. This
latter, asks for all occupants to act on windows. So, all occupants give their agreement. This
results, again, a draw and storage of as many random numbers as occupants. In this case, if
the random number is less than the considered probability, there will be action on the
windows. With this assumption, there were many more actions and we found that it is closer
to the behaviour observed in-situ. In particular, we can see that windows can remain open all
weekend. But, this practice is not common in an academic building (university). So, it might
be interesting to modify the decision process to close the windows at departure of occupants.
Indeed, in educational buildings, the windows are usually closed on departure at the end of the
last courses. To take into account these observations, we decided to add the duration of the
absence occupants as input to the model. For this reason, we have assumed that: if the
duration of occupants absence is more than 8 hours, then the closing windows probability is
1. Otherwise, we conserve the standard decision process to predict the actions in this model.
Figures 4 and 5 show the obtained results.

Figure 15: Comparison of percentages of the windows open daily from measurements (blue)
and model (red)

Day
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Actions number
(monitoring)
7 2 6 2 7 0 0 2 0 11 5 3
Actions number
(model)
6 4 6 2 6 0 0 6 6 10 8 8

Figure 16: Comparison of number of actions on windows

The results obtained using this version are much better, both in terms of percentage of daily
opening of windows and of actions number of occupants per day. For these two criteria, we
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

465

find same trends and the same ranges of values. Therefore, it is interesting to keep this model
version to take into account the interactions between the occupants within the classroom.
Further, in this case, the results of using this model to predict the windows actions seem to be
acceptable for the considered monitoring period.

DISCUSSION
In this paper, we have compared the ability of the developed models to consider the
behaviours of the occupants of an office building in more realistic scenarios than the
standards. This, to reduce the gap between simulated and measured consumptions. Indeed, by
using the occupancy scenarios predicted by the model, we can get closer to actual
consumption. As can be noted, except for the difficulty of predicting the blinds actions, the
scenarios predicted by the different developed models are found to be relatively close to the
profiles collected at the end of monitoring. Nevertheless, in addition to the analysis that we
have conducted, it would still be necessary to test these models over a longer monitoring
period as well as several occupants. These additional analyses will consider the diversity of
behaviour of each toward the indoor environment. It should also be to consider other periods
of the year to understand more of the influence of seasons on the actions of the occupants and,
perhaps, propose improvements to prediction models. Moreover, it would be interesting to
improve the futures monitoring campaigns by adding outdoors light meters to get all the
inputs data needed to run the model. Indeed, we were obliged to take data luminance dating
for another year, and this, could also cause bias in the results.

CONCLUSION
The aim of the present work was to implement existing models for predicting the occupancy
in order to coupled them, and compare the results obtained by changing the standard profiles
used in practice. The model thus developed has as objective to generate, from input data
accessible by auditors, occupancy scenarios for office buildings. It includes the prediction of
the occupants presence, their actions on blinds, on artificial light and on windows. Each sub-
model has been tested on a real case. This allowed to demonstrate that each of them has
random quality of work, in contrast to the standard scenarios usually used. These sub-models
allow to bring realism to simulations. However, some leads for improvement could be
suggested, especially for the model to predict the actions of the windows. It might be possible
to introduce other physical parameters in driving variables such as the quality of the indoor air
and/or noise. An important task, left to do consists to use the generated occupancy scenarios
to calculate energy consumption by a building energy simulation (BES) for a building whose
consumption was monitored.
Finally, this work encourages to continue the development and analysis of this kind of
models. These studies shall show that it is possible to better approximate the consumption of
heat by the simulation and thus the building's energy performance, using real occupancy
scenarios, while trying to reduce the cost in terms of required input data.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This work was funded in part by the National Agency (ANR) Research through the Habitat
intelligent solar photovoltaic program (MEMOIRE N
o
. ANR-10-Habisol 006-project).

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

466

REFERENCES

1. nopfe, C.I. and nensen, I.L.M. uncerLalnLy analysls ln bulldlng performance slmulaLlon for
deslgn supporL. s.l. : Lnergy and 8ulldlngs, 2011. 43: 2798-2803.
2. Andersen, k.V. SlmulaLlon of occupanLs' behavlour. Copenhage, uanemark : lLA Annex 33,
2011.
3. Newsham, G., Mahdav|, A. and 8eauso|e||-Morr|son, I. A sLochasLlc model for predlcLlng offlce
llghLlng energy consumpLlon. newcasLle-upon-1yne, uk : 1he 1hlrd Luropean Conference on
Lnergy LfflclenL LlghLlng, 1993. p 60-66.
4. ke|nhart, C. LlghLswlLch -2002: A model for manual and auLomaLed conLrol of elecLrlc llghLlng
and bllnds. s.l. : Solar Lnergy 77, 2044. 13-28.
3. age, I. SlmulaLlng occupanL presence and behavlor ln bulldlngs. SwlLzerland : Pu 1hesls,
Lcole olyLechnlque lederale de Lausanne (LlL), 2007.
6. nunt, D.k.G. redlcLlng arLlflclal llghLlng use - a meLhod based upon observed paLLerns of
behavlour. s.l. : LlghLlng research and Lechnology12, 1980. p 7-14.
7. |gg, S., L||ers, M. and keed, I. 8ehavloural aspecLs of llghLlng and occupancy sensors ln
prlvaLe offlces: a case sLudy of a unlverslLy offlce bulldlng. s.l. : ACLLL SLudy on Lnergy
Lfflclency ln 8ulldlngs, 1996. vol 8, p 161-171.
8. ke|nhart, C.I and Voss, k. MonlLorlng manual conLrol of elecLrlc llghLlng and bllnds. s.l. :
LlghLlng 8esearch and 1echnology 33, 2003. p 243-260.
9. na|d|, I. 1owards a unlfled model of occupanLs' behavlor and comforL for bulldlng energy
slmulaLlon. SwlLzerland : Pu 1hesls, Lcole olyLechnlque lederale de Lausanne (LLl), 2010.
10. Ir|tsch, k., et a|. A SLochasLlc Model of user 8ehavlour 8egardlng venLllaLlon. s.l. : 8ulldlng and
LnvlronnemenL, 1990. 23(2): 173-181.
11. nerke|, S., knapp, U. and fafferott, I. A prellmlnary model of user behavlour regardlng Lhe
manual conLrol of wlndows ln offlce bulldlng. MonLreal, Canada : 8ulldlng SlmulaLlon, nlnLh
lnLernaLlonal l8SA Conference, 20038.
12. nerke|, S., knapp, U., fafferott, I.,. 1owards a model of user behavlor regardlng Lhe manual
conLrol of wlndows ln offlce bulldlngs. s.l. : 8ulldlng and envlronnemenL, 2008. 43(3): 388-600.
13. hLLp://www.dlal.de/ulAL/en/dlalux.hLml. [Cnllne]
14. Dha||u|n, A. and L|mam, k. Comparlson of naLural and Pybrld venLllaLlon SLraLegles used ln
Classrooms ln 1erms of lndoor LnvlronmenLal CuallLy, ComforL and Lnergy Savlngs. s.l. : lndoor
and 8ullL LnvlronmenL, 2012.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

467

COMPUTATIONAL INVESTIGATION OF TURBULENT AIR FLOW IN
A VENTILATED ROOM

Hfz Arda Ersan
1
and Erhan Pulat
2

1
Uludag University, School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Mechanical Engineering
Department, Gorukle Campus, TR-16059 Bursa, Turkey
2
Uludag University, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Mechanical Engineering
Department, Gorukle Campus, TR-16059 Bursa, Turkey

Corresponding email: pulat@uludag.edu.tr
(This study is a part of M.Sc. Thesis of the first author accepted on 28.02.2012 by the Graduate School
of Natural and Applied Sciences of Uludag Univ.)

SUMMARY

In this study, air flow and turbulent intensity distributions in well-known IEA (International
Energy Agency) Annex20 room are predicted numerically to investigate effects of inlet turbulence
intensity and length scale on flow characteristics. Flow is considered as turbulent, steady,
incompressible, and two-dimensional. Standard k-, RNG k-, standard k-, and SST k-
turbulence models with scalable and automatic wall function approach are used in computations
performed by using ANSYS-CFX, and results are compared with experimental measurements.
Then validated turbulence model is used to investigate the effects of turbulence intensity and
length scale.

INTRODUCTION

Air flow characteristics in ventilated spaces are important to ensure indoor air quality and
thermal comfort for occupants and specified thermal and flow conditions for industrial
processes. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is one of the primary methods among other
methods such as Building Energy Balance (BES) and zonal models to assess indoor air flows
[1, 2, 3] and in recent years, it has taken a prominent position for the simulation of airflow
indoor environment problems [4].
Probably the earliest and pioneering work used the CFD technique to simulate room air
motion was performed by Nielsen [5]. The flow inside a built environment is generally
turbulent [1] and IEA Annex20 room, described in Nielsen [6], is one of the experimental
setups for suitability of room turbulent air distribution models [7, 8]. Apart from these studies
that were mainly focused on comparison of turbulence models, although effects of turbulent
boundary conditions on RANS (Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes) simulations in ventilated
enclosures were pointed out by Cao and Meyers [9], these conditions have negligible impact
on simulation results in the indoor ventilation literature [10, 11]. As mentioned by Abdilganie
et al [12] and Cao and Meyers [9], further investigation is required.
The objective of this study is to investigate effects of inlet turbulence intensity and length
scale on flow characteristics of IEA Annex20 room. Validated turbulence model of std. k-
model with scalable wall function has been used for this purpose.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

468

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Geometry

Geometry of the IEA Annex20 room is given in Figure 1 and dimensions of the two
dimensional room are H=3 m, L=9 m, h=0.168 m and it is equipped with an inlet and outlet to
avoid numerical problems similar to Voigts study[13].

Figure 1. Geometry and measurement lines of IEA Annex20 room.

Turbulence models and near wall treatment methods

Computations were performed by using std. k-, RNG k-, std. k- and SST k- turbulence
models. These two equation models are widely used, as they offer a good compromise
between numerical effort and computational accuracy. The advantage of std. the k- model
from a numerical point of view is that it is robust and reliable. From a physical point of view
the physics is treated in a simplistic manner, but nevertheless the model works surprisingly
well in many types of flows [14]. In a recent study performed by Klinzing and Sparrow [15],
the most suitable turbulence model for external flows was found to be the std. k- model with
enhanced near-wall treatment by considering five turbulence models commonly offered in
commercially available CFD softwares, FLUENT, ANSYS CFX, and Star-CD. k- model
was conducted for recirculating flows in ventilated space and compared with the std. and low
Reynolds number k- models by Peng et al [16]. To improve prediction accuracy of std. k-
model some modifications have been proposed by them.
The k- and k- models use the gradient diffusion hypothesis to relate the Reynolds stresses
to the mean velocity gradients and the turbulent viscosity. The turbulent viscosity is modeled
as the product of a turbulent velocity and turbulent length scale [17].
Near-wall treatment is crucial in any turbulence model and the most popular approach is the
wall-function approach. An extension of this method is used in ANSYS CFX as follows.
Main problem of the wall-function approach is the danger of excessive mesh refinement so
that physical assumptions which are problematic especially in flows at lower Reynolds
numbers in the near-wall meshing. To avoid this problem scalable wall function formulation
developed by ANSYS CFX was used in k- models and the basic idea behind this approach is
to limit the
y
*
value used In the logar Ithm Ic formulat Ionby alowe r value ofy
*
=max(y
*
, 11. 06). The co mputedy
*
is not allowed to fall below this limit.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

469

But flows at low Reynolds numbers, this can cause an error in the displacement thickness and
it is therefore desirable to offer a formulation which will automatically switch from wall-
functions to a low Reynolds near wall formulation as the mesh is refined. The main idea
behind this formulation called as automatic near-wall treatment is to blend the wall value for
between the logarithmic and near wall formulation. This method was used in k- models
[17].

Boundary conditions and computational procedures

The inlet condition was a uniform velocity as 0.455 m/s, inlet turbulence intensity 4 % and
temperature of 20 C consistent with the test case. Turbulent length scale is taken as
LS=0.0156. The outlet condition was a constant pressure of zero. Velocity was set to zero on
the room walls and inlet-outlet walls to impose the no-slip condition. Inlet Reynolds number
based on the conditions of the supply opening is 5000. Air is treated as ideal gas and its
density and viscosity are taken as 1.116 kg/m
3
, 1.725 Pas [18].
ANSYS CFX is the finite volume method based code and pressure and velocity are coupled
using the SIMPLEC algorithm with Rie-Chow interpolation. Buoyancy is modeled using the
Boussinesq approach. Mesh independency study was carried out by checking the three
different mesh structures (coarse, medium, and fine) that correspond to 12168 , 19506 and
29054 nodes by using std. k- model. Mesh structure with 29054 nodes was chosen by
comparing u/u
o
velocity profiles for considered number of nodes as seen from Figure 2.

Figure 2. Mesh structure of IEA Annex20 room and dimensionless velocity profile
comparison for different number of nodes.

Further information about turbulence models, near wall treatment methods, and computational
procedures can be found in [17, 19].

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Comparison of turbulence models

Normalized u velocity profiles and square root mean u (turbulent intensity) profiles at
vertical sections of x =H, x =2H and horizontal sections of y =h/2 and y =H-h / 2 are given
in Figure 3. By general inspection of Figure 3, prediction of velocity profiles is more
consistent with measurements than predicted turbulent intensity profiles. As mentioned by
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

470

Chen [1], besides the first-order parameters such as velocity, temperature, and concentration,
it is much more difficult to predict the second-order parameters such as Reynolds stresses and
turbulent intensity.
In Figure 3(a), although all turbulence models exhibit similar normalized velocity profile for x
=2H and y =H-h / 2, SST k- model has different velocity profile for x =H and y =h/2. Std.
k- model also exhibits different velocity profile but less different than SST k- model for y
=h/2.
In Figure 3(b), all turbulent models fail in prediction of turbulent intensity. Although std. k-
model exhibits similar turbulent intensity profile to k- models apart from SST k- model at
vertical sections (x =H and x =2H), its prediction approaches SST k- model profile at
horizontal sections. In jet affected region at vertical section of x =H, turbulent kinetic energy
profiles are well predicted by all turbulence models.
Although k- based models have almost similar performance, std. k- model has been used to
investigate the effects of inlet turbulent intensity and length scale.

Effects of turbulence intensity and length scale

To investigate the effects of turbulent intensity (Tu) and length scale (LS) on velocity and
turbulence characteristics, three different Tu (Tu =0.01, 0.04 and 0.4) and three different LS
(LS =0.00156, 0.0156 and 0.156) values are considered as seen from Figure 4. Seven
different cases shown in Table 1 are investigated by using std. k- model.

Table 1. Investigated computational cases.
Cases Tu LS
1 0.01 0.00156
2 0.01 0.0156
3 0.01 0.156
4 0.04 0.0156
5 0.4 0.00156
6 0.4 0.0156
7 0.4 0.156

As seen from Figure 4(a), there is not any considerable difference among normalized velocity
profiles with changes in inlet turbulence intensity and length scale. Only for high values of Tu
and LS (Case 7), there is a small deviation from measurements near the inlet jet region at
horizontal section of y=H-h / 2. Similar to findings of J aubert et al. [10] and Abdilghanie et al.
[12] the effect of the inlet turbulence intensity on the flow field is negligible except high
turbulence intensity with high length scale case as mentioned above. But high turbulence
intensity (0.4) effect is not considerable alone (Case 5 and 6), this effect is considerable
together with high length scale (0.156). Similarly high length scale effect (Case 3) is also not
considerable alone.

In Figure 4(b), turbulent intensity variations at considered sections are given. Again there is
not any considerable difference among turbulent intensity profiles with changes in inlet
turbulence intensity and length scale. Although there is a very small deviation from
measurements at the section of x =H, away from inlet (x =2H) this deviation decreases. Near
the inlet jet region (x/H is smaller than 1) at horizontal section of y=H-h / 2, turbulence
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

471

intensity effects are considerable alone, and turbulent intensity variation increases with
increasing length scale. Forms of turbulent intensity profiles for the cases of 5 and 6 are more
similar to experimental profile than case 7.

CONCLUSIONS

Air flow and turbulent intensity distributions in well-known IEA (International Energy Agency)
Annex20 room are predicted numerically to investigate effects of inlet turbulence intensity and
length scale on flow characteristics. For this purpose, firstly turbulence models of std. k-, RNG
k- with scalable wall function and std. k- and SST k- with automatic near wall treatment were
compared. Performance of k- based models with scalable wall function is better than k- based
models and it can be said that performance of well-known std. k- model with wall function
approach is improved considerably with scalable wall function by comparing with RNG k-
model. Std. k- model was used to investigate the effects of inlet turbulent intensity and length
scale. Increase in inlet turbulence intensity and length scale alone has no noticeable effects on
flow characteristics except high turbulence intensity together with high length scale only near
the inlet region of jet.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

472

(a) (b)
Figure 3. Comparison of (a) predicted normalized u velocity profiles and (b) turbulent
intensity profiles by using k- and k- based turbulence models at vertical sections of x=H,
x=2H and horizontal sections of y=h/2 and y=H-h / 2

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

473

(a) (b)
Figure 4. Comparison of the effects of turbulent intensity and length scale on (a) prediction of
normalized u velocity profiles and (b) turbulent intensity profiles by using k- turbulence
models at vertical sections of x =H, x =2H and horizontal sections of y =h/2 and y =H-h / 2.

REFERENCES

1. Chen, Q. 1997. Computational Fluid Dynamics for HVAC: Successes and failures. ASHRAE
Transactions. Vol. 103 (1), pp 178-187.
2. van Hoof, T, Blocken, B, and van Heijst, G J F. 2013. On the suitability of steady RANS CFD
for forced mixing ventilation at transitional slot Reynolds numbers. Indoor Air. Vol. 23(), pp
236-249.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

474

3. Djunaedy, E, Hensen, J L M and Loomans, M G L C. 2003. Development of a guideline for
selecting a simulation tool for airflow prediction, Proceedings of the 8th IBPSA Conference -
BuildingSimulation '2003, Vol -, pp 267-274.
4. Pitarma, R A, Ramos, J E, Ferreira, M E and Carvalho, M G. 2004. Computational Fluid
Dynamics an advanced active tool in environmental management and education. Management
of Environmental Quality: An International J ournal. Vol. 15(2), pp 102-110.
5. Nielsen, P V. 1974. Flow in air conditioned rooms. PhD thesis from the Technical University of
Denmark.
6. Nielsen, P V. 1990. Specification of a two-dimensional test case International Energy Agency,
energy conservation in buildings and community systems, Annex20: Air flow pattern within
buildings, Aalborg University Technical Report.
7. Voigt, L K, Sorensen, J N, Pedersen, J M and Brons, M. 2003. Review of four turbulence
models using topology, Proceedings of the 8th IBPSA Conference - BuildingSimulation '2003,
Vol -, pp 1325-1331.
8. Omri, M and Galanis, N. 2009. Evaluation of confined natural and forced convection
predictions by different turbulence models. International J ournal of Numerical Methods for
Heat and Fluid Flow, Vol.19 (1), pp 5-24.
9. Cao, S-J and Meyers, J . 2013. Influence of turbulent boundary conditions on RANS simulations
of pollutant dispersion in mechanically ventilated enclosures with transitional slot Reynolds
number. Building and Environment, Vol. 59 (), pp 397-407.
10. J oubert, P, Sandu, A, Beghein, C and Allard, F. 1996. Numerical study of the influence of inlet
boundary conditions on the air movement in a ventilated enxlosure, Proceedings of the 5
th

International Conference on Air Distribution in Rooms-Roomvent96, Vol. (), pp 235-242.
11. Al-Sanea, S A, Zedan, M F and Al-Harbi, M.B. 2012. Effect of supply Reynolds number and
room aspect ratio on flow and ceiling heat-transfer coefficient for mixing ventilation.
International J ournal of Thermal Sciences, Vol. 54 (), pp 176-187.
12. Abdilghanie, A M, Collins, L R and Caughey, D A. 2009. Comparison of tu rbulence modeling
strategies for indoor flows. ASME J ournal of Fluids Engineering. Vol. 131(), pp 051402-1-
18.
13. Voigt, L K, Sorensen, J N, Pedersen, J M and Brons, M. 2003. Review of four turbulence
models using topology, Proceedings of the 8th IBPSA Conference - BuildingSimulation '2003,
Vol -, pp 1325-1331.
14. Davidson L and Nielsen P V. 1996. Large Eddy Simulations of the flow in a three dimensional
ventilated room, Proceedings of the 5th Int. Conf. on Air Distributions in Rooms
ROOMVENT96, Vol. 2, pp 161-168.
15. Klinzing, W P and Sparrow, E M. 2009. Evaluation of turbulence models for external flows.
Numerical Heat Transfer, Part A. Vol. 55(), pp 205-228.
16. Peng, S-H, Davidson, L and Holmberg, S. 1996. The two equation turbulence k- model
applied to recirculating ventilation flows. Thermo and Fluid Dynamics, Chalmers University of
Technology, Gteborg, Report 96/13.
17. ANSYS CFX R13 Modelling Guide. 2010.
18. Incropera, F P and DeWitt, D P. 1985. Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer. J ohn Wiley
and Sons, Inc.
19. Ersan, H A. 2012. Numerical investigation of the effects of the outer turbulence in fluid flow
and heat transfer characteristics, M.Sc. Thesis, School of Natural and Applied Sciences,
Mechanical Engineering Dept., Uludag University.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

475

ON THE ESTABLISHMENT OF CLIMATIC ZONES IN TURKEY
WITH REGARD TO THE ENERGY LABELLING FOR AIR
CONDITIONERS

H. Toros
*
, A. Deniz
*
, S. ncecik
*
and U. Sertan
**
*
stanbul Technical University, Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Department of
Meteorology, 34469, Maslak, stanbul, Turkey
**
DAIKIN TURKEY, Strategic Marketing, Manager, 234876, Kartal, stanbul, Turkey

SUMMARY
Climatic zones have been defined in most European countries for various purposes
such as energy efficiency, eco design studies, etc., on the basis of the amounts of heating and
cooling degree days. Heating degree day (HDD) is a measurement designed to reflect the
demand for energy needed to heat a building and is defined relative to a base temperature. It is
derived from measurements of ambient temperature.
The aim of this study is to determine the three different climate zones in Turkey based
on Energy Labeling Regulations under EC Directive for air conditioners on the basis of
heating mode. The application of the method requires detailed bin data. The bin approach
is based on the annual frequency of the ambient dry bulb temperature. In this study, dry-bulb
temperature bin data for 374 meteorological stations from 81 Turkish cities are determined
based on hourly ambient temperatures.
The distribution of temperature for the three climate zones Average, Warmer and
Colder for Turkey is presented. It is found that the climate zones best representing Turkey
conditions is Average, corresponding to Elaz; while Warmer corresponding to anlurfa and
Colder corresponding to Ar, respectively.
In this way, the demand for heating to temperatures which is compatible with the EU
Directive has been implemented in Turkey.
INTRODUCTION
The impacts of climate and weather conditions on energy demand have received increasing
attention. Degree-day is an important climatic design indicator. Its methodology is used in
many fields as well as energy demand for heating and cooling (Mourshed, 2012). These
values reflect different profiles at different climatic zones. Climatic zones have been defined
in most European countries for several purposes such as energy efficiency, eco design studies,
etc., on the basis of the amounts of heating and cooling degree days (Tsikaloudaki et al.,
2012; Rasmussen, 2011). This approach is applied to evaluate energy performance of
buildings as a reference for the real energy needs for heating and cooling of buildings in cities
which represent climatic zones. The heating and cooling degree days based on the
classification of climate zones is able to provide more realistic results. Although climate
zones are described in many European countries, there is a lack of information on the
classification of climate characteristics of the entire European continent (Tsikaloudaki et al.,
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

476

2012). The seasonal coefficient of performance (SCOP) is the parameter forming the basis
for European minimum requirements and energy labelling for heat pumps. Furthermore,
SCOP takes into account temperature fluctuation and standby periods to present an indicator
of the energy efficiency of the heating period. Therefore, the EN 14825 standard defines a
reference SCOP to be used in energy labelling and legislation, in which the number of hours
is determined and in which the heating demand curve is given on the basis of a single input
parameter (Rasmussen, 2011).
Various studies have been conducted in Turkey to address the issue of climate zones
for building designs based on the knowledge of heating degree days (Sahal, 2006; Bulut vd.,
2007; Bulut et al., 2001).
The aim of this study is to identify three different climate zone across the country
within the framework of "Air Energy Labeling Regulations" in order to see the heating
efficiency of the air conditioner for the heating mode where the costumers buy the device.
DATA AND METHODOLOGY
The hourly ambient outdoor temperature data measured at 374 meteorological stations
of Turkish Meteorological Service is used in this study. Reporting meteorological stations in
the dataset are widely distributed and representative of major climatic zones in Turkey. The
temperature data base was created by using the data in Turkey. The data for the last 20 years
was taken into consideration for a realistic time period. SCOP is mandatory for the profile of
the average climate at European energy labeling (Rasmussen, 2011). According to this, it is
possible to determine the need for heating energy of any building by using heating degree day
method. Therefore, different climatic conditions would affect the need for heating energy in
different ways. The climatic zones for heating mode were determined on the basis of
European Union Commission Directive dated 4 May 2011 and shown on the map covering
the EU countries.
SCOP method is used for this calculation in accordance with the EU Directive. SCOP
within the scope of this paper to the different climatic conditions of the climate zones of
Turkey calculated as follows:
a. Average
b. Warmer
c. Colder
The seasonal coefficient of performance (SCOP) is the overall coefficient of
performance of the unit representative for the whole designated heating season (Official
J ournal of the EU, 2012). SCOP method of calculation was used in accordance with the
Directive of the European Union. SCOP method is essentially consists of temperatures known
as "bin" and corresponding number of hours (EU Directive ECODESIGN Lot 10, Chapter 4).
All these were evaluated together to reflect the changes in the temperature on the heating
season. Besides that, a heating demand curve was determined for temperatures providing
heating demand.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

477

In this study, "bin" method based on the hourly temperature values was used to
determine the need for energy to run in heating method. The meteorological data which was
used to assess the need for heating at different bin temperature values is dry bulb temperature
and covers the period from the last 20 years. Table 1 shows the information about the
locations of stations with their measurement periods.

Table 1. Meteorological stations and their locations, periods.
Stations Latitude Longitude
Altitude
(m)
Initial
Period
Ending
Period
Total
Year
Bartn 41.62 32.36 33 1992 2012 20
Zonguldak 41.45 31.78 135 1992 2011 19
Sinop 42.03 35.15 32 1992 2011 19
Samsun 41.34 36.26 4 1992 2011 19
Ordu 40.98 37.89 5 1992 2011 19
Giresun 40.92 38.39 38 1992 2011 19
Trabzon 41.00 39.78 39 1992 2005 13
Rize 41.04 40.50 3 1992 2011 19
Artvin 41.18 41.82 625 1992 2011 19
Ardahan 41.09 42.70 1827 1992 2011 19
Edirne 41.68 26.55 51 1992 2011 19
Krklareli 41.74 27.22 232 1992 2011 19
Tekirda 40.96 27.50 4 1992 2011 19
Gztepe 40.97 29.06 16 1992 2011 19
Kocaeli 40.77 29.93 76 1992 2011 19
Sakarya 40.77 30.39 30 1992 2011 19
Bolu 40.73 31.60 743 1992 2011 19
Dzce 40.84 31.15 146 1992 2011 19
Kastamonu 41.37 33.78 800 1992 2011 19
Karabk 41.20 32.62 259 1993 2011 18
ankr 40.61 33.61 751 1992 2011 19
orum 40.55 34.94 776 1992 2011 19
Amasya 40.67 35.84 409 1992 2011 19
Tokat 40.33 36.56 611 1992 2011 19
Gmhane 40.46 39.47 1216 1992 2011 19
Bayburt 40.25 40.23 1584 1992 2011 19
Sivas 39.74 37.00 1294 1992 2011 19
Erzincan 39.75 39.49 1216 1992 2011 19
Erzurum 39.95 41.19 1758 1992 2008 16
Kars 40.60 43.11 1777 1992 2011 19
Ar 39.73 43.05 1646 1992 2011 19
Idr 39.92 44.05 856 1992 2011 19
anakkale 40.14 26.40 6 1992 2011 19
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

478

Bursa 40.23 29.01 100 1992 2011 19
Yalova 40.66 29.28 4 1992 2011 19
Bilecik 40.14 29.98 539 1992 2011 19
Eskiehir 39.77 30.55 801 2007 2011 4
Ankara 39.97 32.86 891 1992 2011 19
Krkkale 39.84 33.52 751 1992 2011 19
Yozgat 39.82 34.81 1301 1992 2011 19
Balkesir 39.63 27.92 102 1992 1998 6
Ktahya 39.42 29.99 969 1992 2011 19
Krehir 39.16 34.16 1007 1992 2011 19
Tunceli 39.11 39.54 981 1992 2011 19
Van 38.47 43.35 1675 1992 2011 19
Manisa 38.62 27.40 71 1992 2011 19
Uak 38.67 29.40 919 1992 2011 19
Afyonkarahisar 38.74 30.56 1034 1992 2011 19
Aksaray 38.37 34.00 970 1992 2011 19
Nevehir 38.62 34.70 1260 1992 2011 19
Kayseri 38.69 35.50 1094 1992 2011 19
Malatya 38.34 38.22 950 1992 2011 19
Elaz 38.64 39.26 989 1992 2011 19
Bingl 38.88 40.50 1177 1992 2011 19
Mu 38.75 41.50 1322 1992 2011 19
Siirt 37.93 41.93 895 1992 2011 19
zmir 38.39 27.08 29 1992 2011 19
Aydn 37.84 27.84 56 1992 2011 19
Denizli 37.76 29.09 425 1992 2011 19
Burdur 37.72 30.29 957 1992 2011 19
Isparta 37.78 30.57 997 1992 2011 19
Konya 37.98 32.57 1031 1992 2006 14
Karaman 37.19 33.22 1018 1992 2011 19
Nide 37.96 34.68 1195 1992 2011 19
Kahramanmara 37.58 36.92 572 1992 2011 19
Gaziantep 37.06 37.35 854 1992 2011 19
Kilis 36.71 37.11 640 1992 2011 19
Adyaman 37.76 38.28 672 1992 2011 19
anlurfa 37.16 38.79 550 1992 2011 19
Mardin 37.18 40.46 1050 1992 2011 19
Diyarbakr 37.90 40.20 674 1992 2008 16
Batman 37.53 41.70 610 1992 2011 19
Hakkari 37.57 43.74 1727 1992 2011 19
rnak 37.52 42.45 1350 1992 2011 19
Mula 37.21 28.37 646 1992 2011 19
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

479

Antalya 36.89 30.68 47 2007 2011 4
Mersin 36.78 34.60 7 1992 2011 19
Adana 37.00 35.34 23 1992 2011 19
Osmaniye 37.10 36.25 94 1992 2011 19
Hatay 36.27 36.49 62 1992 2011 19

Bin numbers are calculated for each month of a year. This calculation is repeated in
every year and average of all period is found.
Hourly values of environmental weather temperature (dry thermometer) are used to
determine heating requirement in different "bin" values (Ashrae Iwec Data Set). This hourly
value forms design values for related meteorological stations. These are long-term values
which are measured in the meteorological stations of related regions. The calculation method
takes into account heating for requirement depending on environmental temperature. For this
purpose, the calculated monthly average temperature values for the provinces in Turkey are
shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Monthly average temperatures (
o
C )
Stations January February March April May June July August September October November December
Bartn 4.1 4.5 7.1 11.2 15.7 19.9 22.4 22.4 18.2 14.2 8.7 5.7
Zonguldak 6.2 6.0 7.8 11.3 15.4 19.7 22.3 22.5 19.1 15.5 11.3 8.4
Sinop 7.0 6.4 7.8 10.8 15.2 20.2 23.4 24.1 20.5 16.6 12.1 9.1
Samsun 7.2 6.8 8.4 11.1 15.4 20.4 23.6 24.3 20.6 16.6 12.1 9.3
Ordu 7.1 6.8 8.4 11.3 15.7 20.6 23.7 24.3 20.7 16.7 11.9 9.0
Giresun 7.4 6.9 8.5 11.4 15.5 20.4 23.4 24.0 20.5 16.8 12.3 9.5
Trabzon 7.4 6.9 8.6 12.1 16.0 20.4 23.6 24.0 20.6 16.7 12.2 9.2
Rize 6.7 6.5 8.4 11.7 16.2 20.7 23.6 24.3 20.9 16.9 11.7 8.6
Artvin 2.6 3.3 6.7 11.3 15.6 18.6 21.1 21.5 18.3 14.3 8.3 4.2
Ardahan -10.9 -9.3 -3.0 4.2 9.3 12.9 16.2 16.5 12.2 7.0 -0.4 -7.3
Edirne 2.7 4.2 7.7 12.8 18.3 22.7 25.0 25.0 20.0 14.4 8.6 4.3
Krklareli 3.2 4.0 7.0 12.0 17.5 21.9 24.5 24.2 19.4 14.4 8.9 4.9
Tekirda 5.0 5.2 7.7 11.8 16.9 21.5 24.2 24.5 20.3 15.9 10.8 7.0
Gztepe 6.3 6.2 8.2 12.3 17.1 21.9 24.5 24.7 20.7 16.3 11.6 8.3
Kocaeli 6.2 6.6 8.7 12.9 17.7 22.0 24.4 24.5 20.6 16.4 11.5 8.3
Sakarya 6.1 6.5 8.8 12.9 17.6 21.8 24.1 24.0 20.1 16.1 11.4 8.3
Bolu 1.1 2.0 5.0 9.7 14.3 17.7 20.4 20.6 16.3 12.1 6.6 3.1
Dzce 3.9 5.0 7.8 12.1 16.8 20.6 23.0 23.0 18.9 14.6 9.1 5.8
Kastamonu -0.7 0.7 4.4 9.3 14.1 17.6 20.6 20.5 16.0 11.0 4.5 0.6
Karabk 2.8 4.5 8.2 12.6 17.2 21.1 24.5 24.5 19.6 14.0 7.6 3.7
ankr -0.8 1.1 5.9 10.8 15.8 20.0 23.2 23.3 18.3 12.4 5.0 0.9
orum -0.3 1.0 5.3 10.2 14.8 18.5 21.6 21.8 17.4 12.1 5.2 1.6
Amasya 2.5 4.1 8.1 12.9 17.4 21.2 24.0 24.2 20.0 14.8 7.8 4.4
Tokat 1.8 3.1 7.4 12.2 16.3 19.8 22.7 23.1 19.1 14.3 7.3 3.7
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

480

Gmhane -1.7 -0.8 3.5 8.8 13.2 16.8 20.1 20.2 16.2 11.3 4.5 0.5
Bayburt -5.8 -4.8 0.7 6.7 11.6 15.4 19.0 19.1 14.7 9.6 2.3 -3.1
Sivas -3.0 -2.2 3.3 8.9 13.6 17.4 20.6 20.9 16.6 11.3 4.4 -0.5
Erzincan -2.2 -0.6 4.8 10.7 15.6 20.2 24.1 24.2 19.1 12.9 5.4 0.2
Erzurum -10.8 -9.5 -2.9 5.1 10.3 14.4 18.8 19.2 13.8 7.8 -0.3 -7.5
Kars -9.7 -7.7 -1.4 5.4 10.2 14.2 17.8 18.2 13.6 8.0 0.2 -6.5
Ar -10.4 -8.6 -2.2 6.5 11.7 16.7 21.2 21.5 16.3 9.7 1.1 -6.2
Idr -3.2 0.4 7.2 13.1 17.6 22.5 26.2 26.0 20.6 13.9 5.7 -0.6
anakkale 6.3 6.4 8.5 12.5 17.7 22.7 25.6 25.6 21.2 16.6 11.7 8.3
Bursa 5.2 5.9 8.5 12.7 17.8 22.4 24.9 24.9 20.4 15.7 10.1 7.1
Yalova 6.7 6.8 8.7 12.4 17.1 21.6 24.2 24.3 20.5 16.3 11.5 8.6
Bilecik 2.6 3.5 6.6 11.2 16.3 20.2 22.8 22.8 18.7 14.2 8.5 4.7
Eskiehir 1.0 3.3 7.1 10.7 16.4 20.7 23.4 23.6 18.8 13.0 7.4 3.6
Ankara 0.5 2.1 6.5 11.2 16.4 20.4 23.9 24.2 19.3 13.7 6.5 2.4
Krkkale 0.5 2.3 7.1 12.0 17.1 21.3 24.7 24.9 20.0 14.1 6.5 2.1
Yozgat -1.4 -0.6 3.3 8.5 13.3 17.0 20.2 20.5 16.3 11.2 4.7 0.8
Balkesir 4.6 5.2 7.3 12.8 18.1 22.8 24.4 24.7 20.8 16.3 9.4 6.8
Ktahya 0.6 1.8 5.3 9.9 15.0 18.7 21.5 21.5 17.0 12.3 6.2 2.6
Krehir -0.2 1.0 5.8 10.6 15.5 19.8 23.4 23.7 18.9 13.2 5.8 1.7
Tunceli -1.3 0.1 6.0 11.8 17.0 22.7 27.4 27.3 21.7 15.1 6.7 1.1
Van -2.3 -1.4 2.5 8.0 13.2 18.6 22.5 22.7 18.1 11.9 4.8 0.0
Manisa 6.3 7.5 10.5 14.9 20.7 25.8 28.6 28.5 23.5 18.1 11.5 8.1
Uak 2.7 3.2 6.0 10.6 16.1 20.4 23.9 24.1 19.1 13.9 8.0 4.3
Afyonkarahisar 0.3 1.6 5.4 10.1 15.3 19.4 22.6 22.7 18.0 12.7 6.5 2.6
Aksaray 0.8 2.0 6.6 11.5 16.6 20.7 24.2 24.2 19.3 13.9 7.0 2.7
Nevehir 0.0 0.7 5.1 10.0 14.8 18.7 22.0 22.0 17.6 12.5 6.0 2.1
Kayseri -1.2 0.0 5.2 10.3 14.9 19.1 22.5 22.4 17.5 12.1 5.0 0.7
Malatya 0.6 1.9 7.3 12.8 18.0 23.3 27.4 27.3 22.5 16.0 7.6 2.3
Elaz -0.3 0.9 6.3 11.7 16.8 22.6 27.1 26.8 21.4 14.9 6.9 2.0
Bingl -2.6 -1.4 4.1 10.4 16.0 22.0 26.6 26.4 20.9 14.3 6.2 0.0
Mu -7.0 -5.1 1.6 9.4 15.0 20.5 25.5 25.4 20.0 13.0 4.2 -2.9
Siirt 3.2 4.4 8.9 13.9 19.7 26.3 30.7 30.5 25.3 18.7 10.3 5.0
zmir 9.1 9.5 12.0 16.0 21.1 26.0 28.5 28.3 23.9 19.4 14.0 10.7
Aydn 8.3 9.1 11.8 15.7 21.2 26.2 28.6 28.0 23.7 18.9 13.1 9.6
Denizli 6.2 7.1 10.2 14.6 20.2 25.2 28.2 28.1 23.1 17.6 11.5 7.8
Burdur 2.5 3.5 7.0 11.3 16.7 21.4 25.0 25.0 20.0 14.5 8.2 4.2
Isparta 1.8 2.9 6.2 10.5 15.7 20.4 23.8 23.8 18.8 13.5 7.4 3.5
Konya -0.7 0.6 5.0 10.5 15.6 20.1 23.6 23.5 18.7 13.0 5.5 1.1
Karaman 0.5 1.3 6.1 11.2 16.3 20.6 23.9 23.6 19.0 13.4 6.3 2.4
Nide -0.2 0.8 5.6 10.6 15.4 19.6 22.9 22.9 18.3 13.0 6.2 2.0
Kahramanmara 5.1 6.3 10.7 15.3 20.6 25.6 28.8 29.2 25.2 19.4 11.4 6.7
Gaziantep 3.9 4.7 9.0 13.6 19.1 24.6 28.5 28.5 23.6 17.5 9.9 5.4
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

481

Kilis 6.1 7.1 11.0 15.5 21.0 25.7 28.5 28.5 25.0 20.3 12.7 7.7
Adyaman 4.9 5.8 10.2 15.0 20.8 27.0 31.3 30.9 25.7 19.4 11.5 6.6
anlurfa 6.1 7.0 11.4 16.3 22.7 28.7 32.5 31.8 27.0 21.0 12.8 7.7
Mardin 3.5 4.2 8.5 13.7 19.8 25.9 30.2 29.9 25.1 18.9 10.6 5.6
Diyarbakr 1.8 3.4 8.3 13.2 18.8 26.0 30.8 30.2 24.4 17.5 8.9 3.5
Batman 3.0 5.1 9.8 14.7 20.0 26.7 31.0 30.3 24.8 18.3 9.8 4.5
Hakkari -4.6 -3.3 1.9 7.9 14.0 20.1 24.6 24.9 20.2 13.4 4.8 -1.6
rnak 3.3 2.8 7.9 11.6 17.5 25.2 29.7 28.9 23.8 15.3 5.6 5.7
Mula 5.5 5.9 8.6 12.5 18.2 23.5 26.9 26.9 21.8 16.3 10.4 6.8
Antalya 11.8 12.3 14.9 17.5 21.2 26.4 28.9 29.7 26.4 22.0 17.5 13.5
Mersin 11.1 11.7 14.6 18.0 22.0 25.7 28.4 29.1 26.6 22.8 16.8 12.5
Adana 9.4 10.3 13.4 17.3 21.9 25.9 28.5 29.0 26.2 22.1 15.3 10.8
Osmaniye 8.4 9.8 13.0 16.6 20.8 25.2 27.7 28.3 25.0 20.5 13.9 9.6
Hatay 8.3 9.7 13.5 17.3 21.5 25.2 27.6 28.3 25.8 21.5 14.1 9.5

Heating Degree Day Method
Degree-days are the summation of temperature differences between the ambient air
temperature and a base reference temperature. Degree-days are measure that how much the
weather is cold or hot in a certain period of time and how much energy should be needed
related to building heating or cooling. Therefore, degree days can help to compare monthly or
annual energy consumption by consumers with a normal month or year.
Turkey is situated over a transition region between polar and tropical air masses with
Mediterranean climate characteristics in a subtropical climate zone. Furthermore, topographic
effects associated with the mountainous terrain in particular greatly complicate the climate
variability. In addition to the topography and other geographical factors such as landscape and
altitude, Turkeys climate is mainly determined by atmospheric circulation patterns (Deniz et
al., 2011). This leads to large seasonal and regional differences in both temperature and
precipitation throughout the country.
In this study, the coefficient of seasonal performance (SCOP value) for different climatic
conditions of Turkey climatic regions is calculated as follows:
a. Average (green)
b. Warmer (orange)
c. Colder (blue)
Described above, the average of the three climate zone "bin" value corresponds to the
number of hours given in Fig. 1. Figure 1 describes the exchange of average bin values
depending on the outside temperature. Energy efficiency must be given for the average
seasonal heating. It is optional to show the efficiency for warmer and colder seasons.
Additionally, the frequency distributions of the bin values corresponding to average of the
three climate zones is shown in Fig.2.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

482

Figure 1. The average of the three climate zone "bin" value corresponds to the number of
hours

Figure 2. The average of the three climate zone "bin" value corresponds to frequency

0
30
100
130
200
230
300
330
400
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

h
o
u
r
s

1emperature (
o
C)
Colder Average
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

483

APPLICATION FOR CLIMATE ZONES

The results of our study " New Energy Label for Air Conditioning " that is given above
technical details in general are presented in the following charts.

Figure 3. Climate zones for the period of heating in Turkey (Orange: Warmer, Green:
Average, Blue: Colder).

Figure 4. Climate zones for the period of heating in Turkey (Orange: Warmer, Green:
Average, Blue: Colder).

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

484

Figure 5. Climate zones for the period of heating by provinces in Turkey (Orange: Warmer,
Green: Average, Blue: Colder).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We would like to thank to ISKID, Turkish State Meteorological Service, Ministry of Science,
Technology and Industry, Directorate General for Industrial Zones to request and support this
study.

REFERENCES

1. A.Deniz, H.Toros and S.ncecik, 2011, Spatial variations of climate indices in Turkey,
Int. J . Climatol. 31: 394403.
2. ASHRAE Standard 140 (2001) - Standard Method of Test for Evaluation of Building
Energy Analysis Computer Programs.
3. H.Bulut, O.Buyukalaca, T.Ylmaz, 2001, Bin weather data for Turkey, Applied
Energy, 70, 135-155.
4. H. Bulut, O, Bykalaca ve T. Ylmaz , 2007, Trkiye iin stma ve soutma derece-
gn blgeleri, ULIBTK07 16. Ulusal Is Bilimi ve Teknii Kongresi, 30 Mays-2
Haziran 2007, Kayseri.
5. K. Tsikaloudaki, K. Laskos and D. Bikas, 2012, On the Establishment of Climatic
Zones in Europe with Regard to the Energy Performance of Buildings, Energies, 5,
32-44; doi:10.3390/en5010032.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

485

6. M.Mourshed, 2012, Relationship between annual mean temperature and degree-days,
Energy and Buildings, 54,418-425.
7. N.Sahal, 2006, Proposed approah for defining climate regions for Turkey based on
annual driving rain index and heating degree days for building envelope design,
Building and Environment, 41, 520-526.
8. P. Rasmussen, 2011, Calculation of SCOP for heat pumps according to EN 14825,
Prepared for the Danish Energy Agency.
9. S. Sevin, 2006. Bursada binalarn stlmasnda gerekli olan enerji ve yakt
miktarnn derece gn yntemiyle hesaplanmas, Yksek Lisans Tezi, Uluda niv.,
92s.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

486

THE INFLUENCE OF THERMAL BRIDGES ON THE BUILDING
ENERGY PERFORMANCE

Alfonso Capozzoli
1
, Alice Gorrino
1
, Vincenzo Corrado
1
, Nunzio Cotrufo
2
and Roberto Sora
3

1
2
Energy consultant, Torino, Italy
3
Computer consultant, Torino, Italy


SUMMARY

This paper presents an extensive study aimed at assessing the impact of the most typical
thermal bridges on the building energy performance of a typical Italian building stock.
According to a recent European project (TABULA) the most typical Italian building types
(terraced house, multi-family house and apartment block) are analyzed. Moreover, different
thermal insulation levels of the envelope are considered.
For each building type and envelope solution, the most common thermal bridges are
considered and the related linear thermal transmittance is calculated through a finite different
calculation method according to EN ISO 10211. The building energy performance is then
calculated through the monthly steady-state method specified by EN ISO 13790. In order to
perform a sensitivity analysis, a significant and representative number of cases are generated,
using a sampling technique.

INTRODUCTION

Several studies have investigated the weight of thermal losses through thermal bridges on the
buildings energy performance.
A study was conducted in Greece on a typical three-storey apartment building with double
brick wall [1]. The study shows that the influence of thermal bridges on the heating energy
need is up to 30%. According to Cappelletti et al. [2] the weight of thermal bridges on
building energy needs for space heating can reach 67% for a building with a double brick wall
(U =0,15 W/(m
2
K)) in a typical Italian climatic zone. A collection of interesting studies is
reported in [3] showing that the impact of thermal bridges on the heating energy needs of
different European Member States is generally as high as 30%. Moreover, the more a building
envelope is insulated, the more thermal bridges play an increasing role in heat losses and
consequently in the energy needs for space heating.
Evola et al. [4] carried out a study on the effect of thermal bridges in the Italian climate,
showing that the correction of structural details is a proper way of reducing the primary
energy heating demand although it is not always cost-effective.
The present study focuses on the impact of several thermal bridges on the most typical Italian
building types (terraced house, multi-family house and apartment block) for different thermal
and geometrical envelope configurations affecting the -values of thermal bridges (insulation
positions, thermal transmittance, brick thickness and conductivity, floor thickness). The three
building types were selected according to the results of the the European project TABULA
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

487

(Typology Approach for Building Stock Energy Assessment) [5]. The project objective was to
create an harmonized structure of the European building typologies. Each participant
developed a building typology classification that allowed to divide the national existing
buildings into categories: for each category, a building type was identified as representative of
a defined climatic region, period of construction, building size, etc. In Italy, six reference
building types were created to represent the housing stock for the purpose of Energy Balance
analysis. These reference buildings are representative of a suitable significant portion of the
entire national building stock considering both the construction age and the building size (i.e.
number of apartments, floor area) and they belong to the Middle Climatic Zone (from 2100
to 3000 heating degree days), which is the most representative of the Italian climate.
In this paper starting from three selected reference building Italian types, an extensive study
on the impact of thermal bridges on the building energy performance has been performed.
METHODS

In this paper, the heat transfer through thermal bridges is evaluated through the linear thermal
transmittance approach according to EN ISO 10211 [6].
The procedure starts with the calculation of the two dimensional thermal coupling coefficient
(L
2D
), obtained by means of finite difference methods or finite element analysis:

( )
e i
2D

=
q
L , (1)

where q is the heat flow per meter length,
i
and
e
are the internal and external temperatures,
respectively. The linear thermal transmittance, , is calculated through equation 2

=
=
Nj
j
j j D
l U L
1
2
, (2)

where U
j
is the thermal transmittance of the 1-D component j that separates the considered
environments, l
j
is the length in the 2-D geometrical model over which the U
j
value applies.
In the study, the L
2D
coupling coefficient has been calculated by means of Agros2D
simulation code. The external dimensions have been taken into account for -values
calculation.
The building net energy need for space heating has been calculated according to EN ISO
13790 [7], adopting the steady state monthly method.

Process structure of the analysis
In order to assess the impact of thermal bridge for each selected building typology a manager
Python script was built (building_manager.py). In Figure 1 the entire process structure is
shown. The manager script implements a series of iterations, combining various software
tools during the data production/elaboration. For each iteration, a two-step process is
performed to compute the input file containing the generated sample of input variables.
In the first step, the building_manager.py script configures and launches a process pool of
thermal_bridge.py scripts to obtain the values data from Agros2D analysis. For each
thermal bridge, building_manager.py edits the configuration file and transforms CSV outputs
into data structures, useful for the next step of analysis consisting of a statistical data
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

488

production. Subsequently, in the second step, the data structure is integrated with other input
building variables on an EN ISO 13790 Excel spreadsheet which allows to calculate all the
output data related to the building energy performance. Finally, at the end of second step, the
values read in Excel spreadsheet, are aggregated in the output data structure with
thermal_bridge.py results and input data in order to compile the final CSV file, ensuring the
binding between statistical inputs and generated outputs, necessary for further analysis.

Figure 1. Process structure of the analysis

CASE STUDIES

The most typical residential Italian building typologies were selected according to European
project TABULA. In particular, a terraced house (TH), a multi-family house (MFH) and an
apartment block (AB) have been considered as shown in Figure 1.

a)

b)

c)
Figure 2. 3-D geometrical models of terraced house (a), multi-family house (b) and apartment
block (c).

The selected reference buildings are specifically defined as Theoretical Buildings, and are
built on the basis of statistical data. The buildings are defined as a statistical composite of the
features found within a category of buildings in the stock [ECBS 2004]. The archetype is a
virtual building characterized by a group of proprieties evaluated through a statistical analysis
within a sample of buildings. The selected building are in the more recent Building Age
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

489

Class (class 8) [5] . The class reflects changes in the morphological, constructive and supply
system characteristics of the residential building stock.
The building energy performance has been assessed considering the internal temperature set
at 20C and monthly climatic data for the city of Turin provided by Italian standard. The
ventilation rate has been fixed to 0,3 h
-1
for the heated zones. The conventional internal gains
have been fixed to 4 W/m
2
on average per apartment.
Different configurations of the building envelope have been considered for each building
typology: externally insulated brick walls, brick walls with intermediate insulation and brick
walls with internal insulation. The load bearing structure is made of reinforced concrete. The
geometrical properties of each building type are presented in Table 1. In particular, the ratio
between thermal bridges length and the envelope surface (l
pt
/S
e
) is shown: terraced house is
characterized by the major thermal bridge length envelope surface ratio (0,64) as well as the
major surface - volume ratio.

Table 1. Geometrical features of the case studies
Terraced house Multi-family house Apartment block
V
g
m
3
519 2959 8199
S
n
m
2
127 829 2124
S
e
m
2
331 1599 3261
S
e
/V
g
m
-1
0,64 0,54 0,40
L
th tb
/S
e
m
-1
0,64 0,40 0,48

The considered thermal bridges types are shown in Figure 3: balcony wall junction (B),
walls corners both concave and convex (C) with pillar, ground floor wall junction (GF),
intermediate floor wall junction (IF), pillar wall junction (P), roof wall junction (R),
frame wall junction (W). The length of each thermal bridge is shown in Table 2.

External insulation wall
B C
concave
C
convex
GF IF P R W

Intermediate insulation wall

Internal insulation wall

Figure 3. Identification of analyzed thermal bridges

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

490

Table 2. Thermal bridges length (m) for each building type
Thermal bridges types Terraced house Multi-family house Apartment block
B 5 26 70
C
concave
24 65 151
C
convex
- 32 76
GF 36 102 114
IF 31 178 614
P 24 57 302
R 36 102 114
W 55 82 108

In order to evaluate the influence of geometric and thermo physical properties on -values,
and, consequently, on the building energy performance, different configurations have been
analyzed. A significant number of representative cases were generated for each building
using the Latin hypercube technique. Each configuration consisted of a set of input variables
generated according to a uniform probability distribution. In Table 3 the input variables and
their relative range of variation are shown.
For each thermal bridge and building type, all possible combinations of these values for the
different variables have been considered. Subsequently, each set of -values have been
considered for the calculation of the energy performance for each building type together with
other fixed variable related to each building. About 2745 simulations have been performed
(915 per building type considering about 305 for each insulation position).

Table 3. Range of variation of each input variable.
Thermal bridges types Terraced house Multi-family
house
Apartment block
Average envelope thermal
transmittance (U)
W/(m
2
K) 0,10 0,50 0,10 0,50 0,10 0,50
Masonry thermal conductivity
()
W/(mK) 0,25 0,50 0,25 0,50 0,25 0,50
Masonry thickness of a brick
wall (S
m
)
m 0,20 0,30 0,25 0,40 0,25 0,40
Masonry thickness of a double
brick wall (S
m1
, S
m2
)
m 0,10 - 0,20
0,10 0,20
0,10 0,30
0,10 0,30
0,10 0,30
0,10 0,30
Floor thickness (S
f
) m 0,15 0,25 0,15 0,25 0,15 0,25

As it can be noticed from Table 3, only insulated buildings have been taking into account:
from slightly to highly insulated buildings. For walls U values varying within 0,1 0,2, high
performance windows have been considered (U
w
=1,4 W/ (m
2
K)); for walls U values
varying within 0,3 0,5 low-e double glazing system have been considered (U
w
=2 W/ (m
2

K)). Moreover an appropriate internal thermal capacity was considered for each simulation
according to masonry thermal conductivity and the position of the insulation layer.

RESULTS

In Table 4 the percentage share of thermal bridges on the heat transfer by transmission
(H
tr,pt
/H
tr,tot
) is shown. Considering all the simulations, the percentage incidence is 20% on
average for external insulated envelope and about 30% for both intermediate and internal
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

491

insulated envelope, for both apartment blocks and multi-family houses. Thermal bridges
percentage share is higher for terraced houses: 30% for external insulated envelope up to 37%
for intermediate insulated envelope. Indeed, as it can be seen in Table 1, the terraced houses
are characterized by the highest value of thermal bridges length envelope ratio (l
th_tb
/S
e
).
Table 4 allows to appreciate the percentage share of thermal bridges with varying U-values of
each building type. Generally, the more the envelope is insulated, the higher is the thermal
bridges percentage share. Considering the terraced houses, the thermal bridging effect can
reach 50% of the heat losses by transmission for intermediate and internal insulated walls
considering U-values varying within 0,1 and 0,2 W/(m
2
K).

Table 4. Percentage share of thermal bridges on the heat transfer by transmission (H
tr,pt
/H
tr,tot
)
varying with the U-values.

H
tr,pt
/H
tr,tot
[%]
AB MFH TH
ext interm int ext interm int ext interm int
0,1 U 0,2
W/(m
2
K)
min 19% 35% 32% 23% 33% 30% 35% 43% 41%
av 27% 46% 43% 32% 43% 40% 44% 51% 49%
max 34% 54% 49% 39% 51% 47% 55% 61% 58%
0,2 <U 0,3
W/(m
2
K)
min 14% 27% 26% 17% 23% 23% 25% 31% 30%
av 17% 33% 32% 21% 29% 29% 31% 39% 37%
max 21% 41% 37% 26% 37% 34% 39% 47% 42%
0,3 <U 0,4
W/(m
2
K)
min 11% 20% 21% 13% 17% 17% 19% 24% 23%
av 14% 27% 27% 16% 23% 23% 24% 31% 29%
max 16% 33% 33% 19% 29% 29% 30% 39% 35%
0,4 <U 0,5
W/(m
2
K)
min 9% 14% 17% 11% 11% 13% 15% 17% 16%
av 11% 21% 22% 13% 17% 17% 18% 24% 22%
max 15% 27% 28% 15% 22% 23% 22% 30% 28%

Figures 4-6 show the weight of each thermal bridge on the heat losses by transmission.
Considering the apartment block with external insulation walls, the thermal bridge that mostly
affects the bi-dimensional thermal losses is the ground floor wall junction (GF),
characterized by a high value of both and length. Regarding the intermediate and internal
insulation wall, the heat losses concentrate on the intermediate floor wall junction (IF). In
fact, the longest IF junction (614 m) is shown and, differently from the external insulation
wall, has no thermal correction (for internal insulation wall) or a slight correction (for
intermediate insulation walls) (see Figure 3).

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

492

Figure 4. Percentage share of thermal bridges on the heat transfer by transmission
(H
tr,pt
/H
tr,tot
) varying with the U-values - Apartment Block (AB).

The same results can be noticed for multi-family house as it can be seen in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Percentage share of thermal bridges on the heat transfer by transmission (H
tr,pt
/H
tr,tot
)
varying with the U-values - Multi-family house (MFH).

Regarding the terraced house (Figure 6) with external insulation walls, the GF junction is still
the thermal bridge with the highest thermal losses percentage share . IF junction too, for both
intermediate and internal insulation walls, is one of the thermal bridges with the highest
percentage weight.
Differently from the apartment block and the multi-family house, the window wall junction
(W) plays a significant role in the bi-dimensional heat losses for every kind of wall
configuration.
.
-20%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0,1U0,2 0,2<U0,3 0,3<U0,4 0,4<U0,5 0,1U0,2 0,2<U0,3 0,3<U0,4 0,4<U0,5 0,1U0,2 0,2<U0,3 0,3<U0,4 0,4<U0,5
Htr,GF/Htr,pt Htr,B/Htr,pt Htr,P/Htr,pt Htr,W/Htr,pt
Htr,IF/Htr,pt Htr,Cconcave/Htr,pt Htr,Cconvex/Htr,pt Htr,R/Htr,pt
External Intermediate Internal
-20%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0,1U0,2 0,2<U0,3 0,3<U0,4 0,4<U0,5 0,1U0,2 0,2<U0,3 0,3<U0,4 0,4<U0,5 0,1U0,2 0,2<U0,3 0,3<U0,4 0,4<U0,5
Htr,GF/Htr,pt Htr,B/Htr,pt Htr,P/Htr,pt Htr,W/Htr,pt
Htr,IF/Htr,pt Htr,Cconcave/Htr,pt Htr,Cconvex/Htr,pt Htr,R/Htr,pt
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

493

Figure 6. Percentage share of thermal bridges on the heat transfer by transmission (H
tr,pt
/H
tr,tot
)
varying with the U-values - Terraced house

In Table 5 the total energy need (Q
H,nd
) and the percentage share of heat transmission through
the thermal bridges (Q
th_br
/Q
H,nd
) on the heating energy need for each building typology is
shown considering different insulation positions and thermal transmittance ranges. In general
TH is characterized by the highest value of energy need. Moreover for all the configurations
analyzed, the intermediate insulation solutions are characterized by higher values of heat
transmission through the thermal bridges. For high insulation levels, the percentage share
(Q
th_br
/Q
H,nd
) value considering the intermediate insulation vary in average from 65% (AB) to
69% (TH). Values between 40% to 60% of (Q
th_br
/Q
H,nd
) are found for external insulation
solutions.
Table 5. Heating energy need and percentage share of heat transmission through the thermal
bridges on the heating energy need for each building typology varying with the U-values

CONCLUSION

In the paper starting from a representative number of cases related to three different Italian
building archetypes, general results on the influence of thermal bridging effect on the building
energy performance were found. Considering the terraced houses for low U-values the
-20%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
0,1U0,2 0,2<U0,3 0,3<U0,4 0,4<U0,5 0,1U0,2 0,2<U0,3 0,3<U0,4 0,4<U0,5 0,1U0,2 0,2<U0,3 0,3<U0,4 0,4<U0,5
Htr,GF/Htr,pt Htr,B/Htr,pt Htr,P/Htr,pt Htr,W/Htr,pt Htr,IF/Htr,pt Htr,Cconcave/Htr,pt Htr,R/Htr,pt
Q
h,nd
[kWh/m
2
] and Q
th_tb
/ Q
h,nd
[%]
AB MFH TH
ext interm int ext interm int ext interm int
min 14,8 40,8 22,3 61,9 20,6 39,9 17,1 31,3 22,1 63,1 20,7 61,7 38,3 37,3 47,2 64,8 43,8 61,1
max 20,2 40,1 32,3 66,8 29,8 61,0 23,3 47,9 32,9 62,3 30,7 39,1 32,7 64,8 63,2 71,4 39,2 63,7 0,1 U 0,2
ava 17,3 40,3 27,4 63,2 23,4 60,6 21,1 49,3 27,7 63,7 26,0 39,9 43,7 39,7 33,4 69,0 32,3 66,0
min 21,0 23,8 28,2 43,8 28,0 41,7 24,7 32,4 29,4 40,3 28,9 39,6 46,2 43,7 33,0 31,3 33,2 47,0
max 26,7 26,0 38,0 32,7 37,4 48,8 32,9 32,7 39,9 48,1 38,9 43,2 63,8 47,3 76,4 36,9 72,8 32,3 0,2 <U 0,3
ava 23,3 23,9 32,9 48,1 32,6 46,3 28,3 32,8 34,0 44,9 33,9 43,7 38,2 43,3 68,0 33,3 64,6 49,9
min 26,1 19,9 33,7 30,3 33,7 33,7 31,6 24,3 33,2 28,2 33,6 29,3 39,9 29,6 67,3 33,7 64,6 34,1
max 33,3 19,9 43,0 44,1 43,3 42,3 39,7 23,3 43,9 38,3 46,3 37,9 74,7 37,2 83,2 47,2 83,0 41,4 0,3 <U 0,4
ava 29,3 19,9 38,1 38,3 38,4 37,8 33,9 24,6 40,8 33,9 40,8 33,2 68,1 32,2 76,9 41,4 73,8 38,1
min 32,1 13,3 38,0 22,1 38,7 26,1 38,7 18,9 41,7 17,9 42,1 20,4 72,9 21,1 77,6 23,0 76,2 22,9
max 41,8 20,3 47,8 33,9 49,7 33,3 49,2 19,4 31,9 29,7 33,7 29,9 84,8 26,4 94,1 37,2 88,6 34,3 0,4 <U 0,5
ava 33,9 16,3 42,6 29,8 43,3 30,4 43,6 19,1 46,8 24,8 47,3 24,8 78,9 23,9 86,1 31,3 83,0 28,0
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

494

thermal bridging effect can reach 50% of the heat losses by transmission for intermediate
insulation while for AB and MFH this value ranges from 40% to 45%. Considering the AB
and MFH with external insulation walls, the thermal bridge that mostly affects thermal losses
is the ground floorwall junction while for intermediate and internal insulation wall, the heat
losses are concentrated on the intermediate floorwall junction. For the terraced house also
the windowwall junction plays a significant role in the bi-dimensional heat losses for every
kind of wall configuration. Moreover for all the configurations analyzed, the intermediate
insulation solutions are characterized by higher values of percentage share of heat
transmission through the thermal bridges on the heating energy need.

REFERENCES

1. Theodosiou, TG and Papadopoulos, A M. 2008. The impact of thermal bridges on the energy
demand of buildings with double brick wall constructions. Energy and Buildings 40, pp. 2083-
2089.
2. Cappelletti, F, Corrado, V, Gasparella, A, and Gorrino, A. 2010. Detailed assessment of thermal
bridges in highly insulated buildings. Proceedings of CLIMA 2010, 10
th
Rehva World Congress
Sustainable Energy Use in Buildings.
3. Citterio, M, Cocco, M, and Erhorn-Kluttig, H. 2008. Thermal bridges in the EBPD context:
overview on MS approaches in regulations. ASIEPI Information Paper.
4. Evola, G, Margani, G, and Marletta, L. 2011. Energy and cost evaluation of thermal bridge
correction in Mediterranean climate. Energy and Buildings 43, pp. 23852393.
5. Ballarini, I, Corgnati, S P, Corrado, V, and Tal, N. 2011. Definition of building typologies for
energy investigations on residential sector by TABULA IEE-Project: application to Italian case
studies, Proceeding of the 12
th
International conference on air distribution in rooms.
6. EN ISO 10211. 2007. Thermal bridges in building construction heat flows and surface
temperatures detailed calculations.
7. EN ISO 13790. 2008. Energy performance of buildings Calculation of energy use for space
heating and cooling.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

495

DESIGN AND VERIFICATION OF A ZERO ENERGY BUILDING:
EVALUATION OF REAL ENERGY PERFORMANCE AND
COMPARISON WITH A TAILORED CALCULATION

Alfonso Capozzoli
1
, Luca Berra
2
, Roberto Russo
3
and Vincenzo Corrado
1

1
2
Edilclima srl, Borgomanero (NO), Italy
3
Energy consultant, Torino, Italy


SUMMARY

In this paper an example of a nearly-zero-energy building in northern Italy is presented. A
critical analysis of the technologies design, both for increasing energy efficiency and
renewable energy production is carried out.
The available data from an energy monitoring campaign during the seasons 2010-2011 and
2011-2012 are presented and discussed in order to evaluate the real energy performance of the
building.
The data of the monitoring campaign are also used to assess the real operational conditions of
the building in order to perform a tailored energy calculation. Thus the calculation is
performed using both monthly quasi-steady-state method and an hourly dynamic model. The
simulation results are compared with the real building energy monitored data to get a
validation of the model.

INTRODUCTION

The theme of Zero Energy Buildings (ZEBs) has been receiving wide international attention
for a few years, till it became a part of the energy policy in several countries, and is now
considered as the target for the design of buildings in the near future. In the recast of the EU
Directive on Energy Performance of Buildings (EPBD) [1], it is specified that by the end of
2020 all the new buildings shall be nearly zero energy buildings (NZEB). Considering that
in Europe buildings are responsible for the use of about 40% of the whole energy in the
continent, an increase of the number of ZEBs (or NZEB) appears to be a very interesting
strategy in order to reduce the energy use.
Although the number of ZEBs or NZEBs has started getting greater both in Italy and the rest
of Europe, hitherto an agreed definition of the Zero Energy Buildings concept has not been
identified, nor a common calculation methodology has been approved yet. According to
Sartori et al. [2], many studies focused on a definition of the ZEB: even though a common
definition was not identified from a scientific point of view, an accepted generic definition of
the ZEB is: an energy efficient building able to generate electricity, or other energy carriers,
from renewable sources in order to compensate for its energy demand. As shown in Sartori
et al. [2] and in A.J . Marszal [3], depending on the scope of the study or the legislation of a
country, it is possible to define a ZEB in different ways.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

496

The objective of a NZEB is not only to minimize the energy consumption of the building with
passive design methods, but also to design a building that balances energy requirements with
active energy production techniques and renewable technologies (for example PV, solar
thermal or wind turbines). According to Kolokotsa et al. [4], various innovative energy
efficient technologies are mature and can be considered for reaching the target of a ZEB. An
example of such technologies adopted in an actual high performance building in northern Italy
are presented and discussed in this paper.
Both in Italy and Europe several studies focus on a comparison between theoretical and actual
energy performance of ZEB buildings considering different models for energy calculations.
Recently DallO et al. [5] presented a study conducted to verify the actual energy behaviour
of new high performance building, using energy consumption data of the winter heating
season. In Raftery et al. [6] a detailed case study on the calibration process of a building
energy model using hourly measured data is presented. The results of the calibrated model
showed an excellent correlation with the measured energy consumption data for the analysed
year. The aim of this work is to verify the actual energy performance of a NZEB, analyzing
the energy consumption data of different winter heating seasons. Moreover a calibration of
the building energy performance model (using a monthly quasi-steady-state method and an
hourly dynamic analysis) is presented. The results of software calculations are compared with
the monthly consumption data of the winter period in the 20112012 season.

METHODS
Description of the building and the design solutions
The case study consists of two residential buildings which are located in Borgomanero, in the
province of Novara (Italy). The latitude is 4541 and the elevation is 307 m. The average
yearly temperature is 12 C and the mean irradiance on the horizontal plane is 151
W/m
2
according to Italian standard UNI 10349.
The first building (A), the higher one, has four overground storeys, four flats (zone 1-4) and a
total net floor area of 480 m
2
. The second building (B), the smaller one, has three overground
storeys, four flats (zone 5-8) and a total net floor area of 340 m
2
. The higher one presents a
typical floor plan with a 140 m
2
flat, the smaller one has a typical floor plan with two 70 m
2

flats (the second and the third floor of the smaller building have two flats of 104 m
2
each on
two levels). A pilotis structure appears in both buildings, on which the first floor is built. The
remaining floors have the same characteristic of the first one, except for the attic floor whose
area is smaller (60 m
2
).

a)

b)

c)
Figure 1. Typical floor plan a) lower building, b) higher building, c) 3D drawing model

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

497

The orientation of the buildings was mainly influenced by the context in which it is located,
orienting the main views east and west to ensure the best visibility towards the surrounding
landscape as well as a better privacy condition. During the monitoring period only two flats
(zone 2 and 3) of the building were continuously occupied and the temperature was set at an
average of 20-21 C during the heating season and at 26C during the cooling period. The
remaining flats were not occupied and a minimum winter heating, setting the temperature at
about 8-12 C is provided.

Opaque and transparent envelope
The main technical data of the opaque and transparent envelope are reported in Table 1.

Table 1. Envelope features
System Description Technical data
Opaque
envelope

Traditional main load-bearing structure with
beams and pillars in reinforced concrete.
External walls in metal structure with concrete
slab and polyester insulation (mean overall
thickness about 57cm)
Thermal transmittance
U=0.11 W/ (m
2
K)
Periodical thermal transmittance
Y=0.009 W/ (m
2
K).
Transparent
envelope
Multichamber triple glazed PVC frame with 12 mm
interspace in Kripton. The inner and the outer
glasses are security ones (one is a low emittance
glass) and the central one is a tempered glass
Mean thermal transmittance
U
W
=1.3 W/(m
2
K)
U
gl
=0.5 W/(m
2
K)
Solar transmittance
g=0.44.

HVAC system and DHW production
A combined heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) system with primary air (all
external air) and radiant panels, is installed. The system is designed primarily for taking
advantage through the direct heat exchange with the ground for different applications: pre-
heating of fresh air in the winter season, pre-cooling of fresh air and of underfloor radiant
panels in summer season. When the required enthalpy levels cannot be reached with ground
direct heat exchange only, geothermal heat pumps provide the heating/cooling fluid for
radiant terminals and air handling unit (AHU) coils. There are three geothermal circuits: the
first one allows the treatment of primary air through the heat recovery directly from the
ground, providing a pre-heating / pre-cooling process; the second one is connected to a
geothermal heat pump for the heating, realised through the radiant panels and AHU; the third
one is connected to a second geothermal heat pump devoted to domestic hot water (DHW)
production and, only in summer, to cooling through the radiant panels directly. A natural gas
heat generator was also designed, as a back-up for the heat pump. An under-floor radiant
system is installed, which is controlled by electronic ambient thermostats with proportional
band in each room. The heat pump for domestic hot water production is connected to a water
storage tank and it is optimized for working in support to the solar thermal system. The air
handling units (AHU) is designed for providing fresh air (ventilation) and balancing part of
the heating or cooling building loads. The ventilation by the AHU has a variable flow rate as a
function of pollutants concentration in each flat. The air handling unit consists of the
following components: supply fan, return fan, pre-heating/cooling air coil, post-
heating/cooling coil, recovery battery with pump. The pre-heating/cooling coil is directly
supplied by the fluid that exchanges with the ground through geothermal wells, while the
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

498

post-treatment battery is supplied by the geothermal heat pump which is connected to another
battery located over the outlet channel. This allows the heat recovery by a closed circuit
(recovery batteries with pump). On the roof of the buildings, photovoltaic panels produce the
energy required for the heat pumps, the air handling units and the auxiliaries of the systems.
The main technical data of the system are presented in table 2.

Table 2. Main plants technical data
System Use Nominal data Average operational data
Heat pump 1

Heating / cooling B
0
W
35
(EN 14511)

Thermal power 9.6 kW
Electrical power 2.2 kW
COP 4.5
Variable conditions (B
5
W
26
)
Average thermal power: 10.3 kW
Average electric power: 1.8 kW
COP
mean year
=5.8
Heat pump 2 Domestic hot
water
B
0
W
60
(EN 14511)

Thermal power 5.8 kW
Electrical power 2.3 kW
COP 2.5
Variable conditions (B
10
W
50
)
Average thermal power: 7.6 kW
Average electric power: 1.9 kW
COP
mean year
=4
Geothermal
well 1
Air pre-
heating/cooling
90 metres deep nr. 2 wells

Winter peak thermal power:
4000 W
Geothermal
well 2
Heat pump 1 90 metres deep nr. 3 wells Minimum supply T=2 C
Minimum return T=5 C
Geothermal
well 3
Heat pump 2 90 metres deep nr. 3 wells Minimum supply T=7 C
Minimum return T=10 C
Nr. 12 Solar
panels
Plane panels
Total surface
27.6 m
2
Domestic hot
water
Conversion factor 77 %
k
1
factor=3.494 W(m
2
K)
k
2
factor

=0.017 W(m
2
K
2
)
Angle correction factor 95%
Coverage more than 60 %
Nr 60
polycrystalli
ne silicon pv
panels
Total surface
78.7 m
2
Panel type ase 165 gt ft/mc
Peak power 165 W, Tension 36
V
Vacuum tension 43.8 V
Nominal Power 9900 W
Predicted producibility: 10759
kWh/year (UNI/TR 11328-
1:2009)
Yearly measured production
2010: 11342 kWh
2011: 9806 kWh
1

2012: 10172 kWh

Monitoring system
A building management system is installed in the building in order to control all the main
important design variables of the technical systems. Moreover a monitoring system is
installed aimed to collect data on the actual energy consumption and indoor microclimatic
environment for each flat. In figure 2 the meters and sensors position is shown.

1
Data affected by a system failure for a few months
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

499

a)

b)
Figure 2. Monitoring sensors location a) plant b) indoor

The monitoring system of the buildings allows a real-time visualization of all the main
parameters of the system by any pc connected to internet. The installed system allows to have
a detailed trend of the building behaviour during operational period. The internal temperature
of the flats, internal ventilation air flow, air quality, ventilation air temperature, storage water
temperature, etc, were monitored during the seasons 2010-2011 and 2011-2012.
Also, an analysis of the energy consumption of each flat, based on the data supplied by the
heat meters, and an analysis of the net energy consumption of the buildings, based on the data
supplied by the electricity meters is performed. A profile of ventilation flow rate was
evaluated using both the data of the actual opening ratio of the air control valve in each flat
and the data supplied by specific measures. The measurements was performed to know the
maximum and minimum air flow supplied by the AHU in total opening and closing
conditions of the air inlet control valve of every flat.

Calculation of energy performance and calibration of the models
The last part of the work was aimed to calculate the building energy need performance, both
using a monthly quasi-steady-state method and an hourly dynamic model. The calculation
was tailored on real conditions and the results are compared with the real building energy
consumption data in order to find out the consistency with real data and to get a calibration
of the model. The physical characteristics of the building opaque envelope was measured by a
thermo flux meter. Moreover particular attention was paid in the actual air flow rate
ventilation evaluation for each flat. The calibration process of the dynamic model was
performed in iterative steps: whenever the output results showed an excessive discrepancy
with the measured energy need, a more accurate input data was provided at each step. A
schedule of internal load conditions was done, first by interviewing the occupants and second
by analysing the monitoring data.
The hourly dynamic calculation was carried out using a commercial software tool (EDSL Tas
Building Simulator) that complies with the NCM (National Calculation Methodology) [7].
The input hourly weather data was supplied by the Italian climatic data collection "Gianni De
Giorgio" (IGDG), based on a 1951-1970 period of record, for Novara-Cameri. This weather
data was compared and corrected with the actual weather data for the analysed year. The input
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

500

of internal condition was made in accordance with the analysis of the actual internal
condition. An hourly profile of the internal temperature of each flat was considered.
The monthly quasi-steady-state calculation was carried out using a commercial software tool
(Edilclima EC700) that complies with the EN ISO 13790 methodology [8].
The input of average internal condition was made. Finally, a standard calculation according to
EN ISO 13790 was performed too, in order to have a term of comparison with the tailored
calculation.

RESULTS

Analysis of monitored energy consumption
Table 3 shows the measured building energy needs of each flat through the heat meters. The
occupied flats are zone 2 and zone 3 which are located respectively at the second and third
floor of the highest building. Zone 2 is characterized by a specific energy need for heating in
the analysed year of 55.79 kWh/m
2
, while zone 3 is characterized by a specific energy need of
46.61 kWh/m
2
. These values are greater than expected in design calculation due to actual
internal condition (presence of colder unoccupied close flats and an higher air ventilation flow
rate) and to some thermal bridges because of technical issues in putting the insulation of the
envelope (as revealed by the thermography).

Table 3. Specific energy need of each flat (kWh
th
/m
2
)

ZONE

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
OCT 2011 1.21 2.77 2.22 0.61 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
NOV 2011 3.34 7.18 6.36 1.37 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
DEC 2011 2.35 11.57 9.59 2.92 2.52 0.89 1.74 0.48
J AN 2012 2.76 12.52 10.45 1.78 3.01 8.31 1.67 0.34
FEB 2012 5.83 13.14 10.46 1.97 4.11 16.64 2.28 0.00
MAR 2012 1.45 5.33 4.55 1.12 1.63 6.04 0.77 0.00
APR 2012 0.70 3.29 2.98 0.54 0.83 5.19 0.50 0.00
WINTER 2011-12 17.63 55.79 46.61 10.32 12.10 37.07 6.95 0.82

Table 4 shows the buildings energy consumption, based on the data supplied by the electricity
meters, split by different uses (heat pumps, ventilation fans, circulating pumps, etc.). The gas
consumption of the heat generator is also recorded, even though occasionally. All the data
values were converted in primary energy. The total primary energy consumption of the
building in the year 2011-2012 was 29451 kWh
p
. Since the average annual electrical
production of the photovoltaic system of the building was about 11000 kWh
el
, equal to 23980
kWh
p
in primary energy, the 81% of total energy consumption of the buildings is
compensated by the renewable energy production.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

501

Table 4. Energy consumption of the building
HEAT
PUMP
HEAT
PUMP
DHW
PANEL
WATER
PUMP
SOLAR
DHW
PUMP
VENT.
A
VENT.
B
TOTAL
ELECTR.
TOTAL
PRIMARY
ENERGY
kWh
e
kWh
e
kWh
e
kWh
e
kWh
e
kWh
e
kWh
e
kWh
p

YEAR '10-'11 5646 2910 350 442 2985 197 12530 27315
MAY 2011 0 35 4 38 288 14 379 826
J UN 2011 0 87 5 35 268 14 409 892
J UL 2011 0 59 5 42 284 15 405 883
AUG 2011 0 3 4 37 150 13 207 451
SEP 2011 0 19 3 39 255 14 330 719
SUMMER 2011 0 203 21 191 1245 70 1730 3771
OCT 2011 213 140 16 40 252 13 674 1469
NOV 2011 662 291 34 37 242 14 1280 2790
DEC 2011 1139 520 59 37 245 13 2013 4416
J AN 2012 1436 468 72 38 240 14 2268 5147
FEB 2012 1407 529 86 36 227 13 2298 6684
MAR 2012 690 328 48 41 252 13 1372 2991
APR 2012 445 227 39 38 239 13 1001 2182
WINTER 2011-12 5992 2503 354 267 1697 93 10906 25679
YEAR 2011-12 5992 2706 375 458 2942 163 12636 29451

Monitoring of indoor ambient condition
The monitoring of indoor ambient condition allowed to know exactly the actual performance
of the building in every time stamp. The ventilation air flow supplied to flats appeared to be
higher than expected: in summer time, when the CO
2
differential concentration set point was
550 ppm, zone 2 and zone 3 had an average air change of 0.54 h
-1
and 0.56 h
-1
respectively: in
winter time, when the set point was 650 ppm, zone 2 and zone 3 had an average air change of
0.48 h
-1
and 0.43 h
-1
respectively. Zone 1, even though unoccupied, was provided an average
air change of 0.26 h
-1
. Figure 3 shows an example of the internal temperature trend in each
flat for a couple of days in December 2011. It is clear that the occupied flats are zone 2 and
zone 3 whose internal temperature was around 20-22 C.

a)

b)
Figure 3. An example of monitoring of internal temperature a) zones 1-4, b) zones 5-8
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

502

Calculation of energy performance and calibration of the models
Figure 4 shows that the internal temperature of each zone in 28-29 December according to the
hourly dynamic calculation modelgives results very similar to the monitored ones.

a)

b)
Figure 4. An example of the internal temperature output compared to monitored temperature
in 28-29 December a) zone 2, b) zone 3

a) b)
Figure 5. An example of the results of the calculations a) zone 2, b) zone 3

Figure 5 shows the calculated energy demand for zone 2 and 3. For each flat is shown a
comparison between the monitored monthly energy needs and the simulated ones with the
tailored quasi-steady-state calculation, the standard quasi-steady-state calculation and the
dynamic calculation. The tailored hourly dynamic calculation calibrated on real condition
show excellent results. The model approximated the real energy need of the building with an
error less than 5% for zone 2 and zone 3. The quasi-steady-state calculation provided an error
around 5-10%.

DISCUSSION

The nearly-zero-energy buildings are considered the target of the building design in the early
future. Various mature innovative energy efficient technologies, as discussed above,
demonstrated the high energy performance of a real building on the basis of the actual
consumption data available in the operational life. The monitoring of energy consumption
appears to be a fundamental step to evaluate the real performance of a building and it can be
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

503

considered the only way to ensure a high real performance building and the compliance with
the design requirements. Yet, it is a posteriori process, when the main design choices are done
and it can be useful only to check the good or bad performance of the building. Besides, the
monitoring of ambient condition appeared to be a very useful step that allowed evaluating the
real operational condition of the building during the life in order to find out any operational
concerns or technical issues that may lead to a different performance than expected in the
design and so to find a real-time solution. This work also demonstrates the reliability of
performance calculation software tools, especially when they are calibrated on actual
condition. They can be very useful tools for prediction of buildings energy performance and
they should be considered especially in the building design process where the main solutions
are taken and it is necessary to have a priori evaluation of the building performance. Further
development of this work will consist of performing the calibrated model calculation in order
to investigate possible optimization of building operational management.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank Ecodesign srl in Scandiano (RE) for its support.

REFERENCES
1. EPBD recast, Directive 2010/31/EU of the European parliament and of the council of 19 May
2010 on the energy performance of buildings (recast). Official J ournal of the European Union
2010. 18/06/2010.
2. Igor Sartori, Assunta Napolitano, Karsten Voss. Net zero energy buildings: A consistent
definition framework. Energy and Buildings 48 (2012) 220232.
3. A.J . Marszal, P. Heiselberg, J .S. Bourrelle, et al. Zero Energy Building A review of
definitions and calculation methodologies. Energy and Buildings 43 (2011) 971979.
4. D. Kolokotsa, D. Rovas, E. Kosmatopoulos, K. Kalaitzakis. A roadmap towards intelligent net
zero- and positive-energy buildings. Solar Energy 85 (2011) 30673084
5. Giuliano DallO, Luca Sarto, Annalisa Galante, Giulia Pasetti. Comparison between predicted
and actual energy performance for winter heating in high-performance residential buildings in
the Lombardy region (Italy). Energy and Buildings 47 (2012) 247253
6. Paul Raftery, Marcus Keane, Andrea Costa. Calibrating whole building energy models:
Detailed case study using hourly measured data Energy and Buildings 43 (2011) 36663679
7. National Calculation Methodology (NCM) modelling guide (for buildings other than
dwellings in England and Wales) 2010 Edition
8. EN ISO 13790:2008 Energy performance of buildings - Calculation of energy use for space
heating and cooling, 2008.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

504

SECURING THERMAL COMFORT IN MODERN OFFICE BUILDINGS

Assoc. Prof. Dipl. Ing. Mria Budiakov, PhD.

Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Nm. slobody 19, 812 45 Bratislava, Slovakia

Corresponding email: budiakova@fa.stuba.sk

SUMMARY

The paper is focused on securing the thermal comfort in modern glass office buildings. It is
looking for the optimal energy-efficient heating systems to eliminate the local thermal
discomfort. These systems must be in mutual harmony and by the energy saving must ensure
thermal comfort. With the help of experimental measurements I was searching for suitable
radiant heating for office buildings from the ensuring thermal comfort point of view, which
could be also energy saving. For radiant heating in office buildings is optimal ratio of heat
transfer: radiant floor heating 30% and radiant ceiling heating 70%. To ensure the thermal
comfort in offices is important in designing the radiant heating to follow described
improvements.

INTRODUCTION

New energy efficient heating and systems in office buildings make the basic assumptions of
modern building design with low power consumption. All progressive solutions of these
systems is important to apply, in order to reach high energy saving [1]. It must not be
forgotten while doing so to ensure thermal comfort in offices [2].

HEATING SYSTEMS OF OFFICE BUILDINGS

New heating systems must be improved from the point of view of thermal comfort in interiors
[3]. In majority of heated interior spaces the thermal discomfort can be developed. Thermal
discomfort is caused by a warm or cold wall, ceiling, floor; a cooling window; air circulation
etc.. The measurements in experimental laboratory were done to analyze the problem of
thermal discomfort and find proper solution for its elimination.

Experimental Laboratory Measurements of Heating Systems

Before I started the measurements, I created a laboratory model of room heating. The
laboratory model I realized in the microclimatic laboratory.

The aim of creating the laboratory model was to simulate thermal - humidity microclimate for
radiant floor heating and radiant ceiling heating. The outdoor climate conditions were
simulated the same with two types of heating. The model had been mathematically defined
with a system of equations by the air temperatures
a
=18, 20, 22 C for the room with one
perimeter wall (1 PW, the room is in the middle location of a building) and with two
perimeter walls (2 PW, the room is in the corner location of a building). After the substitution
of other marginal parameters I calculated the following values, Table 1 and Table 2.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

505

Table 1. Values for Radiant Floor Heating
Air Tempe-
rapture (C)
a

Surface Temperature of Floor (C)
s
floor
Surface Temperature of Ceiling (C)
s
ceiling
1 PW 2 PW 1 PW 2 PW
18 23,0 23,7 19,9 20,4
20 25,4 26,9 22,1 22,6
22 27,8 28,6 24,4 24,8

Floor HS (heating surface) covered 80 % from total heat loss and 20 % the ceiling HS.
Heating surface sizes were with 1 PW S
floor
=S
ceiling
=5,04 m
2
and with 2 PW S
floor
=S
ceiling
=
6,72 m
2
.

Table 2. Values for Radiant Ceiling Heating
Air Tempe-
rapture (C)
a

Surface Temperature of Ceiling
(C)
s
ceiling
Surface Temperature of Floor (C)
s
floor
1 PW 2 PW 1 PW 2 PW
18 32,0 38,7 20,1 20,8
20 34,8 42,2 22,2 25,1
22 37,6 45,2 24,5 27,5
Ceiling HS (heating surface) covered 80 % from total heat loss and 20 % the floor HS.
Heating surface sizes were with 1 PW and 2 PW S
ceiling
=S
floor
=2,08 m
2
.

The aim of measurements was to record parameters of air temperatures and surface
temperatures by the designed laboratory model of the radiant floor heating and by radiant
ceiling heating. Measurements took place in a measuring room of the special microclimatic
laboratory in standpoints A, B, C, D, in Figure 1. Surface temperatures were simulated by

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

506

Figure 1. Measuring room of special microclimatic laboratory
aluminum panels (Figure 1) as follows: window panel a; sill panel b; wall panel c; floor
panels d, e, f; ceiling panels g, h, i (locality as in the case of the floor). Other surfaces were
kept at air temperature. Heating surfaces (HS) have been simulated in the following way:

- Radiant floor heating at 1 PW: floor HS by parts of panels d, e; ceiling HS by parts of panels
g, h; and at 2 PW: floor HS by parts of panels d, e, f; ceiling HS by parts of panels g, h, i.

- Radiant ceiling heating at 1 PW and 2 PW: floor HS by parts of panels d, e; ceiling HS by
parts of panels g, h. Surface temperatures of panels a, b at 1 PW (panels a, b, c at 2 PW)
were kept the same by radiant floor heating and by radiant ceiling heating.

Logger recorded air temperatures and surface temperatures.

Indexes PMV and indexes PPD was computed with the special program. This program works
with the iteration method on the bases of Fanger's equations.

The PMV and PPD values for radiant floor heating are figured by 1 PW and 2 PW, in
standpoints A, B, C, D, by air temperatures
a
=18, 20, 22 C in Figure 2, Figure 3 and for
radiant ceiling heating in Figure 4, Figure 5.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

507

Figure 2. Index PMV by radiant floor heating

Figure 3. Index PPD by radiant floor heating
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

508

Figure 4. Index PMV by radiant ceiling heating

Figure 5. Index PPD by radiant ceiling heating
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

509

Radiant floor heating. By index PMV is the standpoint sequence (i.e. from the minimum
value towards the maximum value) with 1 PW BADC and with 2 PW BADC. By index PPD
is the standpoint sequence (i.e. from the maximum value towards the minimum value) with 1
PW BADC and with 2 PW BADC. With 1 PW values of PMV and PPD indexes were least
meeting the requirement of thermal comfort in standpoint B. Radiant floor heating did not
eliminate the cool effect of the window. In standpoints C, D radiant floor heating influenced
slack. Improvement: in standpoints A, B i.e. by the cooled surfaces must be increased value of
surface temperature of floor. Thus the marginal zone with maximum value of surface
temperature of floor is created. In standpoints C, D can be the improvement achieved by
locating floor heating surface with low value of surface temperature of floor also into the
backside of the interior.

Radiant ceiling heating. By index PMV is the standpoint sequence with 1 PW BADC and
with 2 PW BADC. By index PPD is the standpoint sequence with 1 PW BADC and with 2
PW BADC. With 1 PW values of PMV and PPD indexes were least meeting the requirement
of thermal comfort in standpoint B. Radiant ceiling heating did not eliminate the cool effect of
the window. The weak effect had radiant ceiling heating too in the corner of the room, in
standpoint A. The better contentment was according to PMV and PPD indexes in standpoints
C, D. Improvement: another part of ceiling heating surface with low value of surface
temperature has to be located in the middle and into the back part of interior. In higher
buildings from the entire heat flow needed for thermal comfort in interior 70 % should be
covered by ceiling heating surface and 30 % by floor heating surface (i.e. the ceiling HS of
the lower floor).

It was found out from experimental measurements for office buildings that by radiant heating
application is suitable ratio of heat transfer: radiant floor heating 30% and radiant ceiling
heating 70%. This ratio of radiant heatings is recommended from the point of view of
ensuring the thermal comfort in offices. This combination of radiant heatings will best secure
thermal comfort in offices and is energy saving. The advantage of the system is the possibility
of its own use in the summer for effective cooling of the interiors. By designing the radiant
floor heating and radiant ceiling heating should be followed the described improvements in
order to prevent local thermal discomfort. In the case of multi-story glass office building is
recommended to produce radiant surfaces with dry method - at least radiant floor surfaces, to
ensure the dynamic response to changes in external climate. Alternatively, sudden changes of
external climate can compensate for hot air ventilation.

The next progressive way for office buildings is the combination of new concrete core
conditioning and floor convector heaters [4]. This new system makes use of the heat storage
capacity the building mass is thermally activated by water carrying pipes that are embedded in
the centre of the building construction. This piping system transports heated or cooled water
to realize a change of the surface temperature of the building construction.

CONCLUSIONS

Application of new energy efficient heating systems will enable the creation of new
generation of office buildings, provided that there will be secured thermal comfort in offices.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

510

From experimental measurements it was found for radiant heating in office buildings that
suitable ratio of heat transfer: radiant floor heating 30% and radiant ceiling heating 70%. This
is the optimal ratio of radiant heatings for ensuring the thermal comfort in offices. Observance
of described improvements is important to ensure the thermal comfort in offices. The
advantage of this combined system is the possibility of its own use in the summer for
effective cooling of offices.

REFERENCES

1. M. Budiakov. Energy saving buildings. Bratislava: A- Projekt, 200 p., 2003, ISBN 80-96-
8244-4-0.
2. M. Budiakov. Thermal comfort evaluation of passive office building. In: Indoor climate of
buildings 2010: Indoor environment, energy auditing and certification of buildings. 7th
International conference. trbsk Pleso, 28.11.-1.12.2010. - Bratislava: SSTP, 2010. - ISBN
978-80-89216-37-6. - pp. 27-32
3. M. Budiakov. Energy Consumption versus Local Thermal Discomfort, in: The 6th
International Conference Indoor Climate of Buildings 2007, Bratislava: SSTP, (2007), ISBN
978-80-89216-18-5, 235-240.
4. J . Rietkerk. Flexibility & Concrete Core Conditioning. Eindhoven University of Technology,
2009.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

511

ENERGY PERFORMANCE OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS: FROM
ENERGY CERTIFICATES TO BENCHMARKING

Lusa Dias-Pereira
1
, Hermano Bernardo
2
and Manuel Gameiro da Silva
1

1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Coimbra and ADAI LAETA,
Coimbra, Portugal
2
Department of Electrical Engineering and Computers, University of Coimbra and INESC
Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

Corresponding email: luisa.pereira@uc.pt

SUMMARY

In 2002, the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (2002/91/EC) introduced the
mandatory energy certification of buildings in the EU from 2006. Within this context all the
Member States (MS) proposed different Energy Performance Certificates exhibiting different
information at distinct scales. A similar process took place in the US and in Canada.
Public buildings with public ownership, like schools, represent an important opportunity
towards energy efficiency representativeness.
This paper intends to improve understanding of the schools sector performance using data
from worldwide publications. By analyzing the school buildings typology (new and existing)
it aims at achieving a functional benchmarking based on the real operation conditions of
buildings. Unfortunately energy use data analysis is still not an easy task, considering the
multiplicity of criteria for data presentation.
Finally, commenting all the presented values relating school performance, the authors suggest
a composite approach towards a coherent benchmarking unit.

INTRODUCTION

The building sector is one of the main responsible for primary energy consumption,
accounting for 40% in the European Union [1]. Therefore energy certification of buildings
was one of the core measures encouraged by the European policy to reduce energy
consumption. This process was initiated with EPBD 2202/91/EC. Since it became mandatory,
by 2006, the 27 European countries have been making efforts to implement it [2], [3].
Nevertheless, by 2010 different levels of enforcement could be observed among the different
nations. Ideally, the development of Energy Performance Certificates (EPC) could lead to a
benchmarking strategy, common to the 27 EU countries. This mark is still far from being
achieved. Significant variations in the rating system, different energy consumption calculation
methods [3], climate variation, etc. do still not allow a fair normalization.
Effective comparative values require an extensive knowledge of the EPC system worldwide.
Unfortunately, there is still patent a strong non-uniformity on energy use data analysis.
This paper intends to improve this acquaintance in the case of public buildings, in particular
the schools sector, using information from available scientific literature in conjunction with
energy consumption data analysis of recent refurbished school buildings under the
Modernization of Public Secondary Schools Program, launched by the Portuguese
government in J anuary 2007.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

512

ENERGY CERTIFICATION LEVELS

The EPC procedure incorporates different data normalization phases (weather information,
patterns of use, etc). In Europe, the EPC scale can be classified into two major groups: those
presented in a stepped scale (e.g. lighting energy efficiency labeling) and those presented in a
linear or continuous scale. However, even within the first group non-uniform situations can
be verified, since each country has defined its own scale (in some situations top classes are
subdivided, e.g. A+, A; B+, B), [1]. Generally top classes have narrower values, what means
for example, that in an A to G stepwise labelling, different interval lengths appear for the
seven or nine steps.
Regarding the continuous scale, a coloured band strip, the main con is that the linear scale
does not provide a clear indication between classes, but anticipating future energetic
tightening requirements, this is easier to adapt (contrarily to the stepped one that will become
confusing since the label depends on the date of issuing and will probably imply a new
certificate).
According to [2], circa 30% of the European MS have experience with measured energy
used for national /regional energy performance evaluation. On the other hand, most of EPC
procedures are based on simulation/calculation methods and not necessarily on operational
rating (OR).
This means that, for the present, no direct relation can be established between buildings
energy labelling and benchmarking.

ENERGETIC LABELLING IN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

Energetic Ratings and Units

a) b)
Figure 1. Energy Efficiency Stepped Scales. a) UK [4], b) France [5].

In the UK and Scotland, Energy Performance Certificates (EPC) have the particularity of
being expressed in an Environmental Impact CO2 rating[4], in other words, in the quantity of
CO2 emissions produced per year (CO2/year/m2). In some cases, the EPC is called a Display
Energy Certificate (DEC) when instead of estimated values is expressed in terms of
measured values.
EPC in France is designated Diagnostic Performance Energtique (DPE). Similarly to UK,
DPE also presents an estimation of the CO2 emissions correspondent to the energy
consumption estimation. In the same way as the Portuguese regulation system DPEs
expressed in kWhep/m
2
/year, i.e. in primary energy values in the Portuguese case they are
expressed in kgep/m
2
.year.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

513

Figure 02. Energy Efficiency Continuous Scales. a) Germany [6] , b) Italy [7].
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

514

EPCs Validity

The majority of the European countries defined a 10year validity for EPCs, excepting
Denmark (5y) and Portugal (10y and in some cases 6y) [2], [3]. In the UK, DECs present the
energy use as a normalized Operational Rating and are renewed annually [8].

ON THE WAY TO BENCHMARKING

The Usable Building Trust, Feedback and strategy for better buildings, from J une 2005,
points into how energy performance certification and benchmarking might work for
nondomestic buildings in operation, using actual energy consumption, [9] cit in [2].
One simple strategy designated as fixed benchmarking permits a basic comparison of energy
intensity for building type. These can include heating data, electricity, etc. depending on the
used HVAC system in a (complex) building. From this simple first benchmarking level,
deepen energy data comparison allows deeper benchmarking levels, including occupation
intensity, hours of use, etc. In general, this can be applied more broadly. A higher level of
benchmarking is then mathematically modelled. This implies a considerable higher effort to
produce an OR.
Generally, benchmarking systems need a statistical data basis on the energy consumption of
the building stock. This leads to an average level of the benchmark. Best practice/very good
energy efficiency level of the benchmarks is only used in two MS. [2]
Mixed used buildings are current practice. Regarding schools performance reference values,
the literature is diverse and generally there is no fully consistent presentation of data.
In the particular case of schools, for example, those with swimming pools or with the
production of meals do necessarily have different energy ranges, and therefore this building
type should be subcategorized for a more precise comparison.

Because DECs are annually renewed, an evolution in the published values can be found in the
literature. From 1997s values (when typical benchmarks were the average energy
performance of all schools), [10], to the reference values for schools presented in GPG343
(2003) guide [11] (values driven from 2000 schools data (1999-2000), in England,
designating the median value as the typical value) a decrease in the reference value can be
found both for good practice and reference value showing that a consistent energy
consumption reduction effort has been made. However, other UK reference values presented
by other authors in [12] do not totally follow this reasoning.
In the Italian case, in turn,

there are also defined three behavior categories for different
types of schools [13]. A curious aspect on this systems is that the heating energy is presented
in terms of volume (non-residential buildings) and not of surface area (residential buildings)
[2], which is the common practice (energy consumption per gross floor area unit). It is also
noticeable the fact that both heating and electricity energy indicators incorporate climatic info
in the original unit kWh
e
/m2xGGxanno, GG (gradi-giorno), goes for degree-days (DD). This
intake data is also common to other MS EPC, but normally under a climatic conversion
factor.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

515

Table 2. Specific energy consumption reference values for Italian schools
Annual
Energy
Nursery schools Elementary Schools

Middle, Secondary
Schools
Heating Electricity Heating Electricity Heating Electricity
(Wh
t
/m
3
xD
Dxyear)
(kWh
e
/m
2
xDDxyear
)*
(Wh
t
/m
3
xD
Dxyear)
(kWh
e
/m
2
xDDxyear
)
(Wh
t
/m
3
xD
Dxyear)
(kWh
e
/m
2
xDDxyear
)
Good <18,5 <11 <11 <9 <11,5 <9
Sufficient 18,5<x<
23,5
11<x<
16,5
11 <x <
17,5
9 <x <12 11,5<x<
15,5
9 <x <12
Insufficien
t
>23,5 >16,5 >17,5 >12 >15,5 >12
Note*: the e subscript kWh goes for electrical energy to better distinguish the energy type

As regards Greece, several publications indicate different mean and average reference
consumption values [15], [16], [17], [18], [19], according to different climatic zones,
expressed in kWh/m
2
/year. Moreover, after new regulation implementation a new climatic
zone was created [3], for which these values are not totally up to date.
For Ireland it was also possible to find typical and mean different energy consumption values
on different publications - [16], [20], [21], [22]. Good practice values are regarded as upper
limits for new design.
Curiously, the reference energy value for heating is equal in Flanders and in Slovenia
197 kWh/m
2
/year.

In Hong Kong, the local government provides different Energy Consumption Indicator (ECI)
values for different education building types, expressed in MJ /m
2
/year [14].

In the USA, a different approach is found. Normally, energy data consumption of schools are
expressed in annual cost per surface area ($/m2) or annual cost per student ($/student),[23].
In other situations data is present in kbtu (one thousand British thermal units) [24], making
difficult a worldwide comparison of the energy values.

Table 3 presents a syntax admitting that the common unit is kWh/m
2
/year. For the purpose, all
data recalling fossil fuel/fuel/heating was admitted as energy heating utility/use. Moreover,
global values were admitted to consider the sum of this energy with electrical energy
consumption. Energy values are expressed in kWh/m2/year, when not provided in this unit,
authors worked with conversion factors available in [25].

FROM EPC TO SECONDARY SCHOOLS BENCHMARKING

Maldonado (2011) in [2] recalls the necessity of future work on national standards for
benchmarking using measured energy rating (MER). Intending to enable a valid set of
benchmark criteria for complex buildings such as secondary schools, it is proposed a
statistical investigation of the energy consumption of these schools in Portugal and
simultaneously a worldwide comparison with other average/mean values adopted as
secondary schools benchmarks.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

516

Table 03: Syntax table of energy consumption by end-use (kWh/m
2
/year)
Location Type of school Heating Electricity Total HDD
(C) ref.
value
Argentina
([26] cit in [19])
- - - 123
Canada
([27] cit in [19])
357
Czech Republic [2] 90-130*
Denmark [18],[2] - 170-175 - 7-265** 17
Finland [28] - 165 52 217 17
Flanders
([29] cit in [20])
- 197 - - 15
Greece [19]
(average)
57 12 69 18
Hong Kong [14] 18
primary - - 51,5
secondary - - 59,4
Italia [30] (mean) 110
Northern Ireland
[21], [22]
15,5
(good practice) primary 91 12 109
(typical) primary 119 18 131
(good practice) secondary 101 16 117
(typical) secondary 120 22 142
Portugal*** 20
25% percentile secondary - 29 -
median secondary - 33 -
Slovenia [16] - 197 - - 15,5
Sweden [18] - 210 - - 17
UK [11] 15,5
(good practice) primary 113 22 135
(typical) primary 164 32 196
(good practice) secondary 108 25 133
(typical) secondary 144 33 177
USA [31]
median primary - - 173
25% percentile primary - - 168
median secondary - - 257
25% percentile secondary - - 217
Note *: values presented for Czech Republic correspond to Energy Label C minimum
required for new schools and major renovations [2].
Note **: values presented for Denmark correspond to the Energy Label interval A1-B,
according to the Danish scheme for the Education building Category [2].
Note ***: values presented for Portugal correspond to metered values for a 57 secondary
school database (2011).
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

517

General Note: values in blue were determined by the authors.

In Czech Republic as is Denmark, energy labelling foresees already a particular energy
performance label for the Education building Category. The same goes for Denmark where
the energy label category (and consumption reference values) varies according to the building
category, [2]. Nevertheless, in both cases the labelling is based on calculation, not in metered
values.
Giving strength to Maldonados evocation , Shimizu et al. [8] study expose how DEC can be
used to quantify schools energy consumption, and therefore allowing a fair benchmark
strategy.

FINAL REMARKS

Data normalization is a difficult issue. For an impartial data comparison, a School
Benchmarking Indicator (SBI) is proposed accounting for metered energy consumption and
climate differences adjustments, resulting in a combined unit - kWh/m2/year/HDD. This
approach is already in practice in some countries data presentation, as in the cases presented
in [13] and [24].
At the same time, because gas and electricity consumption are not always used for the same
purpose e.g. not always is heating in schools assured from gas, it is proposed that electricity
and gas consumption should be kept separately, resulting into two different indicators, imbued
with the Finish approach [2]:
a) Gas consumption: for space heating & domestic hot water (DHW);
b) Electricity consumption: for lighting, HVAC systems & electrical equipment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are thankful to Parque Escolar E.P.E. for the provision of the database on the
Portuguese secondary schools. Lusa Dias Pereira is grateful for the financial support
provided by FCT (Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology) through the doctoral
grant SFRH/BD/77105/2011. This work is part of a wider research project, called Escolas
Energeticamente Eficientes (3Es), funded by Teixeira Duarte, whose support is gratefully
acknowledged.

REFERENCES
[1] A. P. F. Andaloro, R. Salomone, G. Ioppolo, and L. Andaloro, Energy certification of
buildings: A comparative analysis of progress towards implementation in European countries,
Energy Policy, vol. 38, no. 10, pp. 58405866, Oct. 2010.
[2] E. Maldonado, Ed., Implementing the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD) -
Featuring Country Reports 2010, European U. Brussels: , 2011, p. 482.
[3] E. G. Dascalaki, C. A. Balaras, A. G. Gaglia, K. G. Droutsa, and S. Kontoyiannidis, Energy
performance of buildings EPBD in Greece, Energy Policy, vol. 45, pp. 469477, 2012.
[4] Energy Key - The Energy Performance Certificate (EPC) explained. [Online]. Available:
http://www.energykey.co.uk/epc.html. [Accessed: 30-May-2013].
[5] Diagnostic Performance Energtique (DPE). [Online]. Available: http://www.cds-
diagnostics.fr/?page_id=171. [Accessed: 30-May-2013].
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

518

[6] H. Amecke, The impact of energy performance certificates: A survey of German home
owners, Energy Policy, 2012. [Online]. Available:
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301421512000924#bib33.
[7] RE riqualificazione energetica.info, 2012. [Online]. Available:
http://www.riqualificazioneenergetica.info/2010/12/17/55-le-spese-per-la-redazione-dellace-
sono-detraibili/ads/2010/12/esempiocertificato2.jpg. [Accessed: 30-May-2013].
[8] D. Godoy-shimizu, P. Armitage, K. Steemers, and T. Chenvidyakarn, Using Display Energy
Certicates to quantify schools energy consumption, Building Research & Information, vol. 39,
no. 6, pp. 535552, 2011.
[9] B. W, Onto The Radar: How energy performance certification and benchmarking might work
for non domestic buildings in operation, using actual energy consumption. London, pp. 114,
2005.
[10] ENERGY CONSUMPTION GUIDE 73 - Saving energy in schools, Energy Efficiency Best
Practice programme, 1996. [Online]. Available:
http://www.torbay.gov.uk/index/yourservices/education/schools/sustainableschools/ss-
savingenergy.pdf. [Accessed: 03-Mar-2013].
[11] Nifes Consulting Group, Good Practice Guide - 343 (GPG343), Saving Energy A whole
school approach, Action Energy - Carbon Trust, 2003. [Online]. Available:
http://regulations.completepicture.co.uk/pdf/Energy Conservation/Best Practice Guidance and
Case Studies/Saving Energy - A Whole School Approach.pdf. [Accessed: 03-Mar-2013].
[12] R. A. R. Kilpatrick and P. F. G. Banfill, Energy Consumption In Non-Domestic Buildings: A
Review of Schools, in World Renewable Energy Congress 2011-Sweden, 2011, pp. 1008
1015.
[13] Centro Ricerche Casaccia, Guida per il contenimento della spesa energetica nelle scuole,
Roma. [Online]. Available: http://www.fire-italia.it/eell/scuole/guida_scuole.pdf. [Accessed: 03-
Mar-2013].
[14] Hong Kong Government Energy Consumption Indicator. [Online]. Available:
http://ecib.emsd.gov.hk/en/indicator_cmc.htm. [Accessed: 03-Mar-2013].
[15] M. Santamouris, G. Mihalakakou, P. Patargias, N. Gaitani, K. Sfakianaki, M. Papaglastra, C.
Pavlou, P. Doukas, E. Primikiri, V. Geros, M. N. Assimakopoulos, R. Mitoula, and S. Zerefos,
Using intelligent clustering techniques to classify the energy performance of school buildings,
Energy and Buildings, vol. 39, no. 1, pp. 4551, 2007.
[16] T. G. Theodosiou and K. T. Ordoumpozanis, Energy, comfort and indoor air quality in nursery
and elementary school buildings in the cold climatic zone of Greece, Energy and Buildings,
vol. 40, pp. 22072214, 2008.
[17] A. Dimoudi and P. Kostarela, Energy monitoring and conservation potential in school
buildings in the C climatic zone of Greece, Renewable Energy, vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 289296,
2009.
[18] F. Vagi and A. Dimoudi, Analysing the energy performance of secondary schools in N .
Greece, in World Renewable Energy Congress 2011-Sweden, 2011, pp. 18371844.
[19] E. G. Dascalaki and V. G. Sermpetzoglou, Energy performance and indoor environmental
quality in Hellenic schools, Energy and Buildings, no. 43, pp. 718727, 2011.
[20] P. Hernandez, K. Burke, and J . O. Lewis, Development of energy performance benchmarks
and building energy ratings for non-domestic buildings: An example for Irish primary schools,
Energy and Buildings, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 249254, J an. 2008.
[21] CIBSE, Energy efficiency in buildings - CIBSE Guide F, in Energy efficiency in buildings,
CIBSE Publ., P. Bros, Ed. Norwich, Norfolk: CIBSE Publications Department, 2004, pp. 1
260.
[22] P. G. J ones, R. N. Turner, D. W. J . Browne, and P. J . Illingworth, Energy benchmarks for
public sector buildings in Northern Ireland. pp. 18.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

519

[23] J . Stimmel and J . Gohs, Scoring Our Schools: Program Implementation Lessons-Learned From
Benchmarking Over 1,775 Schools for Seven Utilities, in 2008 ACEEE Summer Study on
Energy Efficiency in Buildings, 2008, pp. 292304.
[24] M. Vadney, B. Fox, M. Mosser, S. Fraser, and B. Bernstein, Benchmarking K-12 Schools:
How the Building Energy Performance System Continues to Track and Compare Energy Data
in the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic, in 2012 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in
Buildings, 2012, pp. 367379.
[25] Energy conversion factors. [Online]. Available:
http://www.unitconversion.org/unit_converter/energy.html. [Accessed: 03-Mar-2013].
[26] C. Filippn, Benchmarking the energy efficiency and greenhouse gases emissions of school
buildings in central Argentina, Building and Environment, vol. 35, pp. 407414, 2000.
[27] N. Lemire, School and more, ASHRAE Journal, vol. 52, pp. 3438, 2010.
[28] F. R. dAmbrosio Alfano, L. Bellia, A. Boerstra, F. Van Dijken, E. Ianniello, G. Lopardo, F.
Minichiello, P. Romagnoni, and M. Gameiro da Silva, REHVA - Indoor Environment and
Energy Efficiency in Schools - Part 1. Brussels: REHVA, 2010, 2010, pp. 1121.
[29] K. Aernouts and K. J espers, Bijlage bij de energiebalans vlaanderen 2000: Onafhankelijke
methode, Energiekengetallen van de tertiaire sector in Vlaanderen 2000. 2002.
[30] S. P. Corgnati, V. Corrado, and M. Filippi, A method for heating consumption assessment in
existing buildings: A field survey concerning 120 Italian schools, Energy and Buildings, vol.
40, no. 5, pp. 801809, J an. 2008.
[31] US DOE - Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy, 2010. [Online]. Available:
http://www1.eere.energy.gov/buildings/commercial_initiative/new_construction.html. [Accessed: 03-
Mar-2013].

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

520

PARAMETRIC ANALYSIS AND OPTIMIZATION OF LOW
TEMPERATURE ORGANIC RANKINE CYCLE SCENARIOS

Mustafa z and Atilla Bykolu
1

1
University of Gazi, Ankara

Corresponding email: abiyik@gazi.edu.tr

SUMMARY

In this study, low temperature Organic Rankine Cycle systems were theoretically constructed
and tested using experimental data in the literature. The cycle was aimed to convert a low
temperature energy source between 85 and 200
o
C to electricity. A thermodynamic analysis
was performed for the cycle to improve the first and second law efficiencies by studying the
sensitivities of operational parameters on net work. An optimization study was performed to
determine the ranges of operational parameters and to see the effect on the efficiencies by
modifying the cycle construction.

INTRODUCTION

Although investigated since the 1880s, Organic Rankine Cycles (ORC) have never been
popular until todays growing concern over the future depletion of fossil fuels and the global
environmental destruction is turning the interest on low grade energy recovery systems.
Owing to its low operating temperature, an organic Rankine cycle can suitably recover heat
from various sources: solar energy, geothermal heat, biomass, industrial waste heat, etc.

Organic Rankine Cycle has been extensively studied for the conversion of low-grade heat into
power for its simplicity and relatively high efficiency. However, an important limitation of
the ORC with a pure working fluid is the isothermal boiling, which creates a bad thermal
match between the working fluid and the heat source due to the pinch point, leading to large
irreversibilities. Use of mixtures and supercritical fluids can reduce this problem.

Waste heat from turbines and engines used in industrial applications along with waste heat
from industrial processes are exceptionally abundant sources of energy. If even a fraction of
this waste heat could be economically converted to useful electricity, it would have a tangible
and very positive impact on the economic health, energy consumption, and carbon emissions
in the manufacturing sector. The current waste heat recovery technologies, including Organic
Rankine Cycles (ORCs) and thermoelectrics, are technically feasible but economically unat-
tractive. This limits their current use to a small number of niche applications.

Most commercial ORCs use a flammable hydrocarbon working fluid. If the evaporator were
to develop a leak, the flammable working fluid would leak into the hot exhaust stream and
create a potential fire hazard. Additionally, an evaporator placed directly in the exhaust stream
poses the risk of heating up the working fluid to the point that it rapidly decomposes, forming
decomposition byproducts. This can reduce cycle efficiency and cause potential fouling of the
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

521

heat exchanger tubing. It is common for ORCs to cost $2500/kW and above. At this cost,
most of the available waste heat recovery opportunities are not economically viable.
The technology developed using an ORC can operate off any heat source, with a minimum of
50
o
C (125
o
F) temperature differential between the heat source and cool liquid flow heat sink.
The key component to any ORC system is the turbine/expander. Most of the cost associated
with the development and manufacture of ORC systems is with the turbine/expander. The
small ORC turbine can be used to experiment with solar thermal, hot springs, biomass (wood
fired water stoves), heat recovery from boilers, engines, or other residential waste heat. If you
have a hot water flow rate of at least 80
o
C (180
o
F) and 11 liters/min (3 gallons per minute)
then you can produce electricity.

ORC is more efficient at or below the 100
o
C (212
o
F) range than the Kalina Cycle. For the
small amount of the market which has high heat available (well above 100
o
C) you can use
steam systems. Organic Rankine Cycle uses refrigerants as the working fluid which boils
below 100
o
C (212
o
F). The pressurized vapor can then be expanded through a turbine to spin a
generator. The investigators are focusing on small ORC systems because more than 90
percent of the availability of waste heat world-wide is available to the smaller system size.

LITERATURE SURVEY

Intense research and development, particularly on two important topics: working fluid
selection and thermodynamic analysis, has been conducted in recent decades. Working fluid
selection plays a critical role in utilizing the heat source efficiently to achieve high system
thermal efficiency and has been reported by many studies. Hung et al., 1997 compared
efficiencies of ORCs using different working fluids such as benzene, ammonia, R11, R12,
R134a and R113 [1]. The analysis from Tchanche et al., 2009 revealed that R134a, followed
by R152a, R290, R600, R600a and R290 are most suitable fluids for low-temperature solar
ORC systems with heat source temperature below 90
o
C [2]. Maizza et al., 2001 investigated
the thermodynamic and physical properties of some unconventional working fluids for use in
ORC waste energy recovery systems [3].

By developing thermodynamic models using EES (Engineering Equation Solver), Chen et al.
(2006) [4] investigated the performance difference of a carbon dioxide trans-critical and an
R123 ORC waste heat recovery power plant. Their studies concluded that with same
thermodynamic mean heat rejection temperature, the CO
2
trans-critical power plant gives a
slightly higher power output than R123 ORC power plant in recovering low grade waste heat.

Saleh et al. (2007) [5] calculated thermodynamic aspects, such as thermal efficiencies and
volume flow rates, of 31 potential working fluids for ORC processes and performed a pinch
point analysis for external heat exchanger for optimal using the heat source. Dai et al. (2009)
[6] investigated the performance of ORC plants with different working fluids under
optimization conditions. Parametric optimization was conducted with adapting a genetic
algorithm. This parametric study only considered the effects of turbine inlet pressure and
temperature on the exergy efficiency. Other parameters, such as waste heat source
temperature and mass flow rate, ambient temperature, evaporator pitch temperature,
condensing temperature, were assumed to be constant. Cayer et al. (2009) [7] developed a
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

522

methodology to analyze the performance of a CO
2
trans-critical cycle using a modified
LMTD method.

The optimization studies are very useful tool to obtain the best performance and operation
conditions. Therefore, contemporary researches are directed both on the analyses and
optimization of advanced ORC systems. The selected works are presented below according to
the development on the subject.

The purpose of the study by Sun and Li [8] was to develop the mathematical models and
optimization approach to simulate an ORC power plant and search the optimal operating
strategies in order to achieve either the best system thermal efficiency or the most system net
power generation.

Parametric optimization and performance analysis of a waste heat recovery system based on
Organic Rankine Cycle, using R-12, R-123 and R-134a as working fluids for power
generation have been studied by Roy et.al. [9]. Optimization of turbine inlet pressure for
maximum work and efficiencies of the system along the saturated vapor line and isobaric
superheating at different pressures has been carried out for the selected fluids.

Wanga et.al. [10] were conducted parametric and exergy analyses to examine the effects of
thermodynamic parameters on the cycle performance and exergy destruction in each
component of the supercritical CO
2
power cycle. The thermodynamic parameters of the cycle
was optimized with exergy efficiency as an objective function by means of genetic algorithm
under the given waste heat condition. An artificial neural network with the multi-layer feed-
forward network type and back-propagation training was used to achieve parametric
optimization design rapidly.

In the study of Shengjun et. al. [11], the thermodynamic and economic performance of both
subcritical ORC and trans-critical power cycle systems were examined for low-temperature
geothermal power plant. Parameter optimizations of the ORC systems were performed on 16
different working fluids with five indicators. In addition, the performances of both systems
were compared and analyzed under the same external working conditions.

Roy and Misra [12] were performed parametric optimization of turbine inlet temperature on a
regenerative ORC using the selected working fluids R-123 and R-134a during superheating at
constant pressure of 2.50 MPa under realistic conditions. The aim was to select a better
working fluid on the basis of obtained system efficiency, turbine work output, irreversibility
rate and second law efficiency under applied fixed and variable heat source temperature
conditions. R-123 has been found a better working fluid than R-134 for converting low grade
heat to power.

A comprehensive thermodynamic modeling and multi-objective optimization of a dual
pressure combined cycle power plant were performed and discussed by Kaviri et.al. [13]. The
first objective function was comprised of a set of component costs; the fuel, burner and
destruction of exergy. The second objective function was selected as exergy efficiency of the
cycle. This multi-objective optimization problem was carried out using genetic algorithm.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

523

DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM

In this study, the thermodynamic analyses were performed for the two types of systems;
simple ORC system and absorption ORC system. The schematic drawing of the systems is
presented in Fig. 1. The working fluid was selected as R134a in the simple ORC system and
ammonia-water couple in the absorption ORC system. The systems were constructed in the
software, EPSILON and then run for values from experimental studies [14, 15] for validation
of the model. The model produced turbine power of 1.248 kW which is 14% lower than the
experimental one [14] for the same operating condition. The parametric analyses were
performed for the systems to analyze the behavior of the models. An optimization
methodology was applied to determine the appropriate operating conditions.

RESULTS
The models of simple and absorption ORC systems are constructed on the software,
EPSILON and run depending on the data in the experimental studies [14, 15]. The models
could be able to predict the turbine power output with a sensitivity of 14 percent.
Thermodynamic analyses were done on these systems using the data given in Table 1 and 2.
As a result of these analyses, the amount of energy source and the type of system components
are determined depending on the power needed and the temperature of the energy source.
Besides, the first and second law efficiencies were calculated to determine the applicability of
the proposed systems and the least efficient components of the system.

(a)
(b)
Fig. 1 Schematic drawing of (a) Simple ORC (b) Absorption ORC
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

524

Table 1. Thermodynamic properties of simple ORC system with R-134a for energy
source/sink at 95/20
o
C

The results of first law analysis of simple ORC system are presented in Figs. 1 through 3. In
Fig. 1 and 2, the effects of turbine inlet temperature and pressure on power output and the first
law efficiency are investigated. The results show that there is an optimum condition which
maximizes the first law efficiency or power output, and also, no optimum for turbine inlet
temperature. The higher turbine inlet temperature the higher turbine power output is.
Actually, there is a limitation on temperature due to the critical point of the working fluid.
Analyzing the results of the first law analysis, it is shown that the models are realistic and can
be constructed to produce power.
Table 2. Thermodynamic properties of absorption ORC system with amonia-water solution
for energy source/sink at 95/20
o
C
stat
e
Pressur
e P
[Bar]
Temperatur
e
T [
0
C]
Qualit
y
x
Concentration
, y (kgNH3/ kg
solution)
Mass
Flow
Rate
[kg/ s
]
Enthalp
y
h
[kJ/ kg]
Entrop
y
s
kJ/ kgK
]
1 6.4 90 1.000 0.919 0.243 1878 6.683
2 4.0 75 0.986 0.919 0.243 1824 6.753
3 4.0 68 0.202 0.430 1.000 518 2.364
4 4.0 42 0.000 0.430 1.000 90 1.056
5 6.4 42 0.000 0.430 1.000 90 1.056
6 6.4 62 0.039 0.430 1.000 239 1.509
7 6.4 90 0.243 0.430 1.000 680 2.774
8 6.4 90 0.000 0.272 0.757 296 1.518
9 6.4 46 0.000 0.272 0.757 99 0.943
10 4.0 46 0.000 0.272 0.757 99 0.943

In Fig. 3, the power that can be produced by this system is determined by arranging the mass
flow rate of the working fluid. Therefore, the size of the system can be determined depending
on the power needed.
Stat
e
Pressure,
P
[bar]
Temperature,
T
[
o
C]
Enthalpy, h
[kJ/ kg]
Entropy,
s
[kJ/ kgK]
1 25 90 449 1.744
2 7 44 431 1.770
3 7 27 238 1.131
4 25 29 240 1.132
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

525

Fig. 1. Effects of turbine inlet temperature and pressure on power output of ORC with R134a

Fig. 2. Effects of turbine inlet temperature and pressure on the first law efficiency of ORC
with R134a ( )

Fig. 3. Effects of turbine inlet temperature and mass flow rate on the power output of ORC
with R134a

The results of the second law analysis of the simple ORC system are presented in Fig. 4. In
Fig. 4, the effects of turbine inlet temperature and pressure on the second law efficiency are
10
13
20
23
30
10 20 30 40 30 60 70
1
u
r
b
|
n
e

o
w
e
r

C
u
t
p
u
t
,

W
1

k
W
)

1urb|ne In|et ressure,
1
(8ar)
180
170
160
130
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
1
1
(
o
C)
3.3
6.0
6.3
7.0
7.3
8.0
8.3
10 20 30 40 30 60 70
I
|
r
s
t

L
a
w

L
m
c
|
e
n
c
y
,

)

1urb|ne In|et ressure(8ar)
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
130
160
170
180
1
1
(
o
C)
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
0 10 20 30 40 30
1
u
r
b
|
n
e

o
w
e
r

C
u
t
p
u
t
,

W
1

(
k
W
)

Mass I|ow kate, ( kg]s)
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
130
160
170
180
T
1
(
o
C)
m
kg/s 1 = m
kg/s 1 = m
kg/s 1 = m
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

526

shown. According to Fig. 4, it seems there is also an optimum from the point of view of
second law efficiency. And comparing the Figs 2 and 4, it is obvious that this optimum is in
the same range with the one obtained from the first law analysis.

Fig. 4. Effects of turbine inlet temperature and pressure on the second law efficiency of ORC
with R134a ( )

The results of the first law analysis of absorption ORC system are presented in Fig. 5. In Fig.
5, the effects of turbine inlet temperature and pressure on power output are investigated. The
results show that there is an optimum condition which maximizes the power output, and also,
no optimum for turbine inlet temperature. The higher turbine inlet temperature the higher
turbine power output is. Actually, there is a limitation on temperature due to the critical point
of the working fluid.

Fig. 5. Effects of turbine inlet temperature and mass flow rate on the power output of ORC
with NH
3
-H
2
O binary mixture ( )
OPTIMIZATION METHOD: Response Surface Methodology

Response surface methodology (RSM) is a combination of mathematical and statistical
techniques that are useful for the modeling and analysis of problems in which a response of
13
20
23
30
33
40
10 20 30 40 30 60 70
S
e
c
a
n
d

L
a
w

L
m
c
|
e
n
c
y
,

)

1
(8ar)
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
130
160
170
180
1
1
(
o
C)
0
10
20
30
40
30
60
70
80
90
100
0 3 10 13 20 23 30 33 40
1
u
r
b
|
n
e

o
w
e
r
,

W
1

(
k
W
)

1
(8ar)
80 oC
90 oC
100 oC
110 oC
120 oC
130 oC
140 oC
130 oC
160 oC
170 oC
180 oC
1
1
(
0
C)
kg/s 1 = m
kg/s 1 = m
kg/s 1 = m
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

527

interest is influenced by several variables and the aim is to optimize this response. The
method can be explained in two stages; in the first stage, the data collected is classified and
grouped according to the level of their values. A matrix is generated representing the behavior
of each level. The solutions of matrices are combined to get response function. In the second
stage, the response surface analysis is performed by using the fitted surface. The response
surface designs are types of designs for fitting response surface. Therefore, the objective of
studying RSM can be accomplish by (1) understanding the topography of the response surface
(local maximum, local minimum, ridge lines), and (2) finding the region where the optimal
response occurs. The goal is to move rapidly and efficiently along a path to get to a maximum
or a minimum response so that the response is optimized. [16]
In this optimization study, the data is divided into three levels of groups and arithmetic mean
is taken over the levels for each independent variable. The independent variables are selected
as turbine inlet temperature,
1 3
T x = , turbine inlet and outlet pressures,
1 1
P x = and
2 2
P x = . The
dependent variable is selected as turbine work,
T
W x

=
4
as shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Surface values of grouped variables with R134a in RSM.
n
1 1
P x =
2 2
P x =
1 3
T x =
T
W x

=
4

1 1 1 1 17.218
2 1 1 2 20.807
3 1 1 3 24.273
4 2 1 1 17.056
5 2 1 2 21.271
6 2 1 3 25.460
7 2 2 2 18.851
8 2 2 3 24.131
9 3 2 2 16.232
10 3 3 3 21.977

The groups are classified according to pressure and temperature levels. In Table 3, The first
group denoted by 1 has pressure ranges of bar P x 25 20
1 1
= = and bar P x 14 . 7 7
2 2
= = , and the
temperature range of C T x
o
110 80
1 3
= = . The second group denoted by 2 has pressure
ranges of bar P x 40 30
1 1
= = and
bar P x 43 . 11 57 . 8
2 2
= =
, and the temperature range of
C T x
o
140 120
1 3
= =
. The third group denoted by 3 has pressure ranges of
bar P x 60 50
1 1
= =
and
bar P x 14 . 7 29 . 14
2 2
= = , and the temperature range of
C T x
o
180 150
1 3
= =
.

The response function is generated using regression analysis with second degree polynomial
based on the data. The estimated regression coefficients and the function of the second degree
polynomial are presented in Table 4 and Equation (1), respectively.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

528

Table 4. Estimated regression coefficients, and probability (p-value) of second degree
polynomial model for turbine power,
T
W
(R
2
=0.999).
Terms of
polynom
Estimated value
of coefficients,
p-Value
1 15.6137 0.000
1
x

4.02983 0.002
2
x

-4.49907
0.001
3
x

2.01245
0.000
2
1
x

-1.59957 0.001
2
3
x

-0.03725
0.597
3 1
x x

0.63260
0.009
3 2
x x

1.05240
0.012

3 2 3 1
2
1 3 2
.
1 4
05240 . 1 63260 . 0 59957 . 1 01245 . 2 49907 . 4 02983 . 4 6137 . 15 x x x x x x x x x + + + + = (1)

The independent variables of Eq(1) has values ranging from 1 to 3 and produces turbine
power as shown in Table 3. The response function is produced as a second degree polynomial
based on the coefficients estimated and probability value in Table 4. It is the probability of
observing a result as big as the one which is obtained in the experiment, assuming the null
hypothesis is true. Low p-values are indications of strong evidence against the null
hypothesis. The p-value is a measure of how likely you are to get the data if no real difference
existed. Therefore, a small p-value indicates that there is a small chance of getting this data if
no real difference existed and therefore you decide that the difference in group expression
data is significant. Hence the term,
2
3
x
is dropped from the response function due to high
probability value. The response function is tested by regression analysis and the goodness of
fit which is measured by the parameter R-squared is found as 99 %.

For the optimization of turbine power, the constraint of the problem is taken as the pressure
ratio that is in the range of 3.0 and 3.5. The second degree polynomial is maximized by a
constraint search procedure using the MINITAB 16.0 software to obtain the optimal levels of
the independent variables and the predicted maximum Power output. The Method of Analysis
of Variance for the effect on the response to whether or not a parameter p is determined by looking
at the value. Taking into account the confidence interval of 99 % and P-value lower than 5 % is
reached when the parameter has an impact on response. The result of optimization study is given
in Table 5 for ORC with R134a.

Table 5. Optimum conditions for maximum turbine power output
.
T
W with R134a.
n
1
1
= x
2
x = 2
3
x = 3 4
x

6 27 bar 7,14 bar 165
o
C 25,467 kW

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

529

DISCUSSION

The simple and absorption ORC systems can be constructed for the investigated system
parameters. The parametric analyses state that there exist an optimum operating condition
which maximizes the power output. This optimum is found exactly by the method of response
surface. The second law efficiency of this optimum condition can be found from Fig. 4 as
23.5 %. The modifications can be determined by extending the second law analysis on system
component base to improve the system efficiency.

REFERENCES

1. Hung, T.C., Shai, T.Y., Wang, S.K. 1997. A review of organic rankine cycles (ORCs) for the
recovery of low grade waste heat. Energy. Vol. 22 (7), pp 661-667.
2. Tchanche, B.F., Papadakis, G., Lambrinos, G., Frangoudakis, A. 2009. Fluid selection for a
low-temperature solar Organic Rankine Cycle. Applied Thermal Engineering. Vol. 29, pp
2468-2476.
3. Maizza, V., Maizza, A. 2001. Unconventional working fluids in organic rankine cycle for
waste energy recovery systems. Applied Thermal Engineering. Vol. 21 (3) pp 381-390.
4. Chen, Y., Lundqvist, P., J ohansson, A., Platell, P. 2006. A comparative study of the carbon
dioxide transcritical power cycle compared with an organic ranking cycle with R123 as
working fluid in waste heat recovery. Applied Thermal Engineering. Vol. 26, pp 2142-2147.
5. Saleh, B., Koglbauer, G., Wendland, M., Fischer, J . 2007. Working fluids for low temperature
organic rankine cycle. Energy. Vol. 32, pp 1210-1221.
6. Dai, Y., Wang, J ., Gao, L. 2009. Parametric optimization and comparative study of organic
Rankine cycle (ORC) for low grade waste heat recovery. Energy Conversion and
Management. Vol. 50 (3), pp 576-582.
7. Cayer, E., Galanis, N., Desilets, M., Nesreddine, H., Roy, P. 2009. Analysis of a carbon
transcritical power cycle using low temperature source. Applied Energy. Vol. 86, pp 1055-
1063.
8. Sun, J ., Li, W. 2011. Operation optimization of an organic rankine cycle (ORC) heat recovery
power plant. Applied Thermal Engineering. Vol. 31, pp 2032-2041.
9. Roy, J .P., Mishra, M.K., Misra, A. 2010. Parametric optimization and performance analysis of
a waste heat recovery system using Organic Rankine Cycle. Energy. Vol. 35, pp 5049-5062.
10. Wanga, J ., Sun, Z., Dai, Y., Mab, S. 2010. Parametric optimization design for supercritical
CO2 power cycle using genetic algorithm and artificial neural network. Applied Energy. Vol.
87, pp 13171324.
11. Shengjun, Z., Huaixin, W., Tao, G. 2011. Performance comparison and parametric
optimization of subcritical Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) and transcritical power cycle
system for low-temperature geothermal power generation. Applied Energy. Vol. 88, pp 2740
2754.
12. Roy, J .P., Misra, A. 2012. Parametric optimization and performance analysis of a regenerative
Organic Rankine Cycle using R-123 for waste heat recovery. Energy. Vol. 39, pp 227-235.
13. Kaviri, A.G., J aafar, M.N.M., Lazim, T.M. 2012. Modeling and multi-objective exergy based
optimization of a combined cycle power plant using a genetic algorithm. Energy Conversion
and Management. Vol. 58, pp 94103.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

530

14. Quoilin, S. 2007. Experimental Study and Modeling of a Low Temperature Rankine Cycle for
Small Scale Cogeneratio. University of Liege Faculty of Applied Sciences Aerospace and
Mechanical Engineering Department Thermodynamics Laboratory.
15. Demirkaya, G. 2011. Theoretical and Experimental Analysis of Power and Cooling
Cogeneration Utilizing Low Temperature Heat Sources. Doctor of Philosophy. Department of
Mechanical Engineering College of Engineering University of South Florida.
16. Montgomery, D.C. 2005. Design and Analysis of Experiments: Response surface method and
designs. New J ersey: J ohn Wiley and Sons, Inc.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

531

A STUDY ON PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF VAPOR
COMPRESSION-ADSORPTION HYBRID REFRIGERATION CYCLE

Gamze Gediz Ilis
1
, Gizem Arslan
2
, Moghtada Mobedi
2
, and Semra lk
3

1
Indesit Company, Manisa, Turkey
2
Izmir Institute of Technology, Mechanical Eng. Department, Izmir, Turkey
3
Izmir Institute of Technology, Chemical Eng. Department, Izmir, Turkey

Corresponding email: gamze.gedizilis@indesit.com

SUMMARY

Due to the global warming and ozone layer depletion, the standards of the refrigeration
industry force the manufacturers not only to find out new working fluids but also to develop
new innovative thermodynamic cycles. Several studies have been performed on different
parameters of cycles in order to improve the performance of a vapor compression
refrigeration system. As a new idea in recent years, the combination of thermal and vapor
compression refrigeration cycles for improving of the performance takes attention of
researchers. As it is well known, the duty of condenser in the most of mechanical refrigeration
systems is to release heat to environment. The released heat can be utilized in the desorption
process of an adsorption refrigeration cycle. Hence, an adsorption refrigeration system can be
added to a vapor compression system as a secondary cycle. In this study, a hybrid
refrigeration system consists of vapor compression and adsorption heat pump cycles is
designed and analyzed, theoretically. The results showed that the combination of the two
cycles can improve COP of vapor compression cycle from 33 to 21% depending of ambient
temperature.

INTRODUCTION

Due to the demand of higher comfort conditions and industrial development, energy
consumption has increased; therefore, the energy saving and renewable energy applications
have gained importance. The development of energy systems that are environmentally
friendly and designed based on innovative technologies that use less energy or renewable
energy sources have started to be studied. Many kinds of energy saving heat pump
technologies have also been studied in the refrigeration technology.

As it is well known, a heat pump is a device which transfers heat from low to high
temperature source and can be classified into two groups as mechanical and thermal heat
pumps. Heat transfer from low to high temperature source is only possible by a third energy
source, according to the second law of thermodynamics. If this third energy is mechanical, the
heat pump can be named as mechanical and if it is thermal then it will be called as thermal
heat pump. Thermal heat pumps can operate with sustainable thermal sources such as
geothermal energy, solar energy, and waste heat. There are three kinds of thermal driven heat
pumps as absorption, adsorption, and chemical heat pumps. The absorption heat pump is
produced by many manufacturers whereas the adsorption and chemical heat pumps are still
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

532

under investigation. Adsorption heat pump can directly operate with any kind of thermal
energy source such as solar and geothermal energy. An adsorption heat pump has significant
advantages compared to the absorption or the mechanical heat pump. The utilization of low
level temperature thermal energy source for heating and cooling purposes, lack of moving
components, noiseless, and long life time are some of adsorption heat pumps advantages.

Combination of thermal and mechanical heat pump is one of attempts of researchers for
improving COP in recent years. Sward and LeVan [1] examined thermodynamically a
compression-driven adsorption cooling cycle. Three different adsorbate/adsorbent pairs used
in this cycle: CO
2
/zeolite, CO
2
/activated carbon, and ammonia/silica gel based on two-bed
system. The heat of desorption was transferred from the thermal reservoir which is in contact
with the low pressure bed. As a result of this research the COP of the system was changed
according to the heat capacity of the adsorbent strongly. Another combined system is
adsorptionejector refrigeration. A hybrid system powered by solar energy was proposed and
simulated by Zhang and Wang [2]. Zeolite/water pair was chosen in this hybrid system. The
ejector and adsorber were used instead of mechanical compressors to compress the refrigerant
vapor from the evaporator to the condenser. Banker et al. [3] studied the performance of
mechanical and adsorption hybrid compression refrigeration cycles with HFC 134a. The
mechanical compression was tied up with thermal compression using an adsorption
compressor as illustrated in Figure 1. The activated carbon was the adsorbent for the thermal
compression section. The study showed that, almost 40% power economy compared to the
completely mechanical compression system can be achieved by replacing a part of the
compression by a thermal compressor.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of adsorption compressor hybrid refrigeration system [3].

This study aims to improve of COP of a household refrigerator by developing a hybrid
system. The heat released in hot gas pipe and condenser can be utilized by adsorption heat
pump cycle and additional cooling effect can be generated. Two separate refrigeration cycles
will operate in the hybrid system, however they are tied up by the condenser in the system.
For the vapor compression cycle, the refrigerant is R600a and the silica gel-water pair is used
for the adsorption cycle. The COP of mechanical and adsorption refrigeration systems are
defined and related to each other. The primary theoretical calculations showed an increase in
the COP of the vapor compression refrigerator.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

533

VAPOR COMPRESSION AND ADSORPTION HEAT PUMP WORKING
PRINCIPLES

As known from the basics of thermodynamic, the vapor compression cycle is widely used
cycle for the household refrigerators. Basically, the cycle consists of four components as an
evaporator, a compressor, a condenser and a capillary tube (Figure 2). The refrigerant enters
the compressor as saturated vapor and compressed to the condenser pressure. Then the
refrigerant enters the condenser as superheated vapor and leaves the condenser as saturated
(or sub-cooled) liquid. The pressure of refrigerant is dropped to the evaporator pressure by a
capillary tube and then enters the evaporator with a low quality saturated mixture. In the
evaporator, it is evaporated by absorbing heat from the refrigerator interior space.

Figure 2. Vapor compression cycle of the refrigerator.

A basic adsorption heat pump consists of four main components: an adsorber, a condenser, an
evaporator, and an expansion valve as shown in Figure 3a. The adsorber contains adsorbent
material which practically can be zeolite, silica gel, active carbon etc. Adsorbent can be
coated on the surface of adsorber or it may exit as granular in the adsorber. Adsorbents have
large surface areas which can adsorb considerable amount of gas or liquids. The fluid
circulated in cycle of adsorption heat pump, which can be water, methanol etc., is called as
adsorbate. The cycle of adsorption heat pump can be schematically represented on the
Clapeyron diagram (ln(P) vs. -1/T) as shown in Figure 3b. Clapeyron diagram represents
equilibrium condition between adsorbent and adsorbate.

Considering Figure 3a, both valves (V1 and V2) are closed at the beginning of adsorption
process (point d). The adsorbent bed and evaporator are both at the evaporator pressure, P
eva
.
The concentration of adsorbate in the adsorbent bed is W1. By opening the valve V1, the
evaporator starts to get heat from the space required to be cooled. The evaporated adsorbate in
the evaporator is adsorbed by the adsorbent in the adsorbent bed. The process continues until
the concentration of adsorbate in adsorbent attains to W2 level. After isobaric adsorption
process, the valve V1 is closed and then isosteric heating process is started (a-b). During this
process, the adsorbent bed is heated and the temperature of the adsorbent bed rises from T
a
to
T
b
while the adsorbate concentration in the bed remains constant at W2. The pressure of the
adsorbent bed is increased from P
eva
to P
cond
during the isosteric heating process. The next
process is desorption process (b-c) which starts by opening of valve V2 placed between the
adsorber and the condenser. During the desorption process, the temperature of adsorbent bed
is increased from T
b
to T
c
while its pressure remains at P
cond
. The desorbed adsorbate leaves
the adsorber, and it is condensed in the condenser and as a result the adsorbate concentration
falls from W2 to W1. Finally, both valves V1 and V2 are closed and the adsorbent bed is
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

534

cooled to reduce its pressure from P
cond
to P
eva
. During this process, which is known as
isosteric cooling process, the temperature of adsorbent bed falls from T
c
to T
d
.

Figure 3. Adsorption heat pump a) a schematic view, b) a cycle of an AHP on Clapeyron
diagram.

THE STUDIED HYBRID REFRIGERATION CYCLE

As it is well known, the duty of condenser in mechanical refrigeration systems is to release
heat to environment and change the working fluid phase from superheated to saturated or sub-
cooled phase. The heat released in vapor compression system refrigerators can be divided to
two parts as:

- Hot gas released heat which involves the heat released from working fluid between
compressor outlet and saturated vapor
- Phase change released heat which contains the heat released from working fluid
between condenser saturated vapor and saturated liquid (or sub-cooled).
The adsorption refrigeration system can be added to a vapor compression system as a
secondary cycle. The adsorption heat pump cycle and vapor compression systems can be tied
up by the condenser. By this way, both the hot gas and phase change released heats can be
utilized in the desorption process of an adsorption refrigeration cycle [4].

Figure 4. Schematic of hybrid refrigeration cycle for domestic refrigerator [4].
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

535

The thermodynamic cycle of the refrigerator varies with time. The cooling load is not constant
and changes by time. That is why; the refrigerator works and stops based on the required
cooling capacity. For household domestic refrigerator, the compressor works for a period of
25 minutes in an hour which means an operation value between 44 to 46% of an hour.
COP CALCULATIONS

Considering Figure 2, the COP value can be calculated by using the correlations given below
for a basic vapor compression cycle of the refrigerator:

(1)

where

(2)

where represents the mass flow rate of the refrigerant in the cycle. Furthermore, the
released heat from the hot gas and phase change can be calculated as:

(4)

(5)

The total heat released from the vapor compression cycle can be calculated as:

(6)

As it was mentioned before, the main focus of this study is to improve the COP value of the
household refrigerator cooling cycle. In order to achieve the aim of this study, the heat of the
condenser used in the vapor compression cycle (
) is utilized in the desorption process of

the adsorption cycle. The cooling effect generated by the adsorption cycle is used for the
refrigerators cooling effect. The compressor works approximately 20 min. in an hour in a
standard household refrigerator system. In this study, the desorption period is considered as
15 min. Then, the required mass of the silica gel for the adsorbent bed can be calculated from
the following equation:

(7)

where the specific heat of the silica gel was taken as 0.921 kJ /kg K.
is the heat of
desorption. The adsorption/desorption period is considered to be taken an hour. Q
evap, ads
can
be found from the following equation:

(8)

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

536

As a result, the COP value of the hybrid system can be calculated from the following
equation:

(9)

In the above equations, W represents adsorbate equilibrium concentration and it can be found
from adsorption equilibria equations. The working pair is silica gel-water and equilibria
concentration can be found by following equation [5]:

(10)

where K
o
is constant 2x10
-12
in Pa
-1
, P is adsorptive pressure in Pa, R is gas constant in
kJ /kgK,
is isosteric heat of adsorption 2510 in kJ /kg.

RESULTS

Table 1 represents the change of compressor and condenser outlet with ambient temperature
for a real household refrigerator operating with R600a. The consumed work, cooling capacity,
condenser capacity and COP are calculated by using Eqs. (1-6) and presented in Table 2. As
expected by increase of ambient temperature, the consumed work increases while cooling
capacity decreases. This causes a shape decrease of COP of vapor compression refrigerators
with increase of ambient temperature.

Table 1. Operation temperatures of a vapor compression cycle of a domestic type refrigerator
for different ambient temperatures.
Vapor Compression Cycle
T
amb
(
o
C) 20 25 30 35 40 45
T
comp,out
(
o
C) 105 112 120 127 134 141
T
sat,cond
(
o
C) 38 42 46.5 51 56 60

Table 2. Consumed work, cooling and heating capacities and COP values of the domestic type
refrigerator for different ambient temperatures.

Vapor Compression Cycle
T
amb
(
o
C) 20 25 30 35 40 45
W
in,comp
(W) 111.32 110.16 119.28 121.98 128.97 134.92
Q
evap
(W) 187.69 180.69 174.23 168.22 161.88 155.83
Q
cond
(W) 304.10 301.59 300.87 300.25 300.25 299.52
COP
cooling
1.68 1.64 1.46 1.38 1.26 1.16

In order to keep the cabinet of the refrigerator at 5
o
C, the adsorption cycle evaporator should
be kept at a value lower than the cabinet temperature. The water is chosen as adsorbate for the
adsorption cycle and the evaporator temperature is chosen 2
o
C. As it was mentioned before,
the adsorbent is considered as silica gel RD. The condenser temperature is chosen 5
o
C higher
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

537

than the ambient temperature. The temperature at the end of desorption period is chosen as the
average of the condenser and the compressor outlet temperatures of the vapor compression
cycle. According to the considered evaporator and condenser temperatures, the evaporator and
the condenser pressures of the adsorption heat pump are calculated and the design values of
the adsorption heat pump are illustrated in Table 3.

Table 3. Adsorption heat pump cycle design values.

AHP Cycle T
eva
*=2
o
C
T
amb
(
o
C) 20 25 30 35 40 45
T
a
* (
o
C) 25 30 35 40 45 50
T
c
* (
o
C) 71.5 77 83.5 89 95 100.5
T
cond
* (
o
C) 25 30 35 40 45 50
P
eva
* (Pa) 775 775 775 775 775 775
P
cond
* (Pa) 3250 4310 5665 7380 9535 12220

According to the design temperatures and pressures presented in Table 3, the minimum and
maximum water concentration and circulated water in the cycle are calculated and shown in
Table 4. As seen from Table 4, the amount of water circulated in the cycle decreases by
increase of ambient temperature. The hybrid cycle does not work when the ambient
temperature is greater than 30
o
C.

Table 4. The minimum and maximum adsorbate concentrations, mass of silica gel and
evaporator capacity for the designed adsorption heat pump.
AHP Cycle T
eva
*=2
o
C
T
amb
(
o
C) 20 25 30 35 40 45
W2
(kg
v
/kg
s
)
0.128 0.096 0.073 - - -
W1(kg
v
/kg
s
) 0.0525 0.055 0.0555 - - -
W
(kg
v
/kg
s
)
0.0755 0.041 0.0175 - - -
m
s
(kg) 1.2 1.9 3.1 - - -
(W) 62.1 53.1 37.3 - - -

The COP of the hybrid system is calculated by using Eq. (9). The change of total COP with
ambient temperature is presented in Figure 5. As it can be seen, the COP of hybrid
refrigerator increases by decreasing of ambient temperature. For a vapor compression
refrigerator operates at the ambient temperature of 20
o
C, the combination of adsorption and
vapor compression systems can increase COP of the system by 33%.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

538

Figure 5. COP change of the vapor compression and hybrid refrigerator for different ambient
temperatures.

DISCUSSION

In this study, a hybrid refrigerator system involves of a vapor compression and an adsorption
heat pump cycle is studied theoretically. The adsorption heat pump cycle is combined by
vapor compression cycle to utilize heat which is released by the condenser. Hence, the
cooling effect and consequently the COP value of the vapor compression system are
improved. The system includes two separate refrigeration cycles. For the vapor compression
system, the refrigerant is R600a and the silica gel-water pair is used for the adsorption heat
pump cycle. For the low ambient temperatures up to 35
o
C, the suggested hybrid cycle can
increase the COP value of the vapor compression refrigerator from 33 to 21%. However,
further studies with different type of adsorbent adsorbate pairs should be performed in order
to investigate the improvement of COP by combination of vapor compression and adsorption
heat pump cycle.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are grateful to the support given to this work by Necati BLGN from Indesit
Company, for his invaluable effort.

REFERENCES

1. Sward, B K and LeVan M D. 1999. Examination of the performance of a compression-driven
adsorption cooling cycle, Applied Thermal Engineering. Vol. 19, pp 21-20.
2. Zhang, X J and Wang, R Z. 2002. A new combined adsorption-ejector refrigeration and
heating hybrid system powered by solar energy, Applied Thermal Engineering. Vol. 22, pp 1245-
1258.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

539

3. Banker, N D, Dutta, P, Prasad, M, and Srinivasan K. 2008. Performance studies on
mechanical-adsorption hybrid compression refrigeration cycles with HFC 134a, International J ournal
of Refrigeration. Vol. 31, pp 1398-1406.
4. Ilis, G G, Mobedi, M, and Ulku S. 2013. Banker, Hibrit Adsorpsiyon evrimi, TPE Patent
Application, No. 2013-G-79258.
5. Ng, K, Chua, H, Chung, C Y, Kashiwagi, T, Akisawa, A, and Saha B B. 2001. Experimental
investigation of the silica gel-water adsorption isotherm characteristic, Applied Thermal Engineering.
Vol. 21, pp 1631-1642.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

540

EXERGETIC PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT OF A BUILDING WITH
A SOLAR-ASSISTED HEAT PUMP USING ROOF-INTEGRATED
SOLAR COLLECTORS

Arif Hepbasli
1,*
and M. Tolga Balta
2

1
Department of Energy Systems Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Yasar University,
35100 Bornova, Izmir, Turkey
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Aksaray University,
68100 Aksaray, Turkey
*
Corresponding author. E-mail addresses: arif.hepbasli@yasar.edu.tr &
arifhepbasli@gmail.com

SUMMARY

This study deals with energy/exergy and sustainability assessment of a low exergy heating
system from the primary energy production to the building envelope. The data on a three-
story villa with an overall floor area of 820 m
2
, which were taken from the literature, are
utilized for analysis purposes. In this context, a solar assisted heat pump (SAHP) system is
considered to provide the space heating for this villa.

Energy and exergy analyses are conducted to assess their performances and compare them
through energy and exergy efficiencies and sustainability index. Energy and exergy flows are
studied and illustrated accordingly. The results show that the overall exergy efficiencies of the
SAHP system are calculated to be 8.44% while the sustainability index value of the
considered case is determined to be 1.092.

Keywords: Sustainable Energy. Exergy, Solar-Assisted Heat Pump

INTRODUCTION
Heating, cooling and lighting appliances in buildings account for more than one third of the
worlds primary energy demand. Therefore, they are considered one of the main parts of the
energy consumption in buildings. In this regard, energy utilization in an efficient way for
space heating and cooling is very important for the development of the energy systems [1].

In recent years, it has been studied about how to make buildings both energetically and
exergetically sustainable. Exergy, which is a way to sustainability, as a thermodynamic
analysis tool can help achieve this objective. The low exergy (also referred to as lowex)
approach is one of these approaches, which has been and still being successfully used in
sustainable buildings design. Low exergy systems practically provide heating and cooling
energy at a temperature close to the room temperature [1,2].

It is strongly recommended that exergy analysis should be applied by engineers and scientists
as well as decision and policy makers, involved in green energy and technologies. In this
regard, exergy analysis approach for buildings aims at understanding the exergy flows in
buildings while it indicates the potential for further improvements in the energy utilization
[3].
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

541

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The data to be used in the analysis are obtained from the literature [4]. In this context, a solar
assisted heat pump (SAHP) system is considered to provide space heating for a villa in
Tianjin, China. A floor radiant heating unit is used to decrease the energy demand. The
system mainly consists of solar roofing collectors, a radiant heating floor end system, and a
heat pump unit. The building is a three-story villa with an overall floor area of 820 m
2
. The
overall area of the roof-integrated collector is about 260 m
2
. The design temperatures in the
winter and summer are 9.4 C and 33.9 C, respectively. The average COP of the heat pump
system is 2.97, with a maximum value of around 4.16. Details on the SAHP system are given
in more detail in Ref. [4].

In this study, the methodology and relations to be used are based on a pre-design analysis
tool, which has been produced during the ongoing work for the IEA-ECBCS Annex 37 to
increase the understanding of exergy flows in buildings and to be able to find possibilities for
further improvements in energy utilization in buildings [5]. The tool and the calculation
approach follow the method developed and proposed by Schmidt [5] and the working group
[6].

ANALYSIS

In the first section, the general project data and boundary conditions are checked out. V and
A
N
are the internal volume of the building and the net floor area, respectively. T
o
is the
outdoor temperature and T
i
is the indoor temperature in the design conditions. The outdoor
temperature is taken as the reference temperature T
ref
for analysis purposes.

The heat loss through the building envelope can be divided into two groups, namely,
(i) The total transmission heat loss rate (with neglected thermal bridges),
(ii) the ventilation heat losses rate.

The sum of heat gains through the building envelope can be divided into four groups, they are;
(i) the solar heat gain rate,
(ii) the internal heat gains from occupants,
(iii) the internal heat gains from equipments,
(iv) other uses of electricity, such as for artificial lighting and ventilation.

All heat flows, heat losses via the envelope, and internal gains, occurring inside the building
have to be summed up to create the following energy balance which refers to the first law of
thermodynamics and given in Table 1.

Table 1. Heat demand rate of the building.
Heat
Demand
Rate
Heat Losses Rate - Heat Demand Rate
Transmission +Ventilation - Solar +Occupants +Equipment +Lighting
T
Q
+
V
Q
-
S
Q
+
O
Q
+
e
Q
+
l
Q

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

542

Here, the heat demand rate is usually expressed in a specific number in order to be able to
compare different buildings with each other:
''
h
h
N
Q
Q
A
=

(1)
For the energy source in the primary energy transformation given parameters, F
p
and F
q,s
are
the figures of the primary energy factor and the quality factor of the energy source,
respectively. F
R
is a fraction factor for the environmental and listed in Table 2.

Table 2. Some necessary data of considered heat production systems [6].
Heat Production
System
Efficiency
/COP, [-]
Primary
Energy
Factor
of
Source,
F
P
[-]
Quality
Factor
of
Source,
F
q,S
[-]
Auxiliary
Energy,
p
aux,HP

[W/kWheat]
Auxiliary
Energy,
p
aux,HP,const

[W]
Part.
Env.
Energy
F
renew

[-]
SAHP 2.97 3.00 1.00 2 - 1.97

The quality factors and the exergy load rate of the each sub-system are given in Table 3.

Table 3. Quality factor, heat loss and exergy load rates of the sub-systems (adapted from Refs.
[5,6]).
Sub-
systems
Quality
Factor

q
F
[-]
Heat Loss Rate
loss
Q

[kW]

Exergy Load Rate
x E

[kW]

Room air
i
o
air q
T
T
F =1
,

V T
Q Q

+

h air q air
Q F x E

.
,
=
Heater
heat
ref
heat q
T
T
F
=1
,

-

, heat q heat h
Ex F Q =

Heating
system
-
= 1
1
.
,
HS
h HS loss
Q Q

HS heat HS
x E x E x E

+ =

Distributio
n system
-
+ = 1
1
). (
, ,
dis
HS loss h dis loss
Q Q Q

dis HS dis
x E x E x E

+ =

Heat
production
system
Given in Table
3
HP
S dis loss HS loss h HP
F Q Q Q Q
1
). 1 ).( (
, ,
+ + =

S q HP HP
F Q x E
,
.

=

where T
o
and T
i
are the reference temperature and room temperature and they are taken as
-12
o
C and 18
o
C, respectively. The surface temperature of the heater, T
heat
is estimated using
the logarithmic mean temperature of the carrier medium with the inlet, T
in
and return
temperature, T
ret
of the heating system [6].

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

543

i
i ret
i in
ret in
heat
T
T T
T T
T T
T +
=
2
1
ln
(2)
where T
in
and T
ret
are inlet and return temperatures of the heater while the heater surface
temperature is evaluated in the absolute temperature (K).

K T T
heat heat
15 . 273 + = (3)
The thermal efficiency of the distribution system is calculated by

td dt ins HPP dis
f f f f . . . . 98 . 0 = (4)

where f values are taken from Ref. [6] and listed in Table 4.

Table 4. Values of f
i
parameters, adopted from Ref.[6].
Criteria
Parameter
f
i

Position of the heat
production system (f
HPP
)
Inside envelope 1.00*
Outside envelope 0.90
Insulation (f
ins
)
No insulation 0.70
Bad insulation 0.90
Good insulation 1.00*
Mean design temperature (f
dt
)
Low (<35
o
C) 1.00
Middle (35
o
C<f
dt
<50
o
C)
0.95
High (>50
o
C) 0.90*
Design temperature drop (f
td
)
Low (<5 K) 0.98
Middle (5 K<f
td
<10 K) 0.99*
High (>10 K) 1.00
* selected for this study.

By keeping the derivation of the exergy demand rate of the heating system as calculated from
( )
( )
( )
+
=
ret
in
ref ret in
ret in
HS loss h
HS
T
T
T T T
T T
Q Q
x E ln .
,

(5)

The exergy demand rate of the distribution system becomes

=
dis dis
dis
ref dis
dis
dis loss
dis
T T
T
T T
T
Q
x E ln .
,

(6)

where the inlet temperature of the distribution system is the mean design temperature T
dis
and
the return temperature is the design temperature minus the temperature drop T
dis
(not: used
here as absolute temperatures in K):

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

544

The demand on auxiliary energy or electricity of the distribution system and heat production
system is given in more detail in Refs.[1,5,6].

As a second step, the exergy load rate of other building service appliances, such as lighting,
ventilation are taken into consideration and, in this case, named plant.

( )
el q V l plant
F P P x E
,
. + =
(7)

The overall energy and exergy load rates of the building are expressed in the required primary
energy and exergy input rates. For the fossil or non-renewable part of the primary energy, the
result becomes

el p P HP tot p
F P F Q E
, ,
. .

+ =

(8)

where F
p
is the primary energy factor and is given in Table 2 for the studied heat production
system.

If the heat production system utilizes a renewable energy source or extracts heat from the
environment, as heat pumps or solar collectors do, the additional renewable energy load rate
is estimated by
env R HP R
E F Q E

+ = .

(9)

The total exergy load rate of the building becomes

R q R el p s q p HP tot
F E F P F F Q x E
, , ,
. . . .

+ + =

(10)

The relations used are summarized while they have been explained in more detail in Refs.
[1,5,6].

Key parameters and indices for performance assessment and comparison purposes

In the following, there are some key parameters and they can be used for a ranking in a
specific value, for comparing buildings and their efficiency and quality of exergy utilization,
and for evaluating the success of the exergy optimization. These parameters and indices are
given below:

The total energy input rate per area,
pa tot E ,
"
(W/m
2
):
N
tot
pa tot
A
E
E
= ,
"
(11)
The total energy input rate per volume,
pv tot E ,
"
(W/m
3
):
N
tot
pv tot
V
E
E
= ,
"
(12)

The total exergy input rate per area,
pa tot x E ,
"
(W/m
2
):
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

545

N
tot
pa tot
A
x E
x E
= ,
"
(13)

The total exergy input rate per volume,
pv tot x E ,
"
(W/m
3
):
N
tot
pv tot
V
x E
x E
= ,
"
(14)

The total energy efficiency of the system,
sys
(%):
tot
building
sys
E
E
= (15)
The total exergy efficiency of the system,
sys
(%):
tot
building
sys
x E
x E
= (16)

The exergy destruction rate of the system,
dest
x E
(W), can be calculated from

( )
tot sys dest
x E x E

= 1 (17)
The exergy flexibility factor,
flex
F is calculated by
tot
HS
flex
x E
x E
F
= (18)
The relation between exergy efficiency () and the sustainability index (SI) as given in [3,7]
can be modified to this application:

=
1
1
SI (19)
which shows how sustainability is affected by changing the exergy efficiency of a process.

RESULTS
On the basis of the present study, the following results will be obtained for the whole system
while undertaking some parametric studies: (i) The overall energy and exergy efficiency
values, (ii) The sustainability index values, and (iii) The exergetic flexibility ratio values.
The methodology described previously is applied to SAHP system, which is considered to
provide the space heating for a villa in Tianjin, China. Fig. 1 shows the energy and exergy
flows from the primary energy transformation to the environment.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

546

Figure 1. Energy and exergy flows from primary energy transformation to the environment
(modified from Refs. [2,6]).

Using the system data [4], the heat demand rate and the specific heat demand rate of the
building are calculated to be 34.00 kW and 41.46 W/m
2
, respectively. Energy flow rates in the
subsystems are calculated and given in Table 5. For the considered case in this study, the
system requires a primary energy rate of 42.62 kW in order to supply a total rate of 34.00 kW
to the building.

Table 5. Energy flow rates in kW in the subsystems of the studied case.
Total
input

After primary
energy
transformation
After heat
production
system
After
distribution
After
heating
system
After
room
After
envelope
42.62 14.21 37.93 37.86 34.34 34.00 34.00

It is obviously seen from this table that, an increase occurs after the heat production system.
The explanation for this, also it can be seen from Fig. 2a, the increase is due to that a
renewable environmental heat rate of about 23.72 kW, which is included in the system.

(a)

(b)
Figure 2. A schematic energy (a) and exergy (b) flow diagram of the system.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

547

The total exergy demand rate is determined based on the methodology as followed in the
energy demand calculation, but with exergy analysis. We considered the same operating
conditions for each component. The exergy demand rate of the building is calculated to be
3.60 kW, as indicated in Table 6.

Table 6. Exergy flow rates in kW in the subsystems of the studied case.
Total
input

After primary
energy
transformation
After heat
production
system
After
distribution
After
heating
system
After
room
After
envelope
42.62 12.04 11.59 9.29 4.28 3.60 0.00

Exergy is consumed in each component while there is a remarkable amount of energy leaves
from the envelope. It can be explained by the meaning of the exergy. Exergy is defined as the
maximum amount of work, which can be produced by a stream of matter, heat or work as it
comes to equilibrium with a reference environment. As can be seen in Fig. 2b, all exergy has
been consumed. Therefore, exergy flow on the right column of Table 6 is required to be zero.

The results of the energy and exergy analyses are given in Table 7. The overall energy and
exergy efficiencies of the studied cases are calculated to be (energy demand building/total
energy input) 51.25% and (exergy demand building/total exergy input) 8.44%, respectively.

The results obtained from the present study are compared with those from the previous
studies. The exergy efficiencies of the studied cases in the present study are within the range
of the values reported by Hepbasli [1].

Table 7. Results of the energy and exergy analyses and total energy and exergy input per
area/volume.

sys

(%)

(%)

SI

(W/m
2
)

(W/m
3
)

(W/m
2
)

(W/m
3
)

F
flex

(-)
51.25 8.44 1.092 41.46 14.81 4.39 1.57 0.218

Total energy and exergy input per area, total energy and exergy input per volume and exergy
flexibility factor (exergy demand heating system/total exergy input) are calculated and given
in Table 7. Also, we calculated the sustainability index for the considered case as 1.092 while
the reference environment temperature is kept constant at -12
o
C.

sys
pa tot E ,
"
pv tot E ,
"
pa tot x E ,
"
pv tot x E ,
"

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

548

DISCUSSION

In this study, we have considered energy and exergy analysis methods for sustainable
buildings and applied them to a SAHP system used for a villa with a net area of 820 m
2
. We
have also compared its performance through energy and exergy efficiencies. And also, we
have quantified its energy and exergy results, energy dispersals, exergy flows and exergy
destructions and illustrated them for comparison purposes.

The main conclusions we have drawn from the results of the present study may be listed as
follows:
The energy demand rate of the building is 34 kW.
The total exergy demand rate of the system studied is 66.34 kW.
The total energy and exergy efficiencies of the considered SAHP heating system are found
to be 51.25% and 8.44%, respectively.
The sustainability index for the considered case is calculated as 1.092 while the reference
environment temperature is kept constant at -12
o
C.

REFERENCES
[1] Hepbasli, A. 2012. Low exergy (LowEx) heating and cooling systems for sustainable
buildings and societies. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews. Vol 16(1), pp 5297-
5328.
[2] Balta, M T, Dincer, I, Hepbasli A. 2010. Performance and sustainability assessment of
energy options for building HVAC applications. Energy and Buildings. Vol 42(8), pp.
1320-1328.
[3] Rosen, M A, Dincer, I, Kanoglu, M. 2008. Role of exergy in increasing efficiency and
sustainability and reducing environmental impact. Energy Policy. Vol 36, pp. 128137.
[4] Yang, Z, Wang, Y, Zhu, L. 2011. Building space heating with a solar-assisted heat
pump using roof-integrated solar collectors. Energies. Vol 4, pp.504-516.
[5] LowEx. LowEx.Net, Network of International Society for Low Exergy Systems in
Buildings, /http://www.lowex.net, Access date: 19 March 2013.
[6] Schmidt, D. 2003. Design of low exergy buildings-method and a pre-design tool,
International J ournal of Low Energy and Sustainable Buildings, pp.1-47.
[7] Balta, M T, Dincer, I, Hepbasli A. 2011. Development of sustainable energy options for
buildings in a sustainable society. Sustainable Cities and Society. Vol 1(2), pp. 72-80.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

549

HUMIDIFICATION SYSTEMS THAT SAVE ENERGY AND REDUCE
CO
2
EMISSIONS

Marc Briers
DriSteem Corporation

marc.briers@dristeem.com
SUMMARY
In response to the emission reduction targets of the Kyoto Protocol and Copenhagen Accord,
over 100 developed countries have committed to an 18% reduction in CO
2
emissions by the
year 2020, and a 50% reduction by 2050. As building owners seek to reduce CO
2
emissions
from their buildings, manufacturers of building systems are developing technologies to help
them meet the stringent standards.
Some humidification system manufacturers provide energy calculators (specific to individual
cities throughout Europe) that quantify the operating costs of their systems. Their calculations
reveal short payback periods and establish that, along with benefits clearly outweighing costs,
some of todays humidification system designs will help buildings meet the terms of the
Kyoto Protocol and the Copenhagen Accord.
INTRODUCTION
Todays steam humidification systems can reduce CO
2
emissions by over 60 percent using
energy sources other than electricity. Free cooling and an additional 32% reduction in CO
2

emissions is possible with recent rollouts of evaporative humidification systems.
Beyond steam generation, there is also enormous potential for energy savings in steam
dispersion systems. Recent breakthroughs in commercially available dispersion devices have
been proven to reduce wasted energy and condensate loss by up to 85 percent, along with
completely eliminating water waste.
METHODS
This paper presents established CO
2
emissions data to contrast the widely divergent amounts
of CO
2
produced by various power sources. This data is then used to contrast the widely
divergent carbon footprints of the various methods of introducing water vapor into the air for
the purpose of humidification.
Isothermal and adiabatic humidification
The two main types of humidification system are isothermal and adiabatic:
Isothermal (or steam) humidification systems use heat from an external source to vaporize
water. Electricity, natural gas, and boiler steam are common energy sources for the heat used
to boil water into steam for humidification.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

550

Adiabatic (or evaporative) humidification systems use heat from the surrounding air to change
water into vapor for humidification. Atomizing, wetted media, ultrasonic, and pezio disk
humidifiers are typical adiabatic systems.
This paper focuses on isothermal humidification systems.
Direct and indirect use of energy
The two main types of energy used by humidifiers are direct and indirect.
An example of direct energy use is steam in a boiler, where pressurized steam is piped
throughout the facility, with steam injection locations in air handling units or individual
rooms. Another use of direct energy is a gas-powered humidifier, where heat from a gas-fired
burner directly heats tank water to boil it into steam for humidification.
An example of indirect energy use is a steam-to-steam humidifier, where pressurized boiler
steam in a heat exchanger is used to boil water into pure humidification steam that does not
contain chemicals from the boiler.
RESULTS
CO
2
production/reduction as a function of humidifier energy source
Typical electricity-generating power plants produce electricity by using combustion energy
(coal, gas) or nuclear fission to convert water to pressurized steam. The steam is used to
power a turbine, which powers a generator, which converts rotational/mechanical energy into
electrical energy. Because of all the conversions combustion/fission heat applied to water
for steam, steam to mechanical, and mechanical to electrical the typical efficiency of such
a power plant is less than 50 percent.
Electric steam generators actually take the process backwards, converting electricity from the
power grid (which, earlier in the process was steam energy) back into steam for
humidification. This may sound like a waste of energy. In fact, it is: Humidification steam
produced by an electric-powered humidifier requires twice the fuel, and produces more than
double the amount of CO
2
, compared to humidification steam produced by a boiler or by
natural gas. See Table 1.
Table 1: Steam humidifier types and CO
2
production/reduction [1]
Energy source CO
2
reduction vs. electricity
Direct steam (injected into airstream from central steam boiler) 217/536 =40 =60% reduction
Steam-to-steam (heat from boiler steam used to boil water) 217/536 =40 =60% reduction
Natural gas 180/536 =33 =67% reduction
CO
2
produced by each energy source:
Electricity 536 g/kWh
Heating oil 264 g/kWh
Gas-fired central steam boiler 217 g/kWh
Natural gas 180 g/kWh
CO
2
production/reduction as a function of humidifier dispersion efficiency
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

551

Typically, steam dispersion devices in ducts and air handlers are panels of multiple stainless
steel tubes (dispersion tubes) with rows of orifices from which steam is dispersed. When the
dispersion tubes are not insulated, cool air flowing across hot dispersion tubes causes some
steam inside the tubes to condense, releasing latent heat. This heat passes directly through
tubes into the airstream, increasing downstream air temperature. Because of the relationship
between latent heat and condensate, downstream heat gain from dispersion tubes is directly
proportional to the amount of condensate produced within the tubes.
Following are some of the ways that downstream heat gain wastes resources:
Every litre of condensate produced wastes about 2300 kJ the energy originally used to
change that water into steam.
Heat added to downstream air increases the cooling load in applications that humidify and
cool simultaneously (such as hospitals, museums, schools), wasting energy cooling the
unnecessarily heated air.
Unnecessary condensate production can cause a humidification system to not meet set
point when steam expected to meet the humidification load becomes condensate.
The only variable that can be changed to reduce heat transfer is the thermal conductance of
the dispersion tubes. This can be accomplished by insulating the dispersion tubes. Insulated
dispersion tubes can reduce the volume of condensate by up to 85 percent. The result is 85
percent less energy wasted and 85 percent less downstream heat gain.
DISCUSSION
The key to saving energy and reducing CO
2
emissions is to quantify the results of
manufacturers humidification breakthroughs. The best way to quantify the results of any
breakthrough is with effective use of variables (inputs) and calculations (results).
Common variables to keep in mind are as follows:
Volume of make-up or fresh air
Air handler or duct entering and leaving conditions
Air handler or duct energy recovery and runtime statistics
Indoor (humidified space) conditions
Outside conditions (based on hourly weather data for various European airport weather
stations) [2]
- Temperature
- Relative humidity
Based on these parameters the absolute humidity can be calculated for each hour of the
year.
Knowing the setpoint (corresponding with an absolute humidity) throughout the year allows a
building owner to calculate average kilograms of water/steam to be added to the air over the
whole year.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

552

This value multiplied with the watts needed to convert one liter of water into vapor
(approximately 730 W divided by the humidifiers energy efficiency) is the value for the
energy consumption of a humidification system in one year.
Based on the energy cost of each energy source, a building owner can calculate the yearly cost
of a humidification system. In some cases, an energy calculation will indicate energy costs
(and therefore, the CO
2
footprint) for one application that are double or half of the energy cost
for the same application using different energy sources. See Figure 1.
Figure 1: Energy and CO
2
calculations for gas-fired vs. electric steam production [3]

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

553

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Special thanks to Havak Endustri Tesisleri Tic. Ltd. ti., Istanbul, Turkey for their assistance
in developing the information from which this report is derived.
REFERENCES
1. Weather data:
AWIS Weather Services, Inc.
Auburn, AL, USA
2. Image:
Energy-calc
tool
DriSteem Corporation
Eden Prairie, MN, USA

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

554

MODELLING AND DESIGN OF A HYBRID SOLAR + MICRO-
COGENERATION SYSTEM FOR WATER HEATING

J os M. Cejudo Lpez, Francisco Fernndez Hernndez, Fernando Domnguez Muoz,
Antonio Carrillo Andrs

Energy Research Group, University of Mlaga, Spain

Corresponding author: jmcejudo@uma.es

SUMMARY

This work compares three alternatives to produce domestic hot water (DHW) in a building
with 140 dwellings: individual butane heater in each dwelling, centralized solar system, and
centralized hybrid solar+micro-cogeneration system.

In Spain, solar DHW systems are mandatory for new buildings and major refurbishments. In
this paper, we explore a new idea that combines a centralized solar system with a small
reciprocating gas engine that produces electricity and heat.

The performance of the proposed system is tested in a project that is part of the European
MED program. In this paper, we present the results of several TRNSYS simulations. The
simulations show that the best solution in terms of CO
2
emissions and primary energy
consumption is the hybrid system. For this alternative, the effect of the solar collector surface
and the set point temperature of the auxiliary system are analyzed.

INTRODUCTION

The construction of residential buildings began intensively in Spain in the 1950s, with the
number of new buildings roughly doubling each decade. This trend reversed with the 2007
crash, leaving the market for new buildings deeply depressed. Building engineering
companies, as well as many national and European regulations, are now turning attention
towards the refurbishment market. In this context, the European Union has funded the project
ELIH-MED (Energy Efficiency in Low Income Housing in the Mediterranean) [1]. The
general purpose of this project is to analyze the technical, social and financial aspects of
refurbishment projects in buildings occupied by low income people. The authors of this paper
participate in this project as contractors of the Urban Environment Monitoring Center, an
agency of the City Council.

The work described here is part of a specific refurbishment action that is being developed in a
multi-family building owned by the Municipal Housing Institute and rented to low-income
families. The purpose of this action is to reduce the energy budget of the building while
improving the indoor environment. The building has no mechanical systems for space
conditioning because the climate at the location is mild, and passive systems are enough to
provide fair conditions inside. With this in mind, hot water heating turns out to be one of the
largest contributors to the energy budget of the residents. Currently, these needs are met by
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

555

gas heaters installed on each dwelling.

The Spanish building regulations of 2006 mandate solar thermal systems for DHW production
in new buildings and major refurbishments of existing buildings. The minimum solar fraction
required by law depends on the annual average solar radiation and the hot water consumption.
The common choice to meet this requirement is to install a centralized solar system, in which
users share the solar field and, possibly, other components such as the storage tank and the
backup heater.

In this paper, we explore a new idea, which combines a centralized solar system with a small
reciprocating gas engine that produces electricity and heat. Water is preheated by the central
solar system, while the heat recovered from the gas engine is used for auxiliary heating when
needed. It is interesting to note that both products of the engine, electricity and heat, have to
be consumed in the building. In the past, it was highly profitable to sell the produced
electricity to the utility company, because distributed generation (solar, wind, cogeneration,
etc.) was heavily subsidized by the government. These subsidies were frozen by J anuary 2012
and no new installation is allowed to enter into the system. This situation represents a
challenge, further complicated by the fact that the thermal demand of the building is rarely
synchronized with the electric demand.

Sizing the proposed system is not an obvious task. The area of the solar field, the volume of
the storage, and the nominal power of the gas engine are interdependent variables. The
optimal design also depends on the control strategy and the demand and weather profiles. A
dynamic simulation model implemented in TRNSYS will be used to analyze the problem.

CASE STUDY

The building being refurbish is located north of Malaga, a coastal city in south Spain (N 36
40', W 4 29'; 3026 annual cooling degree-days and 14 annual heating degree-days, both at
10C baseline; 4.83 kWh/m
2
yearly average horizontal global solar radiation). The building
has 6 floors (5+basement), 140 dwellings, and a gross built area of 14,547 m
2
. It is divided
into four blocks connected each other forming a central atrium. The roof is flat, with a free
surface of about 1000 m
2
, where solar collectors can be installed without shadowing
problems. Below the basement, under the slab, there is an empty space 2 m high that can
accommodate the mechanical room.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

556

Figure 1. General view of the building.

Water beating system

In the existing building, hot water is prepared on each dwelling using gas heaters. We will
consider two alternatives to this system.

The first option is a central collector field with a central buffer storage tank. This tank does
not contain drinking water. Instead, hot water from the tank is circulated through the building
in a closed loop (solar circulation loop). Each dwelling is equipped with a fresh water station
that consists of a plate heat exchanger along with some hydraulic accessories. The hot side of
these heat exchangers is connected to the solar circulation loop. Drinking water is heated by
circulating it through the cold side. A backup system, in this case a gas heater, is installed in
series after each heat exchanger. This configuration was chosen because it avoids community
bills other than equipment maintenance; i.e. each resident pays its own bills for water and gas.

The second option is the hybrid solar +micro-cogeneration system depicted in Fig. 2. A
central collector field, which is smaller than in the previous system, is used to preheat the
water of the solar circulation loop. The heat recovered from a small gas engine provides
additional heating if required. The rest of the installation does not change: one fresh water
stations and one auxiliary system per dwelling.

Figure 2. Basic schematics of the proposed system
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

557

MODEL OF THE SYSTEM

The performance of the proposed systems (solar only and hybrid) was investigated using
TRNSYS [3] simulations. This software is a flexible simulation environment that lets users to
create new components models (called types in the TRNSYS terminology). In our case,
three new components had to be developed: (1) domestic fresh water station, (2) reciprocating
gas engine, and (3) controller.

Solar collector, beat storage tanks and primary beat excbanger

Standard TRNSYS types were used to model the solar collectors, heat storage tanks and
primary heat exchanger.

The solar collector model is based on the well-known Hottel-Whillier model [4], which fits
the collector efficiency to a quadratic curve in the inlet water temperature:

( )
( ) ( )
2
/
- -
- - =
i a i a
R R L R L T
n
T T
T T T T
F F U F U
I I
(1)
Where:

Collector efficiency
F
R
()
n
Optical loss coefficient at normal incidence
F
R
U
L
Transmission loss coefficient (W/m
2
K)
F
R
U
L/T
Quadratic transmission loss coefficient (W/m
2
K
2
)
I
T
Solar radiation incident on the collector surface (W/m
2
)
T
a
Ambient temperature (C)
T
i
Inlet water temperature (C)

Temperature stratification in the solar tank is modeled using five nodes; more details about
the multimode tank model can be found in Ref. [4]. The solar field heat exchanger is modeled
using a constant effectiveness approach, which is a good hypothesis case because the mass
flow rates at both sides of the exchanger are constant.

Reciprocating gas engine

A new TRNSYS model was implemented to simulate the gas engine. This model follows a
table lookup approach based on catalog data. Manufacturers of gas engines report detailed
energy balances of the engine for different load regimes. The variables relevant to our
analysis are the mechanical and electrical efficiencies, and the recoverable heat from the
jacket and the exhaust gas. At each time step, the part load ratio is calculated by dividing the
electric demand (P
e,required
) by the nominal electric power of the engine (P
e,nominal
):

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

558

,
,
=
e required
e nominal
P
PLR
P
(2)

In our system, the nominal electric power of the engine will be chosen much lower than the
electric demand of the building, so that for most of the time PLR will be equal or close to 1.
The electrical and mechanical efficiencies and the amount of recoverable heat are interpolated
from the catalog table, using PLR as independent variable. The mechanical shaft power (P
mec
),
the gas consumption (Q
comb
), and the heat recoverable from the jackets (Q
jackets
) are calculated
as:

,
( )
=
e requiered
mec
elec
P
P
PLR
(3)

( )
=
mec
comb
mec
P
Q
PLR
(4)

( )
=
jackets jackets comb mec
Q F Q P (5)

Instantaneous fresb water station

A fresh water station utilizes heat from the solar circulation loop to produce hot water. A
typical fresh water station comprises four basic elements: plate heat exchanger, hydraulic
valve, cold-side outlet temperature limitation and bypass conduit. A new TRNSYS type was
developed to model fresh water stations, which includes the four elements cited above. An
important consideration in developing this model was the temporal distribution of the hot
water draw-offs [2]. While solar systems are typically simulated using hourly time-steps, the
hot water demand is distributed in short pulses of variable intensity and duration. Typical
draw-offs involve flow-rates from 1 to 15 liters/min over periods ranging from 1 to 10
minutes. This fact is important because the effectiveness of the heat exchanger varies for
varying flow-rates. Our fresh water station model calculates the average effectiveness of the
heat exchanger at each simulation time-step (1 hour) in the following way:

1. The average mass flow during the hour is split into a stochastic sequence of pulses.
These pulses are one minute long and their intensity is randomly generated. The
result of this step is a stochastic demand profile
2. For each pulse, a UA value is calculated by correcting the nominal UA value of the
heat exchanger with the pulse mass flow rate. This step considers the dependence of
the heat transfer coefficients with the mass flow
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

559

3. The hourly average effectiveness is calculated by weighting the effectiveness of the
different pulses.

Control

The control strategy determines the priority and the sequence of operation for the solar
collector field, the gas engine and the auxiliary system. The performance of the system
depends strongly on the temperature set-points and the operating conditions of each
subsystem:

a) Solar collector field pump. An on/off controller with hysteresis is used. The primary and
secondary pumps operate when the collector outlet temperature is at least 2
o
C higher than
the temperature at the bottom of the solar storage tank. When the pumps are off, they
begin to operate when a temperature difference of 7
o
C is reached. To avoid lime
deposition, pumps are switched off when the temperature at the top of the solar tank
reaches 60
o
C
b) Pump between solar tank and engine tank. An on/off controller with hysteresis is also
used in this case. If the temperature of the solar tank is 4
o
C higher than the temperature at
the lower section of the engine tank, the pump between both storages is switched on (see
Fig. 2). The pump stops when the temperature difference falls below 2
o
C
c) Heat exchange with the engine jacket. The manufacturer of the engine states that (1) the
inlet water temperature to the engine must be lower than 70
o
C and (2) the outlet water
temperature will be lower than 83
o
C. The design of the heat exchanger in the engine tank
guarantees that when the water temperature in the tank is 60
o
C, and the temperature
difference is 9
o
C between inlet and outlet, the restrictions for the water temperatures in
the engine are met. Sometimes, when the hot water demand is low, the engine stops
because the temperatures of the refrigeration water are out of range.
d) Individual heat exchanger. The minimum mass flow rate in the solar distribution circuit is
set at 5% of the nominal flow. A two-way valve in the hot-side side of the heat exchanger
regulates the mass flow to maintain the outlet water temperature in the cold side below
55
o
C. The purpose is to avoid scalds and lime deposition.

RESULTS

Definition of tbe comparison parameters

The following parameters have been selected to compare the different designs: solar and
engine contributions to the DHW energy needs, CO
2
emissions, and primary energy
consumption. The CO
2
emissions are estimated from the final energy consumption using
specific coefficients for each energy source. The auxiliary system in the dwellings consumes
butane, while the engine burns natural gas. The emissions due to electric consumption of the
pumps are also considered. The formula is:

2
, tan , ,
= + +
CO aux emis bu e engine emis natural gas elec emis elec
E C C C C C C (6)

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

560

The numerical values of the coefficients in Equation (6) can be found in Table 1.

Table 1. Coefficients to calculate the CO
2
emissions.
Emissions
Natural gas 0.204 kg CO
2
/kWh
t

Butane gas 0.243 kg CO
2
/kWh
t

Electricity 0.649 kg CO
2
/kWh
e

In the case of the micro-cogeneration engine, the electricity produced by the engine reduces
the CO
2
emissions of the central (national) electric system, as well as the primary energy
consumption. To convert electricity into primary energy, we used this equivalence: 2,603
kWh
t
/kWh
e

The main design parameters of the base case are given in Table 2. The two aforementioned
systems are considered: (1) central solar system, and (2) hybrid central solar +micro-
cogeneration system. Both systems are compared with the existing situation in which DHW
needs are satisfied using individual butane heaters.

Table 2. Design parameters of the base case.
Subsystem Size Thermal parameters
Solar collector area 250 m
2
FR()
n
=0,8; F
R
U
L
=3,5 W/m
2
K
Solar storage tank volume 18000 L 4 tanks; H=2,65 m; U=0,83 W/m
2
K
Engine storage tank volume 2000 L H=2,28 m; U=0,64 W/m
2
K
Gas engine (Dachs HKA G5) 5,5 kW
e
14,5 kWt;
elec
=0,27;
trmico
=0,72
Individual heat exchangers 28 kW UA=1720 W/K

Simulations show that the central solar system will achieve a solar contribution of 77% of the
total thermal demand. The remaining 23% is delivered by the auxiliary systems in the
dwellings. In the case of the hybrid system, the solar plant satisfies 72% of the thermal
demand, the gas engine the 21%, and the auxiliary systems the remaining 7%.

For the hybrid system, the Equivalent Electric Efficiency (REE) is 63.4 %, and the reduction
of primary energy consumption (PES) is 7 %. These parameters are defined in Spanish co-
generation regulations [6]. The solar circuit operates for 2,707 hours/year, and the engine for
5,051 hours/year.

Table 3 summarizes the monthly CO
2
emissions and the consumption of primary energy for
each case. The hybrid system reduces the CO
2
emissions by 82.1 % compared with the current
system. The largest contributor is the solar plant (77%). If we compare the hybrid system with
the solar only system, the addition of the engine reduces CO
2
emissions by 22.4 % and the
primary energy consumption by 6 %.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

561

Table 3. CO
2
emissions and primary energy consumption in the base case.

Month
Actual Solar+Auxiliar Solar+Engine+Auxiliar
CO
2

emissions
(kg)
Primary
energy
(kgoe)
CO
2

emissions
(kg)
Primary
energy
(kgoe)
CO
2

emissions
(kg)
Primary
energy
(kgoe)
Annual 81181 334 18722 83 14531 78
J anuary 8221 34 3607 15 2373 12
February 7225 30 2804 12 1872 10
March 7470 31 1883 8 1303 7
April 7418 31 1570 7 1152 6
May 6993 29 700 3 804 4
J une 6397 26 332 2 564 3
J uly 5555 23 25 1 400 1
August 4877 20 4 0 382 1
September 5572 23 151 1 481 2
October 6383 26 1062 5 917 5
November 7144 29 2625 11 1626 9
December 7926 33 3959 17 2651 13

Effect of tbe set point temperature of tbe auxiliary system

Figure 3. Influence of the set point temperature of the auxiliary system.

If the set point temperature of the auxiliary system increases, the solar contribution decreases.
This is because the collector inlet water temperature and the storage temperature increase, and
consequently the collector efficiency decreases. Fig. 3 shows how the solar contribution
changes when the DHW set point temperature varies between 45C and 60C. The lower limit
is set at 45C, a reasonably low yet useful temperature level. The upper limit is set at 60C to
avoid scalds and lime deposition. The results show that the auxiliary system increases its
contribution from 7% to 18%, decreasing the yields from the solar system and the engine.

Effect of tbe collector surface

Fig. 4 shows the energy output from each subsystem when the solar collector surface
increases from 150 m
2
to 450 m
2
. The total heating demand is 233.85 MWh for all cases.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

562

Figure 4: Influence of solar collector surface.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This paper uses TRNSYS simulations to design and optimize a solar +micro-cogeneration
hybrid system. This system produces hot water for a building with 140 dwellings. We analyze
three alternatives: the current situation with individual butane heaters, a standard central solar
system, and a hybrid solar +small reciprocating gas engine. The electricity produced by the
engine is consumed in the building, and the recovered thermal energy supplements the solar
energy production.

The simulations show that the hybrid installation reduces the operating CO
2
emissions by
82% compared with the current system. Most of this reduction is due to the solar system (77
%). The use of the gas engine contributes to the reduction of CO
2
emissions about 22.4 %
additionally to the solar field and the primary energy consumption is 6 % lower. To calculate
these figures, we took into account the electricity produced by the gas engine.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This work has been financed by the ELIH-MED Project of the European Union. The partner
in Mlaga is the Observatorio de Medio Ambiente Urbano, an agency of the Mlaga
Council.

REFERENCES

1. Proyecto ELIH-MED www.elih-med.eu [Accessed 8.03.13]
2. J ordan U., Realistic Domestic Hot Water Profiles in Different Time Scales, IEA Task 26: Solar
Combisystems
3. TRNSYS www.trnsys.com [Accessed 8.03.13]
4. Duffie J .A., Beckman W.A. 1991. Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes. New York: J ohn
Wiley & Sons.
5. Domnguez F., Cejudo J .M., Albarrn J . Carrillo A. 2012. Instalaciones solares comunitarias
con estaciones de intercambio en vivienda: aspectos operacionales y de diseo. XV Congreso
Ibrico y X Iberoamericano de Energa Solar.
6. Real Decreto 661/2007, BOE num. 126 de 26.05.07.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

563

MODEL OF DESICANT VENTILATED FAADE FOR OUTDOOR AIR
CONDITIONING VENTILATION

ABSTRACT

The air conditioning and ventilation systems of buildings must ensure indoor air quality and
temperature and humidity conditions to provide the occupants with comfortable and healthy
environment, as set out in the Spanish Technical Building Code [1]. For this purpose,
desiccant materials are used in air-handling units for the prevention of high latent load of
humidity in humid climate areas. They are regenerated by using hot air within 50-60 C low
enough in order to provide warmth through a plane solar collector.
This project replaces the conventional desiccant wheel and proposes a new ventilated faade
design, which the desiccant material is adhered. Ventilation, which flows through the air
bladder of the faade, contacts the desiccant material and transfer it mass and energy.
Afterwards, the air will be subjected to a treatment in a conventional air handling unit
(cooling coil, evaporative cooling) to be driven to the area. When the desiccant material is
no longer able to absorb humidity, the solar collector of the faade system heats the outside
air to the required temperature for regeneration. The design of the faade, with two columns,
allows alternate absorption and expulsion modes without disrupting the air circulation.
After making the assumptions, we present the study of a hot and mass transferring model
develops in the faade. A subsequent study will allow the optimization of the key parameters:
the type of the outside panel and the desiccant, the characteristics of the desiccant, the
geometry of the system, and its performance in different external conditions (air and
sunlight).
This work is part of FAVEDES project, financed by the R&D Secretary of State of the
Spanish Economy Ministry (Ministerio de Economa y Competitividad) within the
INNPACTO 2011 convening, with the participation of Instituto Andaluz de Tecnologa,
Tecnalia, Grupo de Energtica de la Universidad de Mlaga, Astrawall Ibrica, b720
Arquitectos y Negarra.
Keywords: Ventilation system, ventilated faade, solid desiccants, physical modeling.

1. Introduction
The concerns about energy savings in buildings have increased due to the high energy
consumption of outdoor air conditioning buildings. The new European directives promote the
development of air conditioning and ventilation technologies that reduces energy
consumption in buildings. One of their goals is that renewable energies enhance their role
among air handling units, especially solar. For example, a solar energy refrigeration system in
open loop, which uses solid desiccants placed on rotors in order to reduce the humidity of the
outdoor air. This allows reduce sensible and latent load separately. Solar energy is used to
heat the air to the desired temperature in order to regenerate the desiccant.
There are a vast variety of theoretical and experimental studies on the modeling of desiccant
rotors. From the theoretical point of view, Pesaran [2] was a pioneer in the study of mass
transport in silica gel particles. More recently, Ruivo [3] has developed detailed models of the
phenomena of heat and mass transfer in hygroscopic wheels. The present study is based
primarily on the work of these authors, focus on the simplified modeling of air circulation
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

564

through a desiccant channel, adapted to the case that the desiccant is on a vertical wall, rather
than on a cylindrical rotor.
For this purpose, the project FAVEDES is posed, whose aim is the design and development of
a system that integrates the advantages of ventilated faades as a passive element and the air
treatment capacity that the desiccant offered as an active element. The study aims, through the
model developed: an initial view of system performance; an assessment of the changes in
humidity, the treated air temperature, the absorption capacity and the desiccant regeneration;
the determination of the periods of the cycles of absorption and expulsion; and the valuation
of the latent potency and the cost-effective savings in energy in the conditioning of the outlet
air of a building.
After this initial assessment, future studies will optimize the parameters of the system and
perform an experiment to allow validation of the theoretical model.

2. Characteristics of a desiccant faade.
2.1. Description of physical phenomena in desiccant porous media.
The water mass transport phenomena occurring while passing a current of air through a solid
desiccant include transport of both steam and absorbed water.
The steam transport in porous media has a diffusive nature: both Knudsens diffusion and the
normal Ficks diffusion can exist. In Knudsens diffusion, collisions between gas molecules
and pore walls occur mainly, and not among the molecules themselves, being these collisions
with the pore wall the main diffusion resistance. In the present study it is considered a size of
very small pores, so diffusion is neglected Ficks, since it is negligible in comparison with the
Knudsens [2]. Besides the steam transport, there is the transport of absorbed water, through
superficial diffusion, on the surfaces of the pores.
The mass transport between the air and the desiccant is determined by the equilibrium
between the steam pressures of both the absorbed air and the surrounding air. The desiccant
attracts humidity from the surrounding air because the air in equilibrium with its surface has a
lower partial steam pressure than the humidity of the surrounding air. In order to remove
water absorbed from the pores, the desiccant is subjected to the expulsion process. The high
temperature of the surrounding air heats the desiccant and initiates the process of absorbed
water vaporization in the pores. Consequently, the equilibrium condition in the absorption
isotherm changes. The results are air with a high humidity concentration and a higher steam
partial pressure than the surrounding air pressure. This consequence initiates the mass transfer
from the desiccant into the hot air stream.

2.2. Operating of the desiccant faade.
The difference between the desiccant faade system and the ventilated faade is the desiccant
layer incorporating in the ventilated faade. It is a constructive system of exterior enclosing
elements incorporated to the traditional faade of the building. A desiccant faade scheme is
on Figure 1.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

565

Figure 1. A faade desiccant schema.

From the inside cover, the first layer is an insulation layer to protect the indoor environment.
Between insulation layer and the finished layer is an air chamber of few centimeters thickness
of measure through which the ventilation air circulates. The desiccant material is adhered to
the outside cover of the insulator and to the inside cover of the finished layer. Thus, the air
chamber is delimitated by two desiccant layers maximizing the contact between the air and
the desiccant. Finally, an exterior finished layer is incorporated, which can be made of
different materials: stone, wood, glass, sandwich panels, etc.
Below the desiccant faade of the Figure 1, a solar collector of air, another construction
system, is incorporated in the faade. It has the same structure than the ventilated faade with
the aim of the introduced air in the inferior part increases its temperature until the required
values. Thus, when the desiccant material is saturated and cannot absorb more quantity of
humidity, air from the solar collector is introduced to regenerate it.
The system has two operating modes: the mode of absorption and expulsion. In order to
alternate these two modes without interrupting the flow of ventilation, a system with two
columns of desiccant faade has been designed. These columns works as an alternative: one in
absorption mode and the other one in expulsion mode.

3. Modeling of the desiccant faade
The modeling of this process requires the solution of conservation differential equations of
the movement, mass and energy amount, in a tridimensional and transitional formulation.
However, the goal is to create a more simplified model that allows the simulation with a
lower computational cost.

3.1. Simplifying assumptions.
As the goal is to create a simplified model, we present the following simplifying assumptions.
1. There are no chemical reactions.
2. The desiccant wall is static and incapable of being deformed.
3. The air flow can be laminar or turbulent, depending on the speed of the input air. It is
also incompressible.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

566

4. In the internal part of microporous area any advective transport cannot be considered
(movement of removal in the direction of the flow).
5. The mass transport in the desiccant is purely diffusive, composed by Knudsens
diffusion (steam) and the surface diffusion (adsorbed water).
6. The only phase change allowed to the local thermodynamic equilibrium condition is
the absorption/expulsion process.
7. Resistance of heat and mass transfer of the porous surface are null in transverse
direction (x direction) and endless longitudinally (y direction).
8. The heat balance with the outside is permanent.

3.2. Conservation equations of mass and energy. Balance between air flow and desiccant
wall at the interface.

A water mass and energy balance is performed at the interface between the desiccant wall and
the air flow (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Balance at the desiccant-air interface. Convective flows of mass and heat.

Figure 2 shows the analysis of a magnified portion of the channel. This represents the nodes
corresponding to the air in the channel (
v,m
and T
m
), to the air at the air-desiccant interface
(
v,se
and T
se
) and to the air in the desiccant (
v,d
, T
d
and X
l
).
v
and T values correspond to
the mass fraction of steam in the air (kg steam / kg humid air) and to the air temperature (C).
The term Xl is the amount of water adsorbed by the desiccant (kg absorbed water / kg dry
desiccant).
The mass balance at the interface matches the mass convective flow through the air side (jvgs)
with the sum of surface diffusion (jlss) and Knudsen diffusion (jvss) of the desiccant side. The
impermeability condition is imposed at x =ed, where ed the thickness of the desiccant.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

567

Substituting the value of each term, the equation becomes:
(1)

, where:
hm: mass convective coefficient (m/s).

f
: air density (kg humid air / m
3
).

v,se
: mass fraction of steam in the air at the interface (kg steam/kg humid air).

v,m
: mass fraction of steam in the air in the channel (kg steam/kg humid air).
D
k,eff
: effective coefficient of Knudsen diffusion (m
2
/s). It is calculated according to
Ruivo [3].

g,v
: volume fraction of the gas mixture in the porous surface.

*
g,v
: bulk density of the gas mixture in the desiccant media (kg humid air/m
3
).

v,d
: mass fraction of steam of air in the desiccant (kg steam/kg humid air).
x: distance from the interface to the node in the desiccant (m).

*
sd
: bulk density of the solid desiccant (dry desiccant/m
3
).
D
s,eff
: effective surface diffusion coefficient (m
2
/s). It is calculated according to Ruivo
[3].
X
l
: Amount of adsorbed water in the desiccant surface (kg absorbed water/ kg dry
desiccant).

On the other hand, the other mass balance equation is obtained through an air balance in the
channel:

(2)
, where:
L
c
: length of channel (m).
m: input air flow (kg humid air/sm).

v,s
: mass fraction of steam in the output air (kg steam / kg humid air).

v,o
: mass fraction of steam in the air (kg steam / kg humid air).

The energy balance is determined through the condition of imposed T
se
temperature (equation
3). A permanent state is assumed. On the outside cover, the radiating-convective balance is
simplified by sun-air temperature and a radiating-convective h
c-r
coefficient. Furthermore, the
term of heat associated to the mass transfer is included. The other equation comes from a
balance to the air in the channel (equation 4).
(3)
(4)
, where:
he: convective heat coefficient (W/m
2
K).
T
se
: air temperature at the interface (C).
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

568

T
m
: average temperature of the air channel ( C).
T
sun-air
: temperature equivalent to the outside temperature taking into account the
incident solar radiation, the absorption capacity of the building envelope and the
phenomena of radiation and convection from the outside (C).
h
c-r
: convection-radiation coefficient with the outside (W/m
2
K). It is calculated as the
inverse of the value of the superficial thermal resistance of the enclosure surface in
contact with the outside air. Table E.1 (vertical walls, horizontal flow) of CTE-HE1
[4].
e
p
: outside thickness panel (m).
k
p
: outside thermal conductivity panel (W/mK).
e
d
: desiccant thickness (m).
k
d
: desiccant thermal conductivity (W/mK).
h
v,se
: steam enthalpy in the interface (J/kg).
Cp
f
: Specific heat of air (J/kgK).
Ts: output air temperature ( C).
To: input air temperature ( C).

Finally we get 4 equations (1, 2, 3 and 4) and the following unknowns: T
se
, T
se
,
v,se
,
v,s
y
v,d.
Additional equation is obtained from the equilibrium isotherm of the desiccant
characteristic which allows obtain the water content of the desiccant through the temperature
and relative humidity of air in equilibrium with the surface of the desiccant.
Convective coefficients of heat and mass (equations 6 and 7) are obtained through Nusselt
and Sherwood numbers. They are related by the Chilton-Colburn analogy (equation 5), where
D
h
is the hydraulic diameter. The Nusselt number is calculated depending on the degree of
development of the flow, and if the regime is laminar or turbulent, through the correlations of
Kays and Crawford [5], Gnielinski [6] or Sieder and Tate [7].
(5)
(6)
(7)
The calculation of the thermal conductivity (K
f
), specific heat (Cp
F
), diffusivity (D
f
), density
(
f
) and the dynamic viscosity of humid air (
f
) have been obtained from polynomial
expressions according to Cengel [8], and the average air temperature, which is the average
between the output and the input air.

4. Results
Simulation of the proposed simplified model is performed. The goal is to characterize the
overall performance of air passing through a drying surface, and thus evaluate the
performance of a faade system desiccant. The system must be able to provide dry air for as
long as possible. Furthermore, the amount of load that it can combat is valued. This amount is
related to the degree of dehumidification and the treated air flow. Another very important
aspect is the regeneration of the desiccant. The heated air from the solar collector must
remove as much absorbed water by the desiccant as possible (before reaching the equilibrium)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

569

in the shortest possible time. Thus, the desiccant absorption capacity and the stability of the
system are ensured.

4.1. Base Case
Due to the appropriateness of the use of air treatment systems with desiccant, in humid
climates, Malaga climate is the climate election for this study. We used the EnergyPlus
climate file. On J uly 22th at 12:00 am, a summer day is simulated, with 30 C of air
temperature, and with high humidity content (about 14 g water / kg dry air). The desiccant is
initially dry, with 0,01 kg water / kg dry desiccant. The input air velocity is 5 m/s, a high
value so that the treated air flow is high and higher power system latency is achieved. Table 1
shows the most important design parameters of the system.
Parameters of the system design.

Desiccant
silica-gel type RD silica
gel [9]

Outside
Panel
Thermal
conductivity
0,01352
W/mK
Thickness 0,1 mm Thickness 0,004 m
Number of faade
desiccant layers (1or
2)
2 Absorptivity 0,4
Desiccant
faade
Length 2 m Solar
collector
Performance 0,6
Air chamber
thickness
0,01 m Length 2 m

Figure 3 shows the curves of the input and output humidity in the absorption and expulsion
processes. Initially, the output humidity is 8,7 g water / kg dry air, therefore a degree of
dehumidification has been obtained (difference respect to the input humidity) of 4,89 g water /
kg dry air. This is due to an effective transfer of humidity to the desiccant. This process of
absorption results in the humidity condensation in the pores of the desiccant. On the one hand,
this process is associated to a release of energy in form of heat that receives the air at the
interface, increasing its temperature.
On the other hand, within several minutes later, the amount of absorbed water in the pores is
increasing, resulting in a lineally evolution of the humidity air content curve until reaching the
value of the input humidity 4 minutes later, at 12:04 hours. At this time, the desiccant cannot
absorb more humidity, the equilibrium occurs and the expulsion process starts.

Figure 3. Base case. Time evolution of the humidity air content in the absorption and
expulsion processes.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

570

The expulsion process is started with an increasing of temperature of the input air to the
faade, which comes from the solar collector, and passes from 29,5 C to 72,4 C. Heat air
has enough power to start the vaporization process of absorbed water in the desiccant. In the
first minute, the amount of absorbed water removed is very high, which results in the
increasing of humidity content in the drying air, in a high amount of mass and energy transfer
to the desiccant and in a high humidity of the output air. From this moment, the air in the
desiccant gradually increases its temperature and reduces its humidity content and absorbed

water quantity to the point of equilibrium. In this point, the desiccant regenerating reaches a
value of 0,06 kg water / kg dry desiccant. The regeneration time was 4 minutes.
The desiccant absorption capacity in the required time depends mainly on the regeneration
temperature. Initially, the desiccant can absorb water until 0,01 kg water /kg dry air and after
the first absorption-expulsion cycle, it has been regenerated to 0,06 kg water / kg dry
desiccant. This means that if the regeneration temperature is not high enough, the desiccant
does not regenerate effectively, causing the next absorption cycle with a shorter and lesser
degree of dehumidification. Thus, overall, the system combat less latent load for less time.
Figure 4 shows the influence of different regeneration temperatures in the base case.

Figure 4. Base case. Influence of the regeneration temperature.

The expulsion process graph shows that in the cases in which the regeneration temperature is
higher, the output air humidity is higher and the regeneration time is shorter. Outlet air
expulsion process has higher humidity values because the amount of water removed from the
pores has been higher and therefore the regeneration process has been more effective.
In the graph of subsequent absorption process, we observe the lowest outlet humidity, of 9,3 g
water /kg dry air for a temperature of 100 C, in comparison with the 11,1 g water /kg dry air
for a temperature of 60 C.
This shows that, if the previous desorption process, regeneration is higher, the desiccant is
initially drier and a higher mass transfer to the air circulation, with the subsequent increasing
of the degree of dehumidification.

5. Summary and conclusions
This article presents the design of a ventilated faade system with desiccants for the outside
air conditioning of ventilation of a building. Its goal is to replace the conventional desiccant
wheel and incorporate the facade is a passive system.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

571

Based on previous studies, we establish a number of simplifying assumptions that allow pose
the mass and energy balance equations that reproduce the mass and heat transfer of the air
circulation through the desiccant faade. From these assumptions, we develop a simplified
model of the system and the simulation proceeds thereof.
The results show that, from the presented base case, in a humid climate, the system is able to
dehumidify the outside air ventilation to 4,89 g water /kg dry air and 4 minutes for
absorption. The graph shows the desorption process that, in the case of a regeneration
temperature of about 70 C, there has been an efficient regeneration of the desiccant, in 5
minutes, in which 0,14 kg water /kg dry desiccant has been removed. Furthermore, it is shown
that higher regeneration temperatures improve system performance. On one hand, more water
is removed from the desiccant adsorbed, in a way that in the subsequent absorption processes,
the absorption capacity of the desiccant is more effective and the outlet air is drier. On the
other hand, regeneration occurs in less time.
A future sensitive study will optimize the operating parameters. In addition, the project
provides an experimental model to allow validate the theoretical model.
6. References
uocumenLo 8slco PS3 del Cdlgo 1ecnlco de la Ldlflcacln (C1L). 8eal uecreLo 314/2006 de 17 de
marzo.
A. esaran. MolsLure LransporL ln slllca gel parLlcle beds. hu Lhesls. unlverslLy of Callfornla, Los
ngeles. 1983.
C.8. 8ulvo. Modelaao numerlca dos fenmenos de Lransferencla de calor e de massa em rodas
hlgroscplcas, hu Lhesls. unlverslLy of Colmbra, Colmbra, orLugal. 2003.
uocumenLo 8slco PL1 del Cdlgo 1ecnlco de la Ldlflcacln (C1L). 8eal uecreLo 314/2006 de 17 de
marzo.
W.M. kays and M.L. Crawford. ConvecLlon PeaL and Mass 1ransfer. McCraw-Plll. new ?ork. 1980.
Cnlellnskl, v. lnL. Chem. Lng., 16, 339, 1976.
Sleder, L. n., and C. L. 1aLe, lnd. Lng. Chem., 28, 1429, 1936.
?.engel. PeaL 1ransfer. A pracLlcal Approach. McCraw-Plll. 1998.
A.A. esaran, A.Mllls. MolsLure LransporL ln slllca gel packed beds l. LxperlmenLal sLudy. lnL. !. PeaL
Mass 1ransfer 30. 1987.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

572

ANALYSIS OF THE OVERHEATING AND STAGNATION PROBLEMS
OF SOLAR THERMAL INSTALLATIONS

Francisco J . Aguilar
1
, Pedro V. Quiles
1
and Simn Aledo
2

1
Universidad Miguel Hernndez, Dpto. de Ingeniera Mecnica y Energa
2
Prointer, S.L.

Corresponding email: faguilar@umh.es

SUMMARY

This report illustrates the experimental data associated with solar overheating. The
experimental data has validated an analytical model which allows for the study of the
influences a primary circuits design has on the overheating of the solar tank.

Secondly, the report includes a study of the stagnation in a solar facility. The evolution of the
temperature in the hydraulic circuit by means of its measurement at 30 different points,
together with the data of the pressure and flow, allow for the real behaviour of the solar
installation in stagnation conditions to be investigated.

Finally, the study shows the measurements obtained on a solar thermal installation located in
Alicante (southern Spain). Every installation has been monitored for several months and the
main temperatures and pressures around the solar circuit have been noted. The measurements
and their processing have allowed for the detection of overheating and stagnation problems in
real operating conditions.

INTRODUCTION

A rational use of energy brings both economic and environmental benefits, by reducing
consumption of fossil fuels, electricity and pollutant emissions. In this sense, solar energy
allows for the production of thermal and electrical energy using solar irradiance, without CO
2

emissions. Thus, this paper presents an experimental study about the performance of solar
thermal installations.

The main problems detected in solar thermal installations are overheating and stagnation,
which are also the most important factors in determining an installations useful life. This is
due to the high temperatures during high solar irradiance conditions. As is exposed in [1] the
temperature of a thermal fluid during stagnation can be reach up to and beyond 180C. Many
of the installations components are made of plastic, so these temperatures must be limited.

The overheating of solar thermal installations occurs when the solar energy absorbed by a
solar collector exceeds the capability of its heat transfer fluid circuit to adequately cool it,
resulting in excessive temperatures. This phenomenon is most common when there is a low
energy demand. This situation is most severe when the flow of the heat transfer fluid through
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

573

the collector is interrupted due to power outages or component failures leading to the
production of stagnations.

In the literature different methods are proposed to control the energy flux in flat-plate
collectors. In [2] several strategies for control of temperature in solar collector are exposed. In
[3] prismatic structures in a thermal solar collector are used as overheating protection. Finally,
in [4] the capability of thermotropic layers to provide overheating protection in an all
polymeric flat-plate collector is studied applying theoretical modeling

This paper shows the results of an experimental study on the overheating and stagnation of a
solar thermal system in both laboratory and field conditions.

Finally, the study shows the measurements obtained on a solar thermal installation located in
Alicante (southern Spain): a solar thermal system designed to heat water in a hospital. The
results of this study show how the solar installations reach overheating and stagnation
conditions very often. Thus their efficiency is much lower than expected.

METHODS

The experimental setup consists of four, 2m
2
solar flat surface collectors and a 450L solar
tank. The area of the heat exchanger is of 3m
2
, and its volume is 7.4L. 19 temperature sensors
have been installed along the facility and the pressures after the pump are measured. Fig.1
shows all measurements taken in the solar installation. Circuit temperature and pressure
readings are recorded thirty times per minute.

Figure 1. All measurements taken in the solar installation.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

574

RESULTS

Analysis of the Overheating

As mentioned above, any solar thermal installation, even those which do not have any failure
in performance or design, can achieve periods of overheating without heat demand. To carry
out the analysis 7 new temperature probes were used, all of which were installed in the solar
storage tank at 200 mm centres.
The test consisted of measuring the evolution of temperatures in the solar tank for 24 hours
during a completely clear sunny day and with total absence of hot water consumption. Fig. 2
shows the results obtained during the test. It is clear from the results, that the water tank can
reach temperatures higher than 80C in an installation of a given designed type on a day with
no consumption and with solar radiation close to 1kW/ m
2
.

Figure 2. Evolution of temperatures in the solar tank

The experimental results obtained from the solar installation have enabled us to adjust an
analytical model of the behaviour of overheating in facilities.

Table 1. Climatic conditions during the study

Hours Radiation
(kW/m
2
)
Temperature
(C)
0 to 7 0 14
7 to 8 0.1 14
8 to 9 0.4 14
9 to 10 0.6 14
10 to 11 0.8 16
11 to 12 0.95 18
12 to 13 1 20
13 to 14 1 20
14 to 15 0.95 18
15 to 16 1 16
16 to 17 0.5 14
17 to 24 0 14

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

575

Using the analytical model developed; several simulations on the evolution of the solar water
tanks temperature have been conducted, this was done on 5 clear days where there was no
consumption of DHW. The calculations have been made based on data of the radiation above
the plane of the solar collector and the ambient temperature on a sunny day of March (Table
1). The simulations began at 7:00pm with the water tank at 30C.

From the yield curve of the solar collector, described in Eq.1, the energy supplied from the
solar collectors to the primary fluid on an hourly basis can be obtained.

*
1 0
T k k = (1)

Being
0
k

the optical factor,
1
k

the loss factor and * T the temperature reduced to the average
temperature of the solar collector.

The losses in the primary circuit are important when determining the solar installations
useful energy. For a primary circuit of 20m of piping length, the losses are 4W/C.

Once the solar tank temperature and the temperature of the surrounding environment is
known, energy losses are calculated with regard to the solar storage to date. The loss in the
solar tank considered was 2W/C, with the collector in a closed area at 22C.

Figure 3. Influence of solar collectors in solar tank temperature

Fig. 3 demonstrates how low quality collectors with no consumption for 2 days, usually see
tank temperatures rise up to 80C, nonetheless these temperatures are easily reached on the
first day the installation experiences lack of water consumption.

While for a low quality collector the maximum registered temperatures reach around 82-
85C, a collector of better quality can continue its energy contribution to the tank despite
receiving water at very high temperature. Thus, the reservoir temperature could exceed 95C,
if using high-efficiency collectors.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

576

Analysis of the Stagnation

The analysis of the stagnation has been realized using the experimental setup described on
this paper. The test was made during sunny April days, when the irradiance was high and the
sun was at its highest position.

As the pump stops, the water temperature in the top of the collectors increases by around 4 to
6C per minute. So, in all installations, the upper part of the collectors reach 120C within 10-
15 minutes and steam bubbles appear in the collector.

The characteristics of the stagnation change gravely depend of the design of the primary
circuit. The relative position between the expansion tank and the non-return valve is
extremely important and should be considered. If the steam expansion increases through the
return pipe, the collectors lose the water slowly; this is called slow draining. When the
steam is locked in the top of the collectors - pushing the water through the cold water pipe - it
is called fast draining.

Stagnation with slow draining

Fig. 4 shows the stagnation when the expansion tank is installed behind the non-return valve.
As mentioned, this stagnation is called slow draining.

Figure 4. Measurements taken and stagnation with slow draining

1|empo despues de |a parada (m|nutos)
r
e
s
|
n

r
e
|
a
t
|
v
a

(
b
a
r
)
Presin rel. (bar)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

577

Before stopping the pump, the temperature in the solar tank was 60C, with supply
temperature registering at 64C and the return temperature at 70C. When the pump stops the
irradiance in the collector plane is 970W/m
2
. 10 minutes later, the pressure increases and the
average temperature in the top of the collectors is 110C. After 30 minutes, the pressure
reaches 4.2 bar (rel.) and the temperature hits 144C.

Fig. 4 shows all the measurements taken 60 minutes after the stopping of the pump. During
the stagnation period, the temperature in the pipe between the collectors and the solar tank
that contains the steam is 150 C.

The initial and final pressures are known (Pm=3 bar, PM=6.3 bar) (absolute). The steam
volume is calculated as 11.3L.5.6L of steam are in the return pipe, while 5.7L are inside the
collectors. It is possible to say that at the end of the stagnation there is 80-85% steam inside
the collectors while 10-15% is liquid water.

Stagnation with fast draining

In this case, the expansion tank has been placed after the non-return valve and the emptying of
liquid water is mainly produced through the cold water pipe. The steam-liquid free surface is
given by the fluid-static, keeping all the steam in the top of the primary circuit.

The test conditions are very similar to the previous test: temperature in the solar tank is 60C,
supply temperature is 64C and return temperature is 70C.

Figure 5. Measurements taken and stagnation with fast draining

0,0
1,0
2,0
3,0
4,0
3,0
6,0
0 10 20 30 40 30 60
1|empo despues de |a parada (m|nutos)
r
e
s
|
n
r
e
|
a
t
|
v
a
(
b
a
r
)
resl n rel . (bar)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

578

When the pump stopped, the irradiance in the collector plane was higher than 960W/m2. 12
minutes later, the pressure increased and the temperature in the cold water pipe increased too
(the steam pushes the water through the bottom of the collector). 20 minutes later, the
pressure was at its highest. The steam in the collectors has pushed the water through the cold
water pipe and the temperature near the collectors was under 110C. Fig. 5 shows the
installation state 60 minutes into the stagnation, the pressure of the primary circuit are also
included.

If the initial and final absolute pressures are known (Pm =3 bar, MW =4.2 bar) it can be
determined that the volume of vapour formed is 6.2L. Of these 6.2L, 0.6L are found in
primary tubes located above the bottom header of the collector and 5.6L are actually found
within collectors. It is shown that at the end of the stagnation 85-90% of the volume of the
collectors is steam and only 10-15% is liquid water.

The pump start with fast draining and with slow draining

The study of both deadlocks was completed after the primary circuit pump was set in motion
and once the stationary stagnation had been reached.

In stagnation during slow draining (Fig. 4), as the pump starts nothing happens. The pressure
that the pump is capable of providing to the fluid is less than the difference in pressure head
of the liquid heat transfer fluid produced by the vapour siphon. The pump can be running for
several hours without attaining any flow of fluid.

In fast draining stagnation (Fig. 5), with the steam located almost entirely within the
collectors, when the pump is switched on; the liquid pushes the vapour into the return lines. If
the pressure provided by the pump is lower than the equivalent head in the vapour siphon
within the pipe, the fluid flow will stop. This situation is not recommended, as the collectors
fill up with liquid state fluid, an increase in the steam production is experienced which also
leads to an increase in pressure. Furthermore, the pump could be run for several hours without
fluid flow and as a consequence leading to complete system failure.

Using the information provided in this study it can be said that:

- Fast draining stagnation is less damaging to the installation and the maintenance of its
components. In this case less extreme temperatures are experienced which, without
any doubt, helping to extend the installations life span.

- If the installation experiences stagnation, the pump should start only in the event that
its head is greater than the difference in head within the primary circuit.

Example of the Stagnation in a solar thermal installation to heat water in a hospital

The results obtained during the monitoring of a solar thermal installation for the production of
DHW in a central hospital located in Alicante are presented.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

579

The facility, whose schematic diagram is included in Fig. 6, consists of a solar field of 146m
2
,
located on the buildings flat roof and with an inclination of 45. It has a total of 12,000L,
divided into 3 tanks each containing 4000L, two of them belonging to the solar system and
the last is heated by a gas boiler, this provides the necessary support.

Figure 6. Installation Schematics

8 temperature probes were installed along the circuit. Additionally a pressure sensor was
fitted on the solar primary circuit to detect the starting and stopping of the pumps as well as
pressure losses or excessively high overpressures. The most representative variables, namely
the temperature on either side of the solar heat exchanger and the pressure in the primary
circuit, can be seen displayed in Fig. 7.

Figure 7. Temperatures and pressures analyzed

Upon analysing Fig. 7 it can be seen that the low thermal demand during installation days
leads to the overheating of the system for a prolonged amount of time - where temperatures
rose above 80C. As there is no air-heater fan-coil through which the excess heat can
dissipate, the control system performs repeated start-up and shutdown operations in order to
minimize the collector performance and hence reduce risk of overheating.

If steam is produced within collectors, stagnation is experienced, this occurs repeatedly
throughout the day. The system pressure increases to over 5 bar (rel) and the pump ceases to
cycle water.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

580

DISCUSSION

An experimental study on the overheating process in solar thermal installations has been
performed. The experimental data has allowed for the validation of an analytical model in
which the influence of a collector was analysed.

The study has demonstrated that despite careful designing and dimensioning all solar storage
tanks are susceptible to overheating

An analysis has been made on the influences that the primary circuit design may have on the
stagnation of solar installations. It is important to design the circuits in such a way so that the
collector drainage experienced is of the fast variation.

The frequency with which both overheating and stagnation may appear if the heat demand is
lower than expected has been shown through monitoring of the solar installation in a hospital.

REFERENCES

1. M. K.ohla, M. Hecka, S. Brunold, et al. 2004. Advanced procedure for the assessment of the
lifetime of solar absorber coatings. Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells.
2. Y. Tian a, C.Y. Zhao. 2013. A review of strategies for the control of high temperature
stagnation in solar collectors and systems. Applied Energy.
3. M. Slaman, R. Griessen. 2009. Solar collector overheating protection. Solar Energy.
4. Gernot M. Wallnera, Katharina Reschb, R. Hausnerc. 2008. Property and performance
requirements for thermotropic layers to prevent overheating in an all polymeric flat-plate
collector. Solar Energy Materials & Solar Cells.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

581

ENHANCEMENT OF FLAT PLATE SOLAR COLLECTOR
PERFORMANCE THROUGH THE USE OF WIRE-COIL INSERTS

Alberto Garca, Ruth Herrero Martn and J os Prez Garca

Universidad Politcnica de Cartagena, Spain

Corresponding email: alberto.garcia@upct.es

SUMMARY

This paper presents an experimental research on the use of wire-coil insert devices to increase
the thermal efficiency of a flat-plate solar collector. Performance tests were done on a
standard harp collector and a wire-coil inserted one under the same mass flow rates, fluid inlet
temperatures and weather conditions. The test facility was fully designed following the
requirements of EN12975-2.

In this work, a wire-coil of dimensionless pitch p/D=1 and wire-diameter e/D=0.072 has been
tested. Water and a 30% propylene glycol-water mixture were used for a mass flow rate of
0.02 kg/sm
2
at different reduced temperatures. For water, the wire-coil inserts promote an
average increase in the standard collectors thermal efficiency of 15% for the whole range of
reduced temperatures. For the glycol-water mixture, the increases are lower and there is even
a range of reduced temperatures where the Reynolds numbers range between 300 and 700 and
the inserts worsen the standard collectors performance. This could be solved by using a wire-
coil with a more severe geometry than the one used in this work and capable of advancing the
transition to turbulent flow at lower Reynolds numbers. According to the present work, wire-
coil devices can be successfully inserted within the flow tubes in solar water collectors for
increasing its thermal efficiency.

INTRODUCTION

In heat exchangers for industrial applications, there is a wide range of enhancement
techniques available. They can be used to increase the heat exchange, reduce the size of
equipments or save pumping power. Since flat plate liquid thermal solar collectors are
particular types of heat exchangers that transform solar radiant energy into heat, they are
potential candidates for enhanced heat transfer. Usually they work with medium-viscosity
anti-freezing mixtures, in a range of mass flow a rate that leads to the development of a
laminar/transitional flow inside the tubes attached to the plate absorber. In this condition, the
use of any of the existing techniques (integral roughness or insert devices) to enhance
tubeside heat transfer could increase significantly the thermal efficiency of the solar
collectors. This could be applied towards more compact designs or to reduce the heat transfer
losses from the collectors to the surrounding ambience, thus increasing their useful power.

Regarding liquid solar collectors just a few studies have focused on enhancement techniques.
Kumar and Prasad [1] presented a remarkable work inserting twisted tapes in a serpentine
solar collector. They investigated the effect of the twisted-tape geometry, different mass flow
rates and solar irradiance on thermal performance. The authors observed that heat losses were
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

582

reduced (due to the lower value of the plate temperature) and consequently an increase on the
thermal efficiency was observed. J aisankar et al [2] performed an experimental investigation
of heat transfer, friction factor and thermal performance on a tube-on-sheet solar panel with
twisted-tape insert devices. They also investigated the effect of the twisted-tape geometry for
different Reynolds and intensity of solar radiation. They concluded that when twist ratio is
increased, the swirl generation is decreased and both heat transfer and friction factor are
minimized. J aisankar et al also carried out several experimental investigations of heat transfer,
friction factor and thermal performance of thermosyphon solar water heater systems fitted
with twisted- tape insert devices. [3, 4, 5]. The authors found that the heat transfer
enhancement in the twisted tape collector was higher than in the standard collector.

Hobbi and Siddiqui [6] conducted an indoor experimental study to investigate the impact of
several insert devices (twisted strips, coil-spring wires and conical ridges) on the thermal
performance of a fin tube similar standing for a portion of a the absorber of a flat-plate SC:
However, they observed no appreciable difference in the heat transfer to the collector fluid
and concluded that the applied passive methods based on the enhancement of shear-produced
turbulence were ineffective in augmenting heat transfer for their case.
As the preceding paragraphs illustrate, most of the previous research has been focused on
twisted tapes as inserted devices; the use of other passive tube-side techniques such as wire
coils still quite unexplored. Regarding the aforementioned fact, Webb and Kim [7] pointed
out that the existence of design correlations for twisted tapes does not mean, however, that
they are the best insert device. As Garcia mentions [8, 9], wire coils are especially suitable for
enhancing heat transfer in laminar, transition and low turbulent flow regimes.

This experimental work deals with the impact that a wire-coil insert device has on the thermal
performance of a standard flat plate solar collector. The standardized thermal efficiency
curves of a commercial and an enhanced solar collector with wire-coils inserts have been
obtained for two test fluids (water and a 30% propylene glycol-water mixture), at the
collectors nominal mass flow rate (0.02 kg/sm
2
). In order to explain the differences observed
for both collectors, the experimental results have been linked to the changes that the inserts
induce in the flow pattern inside the tubes of the riser.

METHODS

Characteristics of the collectors

Two harp-type flat plate solar collectors were constructed to be tested simultaneously, a
standard collector (SC) and an enhanced collector (EC) which was created by inserting wire-
coil inserts within the risers of a SC. The coils were chosen with a dimensionless pitch p/D=1
and wire-diameter e/D=0.072 (Fig. 1). This geometry showed a good overall thermo-
hydraulic behavior for the operating conditions typical of liquid solar collectors, according to
Garcia [9] work.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

583

Figure 1. Geometrical sketch of a wire-coil fitted in the raisers of the modified solar
collector.

Both the SC and the EC were single glazed and had 9 parallel tubes (risers) on the back of the
absorber plate, as it is detailed in Fig. 2. Their technical specifications are summarized in
Table 1.

Figure 2. Geometrical parameters of the tested solar collectors

Table 1. Main characteristics of the solar collectors

Experimental setup

The experimental setup was designed to carry out simultaneously the thermo-hydraulic
characterization of two solar collectors under the same operating (fluid, mass flow rate, inlet
fluid temperature) and weather conditions. It is located in Cartagena, southeastern Spain
(Latitude N'3736, Longitude W'00059). Both collectors were mounted with an optimized tilt
angle for the particular location of 37.5. In order to maximize the testing period an azimuthal

Material properties Geometrical data
k
abs
209.3 W/mK D
i
0.007 m N
G
1
(Aluminium) w 0.1227 m N
tubes
9
k
tube
372.1 W/mK g 0.0035 m A
C
2.022 m
2

(Cupper) 45 A
edge
0.235 m
2

g
0.88 (Glass)
abs
0.0005 m L
t
1.83 m
g
0.93 (Glass)
tube
0.0005 m
k
ins
0.05 W/mK
ins
0.025 m
abs
0.05
abs
0.95
(Miro-Therm) (Miro-Therm)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

584

solar tracking system was used. The facility was built in agreement with the requirements of
standard EN 12975-2 [10]. A schematic layout of the test bench is shown in Fig. 3.

The instrumentation was selected and mounted according to the standard EN 129752
requirements. Resistance temperature detectors Pt100 class 1/10 DIN A were used to measure
the inlet and outlet fluid flow temperatures. To measure the mass flow rate electromagnetic
flowmeters (Siemens MAG1100 DN 3) were used. Regarding the weather conditions, 3 PSP
1st class thermoelectric pyranometers were employed to measure the solar irradiance (global
irradiance in the aperture plane, global irradiance on the horizontal plane and the other one
has a shadow band to measure diffuse horizontal solar irradiance). Velocity and wind
direction were measured with an ultrasonic anemometer (Windsonic from Gill Instruments
Ltd). Ambient temperature, humidity and pressure were also measured. Table 2 summarizes
the main characteristics of the selected instrumentation.

Figure 3. Experimental set-up.

Table 2. Instrumentation description and uncertainty.
Magnitude Sensors Instrumentation Uncertainty
Solar Irradiation 3 1
st
Class Kipp&Zonnen CMP6 Pyranometer
Shadow band (Diffuse Irradiation)
0.,1%
Ambient
Temperature
1 Pt100 3w 0.1C
Ambient Pressure 1 Piezorresistive barometer 0,4 mbar at 20C
Humidity 1 Capacitive sensor 2%
Wind velocity and
direction
1 WindSonic Gill Instrument (Velocity interval
0-60 m/s) (Velocity Direction 0-359)
2% Velocity
3% Direction
Inlet and Outlet
Fluid Temperature
4 Pt100 4w Class 1/10 DIN A 0,03 C
Flow Rate 2 Electromagnetic Flowmeter
Siemens MAG 1100 Transmitter MAG 6000
0,25 %
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

585


The useful power,
u
Q , was calculated according to Eq. (1):
( )

u p(t) out in
Q =mc t -t , (1)
with
m standing for the mass flow rate and where the fluid density and the specific heat were
evaluated at the mean fluid temperature 2 t t t
in m
+ = . The thermal efficiency
A
can be
expressed according to Eq. (2) as a function of the global irradiance intercepted, G, the
absorber area A
A
and the useful power:
u
A
A
Q
=
GA
. (3)
The thermal efficiency is a function of the reduced temperature G ) t (t T
a m
*
m
= . Fig. 4 shows
A
vs.
*
m
T for the EC and the SC working with water (a) and with the glycol/water mixture (b).

Figure 4. Experimental values of thermal efficiency vs. reduced temperature difference for the
standard and the enhanced solar collector. Mass flow rate: 0.02 kg/sm
2
.(a) Water (b) PG 30 %

The thermal efficiency for both the EC and the SC and the two working fluids has been
satisfactorily correlated with the reduced temperature, using linear
*
A 0 1 m
= +a T regressions.
The experimental correlation coefficients are listed in Table 3, along with their associated
uncertainties (95% I.C) and the coefficients of determination of the regressions.

Table 3. Correlation coefficients for the efficiency curves, coefficients of determination and
associated uncertainties.
Fluid SC
Coefficients
Uncertainty
(95 % I.C)
EC
Coefficients
Uncertainty
(95 % I.C)
Water
OA
0.77 0.68
OA
0.78 1.02
a
1A
-5.76 2.20 a
1A
-4.48 4.03
R
2
0.97 R
2
0.91
PG 30%
OA
0.80 0.75
OA
0.77
-3.53
0.96
1.10
a
1A
-4.49 2.35 a
1A
4.43
R
2
0.98 R
2

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

586

From Fig. 4, it can be stated that, depending on the working fluid, there are differences in the
thermal performance of both SC and EC. For water (Fig. 4-a) the ECs efficiency curve is
over the SC one for the whole range of
*
m
T , with an average increase in thermal efficiency of
15 %. The experimental conditions fixed to obtain the curves when water was the working
fluid leaded to a Reynolds number range from 1000 to 2200, where the SC would be working
under laminar regime. On the contrary, in this range the wire-coil inserted in the EC would be
under a low turbulent regime, promoting a substantial increase in the tube-side heat transfer
convective coefficients as stated by Garca et al [9]. As a result, the slope of the ECs
efficiency curve is significantly lower (22%) than the SC one. The rise in heat transfer rate
that wire coils promote lead to a lower absorber temperature for the same values of
*
m
T thus
reducing the collectors thermal losses to the ambient.

The experimental results for the 30% propylene glycol-water mixture (Fig. 4-b) differ from
that of water. The increase of viscosity of the anti-freezing mixture lead to lower Reynolds
numbers (from 300 to 900) for equal mass flow rate. The experimental results show how the
EC have lower efficiency values than the SC for
*
m
T <0.05. Typically, that range of reduced
temperature was obtained through lowering the inlet fluid temperature. Those conditions
resulted in Reynolds numbers from 300 to 700 in both the SC and the EC. Here, in the SC
there is with a thermally developing laminar flow over the entire length of riser tubes (the
thermal developing length has been estimated between 2.3 and 2.5 m for a tube of total length
1.83 m). The wire-coil insert with the chosen geometry is not capable of promoting a
transition to turbulent flow in that range of Reynolds number. Moreover, it shortens the
development length thus decreasing the tube-side heat transfer coefficients and lowering the
collectors thermal efficiency. However, it is noticeable that all the EC experimental points
are over the SC values for
*
m
T >0.05. As
*
m
T increases fluid viscosity lowers, leading to higher
Reynolds numbers (700-900) and the wire-coil inserts promote a transitional turbulent flow
where the film coefficients are substantially higher than the corresponding laminar ones. In
this range, the SC efficiency curve is surpassed by the EC one, with an average increase in
thermal efficiency of 3.5 %.

The present experimental study has shown that wire coil devices can be successfully inserted
within the flow tubes in solar water collectors for enhancing its heat transfer rate and thermal
efficiency. However the ability of a given wire-coil to enhance a standard collectors thermal
efficiency will largely depend on the viscosity of the working fluid and the mass flow rate.
For increasing fluid viscosities and low mass flow rates, there will be need for a more severe
geometry (i.e. a shorter pitch and/or a higher wire-diameter) capable of promoting a transition
to turbulent flow at very low Reynolds numbers. In order to expand the current available data
on the relationship between the wire-coils geometry and the corresponding flow patterns
when inserted inside tubes, the authors are currently working on flow visualization and
pressure drop tests for an extensive range of dimensionless pitches and wire-diameters. This
will lead to the possibility of a rational selection of the insert geometry for a given
application, in order to optimize the heat transfer enhancement.

Experimental uncertainty
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

587

The criteria of ISO GUM (Guide to the expression of Uncertainty in Measurement) [11] were
followed to carry out the uncertainty propagation assessment. According to the uncertainty
propagation study carried out, it can be concluded that the initial uncertainties are slightly
amplified and the expanded uncertainty at a 95% confidence level are 2.4%
*
m
T and 1.5% for
A
. The uncertainty of the linear regression coefficients have also been assessed according to
the methodology proposed by Coleman and Steele [12], and are addressed in Table 3 . The
expanded uncertainties of the remaining magnitudes computed are: average fluid temperature:
0.15%, Reynolds number: 7.7% and useful power: 2.4%.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was supported by the Agencia de Gestin de la Energa de la Regin de
Murcia (ARGEM), the Agencia de Ciencia y Tecnologa de la Regin de Murcia
(Fundacin Sneca) through the Project with Ref. 15297/PI/10 and also by the Spanish
Ministry of Science through the Project with Ref. ENE2011-28571-C02-01.

REFERENCES
1. A. Kumar, B. N. Prasad, Investigation of twisted tape inserted solar water heatersheat
transfer, friction factor and thermal performance results, Renewable Energy 19 (2000) 379e
398.2.
2. S. J aisankar, T.K.Radhakrishnan, K.N.Sheeba, Experimental studies on heat transfer and
friction factor characteristics of forced circulation solar water heater system fitted with helical
twisted tapes, Solar Energy 83 (2009) 1943e 1952.
3. S. J aisankar, T.K. Radhakrishnan, K.N. Sheeba, Studies on heat transfer and friction factor
characteristics of thermosyphon solar water heating system with helical twisted tapes, Energy
34 (2009) 1054e 1064.
4. S. J aisankar, T.K. Radhakrishnan, K.N. Sheeba, S. Suresh, Experimental investigation of heat
transfer and friction factor characteristics of thermosyphon solar water heater system fitted with
spacer at the trailing edge of LeftRight twisted tapes, Energy Conversion and Management, 50
(2009) 2638e 2649.
5. J . Ananth, S. J aisankar, Experimental studies on heat transfer and friction factor characteristics
of thermosyphon solar water heating system fitted with regularly spaced twisted tape with rod
and spacer, Energy Conversion and Management (73) 207e 213.
6. A. Hobbi, K. Siddiqui, Experimental study on the effect of heat transfer enhancement devices in
flat-plate solar collectors, International J ournal of Heat and Mass Transfer 52 (2009) 4650e
4658.
7. R. L. Webb, N. H. Kim, Principles of Enhanced Heat Transfer, second ed., Taylor &
Francis, New York, USA, 2005.
8. A. Garca, P. G. Vicente, A. Viedma, Experimental study of heat transfer enhancement with
wire coil inserts in laminar-transition-turbulent regimes at different Prandtl numbers,
International J ournal of Heat and Mass Transfer 48 (2005) 4640e 4651.
9. A. Garca, J . P. Solano, P. G. Vicente, A. Viedma, Enhancement of laminar and transitional
flow heat transfer in tubes by means of wire coil inserts, International J ournal of Heat and Mass
Transfer 50 (2007) 3176e 3189.
10. EN 12975-2:2006 Thermal Solar Systems and Components Solar Collectors Part 2 test
methods.
11. ISO/IEC Guide 98, Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement (GUM),
International Organization for Stand. (ISO), (Geneva, Switzerland), 1995, 9e 78.
12. H.W. Coleman, W. Steele, Experimentation and Uncertainty Analysis for Engineers, second ed.,
J ohn Wiley & Sons, New York, USA, (1999) 202e 235.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

588

OPERATION AND ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF A HYBRID AIR
CONDITIONER SIMULTANEOUSLY CONNECTED TO THE GRID
AND TO PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS

Pedro V. Quiles
1
, Francisco J . Aguilar
1
and Simn Aledo
2

1
Universidad Miguel Hernndez, Dpto. de Ingeniera Mecnica y Energa
2
Prointer, S.L.

Corresponding email: pedro.vicente@umh.es

SUMMARY

This paper presents a study based on experimental results that analyze the possibility of using
photovoltaic panels to produce electricity that is used to power the compressor of an inverter
air conditioning unit; without the use of batteries or any inverter-regulators.

The aim of the project was to study an "inverter" heat pump with a nominal cooling capacity
of 3.52kW and a nominal heating capacity of 3.81kW. Three 235Wp photovoltaic panels were
connected directly to the machine at 24Vcc. The "inverter module" takes the electricity from
the grid and solar panels simultaneously.

The experimental results show that during summer months the average EER of the installation
could be close to 10 and the solar contribution of PV panels is about 65%. When the machine
works in heating mode the results show that the average COP is around 7.5 and the solar
contribution of PV panels is about 50%.

INTRODUCTION

The use of HVAC systems for air conditioning in buildings has become a very common
practice in most climate zones in Europe. In certain areas, the energy consumption resulting
from the use of air conditioning systems can reach half of the total consumption of buildings
[1].

The general concern for the shortage of energy resources, as well as the increasingly
pronounced effects of climate change, requires the development of technologies that are more
environmentally friendly and that are guaranteed substitutes for the current use of fossil fuels.

In this regard, it has been observed that for certain applications, the thermal demand of
buildings has a direct relationship with the hours of solar radiation it receives. This suggests
that the use of air conditioning systems that take advantage in one way or another of the solar
radiation, and use it as the primary source of energy may return great recompense.

The most widespread technologies are those that use solar thermal energy for air conditioning,
as described in Solar Thermal Refrigeration, Solar Sorption Refrigeration and Solid
Desiccant. There are several studies where these technologies are exposed and they are
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

589

developed with Flat Plate Solar Collectors and Solar Vacuum Tubes as solar caption surface.
In [2] state of the art solar refrigeration units are investigated.

One of the other documented technologies focuses on the use of a hybrid photovoltaic and
thermal system, where the heat dissipated by the PV panel is absorbed by a thermal fluid and
used for HVAC purposes [3]. More technologies with hybrid systems PV-Thermal are
presented in [4] and [5].

A final option is to use photovoltaic panels to produce the electricity that powers the
compressor of an air conditioning unit. The work detailed in [6] describes, among other
things, a water condenser cooling system that works by means of a cooling tower, using fan-
coil units indoors and solar energy to drive the compressor. This report demonstrates that the
use absorption and photovoltaic refrigeration systems have the largest energy saving potential
for buildings in subtropical cities.

In [7] a comparison is made between different cooling systems that use solar energy. In this
case the comparison is made between PV panels with batteries, regulators and inverter
controllers versus a thermal system. This second technology presents three options, solid
desiccant, adsorption cooling and absorption cooling. The lower catchment area required
when using photovoltaic technology and the downward trend in the price of photovoltaic
panels is of special importance, presently plunging below the 1 /Wp mark.

From the documents we have studied we can deduce that, for installations demanding large
amounts of power, cooling by absorption may be the most attractive option due to the fact that
the price of the equipment is softened with the rest of the components. On the other hand for
smaller power plants, below about 100kW, the reliability and simplicity offered in
refrigeration using solar photovoltaic energy is of great interest.

In brief, one could understand that the use of solar photovoltaic panels to power air
conditioners is an attractive application that can bring significant advantages over the use of
conventional systems, such as its enormous operational reliability, the correlation between
hours of sunlight and energy demand or the potential energy and cost savings.

The aim was to analyze an air conditioning unit simultaneously connected to two power
sources, a photovoltaic solar source and the conventional electrical grid. The removal of the
faultiest components in the system for that type of energy production technology, such as the
batteries and the inverter device, has provided an added benefit to those mentioned in the
preceding paragraph.

This paper presents an experimental study focused on the analysis of the operation of an
"inverter" heat pump with a nominal cooling capacity of 3,52 kW and a nominal heating
capacity of 3,81kW. Three 235Wp photovoltaic panels were connected directly to the
machine at 24Vcc. The "inverter module" takes the electricity from the grid and solar panels
simultaneously and prioritizes the photovoltaic contribution.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

590

METHODS

The air conditioner and the photovoltaic installation have been fully monitored. Twenty
measurements that include voltage, current, power, temperature, pressure and atmospheric
conditions have been recorded every 5 minutes. The measurements taken allow us to evaluate
the following data: Electrical power consumed by the machine from the grid and electrical
power consumed by the machine from the photovoltaic panels. These data are integrated to
provide daily and monthly electrical power consumption and the solar contribution in %. The
performance parameters of a control PV installation connected to mains were also taken. This
configuration allows us calculate the lost energy by our PV installation due to the
performance of the machine.

Measurements were carried out with the machine operating for 8 hours: 9 to 17 h. This project
includes a study of summer months, with cooling performance and winter months, with
heating performance.

Figure 1. Experimental Setup.

The experimental setup is showed in Fig. 1, where the subsystem A consists of the inverter air
conditioner analyzed. Said setup is connected simultaneously to one line of alternating current
(230V) from the conventional mains, as well as a line direct current (24V) derived from solar
panels.

The indoor unit is used for the air conditioning of premises belonging to an office building
located in Alicante (Spain). The outdoor unit is located on the buildings roof.

The nominal cooling capacity is 3.52 kW and the nominal heating capacity is 3.81 kW. The
power input when the machine works in cooling mode is 0.86 kW, and in heating mode is
0.99 kW. The refrigerant used is R410A.

The photovoltaic solar energy production comes from the subsystem B, which consists of
three photovoltaic solar panels connected in parallel with one another each with a 230 W peak
power output. The panels are placed on the flat roof of the building, facing 15 south with an
inclination of 30.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

591

Finally, data are taken from three photovoltaic solar panels (subsystem C of Fig. 1.)
connected to the mains via conventional inverter equipment.

The subsystem C is used to measure the energy produced by the photovoltaic panels
connected to the grid. This configuration allows one to measure the operating factor of the
photovoltaic panels as well as the relationship between the energy delivered by the
subsystems B and C. The influence of the behavior of the air-conditioning unit over the
energy production of photovoltaic panels means that the operating factor will always be less
than 1.

A series of sensors and measurement equipment along the entire installation have been used
to record data. A HP Agilent 34970A data-logger has been used to save the data. Data
readings are logged every 5 minutes.

The I
PV
and I
PV,GRID
are determined from a value of voltage drop produced in a shunt
resistance, calibrated to the passage of electric current, as shown in Fig. 1. For the
measurement of the electric power consumed by the compressor (P
COM
) a network analyzer
Chauvin Arnoux brand, model CA 8334 is used.

RESULTS

The experimental study includes results from J uly to October 2012. The following shows the
methodology used and the results obtained.

Energy analysis of the trial

The aim of the study was to determine the potential energy savings of the air conditioning
(AC) unit when directly connected to a photovoltaic power source. Two benchmarks have
been defined for this purpose: the solar contribution percentage (SC) and the determination of
the production factor (F). The way these parameters are derived can be seen below:

The power consumed by the air conditioner from solar power is calculated as

PV PV PV
V I P =

[W] (1)

The power consumed from the electrical grid is known from conventional P
GRID
thanks to a
watt meter installed in the line. The total power consumed by the air conditioning can be
found from the sum of the two previous powers.

GRID PV TOT
P P P + =

[W] (2)

The power produced by the solar PV connected to the grid (
PV,GRID
) is calculated using the
same product for P
PV
.

GRID PV GRID PV GRID PV
V I P
, , ,
=

[W] (3)

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

592

Fig. 2 and 3 represent the variation of the calculated parameters for several days of the study.

Figure 2. Electric power measurements taken on J uly 25.

Figure 3. Electric power measurements taken on February 03.

To distinguish the energy delivered by the network from that delivered by panels during the
day the sum of their gistered powers for a time period t, lapsed between one registry and the
next was taken. The total energy consumed by the equipment E
TOT
is recalculated as the sum
of energy from the solar panels E
PV
and the power supplied by the electrical grid E
GRID
.

The solar contribution is the ratio between the energy produced from the solar panels and the
total energy consumed by the equipment.

100 (%) =
TOT
PV
E
E
SC (4)

It has been found that the panels connected to the experimental system showed a different
behavior to those connected to the mains. At times the electrical power generated by the
photovoltaic panels is greater than the power required by the air conditioner (Fig. 3.), whether
it be because the unit has stopped or because their consumption has decreased due to a
reduction in the local thermal demand. This situation causes a percentage of energy losses
compared to the PV panel connected to the grid.

Therefore the production factor (F), is the ratio between the power delivered by the solar
panels connected to the system and the maximum power they would deliver were they not
0
100
200
300
400
300
600
700
800
900
1.000
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 13 16 17 18 19 20 21
o
w
e
r
(
W
)
nours
_v
_v,C8lu
_1C1
_C8lu
0
100
200
300
400
300
600
700
800
900
1.000
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 13 16 17 18 19 20 21
o
w
e
r
(
W
)
nours
_v
_v,C8lu
_1C1
_C8lu
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

593

influenced by the mentioned effects. This ratio is assumed to be equal to the power generated
by the photovoltaic panels connected to the grid.

100 (%)
,
=
GRID PV
PV
E
E
F
(5)

It is also interesting to know the percentage load on the machine during such an analysis. This
value is calculated as the ratio between the total energy consumed by the machine during the
day type and the energy consumed during a full day at 100% load. This ratio is calculated as

100 (%)
100 ,
=
TOT
TOT
E
E
L
(6)

Table 1. Parameters recorded in the trial
March
E
PV
E
GRID
E
TOT
E
PV,GRID
SC F L
kWh kWh kWh kWh % % %
04/03 0.63 4.22 4.85 0.74 12.99 85.33 61.21
05/03 0.91 3.71 4.62 0.99 19.71 92.06 58.33
06/03 2.54 1.18 3.72 3.50 68.29 72.53 46.95
07/03 1.01 2.49 3.50 1.14 28.86 88.70 44.18
08/03 3.20 0.65 3.85 3.93 83.05 81.34 48.59
09/03 1.74 1.20 2.94 2.15 59.06 80.94 37.15
10/03 2.50 1.49 3.99 2.94 62.68 85.04 50.36
Average 1,79 2,13 3,92 2,20 47,81 83,71 49,54

The Table 1 shows that it is clear that on days when the systems operating load is very high,
the production factor (F) increases. However, on those same days there is also a higher
consumption of energy from the grid (E
GRID
), so the solar contribution (SC) decreases.

Analysis of the efficiency of the refrigerating circuit

Part of the research has been done on the refrigerant circuit to determine its efficiency, with
and without the input of solar energy. The input data used in this part of the study are the
temperatures at the four points of interest in the refrigerant circuit, in addition to the
evaporator pressure and condenser pressure.

Based on the previous temperatures and pressures, using calculation software (ESS), which
includes a database of refrigerants and their properties, we have been able to determine the
properties of the refrigerant in each of the analyzed points.

We calculate the mass flow of refrigerant (m
R
) as the ratio between the measured power in the
compressor and the specific work calculated as the difference between the enthalpy of the
compressors input and output.

Then the useful heat obtained (Q
U
) ceded in the evaporator inside the office and the product
of the mass flow of refrigerant and the enthalpy differences between the inlet and outlet of the
evaporator.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

594

The useful energy (E
U
) ceded in the office during a typical day is calculated as the sum of the
output power by the time elapsed between readings of data, according to the following
expression.
= t Q E
U U

[Wh] (7)

Figure 4. Results obtained on J uly 25.

The energy efficiency of the installation (EER
INST
) is obtained from the above expression,
considering only the consumption of non-renewable energy source.

RED
U
INST
E
E
EER = (8)

The monthly average values have been obtained directly as the average of the daily average
values.

Finally, you can define a seasonal energy efficiency ratio from the following expression.

152
EER 15 2 EER 30 2 EER 31 EER 31
EER
O S A J
+ + +
= (9)

The Table 2 includes the average results of the calculated energy efficiency in the summer
months.

Table 2. Average results of the study (summer months)

Month E
PV

kWh
E
GRID

kWh
E
TOT

kWh
E
U

kWh
EER
INST
SC
%
J uly 3.36 2.19 5.54 14.27 6.52 60.54
August 3.13 2.57 5.70 13.92 5.41 54.92
September 2.00 0.84 2.83 9.49 11.29 70.38
October 1.68 0.67 2.35 8.09 12.11 71.61

0
300
1.000
1.300
2.000
2.300
3.000
3.300
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 13 16 17 18 19 20 21
o
w
e
r
(
W
)
nours
_v
C_u
_1C1
_C8lu
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

595

The average EER calculated by use of the relationship between useful thermal energy and the
electricity consumed from the grid is close to 10, and the solar contribution (SC) is about
65%.

Finally, Table 3 includes the average results for the calculated energy efficiency in the winter
months.

Table 3. Average results of the study (winter months)

Month E
PV

kWh
E
GRID

kWh
E
TOT

kWh
E
U

kWh
COP
INST
SC
%
December 1.81 2.50 4.31 13.42 5.37 42.11
J anuary 2.08 1.63 3.71 12.30 7.52 56.01
February 2.26 1.89 4.15 13.33 7.07 54.56
March 2.17 1.43 3.60 11.81 8.28 60.40

In winter, the mean solar contribution (SC) is about 50% and the average COP of the system
is about 7,5.

DISCUSSION

An inverter air conditioning machine is being monitored since J uly of 2012, and the machine
has been connected to the mains and to a PV installation, simultaneously.

Results of the machines performance, working from 9am to 17pm (8 hours) have been
obtained for each days in the study.

On days when the systems operating load (L) is very high, the production factor (F) increases.
However, on those same days there is also a higher consumption of energy from the grid
(E
GRID
), so the solar contribution (SC) decreases.

The utilization of the energy produced by the panels depends largely on the thermal demand
and the installations performance can be optimized to get solar contributions higher than 65%
in the summer months and higher 50% in the winter months.

The average EER evaluated by the relationship between useful thermal energy and the
electricity consumed from the grid is about 10.

The average COP evaluated by the relationship between useful thermal energy and the
electricity consumed from the grid is about 7.5.

REFERENCES

1. K.F. Fong, C.K. Lee, T.T. Chow.2012. Comparative study of solar cooling systems with
building-integrated solar collectors for use in sub-tropical regions like Hong Kong. Applied
Energy.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

596

2. D.S. Kim, C.A. Infante Ferreira. 2008. Solar regrigeration options a state of the art review.
International J ournal of Regrigeration .
3. J . J ie, L. Keliang, C. Tin-tai, et al. 2008. Performance analysis of a photovoltaic heat pump.
Applied Energy.
4. H.A. Zondag. 2008. Flat-plate PV-Thermal collectors and systems: A review. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews.
5. H. Chen, S. B. Riffat. 2011. Investigation of a Hybrid Solar Heat Pump System. Procedia
Engineering.
6. K.F. Fong, T.T. Chow, C.K. Lee, et al. 2010. Comparative study of different solar cooling
systems for buildings in subtropical city. Solar Energy.
7. T. Otanicar, R. Taylor, P. Phelan. 2012. Prospect for cooling An economic and environmental
assessment. Solar Energy.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

597

IMPLEMENTATION OF THE EUROPEAN DIRECTIVE ON ENERGY
CERTIFICATION IN SPAIN

J ulio Cano Guillamn

Industrial Engineer IPr
MECANO INGENIERA ARQUITECTURA S.L. - SPAIN

jcano@mecano-ingenieria.com

SUMMARY

Commitment 20/20/20 at European level for the reduction of energy consumption in buildings
has been developing different European directives, and in Spain it's applied by new
regulations and energy certification systems in buildings, both new and existing.
This legislation meets different barriers to their implementation, but also poses great
advantages.
Currently its required to certify:
all the buildings of new construction
existing buildings: when sold or rented buildings or units of these
Buildings that provide public services. Obtaining and display of the certificate
o Up to J une 2013, surface >500 m (buildings where the Administration is the
owner)
o Up to J uly 2015, surface >250m (buildings where the Administration is the
owner)
o Up to December 2015, surface >250 m (rented buildings)
In Spain, the application of this regulation varies depending on the region in which we find
ourselves.
Two options are presented for the energy rating:
General (using specific software)
Simplified (using different tables, annexes or alternative software)
The documents to certify buildings energetically recognized are:
General: For all new or existing buildings:
o CALENER VyP: housing and small or medium offices
o CALENERT GT: big offices
Simplified:
o New buildings
tables or annexes for housing buildings
Ce2
CERMA
o Existing buildings
Ce3
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

598

Ce3x
CERMA
There are other software in approval process.
The result is a tag where the main display are the annual CO2 emissions kg/m2 useful surface
of the building.

INTRODUCTION

Commitment 20/20/20 at European level for the reduction of energy consumption in buildings
has been developing different European directives
In Spain it's applied by new regulations and energy certification systems in buildings, both
new and existing

Overall objetive:
Reduce the production of CO2 and the energy consumption of our buildings

European Objective

Spain. Current certification requirements

All the buildings of new construction (since 2007)
Existing buildings: when sold or rented buildings or units of these (since J une 2013)
Buildings that provide public services. Obtaining and display of the certificate
o Up to J une 2013, surface >500 m (buildings where the Administration
is the owner)
o Up to J uly 2015, surface >250m (buildings where the Administration is
the owner)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

599

o Up to December 2015, surface >250 m (rented buildings)

Procedure for obtaining the Energy Performance Certificate
Outline steps

What CO
2
emissions depend?

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

600

Consumption: Influence of the Weather

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

601

Consumption: Influence of the building

Consumption: Influence of the use

Consumption: Influence of the environment
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

602

Certification. Options

Energy Indicator
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

603

ENERGY EFFICIENCY TAG

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

604

RESEARCH ON THE CONDENSATE CARRYOVER PHENOMENA IN
FINNED-TUBE EVAPORATOR OF AN AUTONOMOUS UNIT

Miguel Zamora
1
, Natividad Molero
1
, J os Miguel Corbern
2
, Emilio Navarro
2

1. CIAT. R&D Department. Montilla, Crdoba, Spain.
2. Institute of Energy Engineering, University Polytechnic of Valencia, Spain.

Corresponding email: mzamora@grupociat.es (leave two empty lines after)

SUMMARY

In the present work, an experimental evaluation and comparison of a dedicated coating for
improving the hydrophilic behavior of evaporator fins is conducted in an autonomous air
conditioning unit.

Different fin materials and coatings are analyzed by measuring the surface tension angles.
Hydrophilic coating presents contact angles lower than 10.

INTRODUCTION

Current trends in the design of autonomous, roof-top and compact commercial air
conditioning units tend to reduce the size of the indoor heat exchangers by reducing
evaporator frontal area. Reasons of that are higher compactness requirements, and raw
material savings. However high efficiency is nowadays a priority, thus air velocity must be
increased in order to keep the heat transfer coefficient while the corresponding pressure drop
raise must be limited in order to save fan electrical consumption.

The effect of the condensate water layer in the heat transfer coefficient and in the pressure
drop over wet finned-tube evaporators is a research topic well covered in the scientific
literature. However a second harmful effect of air velocity increase is the condensate
carryover phenomena. While there are many researches that have evaluated the effect of the
hydrophilic and hydrophobic behavior of the fin coating treatment in the latent capacity, the
frost formation, and the pressure drop, there is scarce literature that focuses in the condensate
carryover.

[1] and [2] have studied the condensate generation mechanism and the carryover phenomenon
of different types of fin material with different surface treatments and coatings. According to
these authors, the release mechanism of the drops in the air stream depends on the receding
contact angle have (
R
). Aluminum fins with traces of manufacturing oil have
R
=84 while
fins cleaned with acetone have
R
=39. These authors also measured the water retained on the
fin surface. For lower values of
R
(
R
<10) condensation is of film type. For 10<
R
<40
condensation is produced in small drops which are retained on the surface thanks surface
tension. For higher values of
R
, drop sizes are too big and descend by gravity coalescing with
others.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

605

Concerning the carryover mechanism and the estimation of trajectories of the water drops
once they are dragged by the air, [3] and [4] have developed a model based on Stokes forces.
[5] Have developed a model for the drop size estimation as a function of the surface
wettability properties, the air speed, and the fin spacing.

Traditionally condensate carryover has been limited by maintaining air speed below a certain
level or by the addition of a stop-drop filter downstream the evaporator. This strategy yields
higher fan consumption.

METHODS

The experimental method followed for the wettability characteristics identification was the
direct measurement of the contact angle between the liquid drop and the solid surface
(dynamic Sessile method).

Procedure is as follow, fin samples are laid in horizontal position. A drop of water is
deposited with a syringe pointed down 90 to the surface. With a camera the advanced contact
angle is recorded while the water drop is being deposited in the fin. The receding contact
angle is recorded while the water drop is sucked back.

The camera used was a Nikon D7000 with a lens AF-S DX NIKKOR 35mm f/1.8G. Three
light focus of 500 W were installed. The syringe was of circular shape. The measurement was
digitally done using a standard images processing software.

Evaluation of condensate carryover phenomenon is done in a split autonomous air
conditioning unit. Nominal cooling capacity is 37.7 kW at 27C dry bulb and 19C wet bulb
indoor conditions and 35C dry bulb outdoor conditions according to UNE-EN-14511. Indoor
unit nominal air flow is 7.000 m
3
/h. The refrigerant of the unit is R-410A.

Experiment is done in a climatic chamber. Indoor conditions are set at 22C dry bulb and
20C wet bulb. Outdoor temperature is fixed at 35C.

Lateral enclosure panels are substituted by transparent plastic walls for inspection (Figure 1
left).

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

606

Figure 1. Autonomous unit under test in the climatic chamber

Condensate carryover phenomena are recorded with a digital camera of 3.1 Mega pixels
(Figure 2).

Figure 2. Glass panel and camera for recording condensate carryover phenomena

RESULTS

Five different fins materials and coating (standard aluminum fin, cooper fin, polyurethane
coating grey, polyurethane coating blue and dedicated hydrophilic coating) were
experimentally analyzed in order to measure the corresponding advanced (
A
) and receding
(
R
) contact angles (Figure 3). Each measurement was repeated 6 times. Table 1 summarizes
the obtained results.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

607

Table 1. Measured contact angles
Type of surface/coating Advance Contact Angle
A
Receding Contact Angle
R

Standard Aluminium 959 646
Copper 9911 678
Polyurethane coating grey 765 407
Polyurethane coating grey 893 517
Dedicated hydrophilic coating <10 410

Figure 3. Contact angle measurement.

Results confirmed the expected performances of the dedicated hydrophilic coating.

During the measurements it was also noted how sensible the surface treatment to
manipulation was. Wettability performances were lost just by manual touching. This must
introduced some cautions about the long term response of the treatment, especially due to the
normal fouling.

An evaporator using the hydrophilic coated fins was manufactured. The heat exchanger
geometry used was:
Pipe outlet diameter 1/2

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

608

Vertical Pinch: 32 mm
Horizontal Pinch: 27.71 mm
Fin spacing: 2.1 mm
Fin thickness: 0.12 mm
Number tubes per row: 20
Number of rows: 4
Length: 1180 mm

Figure 4 shows a picture of the evaporator.

Figure 4. Drawing of the evaporator tested

First test campaign was conducted with the standard evaporator (aluminum fins). A drop
condensation mechanism was clearly observed. Droplets formed in the coil upper part
descend due to gravity and increase their diameter while coalesce with other drops. At a
certain moment, diameter is bigger than fins spacing so water bridges are formed and dragged
by air. On the drain pan it can be observed a high number of drops with different sizes. In
figure 5 some drops and the condensate water layer has been marked for a better
understanding.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

609

Figure 5. Condensate carryover with standard aluminum fin evaporator

Figure 6 shows the qualitative different operation with the new evaporator built using
hydrophilic coated fins. In this case no drop formation is observed. Condensation mechanism
is of the film type. Drain pan presents a total clean aspect.

The scope of the test was the experimental evaluation of the feasibility of the hydrophilic
coating. However, and evaluation of thermal performances is necessary. Figure 7 shows the
latent cooling capacity of the unit with the standard evaporator (Case 1), and with hydrophilic
coated evaporator (Case 2) during 20 minutes of steady operation. Air wet bulb temperature at
the evaporator inlet is also plotted. Set value is 20C wet bulb. The average latent capacity in
Case 1 is 18.4 kW and in Case 2 is 18.3 kW. Differences are not representative, and are due to
the difficulties to maintain the air inlet wet bulb temperature constant during the test. It can be
observed that the higher the air wet bulb inlet temperature, the higher the latent cooling
capacity.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

610

Figure 6. Condensate drainage with evaporator with hydrophilic coating

Figure 7. Latent cooling capacity and air wet bulb inlet temperature during a 20 minutes
steady test
CONCLUSIONS

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

611

Different fin materials and surface coatings have been analyzed by measuring the receding
and advanced contact angles. The dedicated surface treatment for hydrophilic behavior
presents contact angles lower than 10.

An evaporator with hydrophilic coated fins has been built and installed in an autonomous air
conditioning unit. A water condensation mechanism is clearly identified as of the film type,
and no drop carryover was observed.

Fin coating do not affect the latent cooling capacity significantly.

A long term operation test is being conducted in order to check the long term feasibility of
coating especially due the normal fouling of these types of finned-tube heat exchanger along
their useful life.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This work is an activity of a R&D project partially funded by the Agencia de Innovacin y
Desarrollo de Andaluca and the Corporacin Tecnolgica de Andaluca.

REFERENCES

1. Min J , Webb R. 2000. Condensate carryover phenomena in dehumidifying, finned-tube heat
exchangers. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 22 (2000) 175-182.
2. Min J , Webb R. 2001. Condensate formation and drainage on typical fin materials.
Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 25 (2001) 101-111.
3. Mathur G., Zexel USA Corp. 1999. Investigation of water carryover from evaporator coils. SAE
technical series 1999-01-1194.
4. Mathur G., Zexel USA Corp. 2000. Water carryover characteristics from evaporator coils during
transition airflows. SAE technical series 2000-01-1268.
5. Navarro E, Corbern J M, Gonzlvez J , Zamora M. 2012. Anlisis de la emisin de gotas de
condensado al aire en un intercambiador de tubos y aletas. Proceedings of the CYTEF-2012. VI
Congreso Ibrico y VI Congreso Iberoamericano de Ciencias y Tcnicas Del Fro

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

612

CAPABILITIES OF A SOLAR HEAT PUMP FOR DOMESTIC HOT
WATER PRODUCTION IN A MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE
J os Antonio Fdez. Bentez
1
, Carlos Corrochano
1
, Adriana Ortiz
1
, J avier Muoz
1
, Diego
Fernndez
2
, J uan Antonio Mardomingo2.

1
Escuela Tcnica Superior de Ingenieros Industriales, Polytechnic U. of Madrid (Spain)
2
Termoven S.L., Madrid (Spain).

Corresponding email: jafernandez@industriales.upm.es

SUMMARY

A solar/water heat pump for hot water production is a variant of a conventional aerothermal
heat pump, in which a solar-absorber panel serves as the evaporator. The panel uses air
convection as well as solar radiation as heat source. A high evaporation temperatures is
obtained resulting in lower specific energy consumption as well as CO
2
emissions. Thus, the
solar heat pump allows the integration of renewable energies and high efficient equipment
simultaneously.
The study here presented is based on the modeling of a solar heat pump domestic unit. The
performance of the unit is evaluated at a southeast Spanish location, with a typical
Mediterranean climate, similar to those existing in neighboring countries. Results are
compared with those obtained theoretically with a conventional solution of solar panel plus a
natural gas auxiliary heater, leading to a significant CO
2
emission reduction and energy
savings.

INTRODUCTION
The Spanish regulations have collected most of the indications of the UE policies regarding
energy efficiency in buildings. Specifically, document CTE-DB-HE (Building Code Energy
Saving) sets a mandatory requirement for a partial coverage of the domestic hot water
consumption by means of conventional solar energy systems. However, solar heat pumps for
hot water production and storage are a valid alternative to the conventional solar systems.
These systems are also known as "thermodynamic panels".
The complete work carried out includes [1] the installation and commissioning of a
thermodynamic panel for Sanitary Hot Water (SHW) generation; [2] the development of a
mathematical simulation model of the unit, which results have been validated with
experimental results; [3] the application of the simulation model to different scenarios. This
paper briefly summarizes the first two points and it details the application for a typical
Mediterranean climate scenario.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

613

METHODS

Description of the heat pump used
The experimental equipment consists of a 1600 W (cooling power) heat pump associated with
a panel with a collector area of 2 m
2
and a hot water storage tank with 100 liters of capacity.
In this chiller, the solar collector acts as the evaporator and the water storage tank with
aluminum tube coil fulfills the function of condenser.

Figure 17: Main components of the primary circuit.
SHW consumption is replaced by a constant-flow secondary circuit, consisting of a water
pump, a fan-coil for heat dissipation to the environment and an expansion tank. A thermal
counter is installed to measure energy dissipation.

Figure 18: General outline of the secondary circuit.
The solar collector (evaporator) is a dual plate with dimensions 1960 x 920 x 2 mm, with
narrow elliptical channels inside which circulates the coolant. It is made out of aluminum
high thermal conductivity material with selective coating. Ideally, the coating should have a
spectral absorptivity close to unity in the visible and ultraviolet ranges, being the emissivity as
low as possible in the infrared range.
The coolant (R-134a) enters the collector in a biphasic state and evaporates in the evaporator
circuit due to the heat transferred by radiation and convection from the environment. When
U\ adNaR_\ baYRa
P\ YQdNaR_V[ YRa
R-134a
waterstorage
solar collector
coolingcycle
dissipatedheat
expansionvessel
fan coil
water pump
constant flowrate
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

614

exiting the evaporator, the coolant will exhibit a slight overheating to prevent the arrival of
liquid to the compressor. The lamination valve controls the overheating through a bulb
located at the evaporator outlet.

Figure 19: Thermodynamic panel. Detail of the evaporator tube cross section
The compressor used is a hermetic compressor which operating curves were supplied by the
manufacturer. A variable speed system is not available so the coolant flow is always constant
and depends on the operating temperatures (see Figure 4).

Figure 20: Coolant mass flow rate (R134a compressor Danfoss SC12G).
The condenser is formed by a tank with an envelope-type exchanger. The envelope is formed
by an aluminum pipe of about 35 m in length rolled around the body of the accumulator. The
tube has a flat side for the surface in contact with the tanks wall wall and is thermally
insulated in the rest of its surface.

m
a
s
s
f
l
o
w
r
a
L
e
(
k
g
/
s
)
evaporaLlon LemperaLure(k)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

615

Figure 21: Image of the real condenser tube cross-section (left), image of the modeled tube
cross-section (right).
Description of the simulation mathematical model
The mathematical model simulates separately the behavior of the two core thermodynamic
elements: the condenser and evaporator, given that the compressor is simulated through a
simplified model by its performance curves and the expansion valve is operated
thermostatically, equalizing internal pressures.
In the evaporator simulation a radiating fin model was chosen (see Figure 6) with mean
values of emissivity and solar absorptivity to the entire surface of the panel subjected to
external convective action.
For the resolution of the temperature-mapping and heat fluxes a numeric model of finite
difference is employed with two surface nodes and one internal node. The boundary
conditions are: temperature known in the fin base (in contact with the tube) and adiabatic fin
at the end (due to symmetry). The problem has been programmed and solved through the
program Engineering Equation Solver (EES).
This problem is fatherly complicated with the study of the biphasic flow in the interior of the
tubes. The tubes have been discretized in the axial direction, to estimate the local convective
film coefficient and the resultant vapor fraction of each node. Applied to each tube a
theoretical model of the evaporator assembly is obtained.

Figure 22: Radiant fin heat transfer model
The Shah correlation (1982) was used to study the flow boiling scenario inside the tubes. The
study revealed some discontinuity in the determination of the coefficients during the transition
from laminar boiling to turbulent regime of the liquid phase alone.
To simulate the condenser also has a numerical scheme used finite difference includes
refrigerant inside the aluminum pipe, the tank wall (considered flat) and the external thermal
insulation (see Figure 7). This outline is applied to the different sections of the condenser
tubes to complete the 35 m of total length. Equally, the problem has been programmed in the
EES environment.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

616

Figure 23: Condenser tube heat transfer model.
Three heat transfer regimes take place inside the condenser tube to the tanks wall, which
have been studied throughout the entire tube length: [i] forced convection of the gaseous
coolant at high temperature and pressure; [ii] condensation in convective flow, using the
correlations developed by Dobson and Chato (1998); [iii] forced convection in the subcooled
liquid coolant.
Validation of the simulation model
In the study, the complete scenario was characterized (irradiation, temperature and humidity,
wind speed and direction, soil temperature) as well as the defining thermodynamic variables
of the refrigeration cycle and the secondary circuit. With all this, representative results of
different situations were obtained. These scenarios were executed in the simulation program.
The result deviations obtained were always less than 5% between the experimental data and
the results obtained theoretically. Thus, the model implemented should serve to obtain
reasonably accurate results when applied to other scenarios, as well as geometrical and
thermal variations of major items of equipment.

Case study: Mediterranean weather
Once the model is validated, we are able to apply it to different geographical locations.
Specifically, we choose the location of Almeria (Spain), with a dry Mediterranean climate and
annual average temperature of 18.7 C, which translates to a Koppen climate classification of
BSh. This climate is also present in areas of Portugal, Greece, Morocco, Tunisia, Libya or
Israel.
One of the theoretical advantages of thermodynamic solar panel over conventional panels,
whose working fluid is a water-freezing fluid mixture, is that the panel can function even
without solar radiation, absorbing the evaporation heat directly from ambient air, like any air-
to-air or air-to.water pump. Thus, its logical to analyze the operation of the system during
hours of solar collection and outside those hours. The key parameter to measure the quality of
the cycle is the COP, defined as the ratio of useful heat (transferred in this case to SHW) and
the energy consumed by the compressor. Figure 8 illustrates the evolution of COP monthly
average.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

617

Figure 24: Average COP for partial and total use.
Figure 8 shows that in the months of highest insolation, due to the higher solar contribution,
the average COP increases by two tenths (approximately 7%) if the equipment is operated
only in daylight hours, compared to continuous operation. The annually averaged COP during
daylight hours resulted in 2.73.
Equally important, is the energy transferred to the condenser per unit time, which after all is
the one used in the heating of SHW. Figure 9 illustrates the daily evolution of this parameter.
The daily average for a whole year functioning during daylight hours is 1360 W.

Figure 25: Monthly mean heat of condensation
With simple calculations, the average energy transferred during a day results in 14.96 kWh.
Taking into account that the network average temperature is 12.3C, it is theoretically
possible to heat 257 liters per day, during daytime, to a temperature of 60C. That is, it would
provide the needed energy to meet the demand for SHW of over 8 people at a rate of 30 liters
per person (reference value in the household Spanish legislation). A monthly analysis is
presented in Figure 10. It can be observed that during winter time, this system would meet the
needs of 7 people with a single panel, while in summer it would be feasible to cover the needs
of almost 13 people.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

618

Figure 26: Monthly production capacity (30 l per person).
Obviously, the proximity of these results to real operation depends on two crucial factors: the
condensing temperature and the storage tank capacity. The former directly influences the
achievable temperature in the tank, while the latter is directly related to the thermal level
attainable in the accumulator. The current configuration of this model (100 liters) would not
be able to store all the energy available in the absence of actual water demand, since the tank
capacity is insufficient to maintain the temperature difference between the coolant and the
water over 5-10C. The tests performed recorded a maximum SHW temperature of 54.6C
and a minimum of 30.6C.
Assuming that all the energy produced by the condenser is used in the heating of SHW, the
next step is to analyze the profitability of the system, in terms of operating costs. The power
consumption is determined by dividing the average power transferred in the condenser by the
COP. The result is 1360/2.73 =498.17 W, which translates to 5.48 kWh for an average day,
with daytime functioning. In the study, consumption is assigned an economic value of
0,1492/kWh, suitable reference for domestic consumers in Spain in the year 2013. The
equipment maintenance costs (review, recharging, cleaning, etc.) are estimated at 19.2 per
year. In this scenario, annual operating costs amount to 317.62.
Additionally, a comparison was made between these operating costs and the ones associated
with the same energy generation by fossil fuel boiler. In particular it was considered a natural
gas boiler with an efficiency of 95% respect to PCI (fumes temperature of 100C). In this
case, the gas is billed at 0.0592 /kWh, plus a fixed cost of 5,11 /month and 8 /month for
maintenance and mandatory inspections. It should be noted that the boiler usually provides
heating services, so that the fixed costs and maintenance costs strictly attributable to SHW
entail approximately 30% of aforementioned. Thus, the annual cost associated to the
5460.4kWh (thermal equivalent) is 384.32 . It seems clear that, in terms of operating costs,
the thermodynamic solar system is more profitable than the production of SHW through a
natural gas boiler, as of 2013.
Needless to say, investment costs should also be taken into account. The retail price of the
solar equipment installed is close to 2,000; an average quality mixed boiler is approaching
1,500 , of which 30% are attributable to SHW, i.e. about 500 . The truth is that, with
current prices, solar equipment would not be amortized over its useful life (20 years), when
compared to the dominant technology of production through natural gas boiler. Faced with an
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

619

instant hot water heater (400 installation and gas fixed costs attributable only to SHW), the
amortization period of solar equipment would be close to 10 years.
An emissions analysis is also worth developing. Regarding the thermodynamic solar
equipment, it consumes an amount of electricity that translates to 340g of CO
2
per kWh, taken
into account the Spanish energy mix. According to the same source, the emissions associated
with an equivalent energy production by natural gas are 201 gCO
2
/kWh. Considering a 95%
efficiency, actual emissions would rise to 211.6 gCO
2
/kWh. The solar system consumes
2000.1 kWh (electric) in order to produce 5460.4 kWh (thermal). Associated emissions are
therefore 680 kgCO
2
annually.
Producing the same energy from natural gas involves annual emissions of 1155.4 kgCO
2
.
That is, for the total energy produced during one year with the solar system, the savings in
emissions achieved when compared to production by combustion of natural gas is 475.4
kgCO
2
: emissions are reduced by approximately 40%.

DISCUSSION
The model designed for simulating the solar system equipped with the thermodynamic panel
has proved highly successful, yielding values very close to the experimental ones. The results
obtained when applying this model to a typical Mediterranean climate indicate that the solar
thermodynamic system analyzed, applying its energy production for consumption of sanitary
hot water and the current energy price scenario, is not economically profitable when
compared to other more established technologies. However, operating costs are lower and
also contributes to a significant reduction of local and global emissions of CO
2
.
Applying the simulation model to different climates interesting results can be obtained. The
team has analyzed the behavior of the model in two climates, Madrid (Csa climate,
Mediterranean and warm summer according to the Koppen classification) and A Corua (Cfb
climate, oceanic and mild summer). The results do not differ much from those obtained for
the dry Mediterranean climate, so that the main conclusions of this study should be valid for
any weather of the Mediterranean area.
Future research can be addressed in two ways: by improving the design of the system
components (mainly the evaporator panel and condenser coil) or by reducing electricity
consumption during compression. As for the evaporator, actions could be taken in order to
improve the coating (emissivity, solar absorptivity) and to improve heat dissipation (number
of tubes, the number of tube steps). Regarding consumption, the coupling of a photovoltaic
panel or a small aerogenerator could be analyzed to provide the power needed for operating
the compressor, so that the equipment would be fully self-sufficient.
Not to be overlooked either is the importance of the secondary system (use of the produced
energy, energy storage, and if needed, an auxiliary power source) on the usefulness and
profitability of the equipment. Is important that production values approach the maximum
possible, which is only possible if there is an efficient regulation of the temperature of the hot
reservoir. The objective is to achieve an optimal compromise between the working hours of
the equipment and the actual use of the energy produced, thus improving the COP values and
thus economic performance.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The team wishes to thank the Spanish company Energy Panel for proportioning the solar
thermodynamic panel that made this study possible and for its interest and momentum in the
development of efficient technologies applicable to energy consumption in buildings
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

620

REFERENCES
[1] Cdigo Tcnico de la Edificacin (CTE). 2006. Real Decreto 314/2006. BOE 28-05-2006
www.codigotecnico.org
[2] Instituto para la Diversificacin y Ahorro Energtico (IDAE). 2012. Factores de conversin 2011
para energa final/energa primaria y factores de emisin de CO
2
. www.idae.es
[3] F-chart Software. 2012. Engineering Equation Solver (EES) v9-177. www.fchart.com
[4] Nellis, GF and Klein, SA. 2009. Heat Transfer. Cambridge University Press
[5] Thome, J R. 2010. Wolverine Heat Transfer Engineering Data Book III. www.wlv.com

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

621

SOLAR PHOTO-HEAT VOLTAIC AND THERMAL (PHVT) SYSTEM
IN SLOW CITIES

Birol Klk and Levent olak
Bakent University, Mechanical Engineering Department
Ankara, TURKEY
Corresponding email: bkilkis@baskent.edu.tr

ABSTRACT

Future sustainable rural regions will rely on alternative and waste energy resources more than
ever. The main reason is the necessity of building satellite built environments around existing
metropolitan areas in order to establish a seamless green transition from densely populated
metropolis to less dense and less polluting, so-called slow cities accompanied by slow food.
These slow cities will also rely on on-site, distributed energy and power systems. This study
parametrically analyzes integrated solar photo-heat voltaic and thermal (PHVT) system,
which aims to provide more electric power per unit solar insolation area. The study examines
two main options, namely, sandwiched PHVT system and exploded (side by side) PHVT
system. In the first option PV and TEG modules are vertically sandwiched over each other
thus sharing the same insolation area. In the second option PV and TEG modules have their
own insolation area and are separated from each other. Parametric analyses have shown that
for a certain optimum range of PV and TEG performance characteristics vertically
sandwiched system provides the highest specific power output, which is defined as electrical
power output per unit insolation area (W/m
2
). For other performance characteristics exploded
PHVT system seems to be the only feasible solution, yet the specific power output decreases
by almost 38%. The same trend also holds true for the Rational Exergy Management Model
Efficiency and CO
2
sequestration potential. It has been concluded that future research must
not only seek higher efficiency PV and TEG modules but more importantly carry out research
on manufacturing modules with specifically optimum performance characteristics developed
in this study.

1- INTRODUCTION

Slow food and slow city concepts are the newest trend in city planning and energy supply
and demand policies [1]. Founded in 1986, the Slow Food Movement has grown into an
international association with local chapters worldwide. The Slow City Movement is mainly a
European concept with member towns primarily in Italy, Germany, Norway, and England.
Lately, slow cities have also emerged in Turkey. Slow City means an almost total
independence and it is obvious that energy independence is a pre-requisite. In other words, a
slow city must have a closed energy and exergy cycle (circular energy and circular exergy)
rather than a linear cycle (Business as usual case in existing metropolis). Unfortunately the
second-law thermodynamics is not considered as it should be in these activities. In this
respect, Rational Exergy Management Efficiency,
Ri
in terms of the ideal Carnot cycle is a
strong tool in optimizing slow cities [2]. In its simplest form, the CO
2
emissions equation that
includes both the first and the second laws of thermodynamics is [3]:
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

622

( ) E
c
Q
c
Q
c
CO
T j
j
Ri
Pj
j
Bi
i

1
2
(1)

Q =nE , or n =Q/E (2)

Eq. 1 does not include embedded exergy destructions and related CO
2
emissions during
post and pre construction phases of the slow city. The subscript (i) stands for the on-site
buildings and the subscript j stands for the off-site energy and power systems, which means
there is dependence to metropolis. The second term clearly shows that metropolis dependence
may only be reduced by increasing the term
Ri
. Here, the first and the last term represent CO
2

emissions due to the first-law analysis of thermodynamics, the first one being for heat (Q) and
the last term being for the electrical power loads (E). Heat loads include absorption or
adsorption-cycle cooling heat loads. Electrical power loads include chiller-operated cooling
systems and equipment loads.
=
f
ref
app
ref
Ri
T
T
T
T
1
1
(3)
For example, in a slow city if natural gas at a combustion temperature, T
f
of about 2000 K is
consumed in an on-site high efficiency condensing boiler that is dedicated only for comfort
heating at an application temperature T
app
, which in this case is equal to the design indoor
comfort temperature, T
a
of 20
o
C (293K), if the environment reference temperature T
ref
is
taken equal to the average ground temperature, T
g
of 10
o
C (283 K), then from Eq. 3
Ri
is only
about 0,04. This means that the available useful work potential (exergy) of the natural gas is
irreversibly destroyed by 96%. In a more exergy-rational application, the natural gas could be
used first in on-site power generation like in a Combined Heat and Power (CHP) system. In
green building applications,
Ri
may be higher up to 0,7 [3]. This means that if all variables in
Eq. 1 are kept constant except the second term, which includes
Ri
, then CO
2
emissions may
be reduced by about 39 % in a green slow city if
Ri
is increased from 0,04 (base line) to 0,70
or above:

( )
( )
39 , 0 75 , 0 1
1 4 , 1 04 , 0 1
1 4 , 1 7 , 0 1
1 = =
+
+
X
.

Here, X is the CO
2
sequestration potential ratio of the large buildings. This calculation may
be generalized in terms of n,
Ri
, and by replacing the denominator by a new term c.

( )

=
c
n
X
Ri
04 , 0
{
Ri
0,04} (4)

Eq. 4 shows that the CO
2
sequestration potential is linearly proportional to
Ri
at a rate of
(n/c), where,

1 96 , 0 + = n c (5)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

623

Finally, CO
2
emission of a slow city, CO
2
, for a known overall value of X becomes:
( )

=
BS G
CO X CO
2 2
1
{X 1} . (6)

Fig. 1. The relationship between X and
Ri
for different heat to power demand ratios, n.

Yet, specific loads that may not be reduced below a limit imposed by a collection of certain
functional requirements and regulations. Therefore, it may be a prudent statement that a slow
city may reduce CO
2
emissions by up to 50%.
From a different angle of view, Fig. 1 implies that the energy and power demand must be so
optimized in terms of n that it must be close to one or even less than one, so that less CO
2

emissions reduction action is required (in terms of X) in the power and energy supply
planning, because emissions reduction actions at system and equipment level becomes costly,
where slow cities also take into consideration the economics. Therefore while slow city
strategists try to satisfy the condition n 1, it must also hold true for alternative energy
systems. In this token for example, a solar photovoltaic-thermal system (PVT) must provide
almost equal amount of electric power and heat, which is not the case today [4]. See Fig. 2.
According to Fig 2, the typical n value is 0,59/0,23, which is about 2,56 and do not satisfy the
condition n 1. This contrast was the main reason for developing a new solar photovoltaic
system, which has the objective of satisfying the (n) condition better. In other words, electric
power generation per unit insolation area must approach or even exceed heat generation
capacity. This also increases the total exergy output for a solar heat and power system because
electric power has a higher exergy than heat.

Case Study 1.

The weighted unit exergy output of a solar PVT system that produces hot water at a certain
temperature, which is shown in Fig. 2 may be calculated as follows:

0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.6
0.7
0.03 0.13 0.23 0.33 0.43 0.33 0.63 0.73 0.83 0.93
X

Ri
CO
2
Sequestration Potential Ratio, X with
Ri

n=1,4
n=1
n=1,2
n=1,6
n=2
Eq. 4
n: Annual-averaged thermal energy to
electrical energy demand of the Slow City.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

624

496 , 0
59 , 0 23 , 0
59 , 0 3 , 0 23 , 0 1
=
+
+
=
x
E

Here, the unit exergy of electric power is one and the unit exergy of hot water at a certain
temperature is taken 0,3.

Fig. 2. Typical Performance of a PVT System [4].

Case Study 2.

Consider a new solar heat and power system, which has the following characteristics shown
in Figure 3. According to Fig. 3, this new system generates more electric power and (n) value
is 0,40/0,45, which is almost one. Then assuming that hot water is supplied at the same
temperature, the total unit exergy output will be:
629 , 0
45 , 0 40 , 0
45 , 0 3 , 0 40 , 0 1
=
+
+
=
x
E .

Fig. 3. A New PVT System (Conception) [5].

ower
23
PeaL
39
Loss
18
PVT OUTPUT
ower1
40
PLA1
43
Loss
13
NEW SYSTEM
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

625

2- SOLAR PHVT SYSTEM

Following the information given in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, a new system, named Solar PHVT
system was first designed [5] in 2010 and then tested [6]. Fig. 4 shows the design, which
sandwiches a solar PV at the top and TEG modules below it with cold water cooling layer at
the bottom.

Fig. 4. Solar PHVT Module [5]. 2012 an Kilkis, Birol Kilkis: Vertical Sandwich Option
(Option 1).

Usually three or four TEG modules accompany a single PV module. Prototype tests have
shown that a vertical sandwich option shown in Fig. 4 is quite sensitive to the PV and TEG
operating characteristic and only a narrow feasible domain of optimum parameters exist for
maximum total power output (See Eq. 7). This is Option 1, Case 1. Away from such a narrow
optimum combination of the parameters the vertical sandwich system may not be feasible, if
these parameters are not optimally selected or available in the market. This is called Option 1,
Case 2, which approaches to the fictitious condition where the solar PV module is not
cooled, which is not technically possible in vertical sandwich configuration. Therefore if
Option 1 is not possible to optimize, then the two modules need to be separated (See Figure 5-
b: Option 2. The objective function, OF for total power electric power output was written in
the following form:

(7)
The first term is the power output of a single PV module. P
PV
is the PV power output at
standard temperature conditions (about 20
o
C). The coefficients (k) and (l) are the power
output de-rating coefficients. The second term is the power output of (n) number of TEG
modules sandwiched to the PV module. This number is restricted by the PV TEG dimensions,
and the solar heat transferred. T
PV
is the actual temperature of PV, which is assumed to be
uniform along its thickness. T
C
is the cool side of the TEG module, which is attached to the
cooling layer and the cooling circuit. After an exhaustive search, the operating parameters for
maximum OF term in Eq. 7in terms of the variable T
PV
were determined for a PV module
with known P
PV
(20 W)and a TEG module with known P
TG
(0,1 W) constants:
k:0,06; l;1,1; m:0,7; n:4, T
c
: 16
o
C (289K). The Eq. 7 becomes a single variable equation:
Power from
Power from
Cooling layer
[ ] [ ] n T T P T k P OF
m
c PV TEG
l
pv PV
+ = ) ( ) C 20 (
o
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

626

(8)

After taking the partial derivative of Eq. 8 with respect to T
PV
and equating it to zero gives
the optimum T
PV
, which is shown in Table 1, Fig. 5 and Fig. 6. Optimum T
PV
for maximum
power output of 22,2 W is 54
o
C (327K). By defining the Specific Power Output, SP in Eq. 9,
one may metricate the performance.

W / 2 , 22
max
A
A
OF
SP = = (9)
Table 1. Optimization of Option 1, Scenario 1.
1
Pv
P
Pv
P
16
*
P
16
1
c
:20
o
c Ol*
Ol
1
c
:20
o
c
90 13,37669 8,138083 7,431891 21,71477 21,00838
88 13,77827 7,983489 7,271071 21,76176 21,04934
86 13,97926 7,8276 7,108711 21,80686 21,08798
84 14,17963 7,670369 6,944747 21,83002 21,12439
82 14,37941 7,311743 6,779103 21,89113 21,13831
80 14,37832 7,331669 6,611711 21,93019 21,19023
78 14,77698 7,190087 6,44248 21,96706 21,21946
76 14,97473 7,026934 6,271322 22,00168 21,24607
74 13,17181 6,86214 6,098138 22,03393 21,26993
72 13,36813 6,693633 3,922819 22,06378 21,29096
70 13,36373 6,327331 3,743248 22,09106 21,30897
68 13,73833 6,337148 3,363291 22,11368 21,32382
66 13,93232 6,18499 3,382806 22,13731 21,33332
64 16,14367 6,010733 3,197628 22,13642 21,3433
62 16,33794 3,834323 3,009379 22,17226 21,34732
60 16,3293 3,633376 4,818433 22,18487 21,34773
38 16,7197 3,474374 4,62402 22,19408 21,34372
36 16,90911 3,290364 4,426018 22,19967 21,33312
17,09746 3,103973 4,224143 21,3216
32 17,28471 4,914414 4,018043 22,19912 21,30273
30 17,47079 4,721666 3,807308 22,19246 21,2781
48 17,63364 4,323483 3,391447 22,18112 21,24708
46 17,83916 4,323383 3,369873 22,16473 21,20904
44 18,02128 4,121643 3,141863 22,14293 21,16313
42 18,20189 3,913284 2,906326 22,11317 21,10842
40 18,38086 3,700032 2,66271 22,08091 21,04337
38 18,33803 3,481416 2,408909 22,03946 20,96696
36 18,73327 3,236724 2,143063 21,99 20,87634
34 18,90632 3,023177 1,862213 21,93149 20,76833
32 19,0769 2,783762 1,361812 21,86266 20,63871
[ ] [ ] 4 ) 16 ( 1 , 0 ) C 20 ( 06 , 0 0
07 , 0 o
+ =
PV
l
pv
T T OF
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

627

30 19,24464 2,33717 1,234068 21,78182 20,47871
28 19,40903 2,277649 0,863068 21,6867 20,27212
26 19,36936 2,004749 0,4 21,37411 19,96936
24 19,72431 1,714838 - 21,43913 19,72431
22 19,87139 1,402038 - 21,27344 19,87139
20 20 1,033606 - 21,03361 20
* T
c
:16
o
C (289K)

Fig. 5. Maximum Power Output.

Fig. 6. Root for Maximum Output Analysis, l:1,1.

0
3
10
13
20
23
30
0 20 40 60 80 100
O
F

T
PV
Option 1, Scenario 1
1c = 16oC
v
1LC
1c = 20 oC
0
20
40
60
80
100
-0.03 0 0.03 0.1 0.13 0.2
T
P
V

OF
Root of T
PV
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

628

Fig. 7. Root for Maximum Output Analysis, l:1,0.
J ust by changing the (l) value in Eq. from 1,1 to 1,0 however, the optimality condition is
disturbed and no maximum point exists. The solution approaches to un-cooled PV condition,
because the OF value is steadily increasing.
These results show that the vertically sandwiched option is very sensitive to optimum
parameters. If these parameters are not feasible, the necessary condition is side-by side case,
namely Option 2. In Option 2 lets say PV and TEG modules occupy twice the area A and
TEG modules are exposed to direct solar insolation and its surface temperature approached
90
o
C, while PV is cooled down to 20
o
C with a separate cooling circuit in parallel to the TEG
cold-side circuit. If all other conditions remain the same, OF becomes (20 W +7,47 W)/2A,
which is less than Eq. 9 by about 38%.

3- CONCLUSIONS

This study has revealed that vertical sandwiching option of a PHVT module yields higher
specific power outputs. However R&D studies are in order to obtain the optimality conditions
in a narrow range, which currently may not be available among commercially available
products. Vertical sandwich option, if optimized is important, because it requires less
insolation area and therefore more power and heat may be provided to the slow city. Although
the heat output transferred to the cooling water is at a low temperature, it may be used for
low-exergy demand points of the slow city or it may be used for pre-heating certain
applications. Another advantage is that the rural PHVT system may be integrated with slow
the food cycle in rural agricultural infrastructure, while the irrigation water from wells are
used to cool the PHVT system, the warm return water may be used in greenhouses [6].

4- REFERENCES

[1] Heike, M. and Paul, H. K. Slow Cities: Sustainable Places in a Fast World, Journal of
Urban Affairs, Volume 28, Number 4, pages 321334, Urban Affairs Association, 2006.
[2] Klk, B., Klk, . Energy and Exergy Efficiency Comparison of Poly-Generation and
Co-
Generation Systems, Conference Proceedings, (In Serbian), pp: 474-486, the Fortieth
International
0
3
10
13
20
23
30
0 20 40 60 80 100
O
F

T
PV
Option 1, Scenario 2
1c = 16oC
v
1LC
1c = 20 oC
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

629

Congress on Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning, 2-4 December, Belgrade, 2009.
[3] Klk, . A Rational Exergy Management Model to Curb CO
2
Emissions in the Exergy-
Aware
Built Environments of the Future, Doctoral Thesis in Civil and Architectural Engineering,
KTH,
Stockholm, Sweden, 189 p., 2011.
[4] Kilkis, I. B. From Floor Heating to Hybrid HVAC Panel - A Trail of Exergy Efficient
Innovations,
ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 112, Part 1, pp.344-349, 2006.
[5] Klk, B. A New Building Integrated Solar Facade System for Heating, Cooling, and
Power (BIPVTC) in Green Buildings, TTMD J ournal (English Edition), No: 7, pp: 26-33,
Ankara, 2010.
[6] olak L., Klk, B., Yaltay, C. E., and Dalarslan, M. Solar Assisted Pumping by a PHVT
System in Rural Regions, 2013 ISES Solar World Congress, Energy Procedia, Elsevier,
2013 (In print).

5- NOMENCLATURE

c
i
Unit CO
2
content of the fuel, kg CO
2
/kW-h
c
j
Unit CO
2
content of the fuel outside the building boundary, kg CO
2
/kW-h
E Electrical power demand, kW
k,l,m Coefficients in Eq. 7, dimensionless
n heat to electrical energy demand ratio, dimensionless or number of TEG units
OF Objective Function for the total PHVT power output, W
OF
max
Maximum value of OF, W
P
PV
Power output of PV module, W
P
TEG
Power output of TEG modules, W
SP Specific power output, W/m
2

Q Thermal power demand, kW
T
app
Application temperature, K
T
a
Design comfort air temperature in a building, K
T
c
Cool-side temperature of TEG, K
T
f
Combustion (or equivalent) temperature of exergy source (fuel), K
T
g
Annual-averaged ground temperature at approximately 1,5 m, K
T
PV
Temperature of the PV module, K
T
ref
Reference environment temperature, K
X CO
2
sequestration ratio, dimensionless
Abbreviation
s and
Acronyms

PV Photo-voltaic
PVT Photo-voltaic-thermal
PHVT Photo-heat voltaic-thermal
TEG Thermo-electric generator
Subscripts
BS Base scenario (BAU scenario)
c Cooling
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

630

G Green
i Within building boundaries (on-site)
j Off-site location

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

631

IS CO
2
A GOOD MEASURE FOR INDOOR AIR QUALITY AND
VENTILATION?

Bjarne W. Olesen

Intl. Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy
Technical University of Denmark

Corresponding email: bwo@byg.dtu.dk

SUMMARY

In many countries CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) is used as an indicator for the indoor air quality and
ventilation rate. It is also used as set-point for demand control ventilation. In national building
codes and international standards a criteria for acceptable indoor air quality is often expressed
as a CO2 concentration of max. 1000ppm. The CO2 level is only an indicator for the emission
of bio effluents from the occupants. As both ASHRAE standard 60.1 and the European
standard EN15251 also require to take into account the pollution emission from building
materials and furnishing CO2 may not be representative for the indoor air quality or level of
ventilation. The paper presents a study of the application of CO2 as indicator and set-point for
demand control ventilation for both office buildings and residential buildings. First of all the
study shows that the criteria in EN15251 based on table values for required ventilation rate
are not consistent with the criteria in the standard using CO2 concentration. It can also be
shown that in buildings with a low people density (residential, single office) the CO2 level is
not a good indicator. The study also show that if CO2 is used for demand control of the
ventilation rate the chosen set-point will depend on occupancy level to obtain an unchanged
level of indoor air quality

INTRODUCTION

Ambient (outdoor) air quality in cities in industrialized countries has improved greatly in
recent decades. During this same period, indoor air quality has declined because of energy
conservation, decreased ventilation and the introduction of many new materials and sources of
indoor pollution. These developments and the fact that people in industrialized countries
spend 90% of their lives indoors on average makes the quality of indoor air an important
environmental issue with far-reaching implications for human health.
Today an acceptable indoor air quality is mainly defined by specifying the required level of
ventilation in air changes per hour or the outside air supply rate. This would be equivalent to
defining the requirements for thermal comfort by specifying the level of heating or cooling in
Watts. The increasing societal need for energy efficiency will often result in very tight
buildings. This means that the amount of outside air supplied by infiltration is not enough to
provide the required ventilation. In some standards the required ventilation is based on
adapted people (occupants) while other standards refer to un-adapted persons, who have just
entered a room. Which approach is correct? Or should it depend on the type of space or
occupancy? Furthermore, the level of ventilation will depend on the criteria for acceptability,
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

632

like health, comfort (perceived air quality) or occupant performance. The selected criteria
may lead to different levels of required ventilation.
In many building codes and regulations for indoor air quality the CO2 concentration is often
used as an indicator for the level of indoor air quality and level of ventilation. The
requirement may often be stated as an upper limit to the total concentration like 1000ppm
(ASHRAE Stand. 62.1 [1], Danish Building Code, J apanese building code) or more correctly
as an increase in CO
2
level (600-650ppm) above outside (350-400ppm) as in the European
Standard EN15251 [2].

METHODS FOR SPECIFYING REQUIRED VENTILATION RATES IN
COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS

Originally, most standards and guidelines for required ventilation rates were given as the
required outdoor air supply rate per person. Laboratory and field studies have subsequently
shown that people and their activity (smoking, activity level), building and furnishing (floor
covering, paint, furniture, cleaning, electronic equipment, etc.) and ventilation systems
(filters, humidifiers, ducts etc.) may also contribute to indoor pollution [3]. Even the outside
air may be a source of poor indoor air quality.
Both people and building-related sources of pollution are taken into account in standards for
the required ventilation rates in buildings, which include ASHRAE 62.1 [1] and EN15251 [2].
The minimum ventilation rates can be found in a table listing values for different types of
space. An analytical procedure for calculating the required ventilation rate based on CO2
concentration.

Prescriptive procedure
For the prescriptive method, a minimum ventilation rate per person and a minimum
ventilation rate per square metre floor area are required. The two ventilation rates are then
added. The person-related ventilation rate should take care of pollution emitted from the
person (odour and other bio effluents) and the ventilation rate based on the persons activity
and the floor area should cover emissions from the building, furnishing, HVAC system, etc.

The design outdoor airflow required in the breathing zone of the occupied space or spaces in a
zone, i.e., the breathing zone outdoor airflow (V
bz
), is determined in accordance with the
equation:
V
bz
= R
p
P
z
+ R
a
A
z
(1)
Where:
A
z
= Zone floor area: the net occupied floor area of the zone m
2
,
P
z
= Zone population: the greatest number of people expected to occupy the zone
during typical usage.
R
p
= Outdoor airflow rate required per person: these values are based on adapted
occupants in EN15251 and un-adapted in ASHRAE-62.1.
R
a
= Outdoor airflow rate required per unit area.

In the standard different methods for calculating the recommended ventilation rate are
included. As a minimum it must be ventilated to dilute the bio effluents from the occupants
(people component, R
p
, see table 1). These rates are in EN15251 specified for three categories
of indoor air quality, based on the prediction that a certain percentage of visitors will find the
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

633

air quality unacceptable (see Table 1). The design levels are thus adequate for people who
walk into a space. It is debatable if this should always be the case. People adapt very quickly
to the odour (bio effluents) in a space while there is less adaption to emissions from building
materials and tobacco smoke (odour and irritants, [4]). To provide an acceptable perceived air
quality for occupants (who have adapted to the air quality for at least 15 min.) it is estimated
that one third of the ventilation rate is sufficient i.e. for category II 2, 5 instead of 7 l/s per
person. The ASHRAE Standard 62.1 for ventilation and indoor air quality defines ventilation
levels for adapted persons (occupants).
In addition, the minimum recommended ventilation is increased with a building-related
ventilation rate, in order to take into account the emissions from the building and its systems
(see Table 1). There is, however no general agreement on whether the contribution from the
building should be added in full. Several studies indicate this is the best approximation, but it
may not be valid for all types of pollutants. Here it is the contribution to the odour and
irritation (perceived air quality) which must be taken into account. So it can be argued they all
influence one organ (the nose) and so should be added. When the health risk is considered a
simple addition can only be made for the same chemical component. Therefore in some
countries it is recommended that the minimum ventilation rate should be specified as a value
between the minimum level for people (bio effluents) and the higher rate that takes account of
both occupant and building emissions.
Table 1. Basic required ventilation rates for diluting emissions (bio effluents) from
people and three types of buildings for different categories of indoor environmental quality
Category Expected
Percentage
Dissatisfied
People
component

l/s person
Building component
Very low
polluting
l/s m
Low
polluting
l/s m
Not Low
polluting
l/s m
I 15 1O 0,5 1,0 2,0
II 20 7 0,35 0,7 1,4
III 30 4 0,2 0,4 0,8

Criteria for the ventilation rate may also be expressed as total rates per m
2
floor area (l/s per
m
2
) or per occupant (l/s per occupant). By expressing it as a people part and as a building part
it becomes easier to calculate required ventilation rates for non-typical levels of occupancy.

Table 2 shows the required ventilation rates from standard EN15251 compared to ASHRAE
62.1. There are quite big differences between the European recommendations and those listed
by ASHRAE. One major reason is that ASHRAE requirements are minimum code
requirements, where the basis for design is adapted people, while the European
recommendations are for un-adapted people (visitors).
Use of increased CO
2
level as IAQ indicator
As occupants expire CO
2
this can be used as a tracer for the level of ventilation per occupant.
In ASHRAE 62.1 and other countries building codes (J apan, Denmark) a maximum CO2
concentration of 1000ppm is prescribed. Assuming an outside concentration of 350ppm, this
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

634

corresponds to and increased CO
2
level of 650ppm, which is more correct to use. In EN15251
a recommended increases in CO2 of 350ppm, 500ppm and 800ppm for the three categories.
The carbon dioxide comes from the human respiration which is related to the metabolic rate
by the equation:

(2)
Where G =CO
2
production (l s
-1
); M =metabolic rate (W m
-2
) and A =body surface area ( m
2

).
Metabolism is often given the unit met which corresponds to the metabolism of a relaxed,
seated person, i.e. 1 met =58.15 W m
-2
. So for a sedentary activity (office, dwelling, school,
laboratory) a metabolic rate of 1.2 met is assumed and it is possible to find the CO
2

production, assuming an average body surface area of 1.83 m
2
. Each occupant produces
around 20 l CO
2
per hour, and this data is assumed as constant in this discussion.
Table 2 Smoking free spaces in commercial buildings according to ASHRAE 62.1[3] and
EN15251 [4]

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

635

Type of
building
/
space
Occu
pan
cy

perso
n/m
2

Cate-
gory

CEN
Minimum
ventilation
rate, i.e. for
occupants
only l/s
person
Additional ventilation for building
(add only one)
l/sm
2

Total
l/sm
2

ASH
-
RAE
R
p

CEN CEN
Very
low-
pollut.
CEN
Low-
pollut.

CEN
Not
low-
pollut.
ASH-
RAE
R
a

CEN
Low
Pol.
ASH-
RAE
Single
office
(cellular
office)
0,1 I 2,5 10 0,5 1,0 2,0 0,3 2 0,55
II 7 0,35 0,7 1,4 1,4
III 4 0,2 0,4 0,8 0,8
Land-
scaped
office
0,07 I 2,5 10 0,5 1,0 2,0 0,3 1,7 0,48
II 7 0,35 0,7 1,4 1,2
III 4 0,2 0,4 0,8 0,7
Confe-
rence
room
0,5 I 2,5 10 0,5 1,0 2,0 0,3 6 1,55
II 7 0,35 0,7 1,4 4,2
III 4 0,2 0,4 0,8 2,4
Audito-
rium
1,5 I 3,8 10 0,5 1,0 2,0 0,3 16 6
II 7 0,35 0,7 1,4 11,2
III 4 0,2 0,4 0,8 6,4
Class-
room
0,5 I 3,8 10 0,5 1,0 2,0 0,3 6 2,2
II 7 0,35 0,7 1,4 4,2
III 4 0,2 0,4 0,8 2,4
Kinder-
garten
0,5 I 5,0 12 0,5 1,0 2,0 0,9 7 3,4
II 8,4 0,35 0,7 1,4 4,9
III 4,8 0,2 0,4 0,8 2,8
Depart-
ment
store
0,15 I 3,8 14,7 0,5 2,0 3,0 0,6 4,1 1,17
II 10 0,35 1,4 2,1 2,9
III 6 0,2 0,8 1,2 1,7
Assuming full mixing ventilation, and the conservation of mass in a control volume, the
concentration of CO
2
during time (
) can be described by the equation:
(3)

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

636

Where
is the concentration of CO
2
in the supply air;
is the concentration of CO
2
in
the room at the time t=0 s;
is the number of occupants; is the CO

2
generation by
each occupant (l/s); n is the air exchange rate and V is the room volume.
If steady-state condition is considered (t=), it could be expressed as:
(4)

So the CO
2
can be calculated as:

(5)
Using this formula it is possible to convert table 2 into a new table with the corresponding
limit of CO
2
which should be found inside the rooms (see Table 3). The conditions that will
provide a worse IAQ than the often used criteria of an absolute CO2 concentration <
1000ppm (~CO
2
<650ppm) is highlighted in Table 3.
Table 3. Equivalent increase in CO2 levels indoor for the total ventilation rates specified in
Table 1.
Very low-polluting low-polluting Not low-polluting
Type of room or building Category CO
2
[ppm] CO
2
[ppm] CO
2
[ppm]
Single office I 375 280 190
II 560 400 265
III 930 695 465
Landscape office I 310 220 140
II 465 310 195
III 745 530 340
Conference room I 510 465 400
II 735 665 570
III 1265 1160 995
Class room I 510 465 400
II 735 665 570
III 1265 1160 995

METHODS FOR SPECIFYING REQUIRED VENTILATION RATES IN
RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS
The recommended ventilation rate for residential buildings is in EN15251 based on table 4. In
this table the ventilation rate can either be expressed as an average for the whole house based
on the criteria for air change rate (ach) or equivalent l/s/m
2
. In many countries a minimum air
change rate of 0,5 is prescribed. Recommended criteria are also given for individual rooms.
Here the ventilation rate is based on criteria per person or per m2 floor area. The criteria
giving the highest ventilation rate (lowest CO
2
level) is used. In Table 4 the corresponding
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

637

increase in CO
2
has been calculated. The conditions that will provide a worse IAQ than the
often used criteria of an absolute CO2 concentration <1000ppm (~CO
2
<650ppm) is
highlighted in Table 4.
1able 4: Recommended ventilation rates in residential buildings according to EN15251
CaLegory venLllaLlon raLe
1)
and
equlvalenL CO
2

venLllaLlon raLe

and
equlvalenL CO
2

LxhausL , l/s

l/s,m
2
Ach
h
-1

2)
ppm
l/s, pers
3)
(2)
l/s/m
2

(3)

ppm
4)
Living Bed
klLchen
(4a)
8aLh
(4b)
1olleL
(4)
l 0,49 0,7 380 10 1,4 329 472 28 20 14
ll 0,42 0,6 440 7 1,0 741 67S 20 13 10
lll 0,33 0,3 330 4 0,6 123S 1181 14 10 7
1)
The ventilation rate is expressed in l/s m
2
and ach corresponds to each other for a room height of
2,5 m
2)
The concentration of CO
2
-is based on a CO
2
-produktion per person of 20 l/h for sedentary persons.
The house is 120 m (300 m
3
), with 4 occupants.
3)
the number of people in a house may be estimated according to the number of bedrooms.
4)
The concentration of CO
2
-is based on a CO
2
-produktion per person of 20 l/h for sedentary persons
and 17 l/h for sleeping persons. The living room is 30m
2
(75 m
3
) with 4 sedentary occupants. The
bedroom is 10m
2
(25 m
3
), with 2 sleeping occupants. For the living room the required l/s/ m (3) is the
dimensioning criteria while for Bedroom it is l/s/person (2)
DISCUSSION
There is a general agreement that when specifying the minimum ventilation rate both the
pollutant contributions from people (and their activity) and from the building (furnishing,
building materials, HVAC systems) must be taken into account. And as the emissions from
both types of sources influence the odour level (perceived air quality, as detected by the nose)
the contributions are added and so the ventilation rates. J ust as when there are 5 occupants
you must provide 5 times the ventilation rate for one person. The difference is that the
perception of the occupants cannot be added linearly, so that when doubling the sources one
should not expect the number of occupants dissatisfied to double. This is the case when
comfort is the main criteria. If we consider health the emissions from different sources may
influence different organs so if you ventilate for one substance you will also dilute another. In
most cases the comfort requirements or perceived air quality (odour) will lead to the highest
minimum ventilation rate.
There is good knowledge about the required ventilation for the people component, while the
building component is not very well documented. There is an urgent need for better
certification and labeling of the materials used in buildings and we must also develop
ventilation standards that favour the manufacturers of good (low polluting) materials. A
start has been made by defining three types of buildings in EN15251, but the method for
evaluating to which type an existing or projected building should belong is not good enough.
Who should we ventilate for? For people just entering the room (un-adapted) or for people
already occupying a room (adapted)? Here the philosophy adopted by ASHRAE 62.1 and
EN15251 differs. But should it really be one or the other? In a conference room, auditorium
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

638

or lecture room most people enter at the same time. It then takes some time before the odour
level has reached an unacceptable level and meanwhile people adapt. In this case it may be
appropriate to require a ventilation rate based on adapted persons. There may be other spaces
where you would design for un-adapted people, e.g. in a first class restaurant, offices, and
department stores. It seems logical that more differentiated criteria could be used.
As it often can be difficult to measure the actual ventilation rates a more performance based
criteria is to use the CO
2
concentration. The criteria of CO2 concentration of <1000ppm has
been and is still being used in many building codes, standards and guidelines. First of all it is
important to emphasize that CO
2
is used as an indicator for the ventilation level related to
people. Secondly it is more correct to use CO
2
limit as the outdoor concentration may vary
significantly from location to location.
This paper show how the recommended ventilation rates in EN15251 can be converted to an
equivalent CO
2
limit (Table 2 and 3). It is here clear to see that single criteria for each
category, as also specified in EN15251, will not provide the same indoor air quality as the
recommended ventilation rates in Table 2. Furthermore several of the limit values will result
in better indoor air quality than using single criteria of 1000ppm (CO
2
limit ~650ppm). This
also shows that it is not good enough for demand control ventilation based on CO2
concentration to use a single set-point. More correctly it should be based on a CO
2
set-point
and the set-point would vary with the occupant density. This is due to the contribution from
the building that the required ventilation rates are not linearity related to the occupant density.
For space with low people density (single office, residential) it may be better to use another
parameter than CO
2
for specifying the requirements to indoor air quality and for controlling
the level of ventilation. Instead an almost constant ventilation rate taking into account the
building contribution and 1-2 persons should be provided. Based on an occupancy indicator
the ventilation could be turned off or on.
For spaces with a high occupant density (class rooms, conference rooms, auditorium etc.) the
CO
2
concentration will be acceptable as criteria and for controlling the ventilation rate.
In EN15251 there are a couple of concepts for specifying the requirements to indoor air
quality or more directly the ventilation rate. These different concepts are however not
consistent with each other, which is confusing for the user and most be clarified in a future
revision.
REFERENCES
1. ASHRAE 62.1 (2007) Ventilation for acceptable indoor air quality, Atlanta, GA, American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers .
2. EN 15251 (2007) Indoor environmental input parameters for design and assessment of energy
performance of buildings-addressing indoor air quality, thermal environment, lighting and acoustics.
CEN, Brussels, 2007
3. Wargocki, P. (2004) "Sensory pollution sources in buildings, Indoor Air, Vol.14 (Suppl 7), 82-91
4. Gunnarsen, L., Fanger, P.O. (1992) Adaptation to indoor air pollution, Environnent International,
18:43-54.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

639

FIELD EVALUATION OF THE PERFORMANCE OF A RADIANT
HEATING/COOLING CEILING PANEL SYSTEM

Rongling LI
1
*, Togo Yoshidomi
1
, Ryozo Ooka
2
, Bjarne W. Olesen
3

1
Graduate School of Engineering, the University of Tokyo
2
Institute of Industrial Science, the University of Tokyo
3
Intl. Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy, Technical University of Denmark

Corresponding email: lirl@iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp

SUMMARY

This paper presents the results of a field study of the performance of a water-based radiant
ceiling system in relation to its heating/cooling capacity and thermal comfort in a room. The
study is based on measurements in two classrooms of a building with radiant panels covering
approximately 45% of the ceiling area. The heating/cooling capacity is significantly
dependent on the heat transfer coefficient between the heated/cooled surface and the room.
Based on the theoretical equations for the heat flux between ceiling systems and the resistance
model recommended in ISO 11855-2 and EN 14240, measurements were implemented when
the rooms were in both the heating mode and cooling mode. For the modeling and
characterization, the room dimensions, supply water mass flow rate, downward heat flow
from panels and air, water supply, water return, ceiling surface, wall surface, window, and
operative temperatures were measured. The heat flow between the ceiling panels and the
room was also calculated based on the theoretical model in ISO 11855-2. The result of this
calculation was compared with the experimental data to verify the accuracy of the
measurements. The comparison shows good agreement between the theoretical heat flow and
the measured data. The study also showed that it is difficult to obtain accurate heat flow
measurements in the field because of the dynamic nature of the system and the outdoor
environment. In addition, it is necessary to be very careful when measuring the surface
temperatures and using heat flow meters. In this study, the surface temperature was measured
using three types of sensors to evaluate the accuracy of the measurement. The difference
between the values measured with these sensors is discussed. Based on the experimental data,
the upward heat transfer coefficients were also calculated. This upward heat flow was very
significant and may be a loss in many buildings. Several proposals for reducing the upward
heat transfer coefficient and increasing the downward coefficient are discussed in this paper.
The thermal comfort measurement showed that the air and operative temperature distributions
in the room were highly uniform.

1. INTRODUCTION

Water-based radiant heating/cooling systems can achieve high energy efficiency because of
the decrease of distribution losses and the possibility of using low temperature water for
heating and high temperature water for cooling. This increases the coefficient of performance
of the heat supply equipment [1,2,3,4]. Since the shutdown of many nuclear plants in J apan,
there has been an increase in the focus on low-energy buildings. To test different engineering
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

640

solutions for energy efficient buildings, a low-energy building (21KOMCEE) was built at the
University of Tokyo as an experimental pilot project [5]. This building uses a radiant
heating/cooling ceiling panel system in combination with a ground source heat pump.

Currently, the performance of the buildings heating/cooling system in relation to its
heating/cooling capacity and thermal comfort is being evaluated. The heating/cooling capacity
depends strongly on the heat transfer coefficients. Therefore, many studies have focused on
evaluating and enhancing the heat transfer coefficients [6,7,8,9]. However, previous research
has mostly focused on the heat transfer coefficients between radiant surfaces and the room,
whereas the energy consumption of the supply system has not been considered. Thus, there
are insufficient data for a comprehensive evaluation of low-energy buildings. Because the
cool/warm water temperature is one of the parameters that directly affects the coefficient of
performance of heat supply equipment, here, the water temperature is considered and the
overall heat transfer coefficient from the water to the room is used to analyze the performance
of a radiant panel system. Here, field measurements of this radiant heating/cooling ceiling
panel system are presented.

2. BASIC THEORY

A schematic cross section of the testing rooms in this study is shown in figure 1. The ceiling
height is 2.85 m, and the void between the ceiling and the above concrete slab is 1.15 m.

Figure 1. Schematic cross section of testing rooms

Figure 2. Resistance model for radiant
panel

In figure 1,
s
is the mean surface temperature of the radiant panels,
u
is the mean
temperature of the above space between the ceiling and the concrete slab, and
o
is the rooms
operative temperature as measured in the middle of the room at a height of 0.7 m above the
floor. Furthermore,
w
is the mean heating/cooling water temperature,
w
q is the specific
heating/cooling capacity of the water [W/m
2
],
1
q is the heat flux from the water to the room
[W/m
2
], and
2
q is the heat flux from the water to the above space [W/m
2
].

To evaluate the overall heat transfer coefficient from the water to the room
wo
U and the
overall heat transfer coefficient from the water to the above space
wu
U , and to analyze the
0
w
0
s
0
u
0
o
floor
celllng
slab
q
2
q
1
q
w
2.83 m
1.13 m
8
x
8
1
8
w
8
x
8
r
8
x
8
2
0
w 0
s
0
o
0
u
8
wo
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

641

heat loss, we also create a resistance model for the radiant ceiling according to ISO 11855-2
[10] and EN 14240 [11]. This model is shown in figure 2 and is governed by
2 / )
, ,
(
out w in w w
+ = (1)
) /(
1
o w wo
q U = (2)
) /(
2
u w wu
q U = (3)
1 2
q q q
w
= (4)
p
A
out w in w
cm
w
q / )
, ,
( = (5)
wo wo
U R 1 = (6)
wu
U
wu
R 1 = (7)
Here,
in w,
and
out w,
are the supply and return water temperatures, respectively [C]; mis
the water flow rate [m
3
/h]; and c are the water density [kg/m
3
] and specific heat capacity of
the water [kJ /(kgK)], respectively; and
p
A is the area of the panels [m
2
].
w
R ,
r
R , and
x
R are
the thermal resistances between the fluid and the pipe, that of the pipe wall, and that between
the pipes outside wall and the radiant panel surface, respectively.
1
R and
2
R are the thermal
resistances from the panel surface to the room and the above space, respectively.
wo
R and
wu
R are the thermal resistances between the water and the room and between the water and
the above space, respectively. The unit of thermal resistance is [m
2
K/W].

In this study, the heat flux between the ceiling panels and the room is also calculated based on
the theoretical model of equation (8) from ISO 11855-2 [10]. The results of this calculation
are compared with the experimental data to verify the accuracy of the measurements.
) (
1 o s so
U q = (8)
Here,
so
U is the heat transfer coefficient between the radiant surface and the room, which is
combined convection and radiation. The value is 6 W/(m
2
K) for ceiling heating systems. For
ceiling cooling systems, this is given by equation (9).
1 . 1
1
) ( 92 . 8
o s
q = (9)

3. METHODS
3.1 Testing room

The testing rooms are classrooms M and L on the 4th floor of 21KOMCEE [5]. The floor plan
of these rooms is shown in figure 3. The ceiling area of classroom M is 103.7 m
2
, with radiant
panels covering 45% of the ceiling. The ceiling area of classroom L is 174.1 m
2
, where
radiant panels cover 40%. Each panel is 1.25 m
2
(2.09 m 0.60 m), as shown in figure 4; the
panels are made from aluminum and coated on the bottom surface. Above the panel, 5-mm-
thick insulation mats are used to prevent upward heat transfer. Each room has one hydronic
system, and these two systems are connected in parallel to a water-to-water heat exchanger,
where the water of the panel system exchanges heat with the hot/cold water from the energy
supply. The supply/return water temperatures and the water flow rate are measured at the
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

642

outlet/inlet of the heat exchanger. Supply/return water temperatures of these two rooms were
assumed to be the same and classroom M was chosen as the main room to measure. As seen
in figure 3, sensors were placed at positions 1~7 in room M and a
o
sensor was placed at
position 8 in room L.

3.2 Instruments and sensors

Table 1 lists the instruments and sensors used in the measurements. Figure 5 shows photos of
these sensors and their locations. For our measurements, we used thermography to check the
surface temperature profiles of the ceiling and find suitable locations for the thermocouple
sheets and heat flux sensors. From the thermographs of each panel, we observed that the
temperature at the center of the panel was equal to the average temperature of the entire panel.
Thus, we decided to place the sensors at the centers of the panels, as seen in locations 1, 2, 3,
and 4 (Figure 4). The heat flux sensors were pasted on the panel surfaces to measure both the
surface temperature
s
and heat flux
1
q . To verify the accuracy of the measured values,
thermocouple sheets were also pasted at locations 1, 3, and 4 for data comparison. At the
center of the room, location 5, we set 6 thermocouples to measure the vertical air temperature
profile. Because a 3~5-cm-diameter grey globe sensor accurately presents the operative

Figure 3 Testing rooms

(1) Polybutene pipe (2) Insulation board
Figure 4 Radiant panel

Table 1 Instruments and sensors
Instrument/sensor Measurement accuracy
Thermocouple sheet (THS) Surface temperature 1.0C
Heat flux meter (HFM)
Surface temperature &
heat flux
0.001C
0.01 W/m
2

Thermography Surface temperature 2.0C
Thermocouple Vertical air temperature profile 1.0C
Globe sensor Horizontal operative temperature profile 1.0C
Pt100 Water temperature
J IS[12] class A
(0.15 +0.002| t |)C
Electromagnetic flow meter Water flow rate 0.25%~0.5% of rate

Classroom L
174.1 m
2
lounge
Classroom M
103.7 m
2
N
EV
Classroom M
103.7 m
2


___________________________________________________________________________________________________

643

(a) Sensor locations

(b) Locations 1, 3, and 4,
THS (left) and HFM (right);
location 2, HFM (right)

(d) Location 5, a globe sensor at
0.7 m above floor level.
Thermocouples for measuring air
temperatures placed at 0.1 m, 0.7
m, 1.1 m, and 1.7 m above floor
level, 0.1 m below ceiling, and
0.1 m above ceiling.

(c) Locations 6, 7, and 8,
globe sensors set at 0.7 m
above floor level.
Figure 5 Sensors and locations
temperature
o
[13,14], we used 4-cm grey painted ping-pong balls as operative temperature
sensors. To obtain the horizontal profile of the
o
, we placed the globe sensors 0.7 m above
the floor level at the center of the room (location 5), on the window side (location 6), and at
the corner of an interior wall (location 7).

Measurements of the supply water mass flow rate, water supply temperature, water return
temperature, wall surface temperature, and window surface temperature were performed using
the sensors of the building management system.

3.3 Measurement protocol

The heating mode measurements were carried out during March 18~23, 2013. Because the
outdoor temperature was almost 20C during the daytime, it was too warm to operate the
heating system. It was also desirable to avoid interference from solar radiation. Thus, the
measurements were carried out during the night time from 19:00 to 7:00. Table 2 lists the
setpoints of the water system and outdoor temperatures during the measurements.

Table 2 Setpoints of water system & outdoor temperature
night 1 night 2 night 3 night 4
Inlet water temperature [C] 40 40 28 35
Water flow rate [m
3
/h] 2.0 2.0 2.0 2.0
Outdoor temperature [C] 16~21 7~13 7~17 12~16

4. RESULTS
The data collected in the steady state [11] are used for the analysis.

4.1 Heat flux and heat transfer coefficient
4.1.1 Validation of heat flux measurements

The heat flux
1
q was measured using heat flux meters and calculated using equation (8). The
result of this calculation was compared with the experimental data to validate the
1 2 3 4
5
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

644

measurements. Figure 6 shows the steady state (23:00 to 6:00) values for night 2. The mean
value of the measured heat flux ((i) in the figure) is 50.8 W/m
2
, and the heat flux calculated
from equation (8) ((ii) in the figure) is 49.0 W/m
2
. In the calculation, the surface temperature
s
measured at location 1 and the
o
measured at location 5 are used. The differences
between the results are only 3.6% of the calculation value, which means a good agreement
between the theoretical heat flow and the measured data. Table 3 lists the measurements
results for all four nights. Compared with night 2, the differences between the measured value
and the calculation one is lower for night 1 and night 4, but significantly higher for night 3.
The reason could be that the heat flux meters are inaccurate when the temperature difference
between the panel surface and the air (
s

r
) is as small as 2.5C.

4.1.2 Measurement results for heat flux and heat transfer coefficient

Table 4 lists the measurement results for the heat flux
1
q and heat transfer coefficient
wo
U . In
the testing rooms, the space above the ceiling is an open space connected to the exhaust air .
Therefore, the heat flux to the above space
2
q is heat loss.
1
q /
w
q was defined as the heat use
coefficient. The value of this was between 61%~65% for nights 1, 2, and 4 with supply water
temperatures of 40C and 35C. On night 3, with the supply water temperature of 28C, the
coefficient increased to 83%. The heat transfer coefficient
wo
U was about 3.7 W/(m
2
K) on
nights 1, 2, and 4 and 4.2 W/(m
2
K) on night 3.

4.2 Thermal comfort

Figure 7 shows the indoor temperature distributions during night 2. The vertical air
temperature difference between 0.1 m and 1.7 m is less than 1.5C. The
o
difference among
the window side, the center of the room, and the internal corner is also less than 1.5C. The
thermal comfort of the room was tested, no radiant temperature asymmetry was observed
[15]. The air temperature and
o
distributions in the room were highly uniform.

Figure 6 Measurement results and calculation results for heat flux (night 2)

Table 3 Accuracy of measured heat flux
s

o

[C] 8.2 8.2 2.5 5.9
Measurement (i) [W/m
2
] 49.8 50.8 18.2 35.0
Calculation (ii) [W/m
2
] 49.0 49.0 15.0 35.3
Error |(i)-(ii)|/(ii) 1.6% 3.6% 21.2% 0.8%
0
10
20
30
40
30
60
0
10
20
30
40
30
60
19:00 21:00 23:00 1:00 3:00 3:00 7:00
h
e
a
L

f
l
u
x

[
W
/
m
2
]
L
e
m
p
e
r
a
L
u
r
e

[
]
0s 0o
(l) (ll)
sLeady sLaLe
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

645

Table 4 Measurement results for heat flux and heat transfer coefficient
w

o
[C] 14.0 13.6 4.3 9.6
q
w
[W/m
2
] 82.0 78.6 21.8 54.8
q
1
[W/m
2
] 49.8 50.8 18.2 35.0
Heat use coefficient q
1
/q
w
61% 65% 83% 64%
U
wo
[W/(m
2
K)] 3.6 3.7 4.2 3.7

(a) Vertical air temperature distribution

(b) Horizontal operative temperature distribution
Figure 7 Indoor temperature distribution (night 2)
4.3 Heat loss in upward direction

The upward heat transfer coefficients
wu
U were also calculated, and the results are listed in
table 5.
wu
U was about 2.3 W/(m
2
K) on nights 1, 2, and 4 and 1.0 W/(m
2
K) on night 3. This
table also lists that the temperature difference between the water and the above space was
84%~94% of the waterroom difference. These high values indicate that the above space was
heated by upward heat flux from the panels because the insulation resistance above the radiant
panels was low. According to the resistance model presented in section 2, the thermal
resistance between the water and the room could be calculated as
wo
R =1/3.7 =0.27 m
2
K/W.
Given the heat transfer coefficient from the water to the above space,
wu
U =2.3 W/(m
2
K), the
thermal resistance between the water and the above space can be calculated as
wo
R =1/2.3 =
0.43 m
2
K/W.

Table 5 Upward heat transfer coefficients
w

u
[C] 13.2 12.0 3.6 8.4
(
w

u
)/(
w

o
) 94% 88% 84% 88%
q
2
[W/m
2
] 32.2 27.8 3.6 19.8
U
wu
[W/(m
2
K)] 2.4 2.3 1.0 2.3

21
22
23
24
25

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

[
]
1.7 m 1.1 m
0.7 m 0.1 m
21
22
23
24
25

t
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

[
]
location 5
location 6
location 7
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

646

4.4 Surface temperature

The surface temperatures measured with the HFM are on average 1.5 C higher than the
values reported by THS. The measured surface temperatures by HFM and THS are 32.8C
and 31.7C, respectively, while the thermograph photo in figure 8 shows a value of 32.4C.

Figure 8 Thermal graph of radiant panels (night 2)

The reason for this difference in value could be due to a difference in emissivity of the heat
flux meters, the thermocouple sheets and the panel. The emissivity of the panel is above 0.95,
but the emissivity of both heat flux meter and the thermocouple sheet is lower. The
measurements results could possibly be improved by painting the sensors surface with a black
matting agent.

5. DISCUSSION

The surface temperature is a fundamental value in radiant panel energy transfer processes, and
it directly affects the values of the heat transfer between panel and room. In this study, the
surface temperatures of the panels were measured using thermography, THS, and HFM to
evaluate the accuracy of the measurements. THS and HFM are more accurate than
thermography, according to the sensor specs, but practically the error may be increased. For
instance, if the contact surface between the sensor and the panel contains air, the measured
data would be inaccurate. In our experience, it is difficult to remove all the air from the bond.
Furthermore, the different surface finishes of the sensors and the panel may cause errors.

The measurements results showed that the loss in the upward direction was large. The
insulation above the panels should be improved in order to reduce the upward heat transfer
coefficient. In addition, using the above space as an air supply duct could also reduce the
heat loss by bringing the heat in the above space into the room with the supply air.

REFERENCES

1. J akub Kolarik, J orn Toftum, Bjarne W. Olesen, Kasper L. J ensen, Simulation of energy use,
human thermal comfort and office work performance in buildings with moderately drifting
operative temperatures, Energy and Buildings 43(2011), 2988-2997
2. Bjarne W. Olesen, Radiant floor heating in theory and practice, ASHRAE J ournal, J uly 2002.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

647

3. Shigeru Okamoto, Hisataka Kitora, Hiromasa Yamaguchi, Tatsuo Oka, A simplified calculation
method for estimating heat flux from ceiling radiant panels, Energy and Buildings 42(2010), 29-
33
4. Bjarne W. Olesen, Radiant heating and cooling by embedded water-based systems, I Congreso
Climaplus, 2011
5. Yashiro T. and Ooka R. 2011. Zero Energy Building Project in the University of Tokyo, 2011
Helsinki World Sustainable Building Conference.
6. Francesco Causone, Stefano P. Corgnati, Marco Filippi, Bjarne W. Olesen, Experimental
evaluation of heat transfer coefficients between radiant ceiling and room, Energy and Buildings
41(2009), 622-628
7. Refet Karadag, The investigation of relation between radiative and convective heat transfer
coefficients at the ceiling in a cooled ceiling room, Energy Conversion and Management,
50(2009)
8. Lun Zhang, Xiao-Hua Liu, Yi J iang, Experimental evaluation of a suspended metal ceiling
radiant panel with inclined fins, Energy and Buildings, 62(2013), 522-5299.
9. J ae-Weon J eong, Stanley A. Mumma, Ceiling radiant cooling panel capacity enhanced by
mixed convection in mechanically ventilated spaces, Applied Thermal Engineering, 23(2003)
2293-2306
10. ISO 11855-2. 2012. Building environment designDesign, dimensioning, installation and
control of embedded radiant heating and cooling systemsPart 2: Determination of the design
heating and cooling capacity, International Organization for Standard, Genve, Switzerland.
11. EN 14240. 2004. Ventilation for buildingsChilled ceilingsTesting and rating, European
Committee for Standardization, Brussels, Belgium.
12. J IS C1604-1997. Resistance thermometer sensors, J apanese Industrial Standards, Tokyo, J apan.
13. Angela Simone, J an Babiak, Matteo Bullo, Gunnar Landkilde, Bjarne W. Olesen, Operative
temperature control of radiant surface heating and cooling systems, Proceedings of Clima 2007
Wellbeing Indoors.
14. ISO 7726. 1998. Ergonomics of the thermal environmentInstruments for measuring physical
quantities, International Organization for Standard, Genve, Switzerland.
15. ISO 7730. 2005. Ergonomics of the thermal environmentAnalytical determination and
interpretation of thermal comfort using calculation of the PMV and PPD indices and local
thermal comfort criteria, International Organization for Standard, Genve, Switzerland.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

648

STUDY OF CHILDREN EXPOSURE TO PARTICULATE MATTER
INDOOR AIR INSCHOOL CLASSROOMS

J .M.Garcia
1
, R. Cerdeira
1
, N. Tavares
1
, L.M.R. Coelho
1
, M.G. Carvalho
2,3

1
Escola Superior de Tecnologia de Setbal, Campus do IPS, Estefanilha, 2910-761, Setbal,
Portugal
2
Instituto Superior Tcnico, Portugal
3
Member of the European Parliament, Brussels, Belgium

SUMMARY

This study is about the evaluation ofchildren exposure to PM
10
and PM
2.5
to Indoor Air in
school classrooms. An identification of PM
10
and PM
2.5
concentrations levels, not
onlyindoor,but also outdoor were made to understand indoor/outdoor PM relations. A study of
its impact in children exposure was made. Indoor and outdoor PM concentrations (PM
10
e
PM
2.5
)were measuredin one school in Barreiro city in Portugal.In this school, indoor
classroom activities were registered and related with indoor and outdoor PM sources.A
children population that attend the city hospital urgencies was correlated to pollutant
concentration levels. Pollutant dispersion simulation wasalso made using ADMS Urban to
study the outdoorconcentrations in the city. Also a typical one day short term exposure study
to the child population of the school was made, showing that 1,68 higher short term exposure
values can be achieved to a child, depending on classroom and home (indoor) concentrations
and playground and trajectory (outdoor) concentrations levels differences.

Keywords:exposure, indoor air quality, outdoor air quality, PM
10
and PM
2.5
concentrations, children health

1. INTRODUTION
Indoor air pollutionis raising its importance nowadays. It is known thatin urban
environmentspeople spend about 90% of their time indoor,being exposed to a cocktail of
physical-chemical and microbiological pollutants, most of the time with high levels of
pollutant concentrations.Several studies about indoor air quality in schools identify pollutant
sources and concentrations, to propose and evaluateways to improve indoor air quality
[1][3][4][5][6][7]. Children in scholar age spend one-third of their normal day in
school,thereforegood air quality inside the building must be guarantee. Indoor pollution can
cause negative effects on health such as headache, dizziness, nauseas, exacerbation of
respiratory problems like asthma, wheezing, allergies, and can be a way to disseminate viral
diseases and bacterial infections, decreasingconcentrationand learning capacity [4].Cleaning
and natural ventilation are not enough to protect school community from the adverse effects
of indoor air pollution.It is important to optimise the ventilation system, through mechanical
or natural ventilationand with other strategies that induces inlet of outdoor air less
contaminated to renovate the indoor air [5]. This study focus only on particle matter, and
specifically in PM
2.5
and PM
10
effectsand was performed in a school in Barreiro city
(Portugal).Barreiro is a typical medium Portuguese city, is almost plane with the highest point
at approximately 10 meters above sea level.The actual resident population is approximately
80,000 inhabitants and the major economic activities of the city are metal mechanical and
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

649

chemical industries. Like other similar cities near the capital (Lisbon) traffic is an important
source of pollution.

2. METHODS
The characterization of children exposure to air pollutants was made by measuring outdoor
and indoor PM
10
and PM
2.5
in one school in Barreiro and following the urgent cases in the
city Hospital.The school has an air quality monitoring station inside the school
perimeter,permittinga real time comparison between indoor and outdoor PM
10
. This
allowsrelating the influence of outdoor pollution in the indoor. The measurements were made
hourly by a Beta Gauge Dust Monitor for two weeks one for PM
10
and the other for PM
2.5
.
The same method is used outdoor and the inlet of PM was about 2m above the ground both
indoor and outdoor.
Outdoor measurements were provided by Comisso de Coordenao e Desenvolvimento
Regional de Lisboa e Vale do Tejo (CCDR-LVT), who manage the air quality monitoring
stations network in Barreiro, as well as meteorological data, which was also provided by
Escola Bsica do 2 e 3 ciclos D. Lus Mendona Furtado. The air quality station only
measures PM
10
.
The school has only natural ventilation provided by opening windows. The classroom has
standard school furniture and a blackboard.Windows size and directionwas also considered as
well asthe floor material and windowsprotection type. This characterization is resumed in
table 1.
Table 1. Classroom characterization
Volume (m
3
) 180
No. Windows 7
Windows area (m
2
) 2/window
Windows direction NE/SE
Windows protection Blind
Floor type Wood
Furniture Wooden chipboard and metal
The effect of air pollutants in health was studied in the paediatric population, children from 0
to 16 years, who attend the public hospital with respiratory problems. These data is being
collected by paediatric doctors from Barreiro city hospital fromOctober 2003 to November
2004and has being confronted with air quality measurements.
To understand the behaviour of air pollutants in the outdoor, a simulation model, ADMS-
Urban, was used. This software modelled the dispersion and concentration of air pollutants in
the city. These results were important to know the most affected areas in the city in most
common meteorological conditions which permits to study the children living environment
and choose the problematic areas to develop the study. The model was validated with the air
quality measurements from the city network.
To study the exposure of PM
10
concentrations (outdoors and indoors) in the children
population of the school a short term personal exposure study was developed. Short term
personal exposure E(t) in a period of time t can be expressed as:

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

650

PM10 and PM2.5 behaviour
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
S aLurday S unday Monday 1 ues day Wednes day 1 hurs day l rlday
P
M

(
u
g
/
m
3
)
PM10 PM2.5
Where C(t) is the pollutant concentration in a particular time t in g/m
3
, C
i
is the discrete
concentration in cellule i in g/m
3
and t
i
is time of expose in cellule i in seconds. Two
children from two different classrooms were selected to compare the short term exposure to
PM
10
.

3. RESULTS
3.1. PM measurements
PM
10
and PM
2.5
measurements were made in different periods of time, the relation between
these two PM classes was studied.Figure 1 shows the behaviour of indoor PM
10
and PM
2.5
in
the same period of the day, in the two different weeks of measurements. As we can see PM
behaves in the same way, whether are PM
10
or PM
2.5
, according to the activity developed in
the classroom.
In general, both PM concentration start to increase in cleaningactivities at 7a.m., by re-
suspension, reaching the highest value during class activities, depending on the class hours,
mostly due to PM re-suspension, penetration and some generated inside. The re-suspension is
due to children physical activities, while the penetration is caused by open windows and doors
and the generated inside results mostly,from the use of chalk to write on the blackboard and
the use of pencil and rubber.At night and on weekends PM concentration is lower since the
classroom is closed. The small variation illustrated on the graphic can be due to penetration,
across chinks, from outdoor.
Since the measurements where made in different periods, not at the same time, some values of
PM
2.5
are higher than PM
10
for the same period of the day. This period is nearly always from
2 to 6a.m. which shows that PM
2.5
deposition is slower than PM
10
, remaining in the air for a
longer period of time. This fact does not occur on Sunday where PM
10
are always higher than
PM
2.5
since there is no activity developed on weekend.

Fig. 1. PM behaviour in the same period of activity days
In order to compare the influence of different PM sources inside the classroom, data was
separated in two major different periods, weekdays and weekends. These two periods allow
the study of PM behaviour with indoor sources and without them.
To study the impact of outdoor sources in indoor PM behaviour, weekend PM data was
studied, since there is no activity in the classroom and penetration is the only source of PM.
Figure 2 shows how PM
10
and PM
2.5
behaves to Outdoor PM
10
,on weekend. As has been said
the indoor PM measurements were made in two different weeks, one for PM
10
and the other
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

651

for PM
2.5
. Figure 2 presents the results of indoor and outdoor PM
10
on a weekend, showed by
lines and indoor PM
2.5
and outdoor PM
10
on another weekend, showed by points. Indoor
PM
2.5
is compared to outdoor PM
10
, since PM
2.5
are not measured outdoor.

Fig. 2. Influence of Outdoor PM
10
in Indoor PM
10
and PM
2.5
behaviour on weekend
The graphic shows that both outdoor and indoor PM behaves more or less in the same way
showing the permeability of the building in spite of the closed windows. Taking into account
that two different weekends are represented in the graphic, it can be seen the agreement
between measures outdoor in both weekends. The highest value is reached around 1a.m.,
showing a delay in the first weekend. Indoor measurements, both PM
10
and PM
2.5
show a
slight increase after the outdoor high concentration hour, due to penetration. However the
building provides good protection from outdoor sources, since the feedback to the outdoor
concentrations increase is very small.Table 2 presents the average ratio between indoor and
outdoor PMin three different periods;using all data. There is also a separation by night and
day.Considering all data of average ratio, weekdays have higher values even exceeding the
unit, showing the importance of indoor sources.Indoor PM
2.5
/PM
10
have always a great value
at night meaning that PM
2.5
deposition is slower than PM
10
, as concluded before, while indoor
PM
2.5
/outdoor PM
10
and indoor PM
10
/outdoor PM
10
have greater values during day.Indoor
PM
10
/outdoor PM
10
ratio exceeds the unit when the classroom has interior activity.

Table 2. Ratio between PM indoor and outdoor
PM
2.5
In/
PM
10
In
PM
2.5
In/
PM
10
Out
PM
10
In/
PM
10
Out
T
o
t
a
l
Total 0.86 0.84 1.29
Day 0.79 1.25 2.41
Night 0.94 0.44 0.70
W
e
e
k
e
n
d

Total 0.52 0.46 0.40
Day 0.44 0.56 0.53
Night 0.65 0.35 0.27
W
e
e
k
d
a
y

Total 0.99 1.09 1.94
Day 0.96 1.76 3.04
Night 1.02 0.49 0.85

Outdoor and Indoor PM
10
and PM
2.5
behaviour on weekends
0.00
20.00
40.00
60.00
80.00
100.00
120.00
140.00
160.00
1
:
0
0
2
:
0
0
3
:
0
0
4
:
0
0
5
:
0
0
6
:
0
0
7
:
0
0
8
:
0
0
9
:
0
0
1
0
:
0
0
1
1
:
0
0
1
2
:
0
0
1
3
:
0
0
1
4
:
0
0
1
5
:
0
0
1
6
:
0
0
1
7
:
0
0
1
8
:
0
0
1
9
:
0
0
2
0
:
0
0
2
1
:
0
0
2
2
:
0
0
2
3
:
0
0
2
4
:
0
0
:
0
0
1
:
0
0
2
:
0
0
3
:
0
0
4
:
0
0
5
:
0
0
6
:
0
0
7
:
0
0
8
:
0
0
9
:
0
0
1
0
:
0
0
1
1
:
0
0
1
2
:
0
0
1
3
:
0
0
1
4
:
0
0
1
5
:
0
0
1
6
:
0
0
1
7
:
0
0
1
8
:
0
0
1
9
:
0
0
2
0
:
0
0
2
1
:
0
0
2
2
:
0
0
2
3
:
0
0
2
4
:
0
0
:
0
0
Saturday Sunday
P
M

(
u
g
/
m
3
)
PM10out1 PM10in PM10out2 PM2.5in
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

652

.3.2. Health effects on a children population
Air quality and children data were statistically treatedto study the possible relation between
pollutants and respiratory problems, in a children population observed in Barreiro city
hospital.The most significant correlations were found for CO. Figure 3 shows that the number
of children observed in hospital urgencies is higher in winter conditions following the
tendency of pollutant concentrations in this period.

Fig. 3. Relation between CO and number of observed children
In spite of the relation presented in Figure 3, the analyses results of children exposure to
urban air quality were inconclusive for other pollutants, like PM. This relation is not easy to
predict due to a large number of variables which are being study for further conclusions and
due to the reduced size of the sample.
3.3. Simulation work on PM
10
outdoor concentrations
ADMS-Urban was used to know the outdoor air pollutantsdispersion and concentration in
Barreiro city, for most frequent meteorological conditions in winter and summer time. With
the simulation results and its validation, its possible to know the concentrations in the city
streets. Figures 4 and 5 representPM
10
dispersion and concentration in winter meteorological
most frequent conditions for traffic and industry, respectively. Figure 6 and 7 show the same
results in most frequent summer conditions.
Relation between CO and number of observed children
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
1
.
1
0
.
0
3
3
1
.
1
0
.
0
3
3
0
.
1
1
.
0
3
3
0
.
1
2
.
0
3
2
9
.
1
.
0
4
2
8
.
2
.
0
4
2
9
.
3
.
0
4
2
8
.
4
.
0
4
2
8
.
5
.
0
4
2
7
.
6
.
0
4
2
7
.
7
.
0
4
2
6
.
8
.
0
4
2
5
.
9
.
0
4
2
5
.
1
0
.
0
4
2
4
.
1
1
.
0
4
Period
C
O

(
u
g
/
m
3
)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

c
h
i
l
d
r
e
n
CO Number of observed children
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

653

Fig. 4. PM
10
outdoor concentration from traffic (winter) Fig 5. PM
10
outdoor concentration from industry (winter)

In winter conditions, industry show higher concentration, but the dispersion of PM
10
from
traffic affects more the city centre. The higher value from traffic is about 43g/m
3
near the
road wile for industry the value is around 102g/m
3
. However, despite of industry emission
concentration is higher, the plume doesnt affect citizens so directly like traffic sources, since
this emission is produced near the floor where citizens circulate (Figures 4 and 5).In summer
(Figures 6 and 7) and due to wind direction industry affects more the city centre than traffic
does. The concentration is higher and the plume goes directly to the city centre. Due to higher
wind speed near the surface, traffic emissions dispersion is stronger reducing PM
10

concentration.

Fig. 6. PM
10
outdoor concentration from traffic (summer) Fig 7. PM
10
outdoor concentration from industry
(summer)
Summer most frequent meteorological conditions seem to be the most unfavourable scenario
for PM
10
from industry, reaching concentrations of 102g/m
3
in city centre (Figure7).
According to Environmental Institute from Portugal, this value fits on week Air Quality
Index.Inthese conditions, city centre is more affected due to the most frequent wind direction,
NW. However the wind speed is higher which permit a better dispersion near the surface, so
traffic emissions have lowest concentration than in winter.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

654

3.4. Children exposure to PM
10
concentrations
To study the level of exposure of the school child population to PM concentrations (indoor
and outdoor), a typical one day short term exposure study was made. Two different children
from two different classes and living in two different locations were identified and one day
short term exposure was calculated for each.Indoor (classroom and home) and outdoor
(playground and walking trajectories) were identified as well times of exposure in each
environment. Results for short term exposure for each child were dimensionless normalised
with the basis value. Results are showed in table 3.

Table 3. Short term exposure for two different children
lndoor classroom CuLdoor playground lndoor classroom
CuLdoor back home
Lra[ecLory lndoor home
CuLdoor Lra[ecLory Lo
school

M10
average
concenL.
(g/m3)
hour
Llme
(s)
M10
average
concenL.
(g/m3)
hour
Llme
(s)
M10
average
concenL.
(g/m3)
hour
Llme
(s)
M10
average
concenL.
(g/m3)
hour
Llme
(s)
M10
average
concenL.
(g/m3)
hour
Llme
(s)
M10
average
concenL.
(g/m3)
hour
Llme
(s)
dlmenslon
less shorL
Lerm
exposure
Chlld x
Class A 23,28
8h-
11h 10800 47,3
11h-
11h30
m 1800 23,28
11h30
-13h 3400 43,0
13h-
13h30 1800 30,0
13h30
-7h30 64800 44,3
7h30m
-8h 1800 1,68
Chlld ?
Class 8 21,94
8h-
11h 10800 29,2
11h-
11h30
m 1800 21,94
11h30
-13h 3400 22,0
13h-
13h30 1800 16,0
13h30
-7h30 64800 23,7
7h30m
-8h 1800 1,00

Results show that the two children studied (child X class A and child Y class B)
considering one day exposure,child X is exposed to 1.68 times higher values than child Y.
This is due not only to the indoor classroom PM10 concentrations but also home indoor
values and outdoor (playground and walking trajectories) that are higher for child X.
4. CONCLUSIONS
PM
10
and PM
2.5
measurements were made inside a classroom and compared with outdoor
PM
10
concentration, to study the impact of outdoor and indoor sources in a school
environment.The two classes of PM studied, behaves identically, increasing in activity hours
due to re-suspension, penetration and inside generation.The lower inside concentration is
reached on weekends and nights, when the classroom is closed, showing the good protection
from outdoor pollution.Some PM
2.5
values are higher than PM
10
, especially at night, showing
the slower deposition velocity of PM
2.5
, remaining in the air for a longer period.The average
ratio between indoor and outdoor PM showed the importance of indoor sources, since in
weekdays, especially during day time, had higher values.Indoor PM
2.5
and PM
10
ratio was
higher during night proving the slower deposition velocity from PM
2.5
. Indoor, Outdoor
correlations were superior during day time, especially on weekdays, resulting from
penetration due to open windows. The lowest correlations on weekends show that the building
is well protectedfrom outdoor pollution.Statistical study of children health and air pollution
showed a relation between CO and attended urgent cases in the city hospital. It seems that in
winter conditions CO concentration is higher as well as the number of children who received
medical treatment. For other pollutants the results were inconclusive.A one day short term
personal exposure study was also done, were results show that two children studied and
compared, one child were exposed to 1,68 times higher values than other child, due to not
only the indoor classroom PM
10
concentrations but also home indoor values and outdoor
(playground and walking trajectories) that are higher for child X.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

655

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was performed in the framework of the POCTI program financed by the FCT
(Fundao para a Cincia e Tecnologia of Portugal) and FEDER program, this project has the
reference POCTI/MGS/47247/2002. The authors also wish to acknowledge Comisso de
Coordenao e Desenvolvimento Regional de Lisboa e Vale do Tejo (CCDR-LVT), Instituto
Portugs do Mar e da Atmosfera (IPMA) and Instituto Geogrfico Portugus (IGEO) by the
information provided.We also like to acknowledge Escola Bsica do 2 e 3 ciclos D. Lus
Mendona Furtado for the availability.

REFERENCES
[1] Branis, M., P. Rezacov and M. Domasov, 2004: The effect of outdoor air and indoor
human activity on mass concentrations of PM
10
, PM
2.5
, PM
1
in a classroom. Environmental
Research.
[2] CEN European Committee for standardization: Draft European Standard prENV 13779
Ventilation for non-residential buildings Performance requirements for ventilation and
room-conditioning systems
[3] Garcia, J ., Coelho L., Gouveia C., Cerdeira R., Louro C., Ferreira T., Baptista M., 2005,
Analyses of Human Exposure To Urban Air Quality in a Children Population. Harmo 10.
[4] J . Daisey, W. Angell and M. Apte. 2003Indoor air quality, ventilation and health
symptoms in schools: an analysis of existing information. IndoorAir, 13(1): 53-64.
[5] Kirchner S., Ramalho O.,Riberon J ., Segala C., Okelly P., Pilch E.,Energetic and health
impact of air exchange rate in two elementary schools Final Report.Observatoire de la
qualit de lair intrieur.
[6] Koenig, J .Q., T.F. Mar, R.W. Allen, K. J ansen, T. Lumley, J .H. Sullivan, C.A. Trenga,
T.V. Larson and L.S. Liu, 2005: Pulmonary Effects of Indoor-and Outdoor-Generated
Particles in Children with Asthma. Environmental Health Perspective., vol. 113, no. 4, 499-
503.
[7] Poupard, O., P. Blondeau, V. Iordache and F. Allard, 2004: Statistical analysis of
parameters influencing the relationship between outdoors and indoor air quality in schools.
Atmospheric Environment.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

656

NEW EUROPEAN ENERGY EFFICIENCY LABELING STANDARDS
FOR AIR HANDLING UNITS

Handan ncl zgen
Sistem Klima Ltd. Sti.
Istanbul Turkey
handan.ozgen@sistemklima.com.tr
Abstract
This paper describes the New European Energy Efficiency Labeling Standards for Air Handling Units and presents basic
information on energy labeling.

Based on the fact that a clear and meaningful distinction of energy efficient products on the market has a huge energy
saving potential, the European Commission publishes directives; Eco-design for Energy using Products directive aims to
ban less efficient equipment and Labeling directive aims to differentiate efficiency of products.

While the energy efficiency of the appliances (most white goods, light bulbs and cars) is rated in terms of a set of energy
efficiency classes from A to G on the label (A being the most energy efficient, G the least efficient), since Air Handling Units
consist of several sections, energy efficiency ratings of AHUs are rather different and the efficiency classes range from A to
E (A being the most energy efficient, E the least energy efficient)

Decisive factors for AHU efficiency are the air velocity inside the unit, electrical power requirement of the fan/motor
combination, the efficiency of the heat recovery unit, and also the air side pressure loss. The assessment method is based on
the standard DIN/EN 13053.

In this paper, classification methods for energy efficiency of AHUs will be presented.
Energy Efficiency and Directives
With the increasing industrialization and globalization the energy becomes very vital in our daily lives. Since
energy resources are limited and extracting energy from those limited sources becomes more expensive, most of
the authorities are searching ways for efficient use of energy.
Energy efficiency; reducing energy consumption and eliminating energy wastage are among the main goals
of the European Union (EU) over past years. EU support for improving energy efficiency will prove decisive for
competitiveness, security of supply and for meeting the commitments on climate change made under the Kyoto
Protocol. There is significant potential for reducing consumption, especially in energy-intensive sectors such as
buildings, manufacturing, energy conversion and transport. At the end of 2006, the EU pledged to cut its annual
consumption of primary energy by 20% by 2020.
To achieve this goal, it is working to mobilise public opinion, decision-makers and market operators and to
set minimum energy efficiency standards and rules on labelling for products, following directives are
implemented:
Product energy consumption: Information and labelling
Tyre labelling
Ecodesign for energy-using appliances
Ecodesign requirements for fluorescent lamps, for high intensity discharge lamps, and for their ballasts
Household appliances: energy consumption labelling
Energy efficiency of office equipment: The Energy Star Programme
Hot-water boilers

Energy Efficiency Classification for AHUs:
The energy efficiency of air handling units were classified together with other electrically operated household
appliances and devices (refrigerators, washing machines, etc.). Which for many years have undergone evaluations
of their energy efficiency standards and have been subsequently awarded comprehensible labels.
But due to the different energy use profiles of AHUs, preparing and publishing specific standards thought to
be more appropriate. Both RLT and Eurovent developed standards for measuring and awarding the energy
efficiency of AHUs.
In the below paragraphs these methods explained in details.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

657

According to SFP
Until September 2007 no definition exists of energy efficiency of AHU equipment, but
only for complete AHU systems which consist of AHU units and the associated ducting for
the various functions. DIN EN 13779 Ventilation for non-residential buildings; performance
requirements for ventilation and room conditioning systems describes Specific Fan Power
(SFP) in the context of energy consumption. DIN EN 13779 describes seven classes of SFP.

P
SFP
=P
INPUT
/ q
v
(1)
P
SFP
[W/(m
3
/s)] Specific Fan Power
P
INPUT
[W] Electric power input
q
v
[m
3
/s] Nominal air volume flow

When assuming a system efficiency rating of 0.60 it is possible
to calculate the approximate overall pressure increase of the
fan.
p
fan
= P
SFP

total
(2)
p
fan
[Pa] Overall fan pressure increase
P
SFP
[W/(m
3
/s)] Specific Fan Power
total
[-] System efficiency rating fan/motor/drive
Table 9. Specific Fan Power
| 1, 2
per Fan (DIN EN 13779)
SFP Class Specific Fan Power
[W/(m
3
/s)]
SFP 1 <500
SFP 2 500 750
SFP 3 751 1250
SFP 4
| 3
1251 2000
SFP 5 2001 3000
SFP 6 3001 4500
SFP 7 >4500
to be determined with clean filters and dry mounting parts
plus additional values (see Table 2) for components according to DIN EN 13779
minimum requirement according to the German EnEV 2009 (Energy Saving Regulation)
Table 2. Additions on Specific Fan Power (DIN EN 13779)
Component Added SFP
[W/(m
3
/s)]
Each further filter stage above 1
st
filter stage +300
Absolute (HEPA E10 to H13) filter stage +1000
Active charcoal (gas) filter +300
Heat recovery class H1 H2 (DIN EN 13053) +300
Cooler with pressure loss air side p >200Pa +300

Table 3. SFP Recommendations according to DIN EN 13779
AHU SFP Class
ETA-System simple (without heat recovery) SFP 2
ETA-System complex (with heat recovery) SFP 3
SUP-System simple (without heat recovery) SFP 3
SUP-System complex (with heat recovery) SFP 4
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

658

Table 4. Use of SFP in some European Countries
Country, Legislation W/(m
3
/s)]
FR RT2005/07, res.
RT2005/07, non-res.
900
1080
BE KB/EPB 1250 (SFP 3)
DE EnEV 2009, if AHU>4000 m
3
/h 2000 (SFP 4)
ES RITE, extract
RITE, aircon.
750
2000
UK NBSCG 2010, AHU with aircon.
NBSCG 2010, other central V-sys
NBSCG 2010, zonal bal. V with HR
NBSCG 2010, zonal extract V
1600-1800
1400
2000
600

The Specific Fan Power (SFP) value according to DIN EN 13779 only permits a rough
estimate of the overall installation of the system including the AHU, but not the AHU itself.
Since no quantified data have been given for the pressure drop of the duct system and the SFP
values are significantly influenced by the external pressure loss (which is neither
influenceable by the equipment manufacturer nor dependent upon the quality of the device),
the SFP values are not suitable for evaluating the energy efficiency of AHUs.
According to New AHU Guideline-01
Unlike SFP values, the energy efficiency classes in accordance with the AHU-
Manufacturers Association allow simple, traceable and verifiable evaluation of the factors
that significantly influence energy efficiency. The energy efficiency of a AHU is primarily
affected by the air velocity within the unit, the electric power input of the fan motor in
relation to air volume flow and pressure increase as well as the quality of the heat recovery in
relation to the heat efficiency and pressure drop.
In the new AHU-Guideline 01, performance categories have been classified according to
the revised European standard DIN EN 13053; making the grading of classification more
precise than ever before. Particularly the requirements for heat recovery systems (HRS) have
been distinctly increased.
Combined exhaust and supply units necessarily need a heat recovery system in order to be
able to be marked. Only the air outlet units, pure recirculating air units or air inlet units
(AHUs which cannot be equipped with a heat recovery system) can be marked with the
efficiency class even without installation of a heat recovery system.
The efficiency classes for air handling units combine; the velocity classes, the electrical
power input and heat recovery efficiency into one simple, clear and checkable indicator.
European standard DIN EN 13053 Ratings and performance of air handling units
contains definitions of air velocity classes ranging from V1 to V9 (see Table 6), heat recovery
classes from H1 to H6 (see Table 7) and electrical power classes from P1 to P 7 (see Table 8).
The efficiency classes are assigned to the air handling units according to their relevant criteria
as shown in Table 5.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

659

Table 5. Criteria for energy efficiency classes A+, A and B
Criteria/efficiency class A+ A B
Velocity classes of unit (see Table 6)
- without thermodynamic air treatment
- with air heating
- with other functions

V5
V4
V2

V6
V5
V3

V7
V6
V5
Heat recovery class (see Table 7) H1 H2 H3
Electrical power input class (see Table 8) P2 P3 P4

Table 6. Air Velocity Classes according to DIN EN 13053
Class Air velocity
| 4
in the
unit [m/s]
V1 v 1.6
V2 1.6 <v 1.8
V3 1.8 <v 2.0
V4 2.0 <v 2.2
V5 2.2 <v 2.5
V6 2.5 <v 2.8
V7 2.8 <v 3.2
V8 3.2 <v 3.6
V9 3.6 <v
the velocities are related to the filter cross-section of the AHU-device

Table 7. Heat Recovery Classes
| 5
according to DIN EN 13053
Class Energy efficiency [%]
H1
e
71
H2 71 >
e
64
H3 64 >
e
55
H4 55 >
e
45
H5 45 >
e
36
H6 36 >
e

Classes define the quality of the Heat Recovery, independent of the HRS by balanced mass flow rates (1:1). The sole application
of the heat recovery coefficient is no longer permitted.

e
=
t
(1-1/)

(3)
e
[%] Energy efficiency
t
[%] Temperature efficiency under dry conditions

[%] Coefficient of performance

= Q
HRS
/ P
el-HRS
(4)
Q
HRS
[W] Capacity of Heat Recovery System
P
el-HRS
[W] Energy neccessity of HRS

P
el-HRS
= q
v
/ p
HRS
(1/0.6) + P
el-aux
(5)
q
v
[m
3
/s] Air flow rate
P
el-aux
[W] Electrical auxiliary energy input of HRS
p
HRS
[Pa] Total pressure loss of HRS (exhaust +supply)

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

660

Table 8. Electrical Power Input Classes according to DIN EN 13053
Class Maximum absorbed
electrical power [kW]
P1 P
mmax
P
mref
| 6
0.85
P2 P
mmax
P
mref
0.90
P3
P
m max
P
m ref

0.95
P4
P
m max
P
m ref

1.00
P5
P
m max
P
m ref

1.06
P6
P
m max
P
m ref

1.12
P7
P
m max
>P
m ref

1.12
P
m ref
=(p
stat
/ 450)
0.925
(q
v
+0.08)
0.95
(6)
P
m ref
[kW] Reference power consumption
p
stat
[Pa] Static pressure to be measured at the fan section
q
v
[m
3
/h] Air flow of the fan

The manufacturer can only mark AHU with an energyefficiency class according to AHU-
Guideline 01, if these have been produced with approved and certified components (heat
recovery system / fans). If an AHU`s fulfils all relevant criteria of this guideline as well as an
energy efficiency class A+, A and B and this is checked by TV-Sd and is supervised by a
permanent certification by TV-Sd, the manufacturer is entitled to refer to fulfilment of
energy efficiency classes A+, A and B and to use the label shown below for the respective
equipment.

Thus, the above Energy Efficiency Labels shows quick, clear and reliable information to
designers, plant engineers, system providers and operators as to whether an AHU-device is
energetically optimized or not.
According to Eurovent 2010
According to the Eurovent-Procedure (updated in J uly 2009), 6 energy efficiency classes
(from A to <E) are available (AHU-Manufacturers Associations procedure uses only 3
labels; A+, A and B). This detailed differentiation allows the rating differences to be easily
recognized.
As opposed to the AHU-Manufacturers Associations process, Eurovent applies the
compensation procedure. For example, a HRS lower heat recovery coefficient can be
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

661

compensated by a better (lower) power input of the fan motor. In this case, not all individual
reference values of the desired energy efficiency class must be complied with. The principle
of the evaluation method is to establish whether the selected unit with (slightly) different
energy parameters will consume no more energy than a unit that would exactly meet the
requirements for the particular class.
The influential/decisive variables for energy efficiency are the air velocity in clear cross-
section, the dry heat recovery coefficient and the pressure loss of heat recovery as well as the
power input of the fans.

In the Eurovent labelling system:
Units were grouped in three subgroups:
1) Units connected to outdoor air with a design temperature (winter time) below 9C
classes A to <E; with heat recovery.
2) Units with 100% re-circulation air and units connected to outdoor air with a design
temperature (winter time) above 9C classes A to <E; without heat recovery.
3) Stand-alone extract units classes A to <E.
Weighting ratio between electric energy and thermal energy is taken as 2 (1 kWh
electric energy 2 kWh thermal energy).
Fan efficiency, motor efficiency, drive efficiency (transmission & fan speed controller)
taken into account.
System effects on fan in-and outlet considered
Basic evaluation steps:
1) Assume an AHU is designed to meet the requirements for particular (aimed) class, and
calculate the efficiency factor f
s-ref
using the values for v
class
,
class
, and p
class
given
for the class of interest in Table 9.
2) If the value f
s-ref
is equal or lower than the value f
class
stated in Table 9 for the class of
interest, the unit meets the requirements for the class. If not, the same calculation
procedure shall be repeated for a lower class.

Table 9. Eurovent Reference Values for energy efficiency classes
Energy
Efficiency
Class
Velocity
in
Section
Heat Recovery
System
(for Subgroup 1)
Proof of
coefficient
of
Performance
Subgroup
1 / 2 / 3
v
class

[m/s]
class

[%]
p
class

[Pa]
f
class

[-]
A / A / A 1.8 75 280 0.90
B / B / B 2.0 67 230 0.95
C / C / C 2.2 57 170 1.00
D / D / D 2.5 47 125 1.06
E / E / E 2.8 37 100 1.12
E / E / E No requirements

f
s-ref
=

(7)
P
S-SUP
[kW] Supply air motor power
P
S-ETA
[kW] Extract air motor power
P
SUP-ref
[kW] Supply air reference motor power (Equation 8)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

662

P
ETA-ref
[kW] Extract air reference motor power (Equation 8)

P
ref-class
=

(8)
p
x
[-] Velocity deviation (Equation 9)
p
y
[-] HRS pressure drop deviation (Equation 10)
p
z
[-] HRS efficiency deviation (Equation 11)
p
x
+p
y
+p
z
[-] Total correction on pressure drop

p
x
=

(9)
p
y
=p
s
-p
class
(10)
p
z
=

(11)

Acknowledgment
I wish to express my sincere thanks to Eurovent, RLT, Robatherm, TTMD, SKD and REHVA for providing
me the necessary documents and informations.
I also thank to Climamed 2013 Scientific and Organization Committee for giving me this opportunity for
presenting this paper.
I am also grateful to my lovely husband who encouraged me to make a research on this topic, and helped me
for editing this paper.

References
[1] AHU Guideline 01, (August 2011) 423.
[2] Certified Energy Efficiency, Robatherm, (October 2011) 3-8
[3] Energieeffizienz fr Raumlufttechnische Gerate, Robert Baumeister, (November 2007) 1-9
[4] Ventilation Systems, Standards and Legislations; Rob van Holsteijn, Martijn van Elburg, Ren Kemna, (J uly 2010) 25
[5] Eco-design Directive, Energy Label and Ecolabel Relationships and compatibility with the Energy Performance Buildings Directive;
Rehva J ournal; J orma Railio, (March 2012) 30-32
[6] EU legislations on energy use and energy efficiency.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

663

AN APPROACH FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND SUSTAINABILITY
IN EMERGENCY ARCHITECTURE: EVALUATION OF POST-
DISASTER SHELTERS IN TURKEY

Santiago Brusadin Viola

University of Istanbul, Istanbul

s.brusadin@gmail.com

SUMMARY

With growing population, the worlds exposure to natural disasters is increasing, as well as
the global energy demand. Energy consumption by use of fossil fuels releases CO2 emissions
intensifying the natural greenhouse effect. Buildings are one of the main contributors to world
energy consume and CO2 releasing.
After a disaster, the basic shelter needs are generally solved with basic plastic tents that dont
involve essential sustainable premises. The need for energy efficient and sustainable solutions
for emergency shelters appears in order to protect the environment and conserve scarce
natural resources.
The current green building rating systems dont have an specific section for emergency
architecture. Therefore an approach to a new green rating system focused on emergency
architecture and a simulation of different material envelopes for emergency shelters in diverse
climatic zones of Turkey will benefit the improvement, design and construction of energy
efficient and sustainable post-disaster emergency shelters.
INTRODUCTION

A disaster is a hazard resulting in a sudden event of substantial extent causing widespread
physical damage or destruction, great loss of life, or drastic change to the environment. A
disaster can be man-made like a war or natural such as earthquakes or floods.
Disaster risk management is the concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through
systematic efforts to analyze and reduce the causal factors of such disasters. There are 4
phases in the management of a disaster or emergency situation: Response, Recovery,
Mitigation and Preparedness.

Usually the Response phase in the aftermath of the disaster consists of the provision of tents,
blankets and national and international aid (food and medicines). The temporary allocations
for the people affected by a disaster are known as emergency shelters or post-disaster housing.
Although the measures adopted in the response phase are absolutely necessary they generate
deficient shelters due to the adverse weather conditions of some of the affected regions and a
lack of a sustainable performance towards the environment through all the process. This
deficiencies lead to poor conditions and people discomfort and suffering.
The energy crisis and the climate change have made clear the implications of the dependence
on fossil fuels and the need to conserve and reduce the use of energy in the buildings. The
building industry is responsible for 25 to 40% of energy consumption, 30 to 40% of
greenhouse gas emissions and 30 to 40% of solid waste generation.[1]
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

664

But, despite of the need of reducing energy use and CO2 emissions, usually post-disaster
situations are solved with inadequate and inefficient response that cannot cover the basic
shelter needs. These solutions are not an adequate architectural response as generally they
dont meet basic environmental and sustainable premises.
Emergency shelters normally neglect energy efficient measures and green rating systems
doesnt have an specific section on emergency architecture.
This paper is an approach to a new green rating system specifically directed to provide
practical standards and guidelines for emergency shelters in the fields of energy efficiency
and sustainability. Case study emergency shelters are simulated to analyze their energy
performance in the diversity of climates of Turkey in order to determine their energy
efficiency and environmental strengths and weakness.
Turkey is selected as research field due to the amount of earthquakes, the diversity of climatic
zones and the lack of an adequate architectural response to this disasters.
The aim of the paper is to present an overview of the issues and steps involved to introduce
sustainable and energy efficient criteria in emergency shelters used following a disaster.
An energy efficient strategy is important in the design, implementation and maintenance
phases of emergency shelters. Tendency must be to design shelters and settlements which use
minimum energy and adopt a systematic environmental aware behavior.

METHODS

This approach to a new green rating system oriented to emergency architecture aims to be an
assessment method and a guideline to support the environmental criteria necessary for an
energy efficient performance of the emergency shelters. It is based in the following 5
parameters:
Site selection. The selection and development of shelter settlement sites following
disasters often does not consider the impacts on the environment, and does not take into
account the concept of sustainability. Principles of environmentally sustainable land selection
and development are offered in order to preserve the existing conditions and avoid
environmental degradation (e.g., erosion, deforestation). Tools to avoid insufficient
consideration of local environmental resources are given in order to elude further damage to
land, agricultural livelihoods, and provide safety and security.
Materials. Aims to identify the most environmentally appropriate materials for post-
disaster construction projects. It also provides a sustainable aware approach in the selection,
procurement and use of materials for the design of shelters have the least negative impact on
humans and the environment.
Energy efficiency and renewable energies. Addresses the most sustainable way to
provision energy for the emergency shelters. This includes renewable energy sources and
technologies to improve energy efficiency and reduce the releasing of CO2 into the
atmosphere.
Water efficiency. Promotes and implements water and sanitation systems that
improve users well-being by stressing environmental sustainability.
Indoor comfort. Aims to achieve a minimum indoor quality environment to
contribute to the well-being of the occupants. This includes mechanical and natural systems
regarding ventilation, daylight, temperature comfort and other influential factors from a
sustainable point of view.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

665

This green rating system aims to provide a systematical assessment and practical
method to determine the level of sustainability of an emergency shelter.
At the same time is a tool that allows an objective comparison between emergency
shelters.
The performance of each emergency shelter will be categorized using a GREEN,
AMBER, or RED scheme. This classification it will be the addition of points for every
title.
GREEN: 20-30 points. Superior performance. Emergency shelter meets most of the
criteria and performs adequately for energy efficiency and sustainability criteria.
AMBER: 10-20 points. Adequate performance. Emergency shelter meets some of the
energy efficiency and sustainability criteria but is expected to improve in other areas.
RED: 0-10 points. Deficient performance. Emergency shelter is expected to improve
in most of the areas for energy efficiency and sustainability criteria.

Table 1. Green rating system for emergency architecture. Criteria and sub-criteria.

To understand the state of the art of emergency architecture on the fields of energy efficiency
and sustainability, an analysis of proper representative examples must be conducted.
Three emergency shelters are selected from three different locations around the world to study
their energy performance when applied in Turkey. Turkey is an ideal field for the study
because it is a country particularly prone to earthquakes (in the range of magnitude 7) an
1 SITE SELECTION
1.1 Site location: safe and sustainable
1.2 Conservationof pre-existinglandscape
1.3 Proper orientationaccordingtosunand wind
1.4 Waste management&recyclingonsite
1.5 Landscape improvement(plantingtrees, water free vegetation)
1.6 Restorationof landscape after use
2 MATERIALS
2.1 Use of local materials
2.2 Easy maintenance and upgrade of materials
2.3 Reuse of materials
2.4 Use of recycled materials
2.5 Use of earthmaterials and low embodied energy materials
2.6 Use of nontoxical&noncontaminingmaterials
2.7 Use of low impact constructionmethods
2.8 Support of sustainable and legal sourcingmaterials
2.9 Use of fewer materials
2.10 Use of thermal mass
2.11 Reuse or recyclingof shelter materials after lifespanuse
3 ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND RENEWABLE ENERGIES
3.1 Use of solar power
3.2 Use of solar thermal energy(domestic hot water)
3.3 Use of wind energy
3.4 Use of other renewable energies(geothermal,biomas..)
4 WATER EFFICIENCY
4.1 Collectionand use of rainwater or use of recycled water
4.2 Use and reuse of ground water
4.3 Low flow toilets or nonusingwater toilets
5 INDOOR COMFORT
5.1 Daylight provision
5.2 Proper natural ventilation
5.3 Highefficiency lamps and HVAC
5.4 Optimizationof glazingsystems
5.5 Use of sustainable insulation
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

666

presents a wide diversity of climatic regions that can be partly extrapolated to other regions
prone to disasters.
A simulation in different climates is performed in order to provide a wide range analysis, on a
local scale, of the case studies. Each emergency shelter is selected to cover the widest range
of options used in real situations and each of them represents one of the main typologies by
material used in emergency situations: wood envelope typology, plastic envelope typology
and metal envelope typology. Other criteria used for the selection are: significant numbers of
this emergency shelters have been built and were used in real post-earthquake situations; all
had space for a family of 4/5, constructed area around 18m2(based on a minimum of 3.5m2
covered living space per person for a family of 5), one storey and simple construction; the
emergency shelters were appropriate for the people for whom they were built. They also,
encouraged some form of efficiency of design, and could withstand local hazards.
The selected emergency shelters are:
Wood envelope typology. An 18m2 shelter with timber framed structure and palm
roofing and wooden walls used in the 2009 Sumatra earthquake. The shelter is constructed
from locally procured materials that are familiar to the occupants and do not requirespecial
tools or equipment for assembly. The materials are timber frame for the structure, plywood
walls, palm fiber roof and palm matting. It can be quickly constructed in 2 days with a
construction team of 5 people.
Plastic envelope typology. An 18m2 shelter with steel structure and plastic wall
sheeting attached, used in the 2010 Haiti earthquake. The shelter uses partly locally sourced
materials and partly prefabricated. While the pre-fabricated steel frame solution is imported
and relatively expensive, the plastic sheeting walls are easily available locally and cheap to
acquire. The shelter can be quickly constructed in 2 days once the materials have arrived in-
country.
Metal envelope typology. A prefabricated emergency shelter made of reinforced
aluminum profile frame and walls and roof from polyurethane filled metal panels used in the
2011 Van earthquake. The shelter is constructed from locally procured materials that are
familiar to the occupants and do not require special tools or equipment for assembly. The
materials are timber frame for the structure, plywood walls, palm fiber roof and palm matting.
It can be quickly constructed in 2 days with a construction team of 5 people
The three case studies are located in five cities that correspond with five different climatic
regions in Turkey:
Istanbul: Temperate humid
Ankara: Temperate Dry
Van: Cold humid
Mugla: Hot humid
Diyarbakir: Hot Dry

RESULTS

Tables and illustrations

Within the scope of this study, the evaluation using the approach of a green rating system
focuses on the materials and energy efficiency and renewable sections. The section of site
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

667

selection is not included as the emergency shelters selected are abstracted to be in the five
climate regions of Turkey in a simulated site. The sections of water efficiency and indoor
environment are not included for the lack of verifiable information. Below, in Table 2 it is
shown the results of the application of the green rating system for the 3 case study emergency
shelters.

Table 2. Comparison of green rating system for 3 case studies.

Below, Figure 1, shows the graphical results of the simulation of annual average comparison
of operative temperature for the 3 case study in the five climatic zones.

MATERIALS YES NO No info YES NONo info YES NO No info
Use of local materials 1 1 1
Easy maintenance and upgrade of materials 1 1 1
Reuse of materials 1 1 1
Use of recycled materials 1 1 1
Use of earth materials and low embodied energy materials 1 1 1
Use of non toxical&non contamining materials 1 1 1
Use of low impact construction methods 1 1 1
Support of sustainable and legal sourcing materials 1 1 1
Use of fewer materials 1 1 1
Use of thermal mass 1 1 1
Reuse or recycling of shelter materials after lifespan use 1 1 1
ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND RENEWABLE ENERGIES
Use of solar power 1 1 1
Use of solar thermal energy(domestic hot water) 1 1 1
Use of wind energy 1 1 1
Use of other renewable energies(geothermal,biomas..) 1 1 1
TOTAL 7 8 0 4 9 2 4 9 2
Wooden shelter Plastic shelter Metal shelter
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

668

Figure 1. Summary graph of operative temperature for 3 emergency shelters in five climatic
zones of Turkey.

Below, Figure 2, shows the graphical results of the simulation of annual average comparison
of energy consumption for the 3 case study in the five climatic zones.

Figure 2.Aannual energy consumption for 3 emergency shelters in five climatic zones of
Turkey

0
3
10
13
20
23
30
33
40
!
A
n
l
L
8
M
A
8
A
8
M
A
?
!
u
n
!
u
L
A
C
S
L
C
C
1
n
C
v
u
l
C
!
A
n
l
L
8
M
A
8
A
8
M
A
?
!
u
n
!
u
L
A
C
S
L
C
C
1
n
C
v
u
l
C
!
A
n
l
L
8
M
A
8
A
8
M
A
?
!
u
n
!
u
L
A
C
S
L
C
C
1
n
C
v
u
l
C
!
A
n
l
L
8
M
A
8
A
8
M
A
?
!
u
n
!
u
L
A
C
S
L
C
C
1
n
C
v
u
l
C
!
A
n
l
L
8
M
A
8
A
8
M
A
?
!
u
n
!
u
L
A
C
S
L
C
C
1
n
C
v
u
l
C
lsLanbul ankara van mugla dlyarbaklr
1
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
C
Wooden shelLer
lasLlc shelLer
MeLal shelLer
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
!
A
n
l
L
8
M
A
8
A
8
M
A
?
!
u
n
!
u
L
A
C
S
L
C
C
1
n
C
v
u
l
C
!
A
n
l
L
8
M
A
8
A
8
M
A
?
!
u
n
!
u
L
A
C
S
L
C
C
1
n
C
v
u
l
C
!
A
n
l
L
8
M
A
8
A
8
M
A
?
!
u
n
!
u
L
A
C
S
L
C
C
1
n
C
v
u
l
C
!
A
n
l
L
8
M
A
8
A
8
M
A
?
!
u
n
!
u
L
A
C
S
L
C
C
1
n
C
v
u
l
C
!
A
n
l
L
8
M
A
8
A
8
M
A
?
!
u
n
!
u
L
A
C
S
L
C
C
1
n
C
v
u
l
C
lsLanbul ankara van mugla dlyarbaklr
L
n
e
r
g
y
c
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
|o
n
k
w
h
Wooden shelLer
lasLlc shelLer
MeLal shelLer
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

669

DISCUSSION

Natural and human disasters are a constant threaten that causes every year great loss of lives
and economic losses. With increasing population, the worlds exposure to natural hazards is
inevitably increasing, as well as the energy consumption. Energy consumption by use of fossil
fuels releases Co2 emissions into the atmosphere intensifying the natural greenhouse effect
and causing global warming. Among the polluter agents, buildings are the most damaging
polluters on the planet, consuming over half of all the energy used in developed countries and
producing over half of all climate-change gases. [2]
But, despite of the need of reducing energy use and CO2 emissions, usually post-disaster
situations are solved with inadequate and inefficient solutions that cannot cover the basic
shelter needs. These solutions are not an adequate architectural response as generally they
dont meet basic environmental and sustainable premises.
This performed study represents a preliminary analysis about the influencing factors to
develop sustainable emergency shelters that make an efficient use of energy and less
hazardous impact to the environment. On one hand, climatic factors of the disaster region
where the shelter will be used must be considered and incorporated into the design. On the
other hand, sustainable criteria must be involved in the design, construction and upgrading of
the shelters. This paper aims to be a basis to a further line of investigation towards a better
assessment for the improvement of the energy efficiency of this type of architecture.
Through the simulation and analysis of three emergency shelters in different climatic zones of
Turkey it is possible to obtain data of the energy performance of different typical envelopes.
A local understanding and adaptation of prototypical emergency shelters is possible in order
to obtain more efficient emergency shelters. Furthermore, an approach to a new green rating
system focused on emergency shelters is developed and applied to this case study post-
disaster housing to check their strengths and weaknesses in different fields of sustainability.
Through the approach to a new green rating system it is observed that the wooden shelter has
better sustainable behavior than the plastic and metal shelters. This reinforces the importance
of the use of local materials rather than import materials or use pre-fabricated systems. The
green rating system also highlights the lack of use of renewable energies in current emergency
shelters. Through the design and incorporation of some clean energy systems (solar energy or
wind energy for example) the energy consumption can dramatically drop as well as the CO2
emissions. If the design is anticipated to be reused, the initial investment of the incorporation
of renewable energies can be achieved. Furthermore, regarding the price it can be observed a
considerable difference between the locally constructed wooden shelter ($375-$500) and the
imported and prefabricated plastic and metal shelters ($4500 and $5800 respectively). This
shows that a locally produced shelter, adapted to the specific characteristics of the disaster
region, can be more sustainable from the economical and ecological point of view.

Through the energy simulation of the emergency shelters it is shown that the metal shelter has
a better energy behavior and less energy consumption while the plastic shelter has the worst
energy behavior and the biggest energy consumption. This is due to the isolation incorporated
in the sandwich panels of the metal shelter and the lack of isolation in the plastic shelter. This
fact reinforces the importance of the use of a natural and sustainable isolation in the
shelters(with the thickness and type of material adapted to the local characteristics of the area
affected by a disaster) and the need to have a wider range of materials rather than the most
commonly used plastic for emergency tents, that this study proves to be insufficient.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

670

None of the emergency shelters is by itself a complete adequate energy efficient and
sustainable solution. On an hypothetical disaster situation, under the light of the results of this
study, the selection of a solution for an emergency shelter should be chosen taking into
account the factors analyzed and the results obtained. The emergency shelter used should
apply with the maximum points of the approach for a new green rating system. It also should
have an economical cost that makes affordable a large production of them. And finally, the
emergency shelter should incorporate and improve the strong aspects of energy efficiency of
each of them. By applying this aspects, the emergency shelter designed and/or used will be in
the proper direction of the energy efficiency and sustainability.

Further points of action in this direction for post-disaster emergency housing should be:
Further energy simulations of new typologies of emergency shelters.
To check the green rating checklist with real emergency shelters in their local sites and
get feedback.
To diagnose the existing disaster shelter planning to introduce sustainable strategies
and a more energy efficient approach to post disaster-housing.
To develop an integrated evaluation indicator system for post disaster housing with the
inputs of the different agents involved (governments, humanitarian organizations, architects
and people affected).
REFERENCES

1 Rovers, Donald and Kimman, J acques and Ravesloot, Christoph, 2010. Towards 0-Impact
Buildings & Built environments. Techne press, Amsterdam.
2 Roaf, Sue, 2001. Ecohouse: A Design guide. Architectural press, Oxford.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

671

BUILDING PERFORMANCE OF THE GREEN CERTIFIED
BUILDINGS: A CASE STUDY IN TURKEY AND IN THE
NETHERLANDS FOR EVALUATING GREEN BUILDING
CERTIFICATION PRACTICES
zden Demir
1
(Author)

1
Istanbul Technical University / Eindhoven Technology University (exchange program)
Corresponding email: ozden.demir@yahoo.com

SUMMARY

Today there is a conflict between the terms green building and green certified building.
Green buildings minimize the influence of buildings to environment and provide better
working and living spaces. Green building certification systems appraise a building's green
performance and affirm its green building status through frameworks and targets to achieve a
green building. The main purpose of the research is to analyze and clarify the green building
and the green building certifications issues in the building market. Specifying the main
problems in the market regarding to these issues and trying to produce proper solutions to the
problems is one of the main purposes of the research. In the research a case study building is
used in analyzes with building performance simulation tools and also assessed in the
Netherlands building market as well as in the Turkish one. The green building certification
score and credits are reviewed critically. Besides interviews and questionnaires are made with
the stakeholders and their opinions regarding to the green building certifications are
considered.

INTRODUCTION

The increasing world population has been making the built environment wider and bigger day
by day. Worldwide the buildings consume 40% of the total energy; the U.S., Russia and the
European countries [1]. The researches show that CO2 emissions in developed countries grew
more than 20% in 60 years and the global warming danger as well [2]. To stop the dangerous
influences of built environment the green phenomenon is supported in building market.
Ggreen buildings have three essential effects on environment and people: Energy, water and
resource efficiency, improvement in user health and productivity, and reducing waste,
pollution and environmental defilement [3]. Green building certifications follow the green
movement in building market to develop and assess buildings green performance. Today
there are various green building certifications all over the world. LEED and BREEAM are the
most preferred ones. However, there are several critics regarding to the performances of green
certified building and green building certifications [4], [5].

METHODS

As it is shown below schematically, the research studies proceed in two ways: green certified
building and green building certifications. In the line of the green certified buildings, a case
study building is examined through the building performance simulations, critical assessment
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

672

of the green building certification score and the evaluation of the building in the Netherlands.
In the other way, the literary researches about the green building certifications, critics and
benefits of them and adaptation of the green building certifications. As the common survey
for the both research line there is interviews and questionnaires with experts from the market
in Turkey and in the Netherlands. In the end all the results and in formations are gathered
together for analysis, discussions and conclusions.

Figure 1. Methodology of the research.
One of the methods used in the research is interview and questionnaire. Through this survey,
which goes through a critical review from the stakeholders in the Turkish and Dutch building
market, green building certifications and their situation in the market are analyzed. From
various professionalized areas totally 20 stakeholders from both countries joined to this
survey and 50% percent of the survey is applied through interviews. Content of the
questionnaires comprises five parts and an explanation in the beginning about the goal of the
survey. In total, there are eighteen questions excluding inductor part; three of them are open
questions, two of them are multiple choice, there is one rating scale question and the rest of
them are single choice questions.

A case study building is used in the research in order to make analysis and comparisons on a
green certified building example. For this purpose a LEED-certified building is chosen and a
case study building is created in a very dense area of Istanbul according to this example
(Figure 2a). The case building can be defined an office building that has 14m x 62m
rectangular shape, eight floors and curtain wall faade with shading system (Figure 2b).

a) b)
Figure 2. The case study building a) and a possible dense location for it b).
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

673

Main analysis of the case study building is made using BPS-tools. Energy efficiency and
daylight availability of the case study building are calculated through simulations. In addition,
the case study building is simulated in the Netherlands in order to see results in another
location/country. To calculate the energy efficiency of building a proposed and a
reference building are modeled in simulation tool and then the results of these simulations
are compared with each other. Proposed building means the actual building, reference
building refers to a baseline building, which is specific for the actual building. In other saying,
it is a version of actual building based on ANSI/ASHRAE/IESNA 90.1-2004 standard. For
the reference building, U-factors of the building envelope are also taken from this standard
depending to the climatic zone of the case study building location. For Istanbul, Turkey the
climatic zone is accepted as the climatic zone 3A, for Amsterdam, the Netherlands as the
climatic zone 5. The HVAC system is modeled in the energy simulations as Ideal Loads Air
System, through which energy demand of the building can be calculated.

Daylight availability analysis is another method calculated through BPS-tools. For daylight
simulations clear sky model is used and the simulation is run in September 21 twice on 9 a.m.
and 3 p.m. The lowest result shows daylight availability of the building. The daylight
calculation is based on the percentage of buildings floor area, which has more daylight than
the threshold value, to the whole floor area. This daylight threshold value is defined in the
IESNA Standard as 269.098 lux and LEED also accepts this limit. As it is applied in the
energy efficiency analysis, in the daylight simulations the case study building is modeled in
two different locations, in Turkey and in the Netherlands and then the results are compared
with LEED performance of the case study building. Besides, to point out influence of shading
system on daylight availability calculation, the daylight simulations are applied on the
proposed and the reference buildings, as in the reference buildings no shading system is
allowed.

The last method used in the research is critical review about the awarded credits by the case
study building in LEED. The aim of this survey is to analyze green performance of the
certified building. Considering other information gathered in this research, the awarded LEED
credits are reviewed in three groups, which are about lack of consideration about local
characteristics, misapplications in construction phase and also in certification phase. In
addition, these credits are compared with the similar ones in BREEAM-NL in order to see the
effect of an adapted green building certification on certification score reliability.

RESULTS

Positive and negative effects of green building certifications

Through literary research positive and negative effects of the green building certifications are
defined. From a positive approach, green building certifications are beneficial as a
systematical green building assessment tool [6], which develops the green building market
[7], provides easier management in green building process [8] and informs building users [5].
Beside benefits, there are many critics regarding to the green building certifications. The three
main critics are insufficient performance of the green certified buildings [9], problems in the
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

674

methodology of the green building certifications [10] and lack of consideration about local
characteristics [10], [11].

Interview and questionnaire survey

The interview and questionnaire survey has important results that should be considered. The
introductory part of the survey shows that generally 80% of the stakeholders have green
building experiences. Also 85% of them worked before about green building certifications.
The second part has results about green building and green certified buildings. General
opinions about green building are very positive, however, the most remarkable definition is
really green, which is used by many participants. About the green certified buildings, two
main opinions prevail; in general, participants from Turkey do not satisfy with the green
building performance of green certified buildings and they do not trust them either. In the
Dutch side people think that green certified buildings add value and increase conscious in
the market more optimistically.

Highlights from the third parts results show that certifications affect buildings value
economically (app. 95%) and they might be misleading for building users (app. 80%). Also
most of the participants are agreed that green buildings and green certified buildings do not
mean the same (app. 85%). Besides, participants doubt about the green certified buildings
performance (app. 65%) and assessment method of green building certifications (app. 60%).
According to the fourth part results, which deals with the problems in the green building
certification process and their reasons, the participants think that problems mostly occur in
usage and construction period of a building (Figure 3a). Also in their aspect the possible
reasons for these problems are lack of knowledge, costs, lack of control and disinterest
(Figure 3b). The green building certifications in market is analyzed in the fifth part and results
show that 70% of the stakeholders think that the green building certification practices are not
good enough in their countries. This is even 100% in the Turkish market, in which there is no
adapted or local green building certification. However, in the Netherlands mostly an adapted
green building certification is used, BREEAM-NL, and in there the rate of unsatisfied people
about green building practices is 40%.

a) b)
Figure 3. Answers regarding to the possible problems a) and their reasons b) in the green
building certification process.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

675

Energy simulations in Turkey and in the Netherlands

According to the energy simulation results in Turkey, energy demand of the proposed
building is 73,56 kWh/m and annually 1.060.803,32 kWh. 178.771,70 kWh of this amount is
needed for heating, 348.662,28 kWh for cooling and 533.369,34 kWh for interior lighting and
equipment. Reference building energy simulation results that the annually energy demand of
the building is 78,00 kWh/m and 1.124.760,77 kWh. It requires 301.674,06 kWh for heating,
288.205,76 kWh for cooling and 534.880,95 kWh for interior lighting and equipment per
year. Table 1 shows that energy demand of different end uses in the proposed and the
reference building in Turkey.

In the Netherlands the annual energy demand of the proposed building is 69,71 kWh/m and
979.169,81 kWh. 313.726,76 kWh of that is needed for heating and 132.073,71 kWh for
cooling of the case study building. In addition, the electrical energy demand for lighting and
various equipment results 533.369,34 kWh in a year. The result of the reference building
energy simulation is annually 73,90 kWh/m and 1.065.644,65 kWh. The reference building
has 428.564,62 kWh heating demand, 102.199,08 kWh cooling demand and 534.880,95 kWh
electricity demand for lighting and equipment. Table 1 shows that energy demand of different
end uses in the proposed and the reference building in the Netherlands.

Table 1. Energy demand of the proposed building in Turkey.

End uses Proposed B. - TR Reference B. - TR Proposed B. - NL Reference B. - NL
Heating
Cooling
Lighting
Equipment
TOTAL
12,40
24,18
17,23
19,76
73,56
20,92
19,99
17,33
19,76
78,00
21,76
9,16
17,23
19,76
69,71
29,72
7,09
17,33
19,76
73,90

The comparison between proposed and reference buildings energy demands gives energy
efficiency of the building. Totally, the case study building simulated in Turkey is 5,7% energy
efficient according to these results. Figure 4a) presents that energy efficiency of end uses are
not in the same proportion. Although the buildings heating is approximately 41% energy
efficient, cooling system requires 21% more energy. In the Netherlands, when the energy
simulation results of the proposed and reference building are compared, the energy efficiency
results as 7,6%. The energy efficiencies in different end uses are 21,3 in heating and -5,6% in
cooling of the building. According to Figure 4a) and 4b) the energy efficiency rates of the
case study building are consistent in Turkey and in the Netherlands. Differences regarding to
heating and cooling loads can be explained with different climatic conditions on these two
countries and different building envelope values on ASHRAE standard for the different
climate zones.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

676

a) b)
Figure 4. Energy demand distribution in Turkey a) and in the Netherlands b).

Daylight simulations in Turkey and in the Netherlands

The daylight simulations in Turkey show that the case study building has substantially few
daylight availability. In proposed building model the floor area with daylight above threshold
is 3,65% of the whole floor area of the building spaces with windows. The highest level is in
entrance on the ground floor, however, on the other floors of the building there is almost no
daylight. In the reference building model, which has no shading system, the daylight
availability results as 28,46% (Table 2). Also the results show that without shading system the
building floors have 32% daylight availability.

In the Netherlands daylight availability results of the case study building are higher relatively
to the results in Turkey. The daylight availability is 14,41% in the proposed building model
and 78,86% in the reference building model (Table 2). The absence of shading system affects
the daylight availability result more in here. Without it the building floors have approximately
83% daylight.

Table 2. Daylight availability (%) of the case study building in Turkey and in the Netherlands.

Floors Proposed B. - TR Reference B. - TR Proposed B. - NL Reference B. - NL
Basement 1st
Ground floor
Mezzanine floor
1st floor
2nd floor
3rd floor
4th floor
5th floor
6th floor
7th floor
8th floor
TOTAL
8,75
86,28
5,75
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3,65
9,37
87,39
6,73
22,55
23,79
28,95
30,47
29,88
32,51
38,23
48,89
28,46
12,15
73,74
28,50
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0,09
14,41
11,69
72,73
96,99
81,59
82,47
82,60
86,31
81,22
83,70
80,28
85,83
78,86
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

677

Critical review about awarded credits in LEED and comparison with BREEAM-NL

The first group of credits is analyzed related with their consideration about local
characteristics. Totally seven credits are reviewed in this group that are about site selection,
development density, bicycle usage, low-emitting vehicles, storage of recyclables and tobacco
smoke control. Through interpretation of these credits it is seen that their assessment aspect
and requirements are not appropriate for Turkish culture, life style and conditions. Explaining
briefly, Turkey is a country in which there are not many virgin lands, the cities are generally
very crowded and dense, there is not common bicycle usage and substructure for that habit,
low-emitting vehicles are used very few, recyclable management is not prevalent and tobacco
smoke is already forbidden in enclosed spaces. Overall these criticized credits are valued at
four points and two prerequisites; so they can be described as almost 16% of whole
certification. When the similar critical review is made in the Netherlands on the case study
building using BREEAM-NL, the credits about site selection, development density, bicycle
usage, low-emitting vehicles and storage of recyclables find meaning because of their proper
assessment method based on the Netherlands conditions. Also there is no tobacco smoke
control credit in BREEAM-NL, because there are already so many restrictions about smoking,
like in Turkey.

Credits that are criticized because of misapplications in construction phase create the second
group. In this group there are four credits related with construction activity pollution
prevention, commissioning, construction waste management, IAQ management during
construction. The result, which comes through the analysis of these credits, is that these
credits cant provide a proper assessment because of the faults of contractors or workers in
construction phase. As there is not enough control about the assessment of these credits,
mostly the related applications and decisions are made by unconscious and ignorant
contractors. Also uninformed workers are responsible for misapplications when the control is
insufficient. Totally the criticized credits in this group are worth as four points and a
prerequisite, this makes approximately 10% of whole certification. Same critical review in the
Netherlands with BREEAM-NL shows that the credits related with construction process do
not ensure a better assessment. They are mostly like the ones in LEED, however, the general
assessment method of BREEAM using its own assessors is better to have more control on
applications and assessment.

There are only two credits criticized in the last group, which deals with the problems in
certification process, however, these credits are relatively more important for building
performance. One of them is about energy efficiency and the other one is about daylight
availability of buildings. When the case study buildings LEED performance about energy
efficiency and daylight availability is compared with the simulations results of the research a
big differences appear. In LEED the case study building has four points with 35% energy
efficiency and 24% cost optimization. However, the energy simulation results in the research
show that the case study buildings energy efficiency in 5,7% in Turkey and 7,6% in the
Netherlands. Figure 5a) presents the big difference between the LEED and research results.
The same situation is also discussed about daylight availability results. As it can be seen from
Figure 5b), the LEED result claims that the case study building has 96% daylight, however,
the daylight simulations result much less as 3,65% in Turkey and 14,41% in the Netherlands.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

678

This situation is mostly because of the used assessment method, in which shading system,
surrounding buildings and sun angles are almost not considered.

a) b)
Figure 5. Results comparisons between LEED and research about energy efficiency a) and
daylight availability b).

Names and units

LEED : Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
BREEAM : Building Research Establishments Environmental Assessment Method
BPS-tool : Building performance simulation tool
TR : Turkey
NL : The Netherlands
HVAC : Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning
IAQ : Indoor air quality
KWh : kilowatt-hour

DISCUSSION

The research studies are concluded with three main results, which are insufficient
performance of green certified buildings, problems in the assessment method of green
building certifications and lack of consideration of local properties. There are critics and
doubts about green performance of certified buildings, which can be seen from literary
sources and interview/questionnaire survey. Also analysis through awarded credits and
simulations reveals that green certified buildings might present less performance than it is
claimed in the certification score. Regarding the assessment method of green building
certifications the stakeholders from the building market mostly think that there are problems
in the process. The outcomes from critical review point out that there might be problems in
construction and certification phases and these problems might influence the green
performance of the building. Through misapplications, ignorance or lack of control many
credits can be seem like awarded and building can have high certification score, although the
building performance is not that much. The lack of consideration about local characteristics is
one of the critics regarding to green building certifications and the importance of these
situation is pointed out by the participants of interview/questionnaire survey. Also the
comparison between the criticized credits in LEED regarding to this issue with BREEM-NL
shows that an adapted green building certification might influence green building certification
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

679

score and make certification scores more reliable and correct. All the critics and negative
results about green building certifications and green certified buildings are actually an
important opportunity to solve the problems and to develop the green building market in the
future.

REFERENCES

1. IEA (International Energy Agency). 2008. Worldwide Trends in Energy Use and Efficiency.
2. Nelson, A. J ., Rakau O. and Drrenberg P. 2010. Green Buildings - A Niche Becomes
Mainstream. Deutsche Bank Research, April 12, 2010.
3. EPA (The United States Environmental Protection Agency). 2008. Green Building: Basic
Information. Available at :http://www.epa.gov/greenbuilding/pubs/about.htm.
4. Gifford, H. 2009. A Better Way to Rate Green Buildings - LEED Sets the Standard for Green
Buildings, But Do Green Buildings Actually Save Any Energy? Northeast Sun, Spring 2009.
5. Fenner, R. A. and Ryce, T. 2008. A Comparative Analysis of Two Building Rating Systems.
Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Engineering Sustainability 161, March 2008
Issue ES1, pages 5563.
6. Elisa Campbell Consulting, 2006. Assessment of Tools for Rating the Performance of Existing
Buildings: A Report on the Options. Prepared for the GVRD by Elisa Campbell Consulting in
conjunction with Innes Hood Consulting, April 2006.
7. Reed, R., Bilos, A., Wilkinson, S. and Schulte, K. W. 2009. International Comparison of
Sustainable Rating Tools. J OSRE Vo1.1 No.1 2009.
8. Cole, R., Howard, N., Ikaga, T. and Nibel, S. (n.d.). Building Environmental Assessment Tools:
Current and Future Roles.
9. Newsham, G. R., Mancini, S. And Birt, B. 2009. Do LEED-Certified Buildings Save Energy?
Yes, But... NRCC-51142, August 2009, a version of this document is published in Energy and
Buildings, 41, (8), pp. 897-905, DOI: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2009.03.014.8.
10. Say, C. and Wood, A. 2008. Sustainable Rating Systems around the World. CTBUH J ournal,
2008 Issue II.
11. Sev, A. and Canbay, N. (n.d.). Dnya Genelinde Uygulanan Yeil Bina Deerlendirme ve
Sertifika Sistemleri

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

680

FEASIBILITY OF HVAC SYSTEMS IN TERMS OF ENERGY

Ahmet Arsoy, C. Demirkesen, E. Poyraz, S. Kotrk and S. Kaaran

Istanbul Technical University Mechanical Engineering Department

Corresponding email: arisoyah@itu.edu.tr

SUMMARY

EPBD recast, states that buildings account for 40 % of the total energy consumption in the
European Union. Therefore, the reduction of energy consumption and the use of energy from
renewable sources in the building sector constitute important measures. However costs of
these measures are not the same. The correlation between sustainability and the cost is very
important. Evaluating measures need consideration of the costs. All required measures should
be cost effective. Unfortunately both in engineering optimization studies and in directives cost
is considered as the money. However realistic cost analysis should be done in terms of
energy.
In this case study cost analysis procedures of economical cost analysis and energy cost
analysis have been evaluated. These analysis procedures have been applied for evaluation of
two groups of measures. Firstly alternative insulation materials have been evaluated and
secondly renewable photovoltaic power generation on-site has been evaluated. It has been
shown that there could be big differences between economical and the energy costs. The
realistic evaluation of the alternative materials, equipment or systems can be done by energy
comparison. Renewable power or energy generations should also be evaluated in terms of
energy. Produced energy during the life time of a renewable system should be much more
than the embodied energy of the system.

1. INTRODUCTION

Energy issue is very important for the future of the World. Energy consumption is increasing
rapidly. This has two major impacts on the future of the world. Firstly we have limited fossil
fuel resources and with this rate of consumption, we will not left any available fossil fuel
resource to our next generations. Secondly we are facing a very serious threat of global
warming due to fossil fuel burning. We need immediately to take some actions toward to
reducing fossil fuel consumption. This is expressed as sustainable use of energy resources.

Today, buildings appear to be one of the major contributors to energy consumption.
International Energy Agency (2008) indicates that buildings consume half of the worlds total
electricity consumption and one third of the worlds total natural gas consumption. On the
other hand buildings are responsible for one third of the total greenhouse gaseous emissions.

Therefore, the reduction of energy consumption and the use of energy from renewable sources
in the building sector constitute important measures. Together with an increased use of energy
from renewable sources, measures taken to reduce energy consumption in the European
Union would allow the European Union to comply with the Kyoto Protocol, and its
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

681

commitment to reduce, y 2020, the overall greenhouse gas emissions by at least 20 % below
1990 levels.

The design strategies adopted to achieve above goals can be outlined as follows:
1. Design of a high-performing building envelope;
2. High efficiency HVAC equipment and system use;
3. On-site energy production from renewable sources.
However costs of these measures are not same, the correlation between sustainability and the
cost is very important. Evaluating measures need consideration of the cost. All required
measures should be cost effective.

2. COST ANALYSS

2.1. Economical Cost Analysis of Systems

Cost effectiveness or feasibility of the required measures or alternative solutions is defined
usually in terms of money today. Cost is expressed as money in according to the valid cost
analysis methods. Total life cycle cost consists of two components as the investment cost and
the operation cost. Investment cost expresses an amount and independent of time. However
operation cost is a rate and it is expressed annually. Summing two magnitudes needs them to
be expressed in the same unit. Usually total cost is expressed as below:

Total cost= investment cost + operational cost x life time

It is desired that total cost of any measure is being less than the alternative measures.

Evaluation of systems in terms of economic cost or money generally may not be very wrong.
In these calculations consumed energy considered indirectly. An expensive system normally
costs more energy than the cheaper one. At the same time quality of the energy is also
considered indirectly. Higher quality energy is more expensive than the lower quality energy.
For example price of electricity is higher than the coal energy.

However in this economical analysis some economic parameters such as economic stimulus,
supports, inflation rates, interest rates and profits are effective and these parameters create
deviations from the real corresponding energy values. For example renewable energy
generation is supported in many countries today. Such renewable energy generation systems
may consume more energy to built (embodied energy) but they are cheaper comparatively. An
economical cost analysis, without reflecting real energy budget, can carry this system to an
advantageous position. On the other hand economical cost analysis usually can not consider
also the environmental cost of the system operation and doesn't help the sustainable use of the
resources. As the result, economical cost analysis doesn't end up with realistic conclusions
always.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

682

2.2. Energy Cost analysis of Systems

Another emerging cost analysis procedure is doing all calculations in terms of energy
quantity. In this evaluation each term in cost analysis is expressed as energy quantity. For this
reason this procedure can be defined as one of the most suitable one reaching the realistic
evaluation goal. In this evaluation there are no interest rate, inflation rate, profit, stimulation
and prediction of escalation of prices in the future.
However calculating embodied energy which is the energy consumed during manufacturing
material, equipment and construction of the system is very difficult and we don't have this
data for all the equipment and systems used in HVAC industry. Embodied energy data is
limited today [1], [2].

Total energy life cycle cost of a system can be defined as follows:

Total energy cost= embodied energy + annual energy consumption x life time

3. CASE STUDY

In order to show the importance of cost analysis in terms of energy a case study has been
carried out. A sample building was selected and two alternative measures for this building
were evaluated by using both economical cost analysis and energy cost analysis. Differences
between two analysis procedures were discussed. Carrier HAP Program has been used for
system simulation purposes.

Alterative measures are limited with two as building skin performance increasing by heat
insulation and on-site renewable power generation by photovoltaic. First of all a reference
building was defined and it's energy demand and consumptions were calculated. Added cost
of measures was calculated by the standard procedures. Only HVAC energy consumptions,
lightning and equipment energy requirements were considered. Domestic hot water generation
was omitted. Indoor heat loads were considered based on ASHRAE standards. A four pipe
fan-coil system was used as the HVAC system.

3.1 Sample Building

Considered sample building is an office building in Istanbul and it has 4 stories and total
useable area is 4000 m
2
.

General specifications of the building are given in Table 1.

Table 1: Sample building definitions.
Building neat useable area 3367,6 m
2

Total window area 305 m
2

Total outer wall area 1735 m
2

Window/Outer wall area ratio 0,15
Open available roof area 871 m
2

Building ground sitting floor area 1032 m
2

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

683

Reference building outer walls` U value has been calculated as 0,735 W / m
2
K. Calculated
monthly energy consumption values of the reference building are given in Table 2.

Table 2. : Reference building energy consumption
Month HVAC based energy consumption (kWh)
Energy consumption
Non HVAC (kWh)
- Electricity Natural gas Electricity
J anuary 2.947 39.613 4.083
February 2.652 38.088 3.551
March 2.735 27.632 3.728
April 3.243 10.484 3.906
May 5.210 2.755 3.906
J une 7.158 216 3.728
J uly 10.076 17 4.083
August 9.768 20 3.728
September 6.342 488 3.906
October 3.939 3.440 4.083
November 2.580 16.117 3.551
December 2.817 36.028 4.083

3.2. Alternative Solutions/Measures

3.2.1. High performance building skin

The facade is one of the most significant contributors to the energy budget and the comfort
parameters of any building. High-performance building skin can be defined as exterior
enclosures that use the least possible amount of energy to maintain a comfortable interior
environment, which promotes the health and productivity of the building's occupants. In
regard to the building envelope performance, the minimum requirements of U-values are very
important. For the design of a (HPB) the U-values should be lower than the standard
buildings.

There are various types of heat insulation materials to be used in building industry. Mineral
wools and foam type insulation materials are widely used in this sector. A new material which
is newly appeared in the market is a kind of liquid and it is applied on the wall by a spraying
tool. This presents an alternative solution for high performance building skin. Properties of
different alternative insulation materials are given in Table 2. These values have been used in
the analysis work.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

684

Table 2. Properties of alternative insulation materials.
Property Unit
New
Material
Rock wool Glass wool
Polystyrene
(EPS)
Density kg/m
3
30 80 30 90 15 50 12 20
Heat
conductivity
W/(mK) 0.036 0.040 0.040 0.035 0.040
Embodied
Energy
kWh/m
3
5 600 550 650

New material manufacturing energy value is 5 [kWh / m
3
] and used equipment to apply this
material consumes 2.8 kWh/m
3
energy. Total embodied energy for this material is 7.8 [kWh /
m
3
] and this value is used in the calculations.
Considered insulation alternatives for the reference building are 2 cm Exturude Polystren
Foam (ALT-1) and 11 cm New Material (ALT-2). In Table 3. Annual energy consumptions
of the alternative cases which are calculated by using Carrier-HAP program are given.

Table 3. Annual energy consunptions of alternative insulation cases.

Ref.
Building ALT-1 ALT-2
Cooling demand kWh/year 26.448 24.528 24.283
Heating demand kWh/year 174.898 135.322 114.499
HVAC Energy
consumption
Electricity kWh/year 59.468 56.407 55.436
Natural gas kWh/year 174.898 135.322 114.499
Non HVAC
Energy
consumption
Electricity kWh/year 46.338 46.338 46.338
Natural gas kWh/year 0 0 0

When compared the reference building, heating and cooling loads are decrease as expected in
cases of Alt-1 and Alt-2. Thickness of the insulation is bigger in the case of Alt-2 and due to
this, heat loads are less comparing the Alt-1.

3.2.2. Solar power generation by using photo voltaic panels

Reducing fossil fuel based energy consumption by renewable on site electricity generation has
been considered in this case study as the second measure. Photovoltaics converte solar energy
to electricity directly. Silisium is the main material of the photovoltaics. Mono-Crystalline,
multi-Crystalline and amorf structured photovoltaics are used extencivelly in the commercial
applications and their efficiencies are correspondingly given as 15-17%, 12-14% and 5-8%. A
photovoltaic system can produce annually up to the value of 100 kWh/m
2
electricity [3].
Peak electricity demand of the building during the cooling season is 60 kW. However the
photovoltaic system is selected considering the base electricity load. The other limiting value
for selecting the capacity of the photovoltaic panels is the available roof area. The roof area is
871 m
2
and available roof area for panel installation is 500 m
2
. Considering the shading effect
of the panels, only 250 m
2
panel surfaces can be installed on the roof. General characteristics
of the selected panel are given in Table 4.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

685

Table 4. General characteristics of the selected photovoltaic panel
Peak power (W/ m
2
) 38
System efficiency (%) 13,4
System life (year) 30
Material Mono-Crystalline

A calculation of the photovoltaic system is carried out by using the special simulation
program PVsyst. Building electricity loads entered as monthly values and generated monthly
electricity and exported and imported electricity values are given in Table 5.

Table 5. Monthly electricity generation by the photovoltaic system
Month
Total generated
electricity (kWh)
Demand
(kWh)
Consumed in
site (kWh)
imported from
the grid (kWh)
Exported to the
grid (kWh)
J anuary 2.725 6.752 2.318 4.434 407
February 2.716 5.911 2.167 3.744 549
March 4.299 6.281 3.311 2.970 988
April 4.964 7.141 3.928 3.213 1036
May 6.382 8.440 5.401 3.039 981
J une 6.498 9061 5.777 3.284 721
J uly 6.323 11.095 6.201 4.0894 122
August 6.242 10.660 6.036 4.624 206
September 4.306 9.158 4.067 5.091 239
October 3.585 7.899 3.178 4.721 407
November 2.380 6.034 1.940 4.094 440
December 2.341 6.703 2.046 4.657 295
Total 52.782 95.139 46.391 48.748 6391

Photovoltaic system can supply 48% of the total annual electricity demand of the building
from renewable resources.

4. COST ANALYSIS

Economical cost and energy cost analysies of the two measures applied to the building have
been done and simple payback times have been calculated in this section.

4.1. Insulation alternatives

Economical and energy costs of two alternative insulation applications which are 2 cm
Exturude Polystren Foam and 11 cm New Material have been calculated. Market prices are
considered for these materials and the embeded energy for insulation materials are taken from
literature and from the company documents. Results are given in Table 6. Simple pay back
times are also given in same table.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

686

Table 6. Costs and simple payback times of two alternative insulation applications
Reference
Building
2 cm Exturude
Polystren Foam
11 mm New
Insulation Material
Investment cost (TL) - 12694 33828
Embodied energy (kWh) - 56383 2294
Annual energy cost
(TL/year)
53.541 49.568 46.953
Annual energy
consumption (kWh/year)
280.699 248.826 225.376
Simple economic payback
time
- 3,2 years 5,1 years
Energy payback time - 1,8 years 15 days

There is a striking difference between energy costs of two alternative solutions. Due to this
fact, energy payback times are 1,8 years and 15 days correspondingly for Alternative-1 and
Alternative-2. Energy cost and energy payback time of Alternative-2 are much less than the
Alternative-1. However there is no much difference between these alternatives in terms of
economical evaluation. Even economically Alternative-1 is more advantageous comparing the
Alternative-2.

4.2 Photovoltaic alternative

All necessary measures have been taken to improve the performance of reference building for
the renewable on-site photovoltaic power production alternative. Table 7A resumes the results
of economical cost calculations and Table 7B resumes the results of energy cost calculations.
Investment cost, annual energy cost and simple payback time are given in the Table 7A and
embodied energy, annular energy consumptions of building and energy payback time are
given in Table 7B. Embodied energy calculation of photovoltaic systems is based on the
comprehensive works of [4] and [5]. Embodied energy considering both manufacturing and
the construction energies involved for this case study is taken as 1894 kWh/m
2
.

Table 7A Economical costs and simple payback time of photovoltaic

Reference
building
Photovoltaic power
generation
Unit price of the photovoltaic
system (TL/kW)
- 3.525
Total cost of the system (TL) - 133.950
Annual energy cost (TL/year) 32.109 14.957
Simple payback time (years) - 7.8

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

687

Table 7B Energy costs and energy payback time of photovoltaic

Reference
Building
Photovoltaic power
generation
Unit embodied energy for the
photovoltaic (kWh/m
2
)
- 1894
Total embodied energy (kWh) - 473.500
Annually consumed energy by
building (kWh/yl)
95.139 42.357
Simple pay back time (years) - 8,8

As can be seen from above tables, payback times are long and the economical payback time
less than the energy payback time. Critical value is the energy payback time of 8.8 years in
terms of energy consumption. If the life time of the photovoltaic system is less than the 8.8
years for this application, it can not be justified as a rational investment. This fact schould
also be considered by the standards and directives stimulating alternative renewable systems.
The ratio of produced energy during the life time of the renewable system to embodied energy
is a very important criteria. If this ratio is less than 1 value there is no way justifying such a
system.

5. CONCLUSIONS

Energy costs and sustainability are the prior criteria both for the investors and the society
evaluating different systems and measures. This cannot be considered as an economical
decision of the investor, this decision also concerns the society due to the consequences.
Society involves in this issue by standards and the directives. Unfortunately this evaluation is
done today using economical parameters only. However main focus is energy and the
evaluation should be done in terms of energy.

In this case study two groups of measures have been evaluated. Alternative insulation
materials to increase the performance of building skin and the renewable photovoltaic power
generation on-site have been evaluated. These evaluations have been done both economically
and in terms of energy.

It has been shown that there could be big differences between total economical cost and the
total energy cost. This could be due to special market conditions. Realistic evaluation of the
alternative materials, equipment or systems can be done only by in terms of energy.

Renewable power or energy generations should also be evaluated in terms of energy.
Produced energy during the life time of a renewable system should be much more than the
embodied energy of the system. Otherwise such a system shouldn't be stimulated even if it is
cost effective economically.

REFERENCES

1. Geoff Hammond and Craig J ones, Inventory of Carbon & Energy (ICE), Univ. of Bath.,
2008
2. Bjorn Berge, The Ecology of Building Materials, 2000
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

688

3. Kantarolu, F., 2010. Fotovoltaik sistemler, Trk Tesisat Mhendisleri Dergisi, 68, p.
28-35.
4. Alsema, E.A., Niluwlaar, E., 2000. Energy viability of photovoltaic systems, Energy
Policy, 28, p. 999-1010.
5. Nawaz I., Tiwari, G.N., Embodied energy analysis of photovoltaic (PV) system based
on macro- and micro-level. Energy Policy 34 (2006) 31443152
6. Directive 2002/91/EC of the European parliament and of the council on the energy
performance buildings, EU.
7. Key world energy statistics, International Energy Agency Report, 2009
8. Carrier, 2006. Hourly Analysis Program v4.30, Carrier, USA.
9. Hammond, G., J ones, C., 2008. Inventory of carbon & energy, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath, UK.
10. REHVA., 2013. nZEB technical definition and system boundaries for nearly zero
energy buildings.
11. RES Enerji Sistemleri, 2013. Personal contact
12. T.C. Bayndrlk ve skan Bakanl, 2004. naat ve tesisat birim tarifleri.
13. <http://www.cellubor.com/tr/belgeler/2-2.pdf>, date 10.03.2013.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

689

POSTERS

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

690

INCREASING THE ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF A 600 BED HOSPITAL
BY ADJUSTING BOILER ROOM MANAGEMENT AND CONTROL

J . San J os Alonso
1
, F. Castro Ruiz
1
, J .M. Villafruela Espina
1
and J .C. Fraile Marinero
2

1
Departamento de Ingeniera Energtica y Fluidomecnica.
2
Departamento de Ingeniera de Sistemas y Automtica.
Escuela de Ingenieras Industriales (Universidad de Valladolid)
Paseo del Cauce n 49, 47011 Valladolid (Spain)

Corresponding email: julsan@eii.uva.es

SUMMARY

The present article provides a series of energy control system improvements that have been
developed, implemented and tested in the heating and domestic hot water facility of a 600-bed
hospital complex.

The heating facility control system developed and installed is based on a conventional PID
controller in which parameter synchronisation is performed through empirical adjustment.
This was because the system being regulated, the burners in a boiler room, was already in
operation. The adjusted PIDs were fitted, tested and put into operation in the hospitals energy
production control system. The results obtained for the variables managed (temperature),
evidence the efficiency of the proposed controller.

These improvements in control strategies have led to a saving in energy and cost, have
stabilised the facility as a whole and in sum, have enhanced energy efficiency, constantly
adjusting the boiler rooms heat energy production to meet the hospitals requirements.

INTRODUCTION

Management and energy control systems installed in large buildings rely on general
programming strategies to adapt the facilitys operation to the buildings heating
requirements. Even when they are able to make the facility run adequately, such strategies do
not always manage to achieve optimal energy efficiency for the system, since they fail to
adapt to the buildings particular features and the use to which it is put.

Implementing control strategies that can enhance the systems energy efficiency means
cutting both energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions. Such action falls within the
long-term (2007-2013) Intelligent EnergyEurope programme as well as the (2007-2012)
action plan for energy efficiency in the building sector, which broadens the scope of
application of directive 2002/91/EC on energy efficiency in buildings [1] and [2].

The term "energy efficiency" refers to competent energy management, both from the financial
as well as the environmental standpoint. The goal is to cut energy consumption by developing
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

691

and applying new control techniques that use less energy whilst maintaining or increasing
activity [3].
Boiler rooms are major consumers of energy. They are used in a large number of industrial
and residential facilities to provide domestic heating and hot water. Some facilities even
produce electricity [4].

In order to achieve high levels of energy efficiency in boiler rooms, efficient control and
regulation systems need to be installed. Boiler rooms comprise burners and boilers which
transform the energy contained in the fuel into thermal energy for heating and domestic hot
water for sanitary purposes. Such facilities function in a complex and dynamic manner, since
they may involve multiple inputs and outputs, non-linear behaviour, time variants, and tend to
operate in conditions that change depending on their location.

PID controllers have been widely used in boiler control for a long time. Appropriate tuning of
PID controller parameters is achieved through a range of techniques [5], and by drawing on
the experience of the facility operator. However, the non-linear nature of the boiler being
controlled makes it complicated to find the correct values for the PID controller parameters,
such that it is difficult for the PID controller to achieve effective on-line control. This has
given rise to the emergence of more complex control strategies based on empirically
identifying the plant being controlled and fine-tuning the PID parameters using a range of
control techniques: fuzzy control, neural networks, adaptive control and predictive control.

Abbas [6] proposes a predictive controller which controls building heating systems by firing
multiple boilers that are controlled individually.

Liao [7] develops a neural network model for boiler combustion systems based firstly on a
data driven method, then by performing optimal control of the boiler combustion system via
the iterative heuristic dynamic programming algorithm.

Boiler combustion systems are often seen as difficult to control in industry due to long time
delays, varying coal quality, and steam load. Dong [8] proposes a neural network
identification method for a time delay system and discusses the delay time parameter. He
achieves the best control value in term of the errors between predictive output and reference
input, adjusting the PID controller parameters based on neural networks.

J iang [9] introduces a fuzzy PID controller for the control system of an industrial boiler. The
suggested controller incorporates both control strategies, which has flexibility, perfect anti-
interference capability of fuzzy control, and high steady-state precision of PID control. The
hybrid PID controller has the properties of PID and fuzzy controllers and the problem of
tuning PID parameters is avoided.

The industrial boiler is a device used in thermal energy production systems. Such systems are
strongly non-linear; suffer from outside disturbances, and therefore parameter variation. This
leads to difficulty in using conventional PID type control strategies, and in some cases can
cause system performance to undergo significant variations in the variables controlled
(temperature, pressure,.), leading to instability.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

692

The heating and domestic hot water control system which has been developed and fitted is
based on a conventional PID controller, in which the parameters have been tuned using
empirical adjustment based on the Ziegler-Nichols method [10]. We were forced to do this
since we were working on regulating a real system which is currently in operation, namely the
boilers in a hospital. The empirical method for designing the PID controller is described in
detail in the paper.

The adjusted PIDs have been fitted, tested and put into operation in the control system for
producing heating and domestic hot water in the hospital. The results obtained for the
evolution of the variables controlled (temperature) in the actual system for generating heat
and domestic hot water demonstrates the efficiency of the proposed controller. This therefore
allows us to state that the hospital boiler control system based on a conventional PID
performs well and meets the performance requirements demanded in a hospital environment.

METHODS

Description of the facility. The hospitals boiler room comprises six groups of generators
consisting of: i) boilers (Eurobloc-super standard model, manufactured by Vulcano-Sadeca
S.A. and ii) Weishaupt RGL model combined diesel/natural gas burners). Four generators
(14) with a heat power of 4000 Kw each, a 2300Kw generator (5), and an 1100Kw generator
(6). Such a variety of powers allows for a wide range of possibilities when having to adapt to
and meet the hospitals energy requirements.

The domestic hot water system (DHWS) is considered a further demand of the heat
generating system. For this, the hot water from the generators flows through the distribution
circuit around the hospital to meet heating requirements in the various areas, and also flows
into the heat exchangers to heat the water stored in the DHWS tanks.

This distribution system consists of two circuits, the primary circuit, (red in figure 1, the
circuit where the generating groups are connected), and the secondary circuit (blue in figure 1,
where the various areas of the building and the DHWS are connected). In the primary circuit
the flow is constant, and working impulsion/pump temperature difference and constant return
circuit. The secondary circuit is a flow and variable temperature circuit, as shown in Figure 1.
The flow of the primary circuit is variable. However, the flow in the secondary circuit is
constant, compensating for possible differences with the water flow bypass. This bypass
facilitates elevation of the temperature of the secondary circuit returning to the boilers; to
make the temperature does not drop in the boiler.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

693

Figure 1. Diagram of the hot water distribution circuit in the boilers

Improvements in the control strategies were implemented and tested in the primary circuit and
more specifically in the functioning of boilers five and six, which are responsible for the
hospitals heat production in the summer months (J une-September). During these months, the
tests and assays conducted interfere less in the day-to-day running of the hospital.
Nevertheless, once they had been tested, all the improvements were put into operation in the
other hospital boilers.

The control architecture of the facility. All of the control equipment and mechanisms tested
in the facility for producing heat and domestic hot water in the hospital are manufactured by
TREND
. The equipment offered by this manufacturer includes open control systems, in

which the user has access to control software, and can improve and alter already functioning
control strategies as well as add new ones.

Two software control and monitoring tools manufactured by TREND
were used:
- Supervisor 963: Enables monitoring and/or modification of all the parameters and
variables of the elements and control systems in the facility, alarm control, data storage,
and so on, to supervise energy efficiency [11].
- The SET program: Development software which enables control programs to be created
for all TREND equipment, [12].

From the control standpoint, the heat generating facility at the hospital comprises two types of
TREND equipment:
- Configurable equipment: The control functions are factory set and only allow for
adjustments in the operating parameters. This is called IQL equipment by the
manufacturer, TREND.
- Programmable equipment: The user can load new control programs into this equipment so
as to achieve the desired operation. This is called IQ2XX equipment by the
manufacturer, TREND (the XX referring to the number which identifies each model).
Boilers 1, 2, 3, 4 use controller IQ246, and boilers 5 and 6 use controller IQ204.

Working pump
Return pump
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

694

The control system at the hospitals heat production facility uses two communication
networks (see Figure 2): The LON (Local Operation Network) which connects all the IQL
equipment, and the LAN (Local Area Network) which communicates the IQ2XX type
controllers. There are two PC computers to control the facility, both of which are connected to
the LAN network. Each have the updated versions of the supervisor 963 and the SET program
installed, enabling constant data collection and handling, as well as programming of any
controller.

Figure 2 depicts a diagram of the systems four LAN control networks, interconnected
through an INTERLAN network by means of INC2 cards. The two computers in the hospital
control room are linked through LAN networks by means of CNC2 cards. The controllers of
the six boilers that make up the hospitals heat generating system are linked to the LAN 4
networks. In addition, the Weishaupt-Bremer modulating burner in each of the boilers allows
the controller parameters integrated in the PID to be regulated.

Figure 2. Diagram of the communication network of the heat production control system in the
hospital

Connection to the control network was through PCs, through which in turn all the analyses
and programming of the various control improvements were carried out. The PCs provide
access to all the points in the networks, although the work was concentrated in the LAN 4
networks, since this is where the boiler controllers are connected.

INTERLAN
LAN 1
INC
2
LAN 3
LAN 4
LAN 1
INC
2
INC
2
INC
2
CNC2 CNC2
Contro||ers
8o||er: I246
8urner: We|shaupt
8o||ers 1, 2, 3, 4
Contro||ers
8o||er: I204
8urner: We|shaupt
8o||ers S and 6
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

695

Initial analysis of the facility. The basic requirements imposed on the generator control
system in the hospital were:

Controlling the set-point of the working temperature of the generator groups and
distribution circuit, to meet all the services required by the hospital. The set-point
temperatures may be fixed (the same value over time) or variable (changed depending on
the needs at each moment and on outside temperature).
Using the most efficient groups at each moment, in other words, the power groups which
most fit the specific needs at a given moment.
Cutting down on the number of stops and starts in each group, so as to minimize
consumption as well as mechanical wear and tear.

Regulating the hot water production system for heating and domestic hot water in the hospital
involves three parameters which affect system performance:

1.- Generator working temperature
2.- Burner power
3.- Burner controller PID parameters

When commencing the analysis of the regulation of the hot water production system for
heating in the hospital, the set-point temperature of the generator working temperature was
fixed at 77C. The burners incorporate a thermostat which, for safety reasons, switches off the
burners when the working temperature rises 6C above the set-point temperature. In other
words, the burners stopped during the first test whenever their working temperature
approached 83C. The generator burners were initially adjusted so that their minimum
operating power was 50%. The parameters of the PID type regulator of the burner in
generators 5 and 6 had the general default values set (see Table 1).

Table 1. Initial regulation parameters for the boiler control system
Regulation parameters (boilers 5 and 6)
Maximum burner power 100%
Minimum burner power 50%
working set-point temperature 77C
Safety stop temperature 83C
PID burner: Kp 10
PID burner: Ti 10
PID burner: Td 10

Using these initial regulation parameters, an analysis of the heat production system for the
hospital was carried out over a number of days. The evolution of the generator working
temperature, burner power and distribution circuit temperature variables was studied.
Data for these variables was taken each two seconds.

Figure 3 shows the evolution of the working temperature in boiler five during one hour. This
variable can be seen to take a maximum value of 84C and a minimum of 71C, such that
there was an oscillation of 13C, at a period (early afternoon), when the heat requirements for
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

696

the various services at the hospital remain constant, and therefore, working temperature
should evidence very few oscillations.

Figure 3. Graph showing evolution of the water working temperature (C) in boiler five

Figure 4 shows how the burner in boiler five switched on and off several times during one
hour, even when, as indicated, this was a period in which the facility has to deal with
extremely even heat demands.

Figure 4. Graph showing the power evolution (%) of the burner in boiler five

Figure 5 shows how the water temperature in the distribution circuit varies between 71C and
84C, giving a variation of up to 13C at periods when demand in the hospital is practically
constant.
Working boiler-5 temperatureC
% Power burner-4
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

697

Figure 5. Graph showing the evolution of the temperature (C) in the distribution circuit.

In light of the results shown in the above graphs, the initial analysis of the facility enabled us
to make the following considerations with regard to the hospitals boiler control system:

The reduction in water working temperature in boiler five is likely due to increased
demand. These increases in the facilitys heat demand may not, in principle, be controlled,
although if the control system worked efficiently, the boiler burner should react in time,
and return to the set-point temperature as quickly as possible. This reveals that the PID of
the boiler burner is not well tuned, is too slow, and lacks predictive ability.
The same variations as in the boiler working temperature can be seen in the distribution
circuit temperature, with a few minutes delay. The water temperature in the distribution
circuit varies around 13C, which is unacceptable if a balanced performance of the facility
is to be achieved.
J oint observation of Figures 3 and 4 shows that major drops in temperature correspond to
the burner switching off (before 13:00 and just after 13:40). Over a period of 45 minutes,
the boiler has switched on and off twice, which is far from desirable. When the boiler
working temperature increases too much, the burner power should drop. However, it is
unable to do so since it is preset to work at a minimum power of 50%. This high
temperature leads to the boiler burner stopping for safety reasons.

The conclusion seems to be that with the current boiler control, the behaviour of the heat
generating system for the hospital is highly unstable and changing. The boiler switches on and
off too often, leading to large variations in the distribution circuit temperature. The facilitys
control system is unable to deal with changes in demand, which leads to strong variations in
the water temperature of the distribution circuit.

RESULTS
Measures taken and implemented in the control system for generating heat in the hospital
complex.

Working boiler-5 temperatureC
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

698

1
st
measure: Reducing the lower power limit of the burners. The first measure adopted
was to reduce the burners minimum power from 50% to 30% in boiler five, and from 50% to
40% in boiler six. These are mixed-type burners, and can use natural gas or diesel as fuel.
This means that the minimum power cannot drop too low. If the power falls below 30%, there
will be excess air which will increase the amount of oxygen at the boiler outlet. In turn, this
will lead to a drop in fume temperature, with the subsequent danger of condensation.

2
nd
measure: Tuning the PID parameters to regulate the boiler burner power. PID
controllers are currently the most widely used in industrial applications, in which over 95% of
control links carry the PID algorithm.

Tuning (or adjusting) a PID involves determining the controller parameters (Kp, Ti, Td) in
accordance with a series of specifications. Tuning can be carried out when the control system
is put into operation (pre-tuning), or when the user observes a worsening in the control system
behaviour (supervision +tuning).

The PID of boiler burners five and six was initially regulated with the default parameters set
by the manufacturer (Kp=10, Ti=10, Td=10). These parameters are not appropriate for the
facility, since, as was seen in the graphs obtained (Figures 3, 4 and 5), the control system for
generating heat is unstable, slow, and unable to predict.

The variable we wish to control is the boiler working temperature, since this is responsible for
water temperature in the distribution circuit. Our goal is to ensure that said working
temperature is maintained within a range of 3C around the set-point working temperature
(77C), and that the boiler control system responds to changes in heat demand, by dealing
rapidly with these variations.

The first tuning is performed by calculating (for boilers five and six) the values of the PID
parameters using the self-adjustment function incorporated in the burner itself. For the
adjustment, this function uses the response of the variable to be controlled, the power of the
burner, with a step input. After tuning the parameters using this self-adjustment function, the
three values shown in Table 2 were obtained:

Table 2. PID parameters for boilers 5 and 6.
PID parameters for burners 5 and 6
Kp 7
Ti 180
Td 50

These calculated parameters were introduced in the PIDs of the burners in boilers five and six.
Tests were performed and data were taken from the installation. Data analysis showed a
reduction in the range of water temperature oscillations for the distribution circuit in the
interval 74C - 80C 6C (compared to the initial variation 71C - 84C 13C, shown in
Figure 3).

However, this proved insufficient and we had to reduce the temperature oscillations in the
circuit even further, and achieve a faster response to temperature shifts resulting from changes
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

699

in demand. As a result, the PID of boiler burners five and six was tuned for a second time,
using the experimental method known as empirical adjustment.

When regulating a real system which is already operating, as is the case of the boilers in a
hospital, one of the most commonly used methods for tuning the PID is so-called empirical
adjustment. This is based on an analysis of the systems response features in a closed loop.
In our system, we use empirical adjustment based on the Ziegler-Nichols method [5] which
consists of:
Causing a step input in the set-point variable.
Increasing or reducing the proportional gain until a stable oscillation in the controlled
variable is obtained
Noting the proportional gain obtained (Kc), and the oscillation period (Tc)

After applying the Ziegler-Nichols based empirical adjustment method to our heat generating
system, the parameters calculated for the PID of boiler burners five and six are those shown in
Table 3. These were the parameters that were programmed for boiler burners five and six.

Table 3. Final PID parameters of the burners for boilers 5 and 6

PID parameters for burners 5 and 6
Kp 20
Ti 80
Td 75

3
rd
measure: Programming the boiler sequence. In order to make heat production adjust
efficiently to demand in the hospital, using the TREND manufacturers SET program, we
programmed a priority and operation sequencing strategy for boilers five and six, adapted to
the hospitals outdoor ambient temperature.

We first established an operating priority in which if the outdoor temperature Te 32C,
boiler five should function as the main boiler, and if Te >32C then boiler six will be the
main boiler. After trying out different values and studying after which outdoor temperature
the facilitys heat demand may be covered using the power from boiler six (the smallest), it
was decided to set the limit at 32C, since with this limit the system functioned better. Before
setting this limit, tests were carried out with 25C, 28C and 30C, although all of them
evidenced the same problem; by itself, boiler six was unable to meet the demand for heat and
required the continued support of boiler five.

Secondly, we programmed a support sequence for boilers five and six. This consisted of:
When the priority boiler burner is working at over 75% of its capacity for more than three
minutes, the other boiler automatically switches on to support it.
When the two boilers are operating, the support boiler will switch off automatically once
it has been operating at below 40% power for another three minutes.

A three-minute waiting period was chosen to prevent the support boiler starting/stopping
unless it is really necessary. If there is an increase in demand and the main boiler is able to
cope, it will increase its power over a short period of time, and will reduce it once the need
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

700

has been met, all of which occurs without the support boiler having fired up. However, is the
main boiler cannot handle the increase, and is running at a high power for over three minutes,
the support boiler will have to start up, and the two boilers will be working to meet the heat
requirements.

If there is a sudden increase in demand, a second support boiler will come into operation, the
working temperature will be recovered more quickly, and temperature peaks will be avoided.
Table 4 shows a summary of the priority strategy and functioning sequencing of boilers five
and six.

Table 4. Priority strategy and sequencing of boilers 5 and 6

Outdoor temperature Operating priority Support sequence
Te 32C Boiler 5 (C5)
Power(C5) >75% for 3 minutes C6 ON
Power(C6) 40% for 3 minutes C6 OFF
Te > 32C Boiler 6 (C6)
Power(C6) >75% for 3 minutes C5 ON
Power(C5) 40% for 3 minutes C5 OFF

In order to test the performance of the heat generating system (with boilers five and six)
having completed measures 1 and 2 described above (2 August 2011), an analysis of the
facility was carried out. Figure 6 shows the graph with the evolution of the working
temperature for boiler five between 30 J uly 2011 and 8 August 2011. The set-point working
temperature is 77C.

It should be pointed out that during the morning of 4 August 2011, between 9 and 11 oclock,
combustion tests were carried out on all the boilers as part of the facilitys preventive
maintenance. As a result, the data shown in Figure 6 between these times are not
representative of the boilers true performance.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

701

Figure 6 Graph showing the working temperature evolution (C) for boiler five (having
implemented measures 1 and 2)

Up to 2 August:
The mean working temperature for the boiler is around
80C. Oscillation ranges between 70C and 84C 7C

After 2 August:
The mean working temperature for the boiler is around 77C
(set-point temperature). The temperature varies between
74C and 80C 3C
Peaks have been smoothed and are shorter. The system is
able to respond rapidly to changes and quickly stabilizes
when dealing with changes in demand.

Although oscillations in the boilers working temperature have been cut substantially and the
system is running in a stable manner, implementing the boiler sequencing program improves
the heat generating systems performance even more, as can be seen in Figure 7. The figure
shows how when the working temperature in the boiler and in the circuit drops, boiler six
fires up automatically to support boiler five and thereby avoid significant temperature
decreases in the circuit, quickly restoring the systems stability. The oscillation range has been
cut, and varies between 75C and 80C 2.5C

In|t|a| state Act|on carr|ed out
Combustion
tests
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

702

Figure 7. Graph showing the evolution of boiler five working temperature (C)
(after implementing measures 1, 2 and 3)
Variables represented
Red: Working temperature into the circuit
Green: Boiler five working temperature
Blue: Functioning of boiler 6 (1=ON and 0=OFF).
Main boiler Boiler 5
Support boiler Boiler 6
Boiler set-point working
temperature
77C

4
th
measure: Variable set-point for boiler working temperature. The heat demand of the
hospital facility is a direct function of outside temperature. When the outside temperature is
low, the rooms to be heated need higher air working temperatures to reach ambient comfort
temperature in each area. In addition, the domestic hot water system will be colder and a
higher input will be required to heat the exchangers. The opposite occurs when the outside
temperature is high.

Grounded on this idea, we designed a new control strategy based on the variable set-point of
the boiler working temperature, depending on outside temperature. This new strategy seeks to
ensure that the heat generating system adapts better to demand requirements so as to obtain
the facilitys optimum energy performance and so save on costs (lower gas and electricity
consumption).

The idea of including a system allowing for the choice between a fixed and a variable set-
point for the boiler working temperature came from the variations in demand observed
throughout the day. The new working set-point temperature varies depending on the outside
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

703

temperature, since this determines at all times the facilitys heat requirements. During the time
boilers five and six were operating jointly (summer or during hot weather), the facilitys
heating requirements were concentrated during: the times of the day when the outside
temperature was lower, early morning when the machines and equipment which have been off
overnight start up, and when the hot water facilities are used by the hospitals patients.

Working with a variable set-point on the one hand enables a higher temperature to be supplied
when demand is greater, preventing the circuit working temperature from dropping and
stabilizing it, and on the other working lower temperatures whenever possible, thereby
achieving a significant saving in energy and cost.

In order to implement this new variable set-point strategy, we programmed a series of
modules using the SET programme, and developed the module shown in Figure 8 using
Supervisor 963.

For each of the six boilers in the hospital complex, the user can choose between the fixed set-
point (manual mode) or the variable set-point (auto mode). As can be seen in Figure 8, in
auto mode, users can type in the Outside Temperature (OT) (minimum and maximum
values), and the boiler Working Temperature (ST) (minimum and maximum values). The
control system makes the linear interpolation between these points, obtaining a linear
variation of the working temperature, whose specific value at each moment will depend on the
ambient temperature measured outside the hospital.

Figure 8. Parameterization module of the variable set-point strategy for boiler five working
temperature

This new variable set-point control strategy was programmed for the six boilers in the
hospital, although for the time being it has only been tested and analysed with boilers five and
six. Figures 9 and 10 show the results achieved after implementing the variable set-point
strategy.
Minimum OT Maximum OT Real OT
Linear interpolation for boiler 5
Maximum ST
Minimum ST
Set-point
calculated
Minimum ST
Supply Temp.
Burner Power
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

704

Figure 9. Evolution of working temperature (C) for boiler five

Period represented From 19 August to 30 August.
Boiler working set-point
- Constant: 77C before 23 August
- Variable after 23 August

Figure 9 shows the oscillations (which previously occurred around the fixed set-point of
77C), now with a variable set-point, working temperature of boiler five shows several
oscillations, to adapt to the variable set-point.

Figure 10 shows how during the warmest part of the day (18h 23h), the working
temperature is lower. During the night and early hours of the morning (23h 8h) when
demand is greatest (due to firing up of machine and equipment which is idle overnight,
hospital patients using bathrooms), the working temperature is higher.

Constant set-
po|nt
Var|ab|e set-po|nt
Storm on the 20
th

power
generators
l
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

705

Figure 10. Evolution of the working temperature into the circuit, and the outside
temperature

Period represented From 30 August at 17.00 to 31 August at 09.00
Variables represented
Red: Circuit working temperature (C)
Blue: Outside temperature (C)
Boiler working set-point Variable

DISCUSSION

The action carried out to regulate and control the facility allows us to conclude that:

The reduction in the lower limit of the burners power has managed to prevent the boiler from
constantly switching on and off as a result of reaching high working temperatures at moments
of low demand. As was already analyzed, the performance of the burner control might
resemble a three position control: 0%, 50% and 100%, preventing modulation, leading to
huge leaps and oscillations in working temperature, both in the circuit and the boiler, and
generally meant that the system operated very badly.

Adjusting the PID of the burner has affected the variations in the boiler working temperature
over time by 50%, improving the system adjustment.

Implementing the boiler sequencing programme offers a series of advantages and benefits for
the facility such as: i) the equipment stops functioning at high power over long periods, ii)
automating the system makes it independent and reliable, iii) enhancing the safety of the
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

706

facility as well as the safety of the burners and boilers when firing up. A key safety feature
which is included is taking account of the circuit working temperature, iv) faster response to
changes in demand, and v) energy and cost saving, calculated to be around 9 000 m
3
of natural
gas per week.
After implementing the variable set-point working, the working temperature of the boiler is
seen to increase and decrease with the outside set-point temperature throughout the day,
thereby reducing temperature fluctuations in the primary circuit, such that it operates more in
line with the hospitals heating demands.

The action undertaken in controlling and regulating the heating facilities allows us to draw the
following general conclusions:

Control cannot solve a facilitys design problems, but can improve its performance.

The system needs to be independent by implementing the right programming strategies.

It is essential for the system to adapt constantly to the changing needs of the facility and to the
areas climate.

If implemented correctly, controlling and regulating may prove to be important sources of
energy and cost saving. In the case in hand, we report a daily reduction of 600 Nm
3
in natural
gas, in addition to cutting down on the wear and tear of the facility and minimizing the need
for human involvement.

REFERENCES

1. Commission decision, Intelligent Energy Europe II, Brussels, 12.03.2008.
2. Commission decision, Towards a European Strategic Technology Plan, Amsterdam,
3.4.2007.
3. Commission Decision 2007/372/EC of 31 May 2007
(Amends the Decision setting up the Intelligent Energy Executive Agency - Commission
Decision 2004/20/EC of 23 December 2003)
4. Garrido-Soriano N., M. Rosas-Casals, A. Ivancic, M. D. lvarez-del Castillo Potential
energy savings and economic impact of residential buildings under national and regional
efficiency scenarios. A Catalan case study Original Research Article, Energy and
Buildings, Volume 49, J une 2012, Pages 119-125
5. Kazemian, H. B. Comparative Study of a Learning Fuzzy PID Controller and a Self-
Tuning Controller. ISA Transactions 40, 245-253, 2001.
6. Abbas M.A., Naughton R., Eklund J .M. System identification and predictive control of a
building heating system with multiple boilers. Proceedings of the 24th Canadian
Conference on Electrical and Computer Engineering, CCECE 2011, 1483-1486, 2011.
7. Liao B., Peng K., Song S., Lin X. Optimal Control for Boiler Combustion System Based
on Iterative Heuristic Dynamic Programming. Advances In Neural Networks, Lecture
Notes in Computer Science, 2011, Volume 6675/2011, 420-428.
8. Dong X., Wang H. Xu Q. Study on New Control Method for Boiler Combustion System.
Proceedings of the 6th World Congress on Intelligent Control and Automation, 2944-
2948, 2006.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

707

9. J iang L., Kong X., Yang Q., Shao F. Application of compound PID controller in the
boiler. Chinese Control and Decision Conference. 2725 2728, 2010.
10. Ziegler J .B., Nichols N.B. "Optimum settings for automatic controllers", ASME
Transactions, Vol. 64 (1942), pp. 759-768.
11. TREND, 963 Supervisor Data Sheet TA200636 Issue 3 15/5/08
12. TREND, Software manual, from version 1.1.14, set-eng-0310-02

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

708

POST OCCUPANCY EVALUATION OF DAYLIGHTING IN
UNIVERSITY CLASSROOMS
IN CONSTANTINE (ALGERIA): OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE
ASSESSMENT

Sarah Benharkat
1
and Djamila Rouag-Saffidine
2

1
Postgrad.Student, ABELaboratory, University of Constantine 3.
2
Prof.University of Constantine 3.
Corresponding e.mail: sarabenh81@yahoo.fr

SUMMARY

With regards to daylighting scholastic premises in Algeria, previous literature [1,2] gave clear
evidence of the discomfort experienced within classrooms because of an initial inappropriate
conception of side windows. With this in mind and upon the basis of a recent research [3]
which appraise the efficiency of roof lighting systems within similar facilities, a further
investigation was undertaken. This tackles a study of roof lighting performance within lecture
rooms from the Constantine University Central Campus (Algeria), designed in 1967 by the
contemporary famous architect Oscar NIEMEYER.
Though, such lighting systems were assumed to provide optimum luminous comfort
conditions, a Post Occupancy Evaluation both quantitative and qualitative, showed that under
local climatic conditions, roof lighting design does not eliminate totally problems. These were
found to be essentially incurred by the glazed areas eastern orientation which appears to be
not really appropriate for areas of lower latitudes such as Constantine. One further concern
consisted also in bringing attention to how a most clever initial window conception could still
bring about indoor luminous discomfort.

INTRODUCTION

In this study, roof lighting systems were assumed to be a better alternative design to palliate
to the effective critical daylighting situation incurred by lateral window design encountered
unfortunately in practically all school classrooms of Constantine (Algeria) [4]. Thus, the
search primary goal was to examine the extent of the efficiency of the former daylighting
systems under local climatic conditions throughout a number of lecture rooms selected from
within the central university campus.
For this purpose, a formal Post Occupancy Evaluation both quantitative (in the form of
measurements) and qualitative (in the form of questionnaires) was carried.

STUDY ENVIRONMENT
The investigation environment concern the central campus of Mentouri University [5]
designed 1968 by the famous contemporary architect Oscar Niemeyer who also was the
principal foreman to see for its realisation.
Among a whole series of different daylighting systems integrated to various spaces
according to their respective specific function [7-9], a sample of lecture room roof lighting
systems was retained for assessment merely because of the reasons evoked above.
In the number of 100, the lecture rooms in question are set on either side along the first
floor of building 2 (Fig.1) named currently Bloc of Literature. Wide of 40 metres this

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

709

building extends along 300 metres from
South to North.

Figure 1: Bloc of Literature (Western
View & building layout showing selected lecture rooms)
Thus the lecture rooms are practically oriented either East (-81 from South) or West
(+99 from South). It is also perhaps important to precise that all lecture rooms though
mainly roof lit are provided with lateral elliptical small apertures (portholes like of 0.19m in
area and 64cm in height each) designed obviously to keep some contact with the outside and
not to daylit the place.As most lecture rooms, the three retained for investigation (Fig.2) have
an occupancy often not exceeding 32 persons. Yet, their selection was strictly initiated by
their being most representative of the existing roof lighting systems which main geometrical
features are rows of unshaded unilateral glazing with 1.0m in height extending over 4.75m.
Lecture room 59 (47m)

Room 82 (47m)

Figure 2: Views & Plans of selected lecture rooms

Figure 3: Roof Lighting Systems geometrical features

METHODS
There is no doubt that indoor daylight is an integral part of outdoor luminous climate. Thus it
was believed necessary to briefly recall Constantine (latitude: 36.17North & longitude: +
6.37) luminous climate characteristics.

1= Sciences building
2= LiteratureBuilding
3= Library
4= Conference room
5=Restaurant

1
2
3 4
5
North
Room 54-55 (96m)

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

710

In some countries sky illuminance data are provided per month and per hour for given
localities [10] but such data are being unavailable in the place of work. Yet a very recent
research [11] has made available a zoning of outdoor illuminance level means under both
clear and cloudy sky for the whole country.
More, an analysis of local cloudiness or cloud cover data [12] enabled to reach the
conclusion that in the study region, though cloudy skies are more stable, clear skies are quite
frequent throughout the academic year and also predominant together with partly cloudy
skies [4,13]. In addition, Constantine belongs to an area where sunshine probability exceeds
50% [14, 15] which made it clear that sunlighting could hardly be avoided in a space unless a
great care is attributed to window conception at an early design stage.

More frequently than believed, it occurs that a building technically designed to operate
with a great environmental efficiency is revealed through users attitudes quite faulty. This,
further truer for luminous environments where occupants observation [16-18] has shown
merits or inaccuracies of daylighting systems or/and controls. Thus, to be faithfully
illustrative a daylighting Post Occupancy Evaluation needs to include a technical assessment
together with data about users general attitudes (point of view, behavior, action) towards
their environment [19, 20]. Such evaluation procedures might be achieved through a number
of different methods among which measurements and questionnaires that have been adopted
in the present field work.

1-Quantitative assessment through measurements
During the academic year, quantitative assessments were undertaken essentially in the
form of simultaneous measurements (by the means of illuminance meters) of both external
and work-plane internal horizontal illuminances together with vertical internal illuminances.
These latest, were registered at the level of chalkboards and on sunny days at the center of
monitor roof glazing to allow the eventual assessment of daylight factors (or DFs) under clear
skies [21]. Daylight Factors were then calculated upon work- planes according to the
respective grids as shown in the three lecture room plans (Fig.2).
More precisely, the measurements were carried during summertime period (13
th
, 19
th
& 21
st

of J une), wintertime (25
th
, 27
th
& 29
th
of December) and during springtime (22
nd
& 25
th
of
March and 3
rd
& 5
th
of April). During each day, measurements were registered at 9a.m.,
12p.m. and 14p.m.
For each measurement session, isolux contours were drawn but in the current paper
discussion is limited to only results registered under clear or cloudy skies. These are believed
to summarize most extreme conditions encountered usually in alternation under intermediate
sky. Room uniformity and glazing indexes [22, 23] were also calculated to check upon the
distribution pattern of daylight within the investigated indoors.
2-Qualitative assessment throughquestionnaires
As mentioned above a qualitative assessment was carried in the form of a questionnaire
addressed to a sample of subjects selected randomly from the three lecture rooms.
- Selected subjects.
Initially, 50 questionnaires were addressed to subjects occupying permanently the
investigated spaces in perfect accordance to the rule of thumb [20]. Yet, only 36 of them
filled the forms and then were considered as the definite sample of respondents. Note that
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

711

upon the basis of other relevant studies or suggestions [16-20] such number was believed
fairly sufficient and the group reasonably representative. The group in question formed but
exclusively lecturers and students gathered around 60% of males, 80 % of students and 64%
of subjects aged between 20 & 25 years
- The questionnaire form
The questionnaire form elaborated from the model suggested by Steemers& Baker [19],
include questions inherent to: subjective assessment of essentially indoor luminous levels in
both winter and summer together with description of subjects reactions towards sunlight
radiations incident upon their respective work-plane (either table or chalkboard). Also to
minimize the interviewer interventions it was designed a self administrated questionnaire
where the purpose of the inquiry was put in the questions clearly and in simple words as the
respondents were not bound to be familiar with technical lighting vocabulary. The main
questions might be summarized as follows:
1- Do you appreciate daylight in your work place? (Answers on a 4 rating scale).
2- Do you assess indoor daylight as sufficient in summer/in winter? (Answers on a 4/5
rating scale).
3- Do you experience incident sunlight upon your work-plane? Answers on a 3 rating
scale).
4- Are you keen for some solar controls in this work place? (answer by Yes/No)

The results extracted from both quantitative and qualitative assessments provided clear
and precise data about the investigated environment daylighting general conditions. Only a
concise summary is included in this paper.
1- From quantitative assessment
The illuminance levels registered were:
1.1. Under Clear Sky
- During summertime:
- Mean illuminance level are fairly high in the morning (exceeding 3000 lux) within
the 3 lecture rooms (Fig.3).
- Because of the eastern orientation of the glazed areas, solar radiations are incident
upon work-planes during morning time which coincides to the most effective working
day period. Chalkboards are also not preserved from this problem in the
contradistinction of the regulations [22, 23] which stipulate that direct sunlight
should not be falling upon all work-plane types.
--Uniformity of general illuminance distribution is permanent in room 82 (uniformity
index higher than 0.8). In rooms 59 & 54-55 illuminance distribution uniformity is
never ensured because probably of lower surrounding reflectance.
- During afternoons illuminance levels get much lower but remain at acceptable levels
(Fig.3).
- During wintertime:
- Within the three rooms, during mornings illuminance levels are quite sufficient even
upon chalkboard (800 to 1370 lx). During afternoons, illuminances are decreasing to
lower levels except in lecture room 82 where it remains at acceptable levels (Fig.3).
More illuminance levels upon chalkboards remain low within the three spaces
- Because of sun lower altitudes, solar radiation incident indoors are restricted to
upper areas where they are of no effect upon occupants visual tasks.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

712

Figure 3: Illuminance levels in relation to the recommended mean valueunder Summer
clear sky (at left) and under Winter clear sky (at right).

1.2 Under Cloudy Sky
Within the three investigated places, by all day times under cloudy skies,
illuminance levels are fairly insufficient and remain below acceptable levels as illustrated
through Daylight Factors (Fig.4).

Figure 4: Cloudy sky Daylight Factors in relation to the recommended mean and
minimum values.

Remarks: To give a most accurate picture of the effective work-planes lighting conditions,
results are presented in illuminance levels under clear skies and in Daylight Factors under
cloudy skies. In fact, during DFs calculation under clear skies [21], it was noticed a great
discordance between acceptable levels of illuminance levels and their respective DFs. For
instance a mean interior Illuminance level of 2518 Lux (well above the general
recommended 500Lux) would correspond to mean DF of 3.47% (quite below the general
recommended %)

2. Qualitative assessment
The results provided clear evidence of the dissatisfaction of occupants with the general
indoor luminous conditions. For instance: While in winter indoor lighting is judged by
around 83 % of subjects rather insufficient, during summertime it is assessed by 83 % of
subjects sufficient to very sufficient and excessive by only around 14% (Fig.5).
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

713

Figure 5: Subjective assessment of daylightquantity within the 3 rooms in wintertime(at
left) andsummertime (at right).

- With regards to incident sunlight around 50% confirmed to be always exposed to
incident solar radiations among which 36% declare to be seriously indisposed by such a
.situation (Fig.6). Whenever this occurred, the subjects undertake actions such as shifting
to other places (when possible) or moving tables. Under the same circumstances lecturers
confirm that they keep seeking shaded places to work.

Figure 6: Answer rate patterns to indirect sunlight indoors.

- Around 80% of the subjects declare to be in favor of the use of sunlight protections no
matter their form [Fig.7]. Such attitude is motivated not only by indoor sunlight problems
but certainly also because of experienced discomfort due to overheating as confirmed to
occur during even reasonably warm days outdoor, by around 70% of the whole sample
subjects.
- Except 19% of subjects, all others declare to be irritated by incident sunlight radiations
over chalkboards. Main glare effect sources were named to be incident solar radiation,
roof glazing (especially for lecturers) precisely during morning times.

Figure 7: Answer rate patterns to subjectsdesire for solar protections

0
20
40
60
0 1 2 3
room82 room 39 room 34- 33
0
20
40
60
0 1 2 3 4
room 82 room 39 room 34-33
0
20
40
60
80
never S omeLlmes Cf Len
%
room 82 room 39 room 34- 33
0
50
100
yes no
%
room 82 room 59 room 54-55
0 = Insufficient ,
1 = Quitesufficient,
2 = Sufficient,
3= Verysufficient,
4=Excessive
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

714

CONCLUSION

Though roof lighting remain a good alternative design as it did effectively alleviate
problems registered while studying sidelighting, this investigation showed that they are not
entirely eliminated. For instance during summertime periods, high solar altitudes are
provocative unavoidably of visual tasks sunlighting which results in visual discomfort for
around 2/3 of the subjects. During wintertime, sunlight does not cause any problem as it
remains restricted to areas beyond effective visual tasks. Yet, illuminance levels on work-
planes remain quite below acceptable levels and hence the rooms could by no means function
upon only daylighting. The question would have never been opportune if the potential of
outdoor illuminances was not so considerable but it seems just too inappropriate in the place
of study to see working places (educational or others) doing with such a wasteful use of
energy.
By mere chance, on the 29
th
of March 2006, the Brazilian ambassador in Algeria
confirmed on air (National Radio3), that the Architect O. Niemeyer has confided to him that
he considers the Constantine University as one of his most brilliant projects. Indeed,
admiration for this project design has never lessen among locals (highly educated or not).
Nevertheless, the lame number of post occupancy daylighting evaluation studies [7, 9] has at
each time revealed problems inherent essentially to either a lack or an excess of dayllight, a
critical indoor daylight distribution [7] or/and to experience of discomfort because of direct
sunlighting.
Actually no problems were attributed to a lack of skill during the construction as it was
under the control of the architect himself but there was a mere assumption that at that time
period (i.e. 1968-69) energy consumption was not at all of a problem and designing with in
mind the effective environmental potential of local climates seems to have not been a major
concern. However, no matter the reason for more or less faulty luminous interiors, the merits
of daylighting post occupancy evaluation helps to draw attention to what ought to be avoided
within future places.

REFERENCES
[1] D. Saffidine-Rouag and M.A. Wilkinson, Proc. PLEAMillenium Conference on Passive
and Low Energy Architecture, Cambridge, UK, 2000, pp.134-138
[2] D. Saffidine-Rouag, Proc. International Lighting Congress, Istanbul, TURQUIE, Sept.
2001, pp.126-133
[3] Lighting Research Center, Guide for Daylighting Schools, Raleigh: innovative design,
2004
[4] D Saffidine-Rouag., Sunlight Problems Within New Primary Schoolclassrooms in
Constantine (Algeria), PhD. Thesis, Arch. Dept., Constantine Univ. Apr. 2001
[5] www.umc.edu.dz
[6] Constantine University Audio Visual Centre.
[7] N. Boudjamaa, Principles for Techniques for the Design of Daylighting with Blue Sky
Conditions, M.Sc. thesis, Manchester University, U.K. 1988, pp. 153-159
[8] D. Rouag, An investigation of shading devices in Algeria, MPhil Thesis , Bath University,
UK, 1987. pp. 27-29
[9] S. Benharkat, Impact de L'clairage Naturel Znithal sur Le Confort Visuel dans Les
Salles de Classe (Cas du Bloc des Lettres de L'UMC, Msc. Thesis, Arch. Dept., Constantine
Univ, 2006, pp. 110;11;118
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

715

[10] Illuminating Engineering Society. IES Technical Report n 4 : Daytime Lighting in
Buildings, IES group, London, 1972, p. 26
[11] N. Zemmouri, Daylight availability integrated modelling and evaluation :A fuzzy logic
based approach, Ph.D. Thesis, Arch. Dpt. Of Setif University, Algeria, Nove. 2005, p. 6.20
[12] Meteorological Station of Ain El bey Constantine, ALGERIA From 1971 to 1996
[13] D. Saffidine-Rouag, Proc. lluminat 2003 international conference, CIE, Romania
National Committee on illumination, 2003, pp.42.1-42.4
[14] M. Capderou, Atlas solaire de lAlgrie, OPU, Alger, 1983
[15] P.J . Littlefair, Designing with Innovative Daylighting, British Research Establishment,
London 1996, p.31.
[16] M.Niklas, Daylit Students Shine Brighter, Sun World, vol.20 n3,sept.96, pp.13-15
[17] HeshongMahone Group, Daylighting in Schools: An investigation into the relationship
between Daylighting& Human Performance, Report submitted to California Board for Energy
Efficiency, USA, 1999
[18] E. Grangaard, The Effect of Colour & Light on selected Elementary School Students,
Ph.D. dissertation, Univ. of Nevada.
[19] N. Baker & K. Steemers Daylight design of Buildings J ames & J ames, London,2002,
p. 234-236
[20] S. Hygge& H. A. Lfberg, Post occupancy evaluation of daylight in buildings, a
published Report of KTH Royal Institute of Technology Centre for Built Environment,
Gvle, Sweden, Dec. 1999
[21] J .G. Chavez, The Potential of Beam Core Daylighting for Reducing the Energy
Consumption of Artificial Lighting and Air-Conditioning in Hot-Arid Regions of Mexico.
PhD Thesis, Archi. Assoc. of Graduate School of Archi., April 1989
[22] Department of Education & Sciences, School Lighting, H.M.S.O 1967
[23] www.audience.cerma.archi.fr/cerma/ (Laboratoire CERMA. J eux de tches solaires .
Ecole dArch..de Nantes) consulted in Oct. 2004.
[24] Promotelec Association, Label PROMOTELEC clairage des salles de classe : Cahier
des prescriptions., Paris, Sept. 2002, p 5.
[25] Association Francaise de lEclairage Recommendations relatives a leclairage des
locaux scolaires, Lux, 1987.
[26] ANSI\IES RP3 (1988) Guide for Educational Facilities, USA, 1992.
[27] The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers Code for Interior Lighting ,
London., 1994
[28] British Standards Institution, Code of practice for daylighting. BS 8206: Part 2:.London,
1992.
[29] Commission Internationale de lEclairage Guide on Interior Lighting, Second edition,
CIE, 1986, 29 (2).
[30] Bell J . &Burt W. Designing with Daylight in Architecture, Ed. J ohn KAY, New
York, 1996..

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

716

BENEFITS AND WELL-BEING PERCEIVED IN SHADE BY
PEDESTRIAN IN VEGETATED URBAN SPACE IN PERIODS OF
HEAT STRESS

Samira Louafi ep Bellara
1
, Saliha Abdou
1

1
Laboratory ABE. Department of Architecture and Urbanism, University Constantine 3,
Algeria

Corresponding email: samiralouafi@yahoo.fr

SUMMARY

This research aims to study and analyze the effect of the urban vegetation on climates,
thermal and visual comfort in external spaces.
The experimental method used calls upon the techniques of observation and measurements
in situ. An application on a real case of an external space located city center town of
Constantine (Algeria), Mediterranean climate, hot and dry.
The results confirm the role of the shade by the vegetation which influences the quality of
life, the creation of urban ambience and on the situations of thermal and visual comfort for
this type of climate.

INTRODUCTION

The shade is in general the outside required principal effect in period of overheating for the
areas with hot and dry climate. In urban environments, green spaces have proven to act as
ameliorating factors of some climatic features related to heat stress, reducing their effects and
providing comfortable outdoor settings for people [1]. The mineralization of outdoor spaces,
replacing vegetation and humid zone with concrete and asphalt contributes to appearance of
the harmful effects to the environment and human well-being. It develops, in summer, more
and more problems related to microclimatic phenomena of urban heat island.
This shade reduces solar flows considerably, by limiting the heating of surfaces which
normally should be sunny, also reduces thermal radiative flows.
It is well known that the presence of vegetation modifies the microclimate (light, heat, wind,
and humidity) and influences the perception of urban spaces by the users [1]-[3]. Trees and
vegetation embellish the cities and improve the citizens quality of life. The trees planted along
the streets and in the parks, around the houses or shops or in the green areas throughout the
city also improve the quality of the air and water. The urban green areas offer the possibility
of recreation, and they make the districts more pleasant [4]. Vegetation can modify urban
microclimates shading and evapotranspiration, and use of plants to ameliorate urban heating is
one strategy that has generated significant interest [5]-[6]. Trees and buildings existing singly
or in clusters create strong spatial variability in local heat transfer fluxes that define urban
microclimates within the urban canopy layer [7].
In a hot-dry climate, Grimmond; Oke and Cleugh found in that the temperature in a tree-
vegetated suburban area in Sacramento was 5C to 7C cooler than in mineral areas[8].
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

717

It is therefore important to account for, on the other hand, the shading effect of trees on
thermal comfort, the influence of reflected and transmitted solar infrared radiation on the
energy budget of humans and buildings in their surroundings [9]-[10].
In the present article, the aim is to assess whether people located under tree shade experience
comfort or stress in open spaces during hot-dry season. The specificity of this study is to use a
quantitative analysis through site measurements together with a qualitative analysis through
comfort observation. The detailed objectives of this study are to:
1) Investigate the effects of three different spaces on thermal and visual conditions in outdoor
spaces.
2) Discuss whether trees shade affect peoples thermal comfort in hot-dry climate, and
evaluate outdoor thermal comfort based on comfort indexes predict equivalent temperature
(PET) and mean radiant temperature (Tmrt).
3) Try to highlight the role of presence of trees shade on the use of spaces in hot-dry climate.

SITE INVESTIGATION

The investigation was conducted in Constantine City (Algeria), which is located at 36.17_
North and 06.37_East. The altitude is approximately 687m above sea level. This city is
characterized by a semi-arid climate that is hot and dry in the summer, with an average
maximum temperature of 36C occurring at 15h00 and an average humidity of 25%. In the
winter, the area is cold and humid. In addition, the intensity of solar radiation over this region
is high, with clear skies and sunny periods existing during a large portion of the day.
The wind direction comes relatively from the North, with an average speed reaching 2.1 m/s
at the meteorological station. All these factors contribute to the climatic harshness of the city.
The investigation site is located in the city centre.
The city center has a dense traditional urban fabric (up to 80%) deprived from vegetation; and
a colonial fabric which was grafted on part of traditional fabric and around this initial core.
The presence of the vegetation is not regular there.
The selected site is an open urban space with a group of trees, and an open area without
vegetation (Fig. 1). The measurements and observations were performed under these three
stations.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

718

Fig. 1. Measuring station sites & Photo at the point


Perception of Spaces

At each station of measurement the investigators fill a line on the grid with observation. These
make a qualitative assessment on the parameters constituting the thermal environment (Q-TH),
visual (Q-Vi), acoustics (Q-ac) and olfactive (Q-Ol) [11]. It is a question here of making a
subjective assessment of a group of 15 individuals on the quality of environments thermal,
visual, acoustic and olfactive through a nominal scale going from 0 to 100, where the 0 mean
very uncomfortable feeling while 100 expresses the very pleasant feeling (see Table 1).

Table 1. Scale of appreciation of the five psychophysical station (Q-th, Q-vi, Q-ac et Q-ol)
used in the frame work of this research

Table 2. Perception of different stations, physical environment rose during the day (In the
morning , at midday and afternoon)
Stations Station 1 Station 2 Station 3
Ro
s


___________________________________________________________________________________________________

719

9 h00 10h00

12 h00 -13h00

18h00- 19h00

From the comparison of the various situations (Figures of rose of physical environment of the
Table 2) we can deduce that external space can be affected by the presence of the vegetation
which plays a big part in its environmental quality [12]-[13].
The points at the stations S1and S2 are more comfortable than the stations S3 thanks to the
effect of shade. The presence of the vegetation can attenuate intense solar radiations by the
effect of the reflection and the absorption. Consequently the shade is important in the use of
external spaces.

Global perception of the different stations shaded by trees are neutral than ones in full
insulation which are uncomfortable (Fig. 2). This effect results from the important exchanges
produced in the tree and where solar radiation is absorbed by the majority of the leaves [10],
[14], [15]; that gives place to the evapotranspiration: a phenomenon determining for the
lowering of the air temperature [16]-[19].

0
20
40
60
80
100
1
h
v
l
A
C
l
12P
0
20
40
60
80
100
1
h
v
l
A
C
l
12P
0
20
40
60
80
100
1
h
v
l
A
C
l
12
0
20
40
60
80
100
1
h
v
l
A
C
l
18P
0
20
40
60
80
100
1
h
v
l
A
C
l
18P
0
20
40
60
80
100
1
h
v
l
A
C
l
18P
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

720

Figure 2. Comparison between the station2 and station3 in terms of total physical perception.
Impact of the Vegetation on the Air Temperature

32,3
36,8
33,9
43,9
31
32,8
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
46
6h00 8h00 10h00 12h00 14h00 16h00 18h00 20h00
A
|
r
1
e
m
p
r
a
t
u
r
e
s

C
nours
1alr SLa2
1alr SLa3
1alr SLa1
1 meLeo

Figure 3. Comparison between the station2

Fig. 3 shows the air temperature evolution during a typical summer day at the three stations of
measurement. It shows that open space without trees is warmer from 8h00 to 16h00 than the
vegetal areas under trees coverage, which is consistent with previous studies of the literature
on this subject [1], [3],[9], [18]. The air temperatures in all stations are higher than 32C
during the day, but the temperatures recorded in Station1and Station2 remain lower than that
in the stations Station 3 with a variation between -7.1C and -11.1C at mid day 12:00 and
variation of -3C at after mid day 16:00 this result agrees with the results [8], [20]

Impact of the Vegetation on the Air Humidity

The relative humidity depends on the temperature and the quantity on water contained in the
air. The values of air humidity at the beginning of the day are very high; on the other hand
those of after midday are most significant [21].
According to graph of Fig. 4, a negative correlation between the air humidity and the air
temperature. It is noted that vegetable stations has higher air humidity Station1and Station2
that the station S3. The relative humidity highest of the day is recorded at 18:00 in the station
station2 in the street with trees alignment and Station1 in open space with Group of trees, note
a variation of 9.8%, compared to the station Station3 (with no trees).
At the time of the maximum of energy of 12:00, we observe variation between 18.6% and 4%
in stations S1, S2and S3. After one cumulates solar energy, one record an increase in the
water content, this rise is explained by the effect of the latent heat of the vaporization of the
vegetation [22], [23].
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

721

21,2
39,8
13
20
23
30
33
40
43
30
8h00 10h00 12h00 14h00 16h00 18h00
k
e
|
a
t
|
v
e

n
u
m
|
d
|
t
y

nours
Pr SLa2
Pr SLa3
Pr SLa1
Pr meLeo


Impact of the Vegetation on Luminance

The luminance of a surface depends on the illumination of this surface, on its coefficient of
reflection and on its shiny [24]. The investigation shows that the open space (Station 3)
present higher luminances than shaded spaces (station1 & station2 ( Fig.5) and it is due to the
quantity of sun rays reflected by the sky for a clear sky and the reflection of the surfaces of
the ground (asphalt, concrete) and the walls painted in white.
The value of the most important luminosity is registered on the station 3, an open space and
not shaded with a value of 9710 Cd / m at 10:00 am and the least high value registered
(recorded) in Statio1 with a value of 320cd / m a difference of 9390 Cd / m (that is 95 %),
and a difference between a shade by the vegetation Station2 and the Station1, is about
3480Cd/m (soit70 %) what confirms the effect of density of shade on the quantity of light in
the space, as well as the effect of the vegetation in the mitigation of the solar radiations and
the satisfaction felt by the individuals.
-1000
1000
3000
3000
7000
9000
11000
LuMnAnCL 9P LuMnAnCL 12P LuMnAnCL 13P LuMnAnCL 18P
L
u
m
|
n
a
n
c
e

c
d
]
m
nours
2
3
1


Thermal Comfort Analysis

The comfort parameters and indices adopted for this study were: air temperature (Ta), mean
radiant temperature (Tmrt), and physiologically equivalent temperature (PET).
The mean radiant temperature is an important parameter affecting the human well-being. It
expresses the radiative effect of the whole of the environment. Tmrt varies according to the
importance of the solar radiations received and reflected by surfaces. Its maximum value
reached 63.9C for station 3 (without trees).
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

722

Figure 6. a) PET and Tmrt variation at 14:00, b) relation between air temperature, PET and
Tmrt in differents stations.

Thermal comfort on the level of the two calculated stations is evaluated according to the index
of comfort physiologically equivalent temperature PET. This index is between 28.7 C and
30.9C in the stations were there are shade of the trees and about 54.8C in the mineral station
(Station 3). The value of PET in the station with important shade is lightly hot during all the
day however. Nevertheless, thermal environment in the stations Station 3 without trees are
extremely hot and makes uncomfortable felt in these spaces (Fig.6).
Presence of vegetation optimizes the microclimatic environment for pedestrians thermal
comfort in urban spaces, under hot and dry climate.

CONCLUSION

The vegetation can affect the microclimate in many ways, in particular reducing the air
temperature, luminance compared to stations without trees, while getting shades.
The vegetation makes esthetic improvements to an environment differently dominated by
asphalt and the concrete.
The presence of the vegetation modifies the solar radiations in outside space, the temperature
and the relative humidity. This one witch favorite light for an effective visual comfort.

In this external environment, that is the center of the town of Constantine, the vegetation
(trees) has positive effects on the air temperatures and the shade like on the microclimatic
conditions. We can note a variation in the air temperature of 2.5C to 3C in open spaces
according to the quantity of the shadow , the duration of sunning, and an increase in the air
relative humidity about 2.7% to 4.4% and about 70 to 90% of filtrating light what supports
the bioclimatic effect of the shade by the vegetation.
According to the results of the observation and taken measurements, we can retain the
following projecting points:
1) The presence of the vegetation modifies the solar radiations in external space, the air
temperature, the air relative humidity and light;
2) Vegetalized space develops lower air temperatures and higher air humidity, thus a more
pleasant comfort.
14:00
La 1mrL L1
sLaLlon1 36,4 28,7 28
sLaLlon2 39,7 30,9 33
sLaLlon3
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

723

3) There is a correlation between the air temperature, mean radiant temperature (Tmrt), and
physiologically equivalent temperature (PET) in hot seasons, which influences the quality of
perception
4) There is a significant correlation between vegetation, shade and the use of external space;
5) The relation between shade and vegetation depends on the choice of the gathering space or
transit space.
Trees very often constitute an important component of the opened external space, which
strongly contributes to the environmental quality. For that the valuation of the essential
courses is recommended by the deciduous tree implantation for the more refined environment.
In addition, the trees increase the well-being perception of external space and thermal comfort
felt on period of heat stress in Mediterranean climate, hot and dry.

REFERENCES

1. Nikolopoulou M., Baker N., and Steemers K., Thermal comfort in outdoor urban spaces:
Understanding the human parameter, Solar Energy, vol. 70, no. 3, pp. 227-235, 2001.
2. Nikolopoulou M and Steemers K., Thermal comfort and psychological adaptation as a guide
for designing urban spaces, Energy and Buildings, vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 95-101. 2003
3. Marjury M., Le rle climatique de la vgtation urbaine, Culture et Recherche, no. 113, 2007.
4. Sreetheran M., Philip E., Adnan M., and Sitizakiah. M. A historical perspective of urban tree
planting in Malaysia, Unasylva 223, vol. 57, pp. 28-3, 2006.
5. Sailor D. J ., Simulations of annual degree-day impacts of urban vegetation augmentation,
Atmospheric Environment, vol. 32, pp. 43-52, 1998.
6. Simpson J . E. and Pherson M., Simulation of tree shade impacts on residential energy use for
space conditioning in Sacramento, Atmospheric Environment, vol. 32, pp. 69-74. 1998.
7. Oke T. R., The micrometeorology of the urban forest, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London 1989, vol. 324, pp. 335-349.
8. Grimmond C., Oke T., and Cleugh H. The role of rural in comparison of observed suburban-
rural flux difference, in Exchange Processes at the Land Surface for a Range of Space and
Time Scales, Proceedings of the Yokohama Symposium, J uly 1993.
9. Kotzen B., An investigation of shade under six different tree species of Negev desert towards
their potential use for enhancing microclimatic conditions in landscape, Architectural
development. J ournal of Arid Environments, vol. 55, pp. 231-274, 2003.
10. Shahidan M. F, Shariff M. K. M., J ones P., et al, A comparison of Mesua ferrea L. and Hura
crepitans L. for shade creation and radiation modification in improving thermal comfort,
Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 97, pp. 168-181, 2010.
11. Potvin A., Deniers C., and Dubois M.-C., Environmental adaptability in architecture,
Proceeding of Closing the Loop, Windsor (UK), 2004.
12. Nikolopoulou M. and Lykoudis S., Use of outdoor spaces ans microclimate in a Mediterranean
urban area, Building and Environment, vol. 42, pp. 3691-3707, 2007.
13. Purnomo A. B., The influence of building and vegetation shade onhuman activities in an
outdoor space: The case of outdoor space in the compus of Trisakti, University in J akarta,
Indonesia. Trisakti University research instuitue 2003.
14. Brownand R. D. and Gillespie T. J ., Microclimate landscape design: Creating thermal comfort
and energy, Efficiency. New York: J ohn Wiley and Sons, 1995.
15. Shahidan M. F., Mustafa K. M. S., and Elias S., Effects of tree canopies on solar radiation
filtration in a tropical microclimatic environment, Paper Presented at the Plea 2007
Conference. Singapore 2007.
16. Nowak, trees pollution A TREE explains it all, in Kollin C, Barratt M (eds) Proceeding of
the 7th National Urban Forest Conference,American Forests, Washington, DC 1995, pp. 28-30.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

724

17. Barre L. S. and Hoffman M. E., Vegetation as climatic component in the design of an urban
street an empirical model for predicting the cooling effect of urban green areas with trees,
Energy and Building, vol. 31, pp. 221-235, 2000.
18. Toy S. and Yilmaz S., Thermal sensation of people performing recreational activities in
shadowy environment: case study fromTurkey, Revue/ Theatrical and Applied Climatology,
vol. 101, no. 3-4, pp. 329-343, 2011.
19. Lin T.-P., Tsai K. T, Huwang R. L., and Matzarakis A., Quantification of the effect of thermal
indices and sky view factor on park attendance, Landscape and Urban Planning, vol. 107, no.
2, pp. 137-146, August 2012.
20. Louafi Bellara S. and Abdou S., Effect of shading on thermal and visual comfort in external
spaces. Case of esplanade of the university Mentouri of Constantine, east of algeria; Effet de
lombrage sur le confort thermique et visuel dans les espaces extrieurs. cas de lesplandae de
luniversit Mentouri de Constantine Est de lAlgrie Revue Nature and Technology, vol.
7, no. 7, J une 2012.
21. Streiling S. and Matzarakis A., Influence of single and small clusters of trees on bioclimatic of
city: Case study, J ournal of Arboriculture, vol. 29, no. 6, pp. 309-31. 2003.
22. Shahidan M. F and J ones P., Plant canopy design in modifying urban thermal environment:
Theory and guidelines, PLEA 2008-25
th
Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture,
Dublin, 22nd to 24th October 2008
23. Echave C. and Cuchi A., Habitability Method Analysis in Urban Spaces. PLEA 2004-21th
congrs international, sustainable architecture de passive and low energy architecture,
Eindhoven, pp. 19-22, September 2004.
24. Vinet J . Contribution la modlisation thermo-araulique du microclimat urbain. Caractrisation
de l'impact de l'eau et de la vgtation sur les conditions de confort en espaces extrieurs.
Thse de doctorat,: Universit de Nantes 2000, p. 245

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

725

DESIGN AND ANLYSIS OF A BANK N ANTALYA BY SOLAR
ASISTED ABSOBTION AIR CONDITIONING

Eskiehir Osmangazi University Mechanical Engineering Department Eskiehir

kemtaner@gmail.com

Turkey needs to spend $10 billion on new power generation every year until 2023 to double
capacity from the current 55 gigawatts, Deputy Energy Minister Hasan Murat Mercan said at
a conference in Vienna.
Before calculations litereture researh is given which concern Solar asisted Absobtion air
Conditioning in the world.
n this article the Bank in Antalya /Turkey has been designed.The banks dimension is 8 m x
15 m. First of all solar sadiation is predicted by 17 different formulas and methods in Antalya
and a regression formula is given for this city.Then useful solar heat is calculated from
secected Solar collectors.
Afterwards lityum-Bromide Absoption system calculations are done and the heat is calculated
about 91 785 Kj/h which is suplied to generator of absoption system.This value Also banks
heat gain is calculated Solar gain is calculated by mean difference method.Other gains is
calculated by associated Tables.
At the end economic analsis is done for the design. Except spill gas and diesel oil the
proposal system is not comfitable and the pay back periot is found 8,35 year.

Key Words. Solar Enery, Absorbtion Air Conditioning, Air Conditioning of The Bank

INTRODUCTION

Researches on Solar energy assisted Absorption Cooling Systems
The good examples on solar energy assisted absorption system can be found Welcome
voyager saloon at Florida. (2) Installation schema is shown at Figure 1. In this system total
315 m
2
solar collectors which 250 m
2
collector are flat plate others are Fresnel lens solar
collectors. Cooling had been maintained with absorption system. In cloudy days it contains
37500 lt storage tank. Fluid mass flow is 25 ton and %88 of the energy was obtained by solar
collectors.
The technical feasibility of solar absorption air conditioning has already been proven for
tropical climates through the successful installation of a pilot system in the city of Cabo Rojo,
Puerto Rico. (1)
In the tropical Island buildings are small and require cooling loads in the range of 10,5 35
kW so the absoption machines needed to fit these cooling loads must be smaller. For these
size of cooling load, the cooling tower commonly used in the water cooled absoption machine
is too large and faces installation problems .
For the proposed system, air is used to cool the condenser and absorber of the absoption
machine.
One research had been done on solar assisted absorption air conditioning system at a hotel in
Antalya which has 50 bed capacity. This hotel needed 102 m
2
collector to obtain % 30
of the heating and hot water and air conditioning loads by solar collectors.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

726

Total costs of solar system was 75.300 TL and overcome period was found 4 year for fuel
oil running and 8,34 for natural gas running. (6)
As the absorption chillers can be operated at reduced generator temperatures under partial
load conditions, the control strategy has a strong influence on the solar thermal system design
and performance. It could be shown that buildings with the same maximum cooling load, but
very different load time series, require collector areas varying by more than a factor 2 to
achieve the same solar fraction. Depending on control strategy, recooling temperature levels,
location and cooling load time series, between 1.7 and 3.6 m
2
vacuum tube collectors per
kW cooling load are required to cover 80% of the cooling load.
The cost analysis shows that Southern European locations with higher cooling energy demand
lead to significantly lower costs. For long operation hours, cooling costs are around
200 MWh
1
and about 280 MWh
1
for buildings with lower internal gains and shorter
cooling periods. For a Southern German climate, the costs are more than double. (9)

Figure 1 Shematic Installation picture of Solar Energy Assisted Absoption Air
Conditioning Sistem of Welcome Station Florida. (2)

METHODS

Aim of this paper is to calculate solar assisted heating, hot water load and air conditioning
heat generated for a bank in Antalya and a dewelling belonging to it .Fig 2. The selected bank
and dewelling is not new one but an old one. Therefore the loads are high and economics will
be not good according to new buildings.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

727

Solar irradiation in Antalya is taken from average value of various 17 different estimation
methods which included: Zeren L. and Berkz E. s graphic methods, the measurements of
similar climate Spiht L.D. climate similarities between cities San J ose and Antalya,
Londons international seasonal values, measured values of Turkish Meteorotical Offices,
values of Yener C., values obtained from Angstrom type Linear empirical formula, Penman
and Blacs formulas, Sivkovs empirical formula, Emprical formula of Barbaro S. et al,The
formula of Redyy S.J . , Sabbagh J .A s formula, Tables of A.S.H.R.E, The formula of
TUBTAKs, seasonal values from taken the map which had been prepared by Karaglle N.
Averages values of above 17 different values had been given following regression formula
(2)

n: the day number in the year.
Internal design conditions, Maximum Outdoor Temperatures (
0
C ) and Relative Humidity
(%),Cooling Loads (Antalya) (Kj/Month) are given Table1,Table 2,and Table 3
respectively.

Figure 2 The project of Bank and Dewelling Buiding in Antalya

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

728

Table 1 Antalya Internal design conditions
Dry Tehermometer
Temperature
0
C
DewPoint Temperature
0
C Relatif Humidity %
28 21.2 55

Table 2 Maximum Outdoor Temperatures (
0
C ) and Relative Humidity (%) (second raw)
J une J uly August Septembre
30 33.5 33.6 30.7
62 58 60 58

Table 3 Cooling Loads (Antalya) (Kj/Month) (2)

June July August September Total Load
41434317,5 55218759 53476699 45736309 195866084,5

Fig. 3. Solar assisted absorption system schematic diagram.
Solar assisted absorption system schematic diagram is shown in Figure 3. Thermodynamics
properties of points in Solar Assisted Absorption system schematic diagram is given in Table
4.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

729

Table 4. Thermodynamics properties of points in Solar Assisted Absorption System
schematic diagram

Point T
0
C P mmHg Cocentration
%
m Kg/Kg
H
2
O
H Kj/Kg
1 32 6,3 56 12,2 -174,2
2 32 66 56 12,2 -174,2
3 73 66 56 12,2 -88,7
4 89 66 61 11,2 -69,7
5 38 66 51 11,2 -162,6
6 38 6,3 61 11,2 -162,6
7 89 66 0 1 2664,48
8 43 66 0 1 181
9 4,4 6,3 0 1 181
10 4,4 6,3 0 1 2506,5

Table 5 Heating hot water and total loads of concerning buildins in Antalya
Months
0
C.DAY Heating
Load
Kj/Month
Day
Number in
The Month
HotWater
Load
Kj/Month
Total Load
KJ/Month
J anuary 306,9 21661493 31 1205094 22866587
February 260,4 18379448 28 1088472 19467920
March 223,2 15753813 31 1205094 16958907
April 180 7622812 30 1166220 8789032,8
May 31 1205094
J une 30 1166220
J uly 31 1205094
August 31 1205094
September 30 1166220
October 31 1205094
November 132 9316771 30 1166220 10482991
December 251,1 17723039 31 1205094 18928133

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

730

Table 6 Monthly Useful Solar Energy obtained in Antalya by Flat Plate Collectors

Months Total Solar
Radiation on
Horizontal
Surface
KJ / m
2
day
ncreasinFoctor
for Optimal
nclination
angle
Total Solar
Radiation on
Optimal
nclained
Surface
KJ /m
2
day
Days in
Month
Monthly
Useful Solar
Energy for

KJ /m
2
Month
J anuary 7992 1,6363 13077,3 31 405396,57
February 10401,5 1,2987 13508,4 28 378236
March 14467 1,0896 15763,24 31 488660,5
April 17063 1 30 511890
May 20897 1 31 647807
J une 21934 1 30 658020
J uly 22518 1 31 698058
August 21259 1 31 659029
September 15357 1,13 17491,6 30 460710
October 13457 1,2987 17476,6 31 541774
November 9631 1,6363 15759,2 30 472776
December 7334 1,808 13259,8 31 411056

Table 7 Heating hot water and total loads of Concerning Buildins in Antalya
Months
0
C.DAY Heating Load
Kj/Month
Day Number
in The
Month
HotWater
Load
Kj/Month
Total Load
KJ /Month
J anuary 306,9 21661493 31 1205094 22866587
February 260,4 18379448 28 1088472 19467920
March 223,2 15753813 31 1205094 16958907
April 180 7622812 30 1166220 8789032,8
May 31 1205094
J une 30 1166220
J uly 31 1205094
August 31 1205094
September 30 1166220
October 31 1205094
November 132 9316771 30 1166220 10482991
December 251,1 17723039 31 1205094 18928133

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

731

Table 8 Monthly Useful Solar Energy obtained in Antalya by Flat Plate Collectors
Months Total Solar
Radiation on
Horizontal
Surface
KJ / m
2
day
ncreasinFoctor
for Optimal
nclination
angle
Total Solar
Radiation on
Optimal
nclained
Surface
KJ /m
2
day
Days in
Month
Monthly
Useful Solar
Energy for

KJ /m
2
Month
J anuary 7992 1,6363 13077,3 31 405396,57
February 10401,5 1,2987 13508,4 28 378236
March 14467 1,0896 15763,24 31 488660,5
April 17063 1 30 511890
May 20897 1 31 647807
J une 21934 1 30 658020
J uly 22518 1 31 698058
August 21259 1 31 659029
September 15357 1,13 17491,6 30 460710
October 13457 1,2987 17476,6 31 541774
November 9631 1,6363 15759,2 30 472776
December 7334 1,808 13259,8 31 411056

ECONOMCAL ANALYSS

P
a
=F . P
0
(2)

F : Specified Annual Cost
P
0
: ( Cost of Proposed system ) - ( classical system Cost )
F=(i( 1+i)
n
) / ((1+i)
n
- 1)
i =Annual nterest rate
n=waste periot
select i =0.07 ve n=10 then F=0.14237 found

Table 9 Cost of Classical System

Type Capacity Cost TL
Boiler 36000 Kcal /h 4000
Assembling,pipe and vals etc. 2000
radiator 36000 Kcal /h 4000
Labour 2000
Stack 400
Fan-Coil 1+1 25000Kcal/h+13000 Kcal/h 6500
Fan-Coil Assembling labour 500

TOTAL 23400 TL

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

732

Table 10 Cost Of Recommended System ( Solar Assisted Heating and Absoptioning
Cooling System)

Type Capacity Cost (TL)
Boiler 8800 Kcal /h 2.000
Floor Heating 36000 Kcal /h 5.000
Solar Collectors 45 m
2
29.835
Storage Tank 2700 lt 2.500
Pipes and pumps 400
Control system 250
Heat Exchanger 500
Ducting 5.000
Generator and Absorber 2.600
Condenser and Evaporator 7.100
Liquid Storage 1.100
Fan Expansion vane 2.500
Extra costs 1.800

TOTAL 60.585 TL

P
a
=0.14237( ( Cost of Proposed system ) - ( classical system Cost ))
P
a
=F.P =0.14237 ( 60585 - 23400) =0,1627.37185 =6050
TL/Yl

Table 11 Energ Costs for the periot of 6 December 2012-
J anuary 2013 (13)
Typ of Energy Heating Value Unit Cost
Efficiency T L/1000Kcal
free Naturalgas 8250 0.7594 TL/m
3

0.93 0.0990
Industrial nat.gas 8250 0.8604 TL/m
3

0.93 0.1121
Imported Coal 7000 0.5593 TL/kg
0.65 0.1229
Fuel-Oil No.6 9562 1.72 TL/kg
0.8 0.2249
Electrcity 860 0.2626 TL/Kwh
0.99 0.3084
LPG Spill gas 11100 4.4910 TL/kg
0.92 0.4398
Diesel Oil 10250 4.1922 TL/kg
0.84 0.4866

Annual Running cost of classical system for natural gas
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

733

Mk=(Q
heat Lost.
+Q
Hot Water Load

) 103441292,8 .0,099 TL/ 1000
Kcal/4,187 =
2445,8 TL/Year
Air conditioning Running Costs by Fan Coil (Heat Pump. COP
=4)
46779576.0,3084/ (1000.4,187.4)=3606 TL/Year
TOtal Running Cost of Classical System is 6051,8 TL/Year
Annual Running Costs of Proposed System
Assisted running costs by Natural gas (% 75 Energy gained by
Solar=
25860323,2.0,099/ (4,187.1000) =611,45 TL/Year
Running Costs of Absorption Air Conditioning System.
Absorption system COP is taken 0,7
(195866085/(0,7).(1/4,187)=(66827965,81.0,099/(1000.)).025 =
1654 TL/Year
Total Running Cost of Proposed Systtem is 1654+ 611,45 =
2265 TL/Year
P
i
=( Annual Running Cost of Classical System - Aunual Running Cost of Proposed system)
P
i
=6050 - 2265=3786,8 TL/Year
if :
F.(Cost of Proposed System Cost of Classical System ) > (Annual Running Cost of
Classical System-Annual Running Cost of Proposed System) e.g P
a
>P
i
P
a
=0.14237 (60585 - 23400) =0,162737185 =6050 TL/Yl >
3786,8 TL/Year
Then it is concluded that this proposed system is not compatible.
According to Table 11 calculatation above unequalities for spill gas and diesel oil.
- Pay back period
- Easy methot
Cost of Proposed System-Cost of Classical System/ Gain
60585-23400 / 3786,8 = 9,8 Year is found
- Bour's methot
To calculate the pay back period by the method which is developed by Bour is described as
following(13)
A=P

(1+i )
n
is the value of money after n years and j is the inflation rate )=0.1 and P
i
=
( Annual Running Cost of Classical System - Aunual Running Cost of Proposed system)
B =(((1+i )
n
- ( 1+j )
n
) / (i - j ) ) . P
i

The value of n which achieves A=B is the in request pay back periot.
After calculations are done in the ligth of above description according to Bours method it can
be
seen n= 9,35 is found Table 7

Table 7 Pay back calculation according to Bours method

n 10 9,8 9,6 9,4 9,3 9
A 73148,5 72165,36 71195 70238 69765 68363
B 79092 76248 73475 70773 69448 65573
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

734

RESULTS

In this article the Bank in Antalya /Turkey has been designed.The banks dimension is 8 m x
15 m. First of all solar sadiation is predicted by 17 different formulas and methods in Antalya
and a regression formula is given for this city.
Total heating and hot water demand is found 103.441.292,8 KJ /Year. In summer air
conditioning load is calculated as 279.808.692 Kj/year by the acceptance of absorbtion
cooling systems performance coeeficient 0,7. Against to these demands for the 0,75 of
demands to face by solar collectors 45 m
2
collector area is found.
Afterwards lityum-Bromide Absoption system calculations are performed. The heat is
calculated about 91.785 Kj/h which is supplied to generator of absoption system. The heat
gain and solar gain are calculated by mean difference method. Other gains are calculated by
associated tables.
Finally economic analysis is performed for the design. Except spill gas and diesel oil, the
proposal system is not competive and the pay back period is found as 8,35 year.

REFERENCES

1-A.H. Luis, G.E. J orge 2002 Simulationof an Air-Cooled Solar Asisted Absorption Air
Conditioning System Department of mechanical Engineering University of Puerto Rico
Tnansactions of ASME Vol 124
2- Taner, K. Gne Enerjisinden Konut Konforunda Yararlanma Ocak Anadolu niversitesi
yayn no:59 Doentlik tezi 1984 Eskiehir
3- Duffie J ., Beckman W.,1991 Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes, New York
4- MCVEIGH J .C., 1977 An /ntroduction to the Applications of Solar Energy, New York,
5- Kreider,J an, F.andKreith,F 1975 Solar Heating and Cooling MCGAW-Hill Book
Company, Colorado
6-E. F. Kent Antalya lindeki bir Otel Binas icin Gne Enerjisi Destekli stma ve
Absorbsiyonlu Soutma Sisteminin Teorik ncelenmesi T Makina Fakltesi Gmsuyu
stanbul.
7-A. Tetik 2007 LiBr/ Su ile alan Gne Enerjili klimlendirme Sistemi ve Bir Uygulma
Yldz Teknik niversitesi FBE Makina Mhendislii Anabilim Dal Is Proses Programnda
hazrlanan Yksek Lisans Tezi stanbul
8-Casals X.G 2005 Solar absorption cooling in Spain: Perspectives and outcomes from the
simulation of recent installations, Departamento de Fluidos y Calor, Universidad Pontificia
Comillas-ICAI, C/Alberto Aguilera, 25, 28015 Madrid, Spain
9-Eicker U, Pietruschka 2008 Design and performance of solar powered absorption cooling
systems in office buildings University of Applied Sciences Stuttgart, Schelling strasse 24, D-
70174 Stuttgart, Germany
10-zkan, zer F 2006 A Model For calculating daily Global, Diffuse And Direct Solar
radiation On Horizontal Surfaces In Antalya/Turkey Master Degree Thesis Mechanical
Engineering Main Science Branch Enery Thermodynamic Science Branch Eskiehir
11- Tetik K.. 2005 Li-Br/ Su ilealan Gne Enerjili klimlendirme Sistemi ve Bir
Uygulma
Yldz Teknik niversitesi FBE Makina Mhendisligi Anabilim Dal Is Proses Programnda
hazrlanan Ykse kLisans Tez istanbul
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

735

12-Constantinos A. Balaras, Gershon Grossman, Hans-martin Henning, carlos A. Infante
Ferreira, Erich Podesser,lei Wang,Edo Wiemken 2005 Solar air conditioning in European
overview Spain
13- AHN H. 2006 'Gne Enerjili Su Istma Sistemlerinin Termo- Ekonomik Analizi'
Harran niversitesi FBE Yksek Lisans Tezi anlurfa

CURRCULUM VTAE

Prof .Dr. Kemal Taner was born in 1945 in Eskisehir. He graduated from Istanbul Technical
University with a master degree in Mechanical Engineering in 1969. He started his career at
Eskisehir Engineering Acedemy as a research assistant. He attaned a diplome programme
with a schollorship by Belgian Government at Von Karman Institute in 1973-74. He was
associate professor and lecturing in field of Boilers and Air condioning at Denizli Isparta
and Kayseri Engineering Academies in 1981-83 . He received a doctorate degree in 1987 and
professor honorific in 1988. He has been continuing his researches at Anadolu Universy and
Osmangazi University in field of air conditioning and thermodynamics. Mr. Taner also held
the position as head of Mechanical Engineering Department during the 1996-99 period. He is
married and has one daughter and one son.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

736

ENERGY EFFICIENCY OF RESIDENTIAL AIR CONDITIONERS /
SEASONAL EFFICIENCY

Ugur Sertan

Department of Strategic Marketing
Daikin Turkey, Istanbul

Corresponding email: u.sertan@daikin.com.tr

SUMMARY

Energy is an ever increasing importance in Turkey and in the world and even sometimes the
number one agenda. It is an issue becoming more and more important every day both in the
whole industry and our daily life, supported by energy production, energy usage and
efficiency and environmental policies. The energy efficiency legislation on air conditioners,
just recently (01.01.2013) entered into force in Europe. This new legislation applies to
residential split air conditioners with a capacity smaller than 12 kW.
One of the most distinctive points between this new regulation enforced in European Union
and the current regulation is the identification of climatic zones for heating season as 3 main
regions. Another major difference in this new regulation covering European Union is the
complete change of the value range of energy classes. Last year, studies are initiated by the
Ministry of Science, Industry and Trade in Turkey.

INTRODUCTION

Having an ever-increasing importance in our country and in the whole world, and even
occasionally appearing as the number one agenda, energy is an issue gaining more and more
importance every day both in the whole industry and our daily lives, supported by energy
production, energy usage and efficiency and environmental policies.

In relation to that, energy efficiency, thus energy saving is a particular concern to all of us
from all our devices, appliances, lighting fixtures to air conditioners operating with
electricity, and used in our buildings, offices and houses. Especially the European Union
parliaments, governments have adopted the energy efficiency issue as a governmental policy.

New energy policies, legislations, regulations and communiqus are published every passing
day within this framework, and are put into practice one by one within the process.
As in the case of other current issues; energy and energy efficiency policies, legislations,
regulations and related communiqus published and entered into force by the Union are
followed up closely by Turkey within the framework of Law of Harmonization Code of
European Union. These policies are also put into effect one by one in Turkey.

In recent years, the air conditioners that we use in our buildings, houses and offices are also
continuing the get their share on this issue within the framework of energy policies. In
particular, the legislation on energy efficiency of air-conditioners that was just recently
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

737

(01.01.2013) entered into force in Europe is as comprehensive and detailed as the previously
enacted energy efficiency regulations on other domestic appliances.
When it comes to energy efficient products concerning the household split air-conditioners,
again within the framework of regulations and legislations on harmonization code of
European Union, REGULATION ON ENERGY LABELLING OF HOUSEHOLD AIR
CONDITIONERS was published for the first time in Turkey at the end of 2006 and entered
into force in the beginning of 2007, and continues its validity until today.

This regulation was prepared in parallel with the European Union Directive 2002/31/EC, and
entered into force as explained above. This regulation covers electrical household air-
conditioners defined in TS EN 14511 standard or in the respective harmonized national
standards, excluding the air-conditioners operating on energy sources other than electricity,
air/water and water/water systems and the air-conditioners with a cooling power over 12 kW.
According to the regulation, the internal and external environmental conditions (TS EN
14511) were initially defined as follows:
METHODS

Test Conditions (Temperatures):
Cooling (DB/WB):ID 27/19 C , OD 35/24 C
ID: Indoor Temperature
OD: Outdoor Temperature
Heating (DB/WB):ID 20/15 C, OD 7/6 C
As shown above, efficiency of the air-conditioner, both in terms of cooling and heating, was
determined at fixed temperatures.

The efficiency values calculated according to this are evaluated as indicated below, and the
energy efficiency of the air-conditioner are given a value according to the letter classification.

CURRENT ENERGY EFFICIENCY CLASS:

Cooling Energy Efficiency Classes: Heating Energy Efficiency Classes:

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

738

Current Energy Efficiency Label:

In the course of time, energy efficiency in air-conditioners has been changed completely with
all its details in the European Union countries with a new methodology and calculation
method under the name of <<seasonal efficiency>>both in cooling and heating, due to the
fact and on the grounds that the air-conditioner efficiency calculated in fixed outdoor
temperatures did not represent the real life, in other words the use of air-conditioner, correctly
and effectively.

Accordingly, the energy efficiency of air-conditioners at these temperatures is calculated
separately by determining the prevalences of outdoor temperature for cooling and heating
seasons (long term, retrospective prevalance hour-frequency data of each temperature
obtained from the meteorological stations within the boundaries of European Union member
states). Accordingly, a new seasonal efficiency calculation methodology and method, and thus
a new seasonal efficiency and energy labelling regulation on air-conditioners has emerged,
spanning and covering all defined cooling/heating seasons (covering air-conditioners having a
nominal less than or equal to 12 kW). (Energy Labelling of Air-Conditioners DIRECTIVE
2010/30/EU Regulation (EU) No 626/2011 J uly 2011)
(Effective date in European Union member states: 1 J anuary 2013)

Bin number (j) for cooling season and heating season average, warmer and colder,
outdoor temperatute (Tj) expressed in C and number of hours per bin (hj). db =dry bulb
temperature.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

739

One of the most distinctive points between this new regulation entered into force in the
European Union and the current regulation is the classification of climatic zones for heating
season as 3 main regions. The zones defined herein are indicated as follows: Warmer,
Average and Colder

Another major difference in this new regulation covering the European Union is the complete
change of the value range of energy classes. Furthermore, according to the new regulation,
there are also the new classifications of A+,A++ve A+++not included in the current/former
regulation. These three additional classes will also be included officially in energy labels in
2015,2017 and 2019, respectively. Thus, the labelling of the least efficient air-conditioner
energy classes, along with these new more efficient classes, will be updated by taking out a
letter, starting from the bottom.

Test Conditions(Temperatures):
Cooling (DB/WB): ID 27/19 C , OD 20 / 25 / 30 / 35 C
Heating (DB/WB):ID 20/15 C, OD -7 / 2 / 7 / 12 C Average Zone
ID: Indoor OD 2 / 7 /12 C Warmer Zone
OD: Outdoor OD -7 / 2/ 7 / 12 /-15 C Colder Zone
Test Standard: EN 14825

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

740

As shown above, air-conditioner efficiency both during cooling and heating will be
determined not at fixed temperatures, but according to the outdoor temperatures subjected to
the defined test spreaded to the season.

The efficiency values calculated according to the new energy label regulation are evaluated as
follows and the energy efficiency of the air-conditioner is found as a value pursuant to letter
class.
Annual Cooling Capacity[kW]
SEER [ kW / kW ] =
Annual Energy Consumption in Cooling [kW]
(Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio)

Annual Heating Capacity[kW]
SCOP [ kW / kW ] =
Annual Energy Consumption in Heating [kW]
(Seasonal Coefficient of Performance)

NEW ENERGY EFFICIENCY REGULATION CLASSES:

Energy
Efficiency
Class
Split Air-Coditioners
SEER(Cooling) SCOP(Heating)
A+++ SEER>8.5 SCOP>5.1
A++ 6.1 SEER <8.5 4.6 SCOP <5.1
A+ 5.6 SEER <6.1 4.0 SCOP <4.6
A 5.1 SEER <5.6 3.4 SCOP <4.0
B 4.6 SEER <5.1 3.1 SCOP <3.4
C 4.1 SEER <4.6 2.8 SCOP <3.1
D 3.6 SEER <4.1 2.5 SCOP <2.8
E 3.1 SEER <3.6 2.2 SCOP <2.5
F 2.6 SEER <3.1 1.9 SCOP <2.2
G SEER <2.6 SCOP 1.9
New energy efficiency label (for EU):

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

741

RESULTS

Current Situation in Turkey:

Last year, studies are initiated by the Ministry of Science, Industry and Trade with the
intention of implementing this new energy labelling regulation, effective as of 1 J anuary 2013
for EU member states, also in Turkey, and the draft regulation concerning the subject matter
(regarding Energy Labelling of Air Conditioners) was published, and opinions were requested
from the industry through ISKID.

During this process, the sector and ISKID acted together and initiated studies by using all
calculation methods and the new regulation content that entered into force in European Union;
and as in the case of EU member states map for heating seasonal efficiency, the climatic
zones are colored and classified as 3 main regions on the map of Turkey at the end of the
studies carried out by the faculty members of ITU (Istanbul Technical University)
Meteorology Department.

DISCUSSION

At this stage, the sector expects the new regulation for Turkey to be published by the relevant
Ministry in a manner to include this work, in a very near future, and to be entered into force as
of 1 J anuary 2014 adopted again by the sector and the relevant Ministry.

Warmer region
Average region
Colder region
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

742

REFERENCES

1. Energy Labelling of Air-Conditioners DIRECTIVE 2010/30/EU Regulation (EU)
No 626/2011 J uly 2011
2. I.T.U. Faculty of Aeronautics and Astronautics Department of Meteorological Engineering
Report Study Prepared for ISKID. Prof.Dr. Selahattin ncecik, Assoc.Prof.Dr. Ali Deniz,
Assoc.Prof.Dr.Hseyin Toros
3. Draft Regulation on Energy Labelling of Air-Conditioners. Ministry of Science, Industry and
Technology, 2012
4. CECED & EUROVENT Meeting Notes, 2011, Brussel, Paris. Uur Sertan
5. REGULATION ON ENERGY LABELLING OF HOUSEHOLD AIR-CONDITIONERS
(Official Gazette Dated 14.12.2006 Numbered 26376)

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

743

INVESTIGATION OF HEAT TRANSFER AUGMENTATION IN A
TUBE WITH DIFFERENT MODIFIED TWISTED TAPE INSERTS
UNDER THE SAME CONDITIONS

Gokhan Gurlek
*
, Necdet Ozbalta

Ege University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Izmir, Turkey
Corresponding email: gokhan.gurlek@ege.edu.tr

SUMMARY
The swirl flow devices like twisted tape, winglet, groove, conical ring, wire coil etc. have
been used as passive heat transfer augmentation technique. Especially, twisted tape devices
have been applied in thermal engineering systems such as boilers, heat exchangers, water
heater. Many researches using swirl flow devices particularly twisted tape with different
geometries for heat transfer enhancement have been published. In this paper , different
modified twisted tapes which had examined in previous studies were compared with each
other with regard to heat transfer augmentation. Heat transfer, friction factor and thermal-
hydraulic performance factor characteristics were investigated seperately under the same
conditions such as same twisted ratios and same Reynolds number values. Twisted tape which
gives best heat transfer and friction factor results was determined. Derived emprical
correlations which had been found by researchers were used for comparison between twisted
tapes.
Keywords: Heat transfer augmentation, twisted tape

INTRODUCTION

Heat exchangers emerge as the most important elements in energy-intensive systems. The
main objective of the energy sector is to make more work with less energy consumption. For
this purpose, heat transfer enhancement techniques are being developed in order to increase
the efficiency of heat transfer and use of energy. Heat transfer enhancement techniques can be
classified into two groups; active techniques which need external power source and passive
techniques that do not use external power supply. Both active and passive techniques have
been exercised to increase the heat transfer in several ways. Heat transfer enhancement
applications can be done by methods such as rotating the heat transfer surface, placing
turbulators into the pipe to create a turbulent flow, applying vibration to the heat transfer
fluids, creating electrostatic fields and rough surfaces, using fins and elements in different
geometries placed into the pipe, applying low frequency vibration to the heat transfer surface
[1,2]. Twisted tape swirl generators are most favourable passive heat transfer enhancement
devices.
The twisted tape used for heat transfer enhancement generates turbulent flow and increases
surface area. The presence of turbulence reduces thermal boundary layer thickness between
the surface of the pipe and fluid. Because of that the convective heat transfer increases. The
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

744

twisted tape performance depending on various parameters such as turbulator length,
hydraulic diameter of pipe, the mass flow rate, physical properties of the fluid varies
according to the different geometries of turbulators.
Many researches using swirl flow devices particularly twisted tape with different geometries
for heat transfer enhancement have been published. In this paper , different modified twisted
tapes which had examined in previous studies were compared with each other with regard to
heat transfer augmentation. Heat transfer, friction factor and thermal-hydraulic performance
factor characteristics were investigated seperately under the same conditions such as same
twisted ratios and same Reynolds number values.
THEORETICAL ANALYSIS
The experimental data were reduced by using the following summarized procedure. The
energy obtained from hot exhaust gases passing through the inner pipe is equal to the amount
of heat transferred to water flowing between two pipes.
( ) ( )
ave ave i o exhaust
exhaust wall exhaust exhaust p
exhaust T T hA T T C m =
.
(4)
where h is the average heat transfer coefficient, A is the total surface area of the tube wall,
av e
wall
T
is the average temperature of the pipe wall and av e
exhaust
T
is the average temperature of
exhaust gas and they can be expressed as, respectively,
N
T
T
wall
wall
ave
= (5)
2
in out
ave
exhaust ezhaust
exhaust
T T
T
+
=
(6)
Average temperature of the pipe wall is an aritmetic means of the temperature values of the
five measuring points at the outer wall surface of the inner pipe. The mean Nusselt number is
defined by equation (8).
k
hD
Nu
h
=
(8)
where D
h
is the hydraulic diameter for annulus, k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid.
Thermal conductivity is calculated from the fluid properties at the average fluid temperature.
In addition, the Reynolds number and friction factor can be found. Friction factor (f) can be
calculated using different parameters like average velocity, u, pressure loss, P, pipe length,
L, and density at the mean bulk temperature, .
D
L u
P
f
2
2
=
(9)
The type of the flow can be defined from the Reynolds number which is expressed as:
h m
D u
= Re
(10)
where is the dynamic viscosity and um is the average fluid velocity along the pipe cross-
section.
Thermal hydraulic performance defined as the ratio of the enhancement in heat transfer to the
changes of pressure differences is written as,
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

745

3 / 1
=
e
t
e
t
f
f
Nu
Nu
(14)
where Nu
t
and f
t
are Nusselt number and friction factor in the tube with twisted tape and Nu
e
and f
e
are Nusselt number and friction factor in the empty tube, respectively.
PREVIOUS STUDIES
Many researches using swirl flow devices particularly twisted tape with different geometries
for heat transfer enhancement have been published. Helically twisted tapes (HTTs) were
examined in an attempt to heat transfer enhancement by Eiamsa-ard et al [3]. The experiments
were performed using HTTs with three twist ratios (y/W) of 2, 2.5 and 3, three helical pitch
ratios (p/D) of 1, 1.5 and 2 for Reynolds number between 6000 and 20000.

Figure 1. (a) geometries of HTT and CHT and (b) geometric details of helically twisted tapes.
The conventional helical tape (CHT) was also tested for comparison. The obtained results
reveal that at similar condition, HTTs give lower Nusselt number and friction but higher
thermal performance factor than CHTs. Heat transfer rate and friction factor increase as the
tape twist ratio and helical pitch ratio decrease, while the thermal performance shows opposite
trend. The highest thermal performance factor of 1.29 was achieved by utilizing the tape with
the largest twist ratio (y/W=3) and helical pitch ratio (p/D=2) at Reynolds number of 6000.
The geometries of helically twisted tapes (HTTs) together with conventional helical screw
tapes (CHTs) are shown in Fig. 1a and b. The experimental results of Nusselt number (Nu),
friction factor(f) and thermal performance factor () were fitted using least square regression
analysis and empirical correlations were derived.

(15)

(16)

(17)
Eiamsa-ard et al [4] also reported the influences of twin-counter / co-twisted tapes on heat
transfer rate, friction factor and thermal enhancement index. The tests were conducted using
the twin counter twisted tape (CTs) and the twin co-twisted tapes (CoTs) with four different
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

746

twist ratios (y/w =2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0) for Reynolds numbers range between 3700 and 21000
under uniform heat flux conditions. The results showed that the CTs are more efficient than
the CoTs for heat transfer enhancement. Heat transfer rates in the tube fitted with the CTs are
around 12.544.5% and 17.850% higher than those with the CoTs and ST, respectively. The
maximum thermal enhancement () obtained at the constant pumping power by the CTs with
y/w =2.5, 3.0, 3.5 and 4.0, are 1.39, 1.24, 1.12 and 1.03, respectively. The twin counter
twisted tape (CTs) and the twin co-twisted tapes (CoTs) were shown in Fig. 2.

Figure 2. Test tube with twisted tape inserts: (a) single twisted tape (ST), (b) twin co-twisted
tapes (CoTs) and (c) twin counter twisted tapes (CTs).
The derived empirical correlations from the experimental results of the empty tube
fitted with the CoTs and CTs can be writing in term of twist ratio (y/w), Reynolds number
(Re) and Prandtl number (Pr) as follows:

The tube fitted with the CTs (counter-swirl flow generators):

(18)

(19)

(20)
The tube fitted with the CoTs (co-swirl flow generators):

(21)

(22)

(23)
Gunes et al. [5] experimentally studied the heat transfer and pressure drop in a tube with
coiled wire inserts (Fig. 3) placed seperately from the tube wall in turbulent regime. The
experiments were performed three different pitch ratios (P/D =1, 2, 3) and two different
distances (s =1mm, 2mm) for Reynolds numbers range between 4105 and 26400 by authors.
The Nusselt number and friction factor increase with decreasing pitch ratio (P/D) and
distance(s) for coiled wire inserts. The highest overall enhancement efficiency of 50% was
achieved for the coiled wire with P/D =1 and s =1 mm at Reynolds number of 4220.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

747

Figure 3. The coiled wire inserts with Teflon rings(s =2 mm).

The experimental results of Nusselt number and friction factor for coiled wire inserts were
correlated as given in below:

(24)

(25)
Flow friction and heat transfer behaviour in a twisted tape swirl generator (Fig. 4) inserted
tube were investigated experimentally by Bas and Ozceyhan [6]. The effects of twist ratios
(y/D=2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4) and clearance ratios (c/D=0.0178 and 0.0357) were discussed in the
range of Reynolds number from 5132 to 24989, and the typical one (c/D=0) was also tested
for comparison. The Nusselt number increase with the decrease of clearance ratio and twsit
ratio, also increase of Reynolds number. Heat transfer enhancement tends to decrease with the
increase of Reynolds number. The highest heat transfer enhancement was achieved as 1.756
for c/D =0.0178 and y/D=2 at Reynolds number of 5183. ,,

,
Figure 4. The twisted tapes inserts with teon rings

The experimental results of Nusselt number, friction factor and heat transfer enhancement for
the tube with twisted tape inserted were correlated depending on twist ratio (y/D) and
clearance ratio (c/D) as follows:

(26)

(27)

(28)
Promvonge et al. [7] investigated turbulent convective heat transfer characteristics in a
helical-ribbed tube tted with twin twisted tapes experimentally (Fig. 5). The experiment was
carried out in a double tube heat exchanger using the helical-ribbed tube having a single rib-
height to tube-diameter ratio, e/D
H
=0.06 and rib-pitch to diameter ratio, P/D
H
=0.27 as the
tested section. The insertion of the double twisted tapes with twist ratio, Y, in the range of
2.17 to 9.39 was to create vortex ows inside the tube. Experiments were carried out for the
Reynolds number of about 6000 to 60000. The experimental results revealed that the co-
swirling inserted tube performs much better than the ribbed/smooth tube alone at a similar
operating condition. The co-swirl tube at Y8 yields the highest thermal performance at lower
Reynolds number (Re).
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

748

Figure 5. Details of (a) double twisted tapes and (b) helical-ribbed tube with double twisted
tape insert.

The empirical correlations developed for the co-swirl ribbed-tube with double twisted tapes
are;

(29)

(30)
Gurlek [8] investigated influences of turbulators as V-winglet twisted tape (Fig. 6) on the heat
transfer rate (Nu), friction factor (f) and the thermal hydraulic performance () in concentric
tube heat exchangers experimentaly and numerically in the doctoral thesis. The experiments
were conducted using twisted tapes with four pitch ratios (PR =2.88, 3.33, 4.44 and 5.55) for
Reynolds number ranging from 7000 and 15000. The best heat transfer value and the highest
friction factor value were obtained by using V-winglet with 130 mm pitch distance. However
twisted tape with 250 mm pitch distance provides a higher thermal hydraulic performance
value than twisted tape with 130 mm pitch distance which are exposed to the dominant effect
of the friction factors.

Figure 6. Velocity vectors at V-winglet type twisted tape

Emprical correlations for friction factor (f) and Nusselt number (Nu) were derived by using
the results obtained from experimental studies. Corelations were derived for the tube fitted
with V-winglet twisted tape in the range of Reynolds number between 7000 and 15000 for
four different pitch distances seperately as follows:
07477 , 0 4983 , 0
Pr Re 6437 , 0

= Nu PR =2.88 (31)
f =14,02Re
-0,3916

01616 , 0 4916 , 0
Pr Re 6769 , 0

= Nu PR =3.33 (32)
f =5,414Re
-0,3057
05629 , 0 4842 , 0
Pr Re 7351 , 0 = Nu PR =4.44 (33)
f =11,62Re
-0,4222
04494 , 0 5261 , 0
Pr Re 449 , 0

= Nu PR =5.55 (34)
f =431,1Re
-0,8296

RESULTS
The experimental results of heat transfer, friction factor and thermal hydraulic performance in
a tube fitted with various turbulance generators in previous studies were compared in this
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

749

section. Derived empirical correlations for each turbulator generator were used for
comparing. Common variables were taken into consideration when making this comparison.
The calculations were conducted using derived empirical correlations for ten various
turbulance generators with common twist ratio (y/D =2.88). The calculations were performed
for different the flow rates in the range of Reynolds number from 7000 to 15000. This
Reynolds number range was chosen for involving in all previous studies.
Relationships between Nusselts number and Reynolds number in a tube fitted with ten various
turbulance generators are shown in Fig. 9. In this figure, turbulance generators were
compared each other. According to the general trend, the Nusselt number increases with
increasing Reynolds number. High values of heat transfer rates are observed in high
Reynolds numbers. The highest Nusselt number value was achieved with V-winglet twisted
tape which is applied by Gurlek [8] at Reynolds number of 7000.

Fig. 9. Effects of the ten various turbulance generators on heat transfer
On the other hand the twin counter twisted tape (CTs) which is applied by Eiamsa-ard et al.
[4] provided highest heat transfer rate in all the turbulance generator models at higher
Reynolds number values. The lowest heat transfer rate was obtained with the wire inserts
which is studied by Gunes et al [5]. The reason of this, special geometric shaped twisted tapes
produce rotational motion, stronger swirl intensity, longer fluid travelling distance and a
better tangential contact between the fluid and the tube wall.
20
30
40
30
60
70
80
90
100
7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 13000

8ef[3], (p/u)=2
8ef[3],(p/u)=1
8ef[4],C1s
8ef[4],Co1s
8ef[3],s=1mm
8ef[3],s=2mm
8ef[6],C8=0.0178
8ef[6],C8=0.0337
8ef[7]
8ef[8]
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

750

Fig. 10. Effects of the ten various turbulance generators on friction factor
Fig. 10 shows the variation of the friction factor (f) with Reynolds number (Re) for ten
different turbulance generator models. In the figure, the friction factor value tends to decrease
with the increase of Reynolds number. The lowest friction factor is observed with twisted tape
swirl generator with clearance ratio of 0.0357 which is applied by Bas and Ozceyhan [6]
while the highest friction factor is obtained with helical-ribbed tube fitted with twin twisted
tape which is applied by Promvonge et al [7].
Fig. 11 presents the variation of the thermal-hydraulic performance () at the same pumping
power with Reynolds number for six different turbulance generator models. The effect of
Reynolds number indicates the level of efficiency of the twisted tapes. The thermal hydraulic
performance decreases with increasing Reynolds number. The performance values under the
critical value ,1, is observed with helically twisted tapes [3] at all Reynolds number. This
results explains that helically twisted tapes are not efficient in terms of thermal and hydraulic
performance. The values of thermal hydraulic performance obtained from using various
turbulance generators are in the range of 0.73-1.39 depending on geometric properties.
According to the result twisted tape swirl generator with clearance ratio of 0.0357 which is
applied by Bas and Ozceyhan provides the highest thermal hydraulic performance values.
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.6
7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 13000

8ef[3], p/u=2
8ef[3], p/u=1
8ef[4], C1s
8ef[4], Co1s
8ef[3], s=1mm
8ef[3], s=2mm
8ef[6], C8=0.0178
8ef[6], C8=0.0337
8ef[7]
8ef[8]
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

751

Fig. 11. Effects of the ten various turbulance generators on thermal-hydraulic
performance
CONCLUSIONS
Obtained results can be summarized as below:
1. According to the general trend, the Nusselt number increases with increasing
Reynolds number.
2. The twin counter twisted tape (CTs) provided highest heat transfer rate in all the
turbulance generator models at high Reynolds number values.
3. The friction factor value tends to decrease with the increase of Reynolds number.
Helical-ribbed tube fitted with twin twisted tape provides highest friction factor
value.
4. The thermal hydraulic performance decreases with increasing of Reynolds number.
Twisted tape swirl generator with clearance ratio of 0.0357 provides the highest
thermal hydraulic performance values.

REFERENCES
1. Bejan, A. D. Kraus, Heat Transfer Handbook, J ohn Wiley & Sons, Inc., New J ersey,
2003, 1427p.
2. G. Sachdeva, Computation of Heat Transfer Augmentation in a Plate-Fin Heat
Exchanger Using Rectangular/Delta Wing, Doctoral Thesis, Department of
Mechanical Enginnering National Institute of Technology, India, 154p., 2010.
3. S. Eiamsa-ard, K. Yongsiri, K. Nanan, C. Thianpong, Heat transfer augmentation by
helically twisted tapes as swirl and turbulence promoters, Chemical Engineering and
Processing: Process Intensification, 60 (2012) 42-48.
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.3

8ef[3], p/u=2
8ef[3], p/u=1
8ef[4], C1s
8ef[4], Co1s
8ef[6], C8=0.0178
8ef[6], C8=0.0337
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

752

4. S. Eiamsa-ard, C. Thianpong, P. Eiamsa-ard, Turbulent heat transfer enhancement by
counter/co-swirling flow in a tube fitted with twin twisted tapes, Experimental
Thermal and Fluid Scinence, 34 (2010) 53-62.
5. S. Gne, V. zceyhan, O. Bykalaca, The expreimental investigation of heat
transfer and pressure drop in a tube with coiled wire inserts placed separately from the
tube wall, Applied Thermal Engineering, 30 (2010) 1719-1725.
6. H. Bas, V. Ozceyhan, Heat transfer enhancement in a tube with twisted tape inserts
placed seperately from the tube wall, Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science, 41
(2012) 51-58.
7. P. Promvonge, S. Pethkool, M. Pimsarn, C. Thianpong, Heat transfer augmentation in
a helical-ribbed tube with double twisted, International Communication in Heat and
Mass Transfer, 39 (2012) 953-959.
8. G. Gurlek, Experimental and numerical investigation of the effects of different
turbulator geometries in pipe on thermal-hydraulic performance, Doctoral Thesis,
Department of Mechanical Enginnering, Ege University, Turkey, 154p., 2012 (in
Turkish).

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

753

COOLING SYSTEM OF EDDY CURRENT BRAKE SYSTEM AND
WASTE HEAT RECOVERY

Melike GLBAHE
1
, SemihKURULAR
1
,M.Onur GLBAHE
2
, Mustafa Kemal
SEVNDR
1

1
University of Yldz Technical University
2
University of stanbul Technical University

melikegulbahce@gmail.com

SUMMARY

In recent years, energy efficiency has become a very important issue. In energy efficiency,
waste heat recovery is one of the most common practice in studies. Used in all areas of
engineering applications it is possible to recover the waste heat from the heat exchanger. In
this study, electromagnetic eddy current brake system which find application in automotive
industry, due to the advent of high temperatures during operation, intended to prevent the
disposal of waste heat to the environment. Mentioned system, brake tests and later engines are
used in the automotive industry. The body-tube heat exchangers used in the system is
calculated E-NTU method and the selected catalogs plate heat exchanger for same cooling
load. Compared to the two heat exchanger type it was decided to use plate heat exchanger in
the system because of less costly,smaller and more efficient. Boiler tank storing the waste
heat from the system and eliminated hot water needs. In same time decreasing water
temperature is given back into the system again. This application has been advocated as an
important application in the recovery of waste heat.
INTRODUCTION

Energy demand is increasing day by day in the world.Energy cost increasingdue to the
increase in demand.For this reason, new methods are used in order to reduce energy
costs.Recovery of waste heat is one of the most important studies for energy efficiency.One of
the most important and the most common application in engineering application.Heat
exchangers can be found in thermal power plants, chemical industries, heating, air
conditioning, refrigeration systems, transportation vehicles, electronic equipment, the use of
alternative energy sources, heat storage and etc. in many places.Heat exchangers help to
prevent disposal of waste heat to the environment and the recovered heat is used again.In this
case , reuse of waste heat in heat exchanger applications provide energy-saving and
environmentally friendly application.Improvement of heat transfer, heat exchanger sizing and
the cost is very important to analysis of heat exchangers.Many researchers have suggested
several methods for the optimal design for various types of heat exchangers.Mathew
veHegab[1] have been analyzed theoretically effectiveness-NTU method of analysis subject
to external heat transfer parallel flow and thermal performance of micro-channel heat
exchanger.Agra et al.[2] developed the method determination the best type of heat exchanger
for heat recovery.Agra [3] has developed a new model and the desired rate of saving-
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

754

investment for waste heat recovery systems for the determination of the best heat
exchanger.Sanaye andHajabdollahi [4] are developed multi-objective optimization of shell
and tube heat exchangers for the effectiveness and cost in heat exchanger design.Smith [5] is
developed the use of expressions for effectiveness () and number of transfer units (Ntu) for
minimizes design effort required in the sizing of heat exchangers.Soylemez [6] presented a
thermoeconomic optimization analysis yielding simple algebraic formulas for estimating the
optimum heat exchanger area for energy recovery applications.Gut and Pinto [7] presented a
screening method for selecting optimal configurations for plate heat exchangers.Arsenyeva et
al. [8] developed optimal of plate-and-frame heat exchangers for efficient heat recovery in
process industries.
In this study, the e-NTU method is used in the calculation of heat exchangers.Using the
present system is performed optimization study for a tubular body counter-flow heat
exchanger.Plate heat exchanger have been selected catalogs for the same cooling
load.Compared to the two heat exchanger type in the technical sense due to the body-tube
heat exchanger size will be larger and more cost.In this system,using plate heat exchanger is
claimed to be better cost, size and efficiency.

METHODS

Eddy current brake system, unlike conventional braking systems, energy is removed from the
system without friction. However, the resulting temperature rise during braking can cause
adverse effects on eddy current brake system. Temperature increase can cause to change the
electrical properties of conductive materials even it can cause to destruction the materials used
in system. In this study, temperature increase that occurs during the energy cycle in eddy
current brake system prevented a heat exchanger designed.First of all, the shell and tube heat
exchangers for use in this system is designed. E-NTU method is used for the design of the
heat exchanger. Under certain operating conditions the performance of an existing heat
exchanger is analyzed by the method of effectiveness-transferring the number of units (E-
NTU). In this method, be certain both in fluid flow and heat exchanger inlet temperatures
calculated the total heat transfer and fluid outlet temperatures.Equations of method listed in
the section of equations (1),(2),(3),(4),(5),(6),(7),(8),(9). Calculations were made according to
the model of one-pass and counter-flow heat exchanger.Body-side fluid is transformer oil and
tube-side fluid is water. Because of the high thermal conductivity of copper is used as the pipe
material. As a result of calculation data plate heat exchanger have been selected catalogs.Both
heat exchanger were compared in terms of cost, size and efficiency.Pump motor power were
calculated for both of the heat exchanger (10),(11). The cost of the two heat exchangers are
determined catalogs.After deciding on the use of plate heat exchangers waste heat are sent to
the boiler tank from the system. Determined needs of hot water used in the system of
industrial plants and boiler heating capacity is calculated (12),(13),(14).The savings in the use
of waste heat found by calculating the operating cost (16).

RESULTS

Table of fluid properties is provided for each heat exchanger in Table 1.These features were
used to design heat exchanger.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

755

Table 1.Hot and cold fluid properties

The results of the calculations and plate type heat exchanger properties are given in Table
2.Plate heat exchanger are smaller in size as shown in Table 2.Also plate type heat exchanger
effectiveness is greater as shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Comparison of Heat Exchangers

Compared to the cost of both the heat exchanger for the same cooling load plate heat
exchanger is less costly than shell and tube heat exchanger as shown in Table 3.
Table 3.Comparison of investment costs of heat exchanger

Initially the waste heat can be used boiler and meet the hot water needs was proposed. Waste
heat is not enough to meet the needs of the hot water from the calculations. Because of the
water temperature is not too high coming from the heat exchanger the heat capacity of the
Hot Side Cold Side
Fluid
Transformer
Oil Water
Density (kg/m
3
) 843,3 997
Specific Heat Capacity
(kcal/kg
o
C) 0,5 1
Thermal Conductivity
(kcal/mh
o
C) 0,096 0,52
Kinematic Viscosity (m
2
/s) 0,00000535 0,000000973
Inlet Temperature (
o
C) 90 15
Outlet Temperature (
o
C) 50 30
Mass Flow (kg/s) 0,19 0,17
Plate Heat
Exchanger
Shell-Tube
Heat
Exchanger
Heat transfer area(m
2
) 0,5 Heat transfer
area(m
2
)
2,35
Number of plates 18 Number of tube 34
Number of passes 1 Number of passes 1
Plate material Alloy 316 Tube material St 35.8
Plate thickness(mm) 0,5 Tube diameter(mm) 18/22
Overall length x width x
height(mm)
405/180/480 Overall length x
diameter (mm)
1000 x 175
Effectiveness 0,88 Effectiveness 0,54

Shell and tube heat
exchanger
Plate heat exchanger
Cost of heat exchanger
968 $ 323 $
Pump investment cost 590 $ 590$
Total investment cost 1558 $ 913 $
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

756

boiler to meet only part of the 10 KW.(Table 4). As a result, the waste heat is used as
preheater in boiler. So that the waste heat reduced the capacity of the heater in boiler. From
the boiler water is circulated to cool the brake system again.
Table 4. The savings from waste heat

In addition the use of hot water might not be permanent.The hot water will be stored in
boiler.In this case the water from the heat exchanger to not cool down.3-way valves are
used to prevent it.So that the hot water will be thrown away from system to safety.

Equations

The effectiveness (e) is the ratio of heat transfer rate to the maximum possible heat transfer
rate when heat exchanger area goes to infinity;
.
.
max
Q
Q
=
(1)
Actual heat transfer rate at heat exchanger can be found from energy balance on the hot and
cold fluid:
.
1 , , 2 , ,
( - ) ( - )
h i h o c o c i
Q C T T C T T = = (2)
Thermal capacity flows of hot and cold fluid:
. .
1 1 1 2 2 2

p p
C m c C m c = = (3)
Heat capacity value which is smaller than the other will reach peak temperatures of the fluid
heat transfer stops.Maximum heat transfer can be defined as
max ;
.
max min , ,
( - )
h i c i
Q C T T = (4)

According to these definitions to the heat exchanger effectiveness:
1 , , 2 , ,
min , , min , ,
( ) ( )

( ) ( )
h i h o c o c i
h i c i h i c i
C T T C T T
C T T C T T

= =

(5)
equations are written. In another non-dimensional quantity, defined as the capacity ratio C ;
, ,
, ,
=
c o c i
h i c i
T T
T T
(6)

MonLhly operaLlng cosL
($)
Hot water needs (kg/h) 400
Boiler heating capacity
(kW) 21 673,344
Use of waste heat (kW) 11 352,704
Saving (kW) 10 320,64
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

757

The dimensionless parameter NTU (number of transfer units) expresses the size of the heat
exchangers and is commonly used in heat exchanger analysis. NTU is expressed as
min
. K A
NTU
C
= (7)
The effectiveness of a heat exchanger;
( , ) f NTU C =
(8)
in the form of the capacity ratio C and the number of transfer units NTU can be shown that the
function. Effectiveness relations for a large number of heat exchanger;

Heat exchanger typeEffectiveness () relations

Parallel flow
1 exp[ (1 )]
1
NTU C
C
+
=
+

Counter flow
1 exp[ (1 )]
1 exp[ (1 )]
NTU C
C NTU C
+
=
+
, 1 C <
1
NTU
NTU
=
+
, 1 C =

Cross flow both
fluid unmixxed
{ }
0,22 0,78
1
1 exp exp[ ( ) 1] NTU C NTU
C

=

C
min
(unmixed) C
max
(mixed)
{ }
1 exp [1 exp( )] C NTU
C

=

C
max
(unmixed) C
min
(mixed)
1
1 exp [1 exp( )] CNTU
C

=

Shell and tube one shell
1
2 1/2
2 1/2
2 1/2
1 exp[ (1 ) ]
2 1 (1 )
1 exp[ (1 ) ]
NTU C
C C
NTU C

+ +
= + + +

+

Pass(2,4tube passes)

If there is a phase change, the heat capacity of the phase changing fluid becomes infinite.
Therefore, C=0 and is given by Eq. (11) for all flow arrangements.
max
1 exp( ) NTU = = (9)
Pressure Losses
Pressure loss in the pipe,
2
2
L v
P f
D
= (10)
Pump theoretical power flow in the pipe,
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

758

pump
m P
W
(11)
Hot water needs
Hot water demand=sudden total requirement*factor of concurrent use (12)
The required volume of boiler=hot water needs*storage factor(13)
The heating equipment capacity for boiler
* * ( - )
ss p o i
Q m c t t =
(14)
Cost Accounts
Total cost=investment cost +operating cost (15)
Operating cost=power*processing time*the unit cost of electricity (16)

DISCUSSION
Hot water need not be continuous.We have put in this situation 3-way valve for the system.I
mentioned throw away water in order to avoid ByPass in system.Instead of this solution hot
water can be sent radiators.

Nomenclature
effectiveness of the heat exchangerNTU number of transfer units
heat transfer rate,[W] Cheat capacity, [W/
o
C]
max
Q maximum heat transfer rate,[W]K total heat transfer coefficient,[W/m
o
C]
C
1
thermal capacity flows of hot fluid Aheat transfer area,[m
2
]
C
2
thermal capacity flows of cold fluid density,[kg/m
3
]
T
h,i
hot fluid inlet temperature Llength of heat exchanger,[m]
T
h,o
hot fluid outlet temperatureDdiameter of pipe,[m]
T
c,i
cold fluid inlet temperaturec
p
specific heat capacity,[kcal/kg
o
C]
T
c,o
cold fluid outlet temperature mass flow rate, [kg/s]

REFERENCES
[1] B. Mathew, H. Hegab ,Application of effectiveness-NTU relationship to parallel flow
microchannel heat exchangers subjected to external heat transfer,International J ournal of
Thermal Sciences 49 (2010) 76-85

[2] Ismail Teke, zden Agra, S. zgr Ataylmaz, Hakan Demir, Determining the
best type of heat exchangers for heat recovery, Applied Thermal Engineering
30 (2010) 577-583.

[3] Ozden Agra , Sizing and selection of heat exchanger at defined savingeinvestment
ratio,Applied Thermal Engineering 31 (5) (2011) 727-734

[4] Sepehr Sanaye,Hassan Hajabdollahi, Multi-objective optimization of shell and tube heat
exchangers, Applied Thermal Engineering, 30 (14-15) (2010) 19371945

[5] E.M. Smith,Effectiveness-NTU relationships for tubular exchangers,International J ournal
of Heat and Fluid Flow 1 (1) (1979) 43-46
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

759

[6] M.S. Sylemez,On the optimum heat exchanger sizing for heat recovery,Energy
Conversion and Management 41 (13) (2000) 14191427

[7] J orge A.W. Guta, J os M. Pinto ,Optimal configuration design for plate heat exchangers
47 (22) (2004) 48334848

[8] Olga P. Arsenyeva, Leonid L. Tovazhnyanskya, Petro O. Kapustenkoa, Gennadiy L.
Khavinb,Optimal design of plate-and-frame heat exchangers for efficient heat recovery in
process industries ,Energy 36 (8) (2011) 45884598

[9] Yunus A. engel, Heat Transfer: A Practical Approach, McGraw Hill, Berlin, 2006.

[10] O. Genceli, Is Deitiricileri, Birsen Yaynevi, Istanbul, 1999.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

760

ENERGY CONSERVATION MEASURES IN LEED HOSPITAL AIR
CONDITIONING SYSTEM

Prof. Hari Sankar Dalal , Head HVAC Design , TAEP consultancy , Kuwait
sankarhari@gmail.com, sankarhari@yahoo.com . mob 0096560657511.

SUMMARY:
A Hospital located near sea having air conditioning cooling load more than 5000 TR will save
energy considering sea water from 100 M below in Middle East area like Kuwait, Dubai, Abu
Dhabi, etc. Kuwait Government makes the recommendations on that but the implementation
is under study. The adjacent areas like marine, environment also requires approval.
The present paper will discuss how Absorption system will help related to energy saving and
also protection of environment. Photovoltaic cells will be considered for running absorption
pump.

INTRODUCTION:
The Hospital was designed in 2006 according to USGBC LEED version 2 (silver certified) in
swash Island area in Abu Dhabi. It is 22 storey building and total cooling load is 21,000 TR.
This project is under construction. Different study was made during construction stage to get
more energy benefit. 1) Sea water as chilled water. 2) absorption system considering waste
steam. The architecture design is modal design and modal was based on activity wise like
Intensive care unit is a special area which considers approx 2000 TR. Patient area which
requires 13 floors placed in tower.
Total waste steam is approx 10,000 Kg/ hr. The steam is produced by Boiler and steam is sent
at different pressure by pressure reducing valve. The average consumption for 2000 TR
cooling capacity will be @ 4 Kg/ Hr is 8000 Kg/ Hr.
In this paper, the benefit of absorption system and also energy saving due to absorption
system cell will be discussed.

SPACE ALLOTMENT:
A separate system consisting of chillers, matched pumps (both evaporating and condenser),
absorption pump have been considered. The space is required for absorption chiller and
absorption pumps only. Other equipments like chiller pump and condenser pump and the
piping scheme remains same. Some space has been allotted for cooling tower in landscape
area in ground floor in covered fence. The approx dimension of absorption chiller for
7 M x 3 .5 M x 3.0 M and tube removable space is approx 6.5 M keeping stand by 50 %, so it
will be 2 working and one is stand by.
Cooling tower dimension for absorption chiller is 15 % more in area. As the location is near
Sea, so atmosphere is corrosive, therefore FRP is casing, drain pan is S.S 316 grade is
preferable. The dimension is also approx 5 M x 3.5 M x 5 M or hyperboloid natural draft
cooling tower aesthetic view can be placed outside area.
INDOOR AIR QUALITY:
Separate group of SAHU and EAHU will be considered special filter like absolute filter will
be considered to maintain inside air quality to 0.3 micron level and also particulate number
will be very less as recommended by ACGIH.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

761

The air distribution pattern is different depending on type of patient injury or operation etc.
the capacity of fan and power will be matched with requirements and life of fan will be very
good.

REASONS FOR NEW DESIGN:
A) Rethinking for consideration of absorption system
Absorption system is less efficient than vapor compression system. Vapour compression
system power is electric and which is generated in Power station with the help of thermal /
nuclear / else. Considering the generation cost, distribution cost the cost will be asper with
vapor compression system. In this case, as heating medium is waste heat so it have
tremendous advantage related to running cost.
The absorption system equipment cost is at Par with vapor compression system (may be 10%
more). But it has environmental effect related to noise and less power means less pollution.
The absorption pump power requirement will be aprox 15 KW for 1000 TR absorption
chiller. So total 30 KW is required and net roof area will be 300 M2, say outer area
considering 30 % extra will be 400 M2. The roof area is 120 M x 60 M. Other PV cell area
for running other equipments will be discussed.
B) Modification of chilled water system
The Chilled water for HVAC main plant for this project is available from Tabreed district
cooling system and break is made with the help of suitable Plate type heat exchangers
considering 10% stand by. As cooling load for absorption system requirement is approx. 2000
TR and is equivalent to one PHE capacity so, One PHE is deleted. The space is used for
absorption chiller.
The absorption chiller is placed in HVAC main plant room which is in basement 2 level. The
circuit for chilled water pump, condenser water pump is separated for matching absorption
chiller. A separate connection for waste steam have been considered. A separate connection
for cooling towers located in ground floor Landscape area is considered.
Existing chilled water system is enclosed (refer Fig 1).

FIG 1 HVAC PLANT ROOM .
AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM:
The Hospital air distribution system is of special nature as the application is important. The
kind of ante room (positive or negative) determination is important. The exhaust air flow
control is tuned with supply air based on ante room pressure. The location of shaft is
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

762

important during concept design and requires co ordination with architecture. A basic floor
layout is attached for reference. ( Fig 2).
Fresh air have an important role in hospital air conditioning . in general 100 % F.air is
considered and suitable energy recovery system is considered to maintain proper temperature
and humidity in room like Run around coil between Pre cool coil and Heat Recovery coil
placed with main cooling coil. . In addition with Plate heat exchanfer is placed between
Return air (to be exhausted) and Fresh air to take advantage of enthalpy between them. Some
areas does not require 100 % Fresh air and which will help in saving energy. A table is
attached related to modified area and cooling load benefit.

FIG 2 - TYPICAL FLOOR , AIR DISTRIBUTION SHAFT

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

763

Table 1 - Effect on reduction of fresh air and ICU area with absorption system

R
e
m
a
r
k
s
,

E
x
i
s
t
/
p
r
o
p
o
s
e

1
0
0

%

f
r
e
s
h

a
i
r
,

1
0
0

%

f
r
e
s
h

a
i
r
,

2
5
%

1
0
0

%

f
r
e
s
h

a
i
r
,

1
0
0
%

F
.
A
i
r

.

2
0

%

F
.
a
i
r
.

6
0

%

r
e
c
i
r
c
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

A
c
t
i
v
i
t
y

d
e
t
a
i
l

M
e
d
i
c
a
l

c
h
e
c
k

,

w
a
i
t
i
n
g

X

r
a
y
,

c
a
t
h

l
a
b
,

N
u
c
l
e
a
r

l
a
b
,

u
r
i
n
e

e
t
c

P
a
t
i
e
n
t
s

b
e
d

,

A
n
t
e

r
o
o
m

S
a
m
e

l
i
k
e

p
a
t
i
e
n
t

b
e
d

,

s
p
e
c
i
a
l

v
e
n
t
i
l
a
t
o
r

O
f
f
i
c
e

,

n
u
r
s
e
s

m
e
e
t
i
n
g

r
o
o
m

e
t
c

C
o
f
f
e
e

s
h
o
p

,

g
a
l
l
e
r
y

C
o
o
l
i
n
g

l
o
a
d
,

T
R
.

E
s
i
x
t
/
p
r
o
p
o
s
e
d

6
0
0
0

.

4
5
0
0
,

1
5
0
0

5
8
0
0

2
0
0
0

1
2
0
0
,

4
0
0

1
5
0
0
,

6
0
0

A
i
r

q
t
y

,

c
f
m

5
8
0
,
0
0
0

4
8
0
,
0
0
0

5
8
0
,
0
0
0

2
0
0
0
0
0

1
5
0
0
0
0

2
5
0
0
0
0

D
e
s
c
r
i
p
t
i
o
n

o
f

s
p
a
c
e

C
l
i
n
i
c
s

,

2
0
,
0
0
0

m
2

D
i
a
g
n
o
s
t
i
c

C
e
n
t
e
r

,

1
5
,
0
0
0

m
2

P
a
t
i
e
n
t

t
o
w
e
r

,

2
0
,
0
0
0

m
2

I
.
C
.
U

,
6
0
0
0

m
2

(

A
n
s
o
r
p
t
i
o
n

s
y
s
t
e
m
)

S
w
i
n
g

w
i
n
g

,
8
0
0
0

m
2

P
o
d
i
u
m

a
r
e
a
,

1
5
0
0
0

m
2

S
l

n
o

0
1

0
2

0
3

0
4

0
5

0
7

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

764

ENERGY SAVING :

The above can be summarized as below:
Original Load - 6000 +4500+5800+1200+1500+2000 =21,000 TR.
Saving due to fresh air reduction =3000 +800+900=4700 TR.
Absorption system =2000 TR. ( heat by waste steam ) .
Energy benefit due to above: Ignoring district cooling (for energy benefit calculation)
The approx. KW / TR for Hospital air conditioning , assume centrifugal chiller @ 0, 7 ,
(pumps, cooling tower etc, ) @ 0.3 , (SAHU, EAHU) @, 0.6 . Total Kw/ TR becomes =
1.6 KW/ TR Therefore For 21000 TR cooling Load , Power requirement becomes =33,600
KW. Due to reduction of Fresh .Air quantity, the benefit becomes =4700 x 1,6 =7520 KW.
Due to absorption system - pumps, cooling tower @ 0.35 KW/ TR , ( absorption pump is
added ) so benefit is 1.6 0.35 =1.25 Kw/ TR which becomes =2500 KW.
Total saving becomes 7520 + 2500 = 10, 020 KW. At a glance saving in percentage =10,
020 / 33,600 =29.82% .Which is quite encouraging.

DISCUSSION:
The above points were studied during design check by contractor. Now absorption system is
also becoming popular due to environment consciousness and energy consideration in
consideration with site energy with vapor compression system. The above benefit is not in
effect in this project as district cooling system considering chilled water from M/S Tabreed in
force. The main comparison will be by cancelling plate type heat exchanger with absorption
chiller.
The energy saving is very good compare to base but the Plate type heat exchanger related
district cooling system can be reduced . The net capital cost increase due to Absorption
chiller, cooling tower, absorption pump minus the Plate type heat exchanger will be approx $
80,000. This can be balanced within 4 years due to decrease in running cost.
PV cells was considered related to power for small devices like absorption pump and small
device supported by backup power from diesel generator run by gas.

NOMENCLATURE:
ACH Air Change per Hour.
D.B Dry Bulb Temperature.
EAHU Exhaust Air Handling Unit.
ECV Exhaust Air Control Valve.
GMT Greenish Mean Time.
GPM Gallon per Minute.
ICU Intensive Care Unit.
LEED Leadership in Engineering Environmental Design.
MEW Ministry of Electricity and Water.
N Negative Pressure.
P Positive Pressure.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

765

PA Pascal.
SAHU Supply Air Handling Unit.
SHGC Solar Heat Gain Co-efficient.
SWAC Sea water Air Conditioning system.
TR Tonnage of Refrigeration.
U Over all Heat Transfer Coefficient.
USGBC United State Green building Council.
VAV Variable Air Volume Box.
W.B. Wet Bulb Temperature.

REFERENCES:

(1) HVAC design Manual for hospital and clinics - ASHRAE.
(2) HVAC design for health care facilities - Course no- M-06-011 by A. Bhatia - Continuing
Education and development, Inc
(3) Large hospital 50% Energy saving, technical document, National Renewable Energy
laboratory.
(4) Website: http://www.energy.rochester.edu.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

766

THEORETICAL STUDY OF THE PERFORMANCES OF A THERMO
CHEMICAL HEAT STORAGE BED

Syntia Metchueng Kamdem
1, 2
, Kvyn J ohannes
2
, Frdric Kuznik
2
, Hassan Bouia
1
, J ean
J acques Roux
2

1
EDF R&D, Site des Renardires, 77818 Moret sur Loing Cedex, France
2
Centre Thermique de Lyon UMR 5008, 69621 Villeurbanne Cedex, France

Corresponding email: syntia.metchueng-kamdem@insa-lyon.fr

SUMMARY

Heat and mass transfer in a fixed bed of zeolite beads during water adsorption are studied. For
this purpose, a pseudo-homogeneous model, based on scale changing methods, is developed.
Numerical simulation is used to present the spatial and temporal evolution of the temperature,
the moisture content and the energy density in the reactor. The sensitivity of the released
energy density to some parameters (reactor geometry, kinetic coefficient, velocity and heat
transfer coefficients, feed concentration ...) is analysed. To obtain optimal performances from
the fixed-bed reactor and to meet the heating needs of a building, balance has to be found
between the latter variables since they have an influence on the discharge duration.

INTRODUCTION

With 46% of the final energy consumption and approximately 20% of the total CO
2

emissions, the energy performance of housing and tertiary buildings is a key factor to reach
the EU Climate & Energy objectives, namely the reduction by 20% of greenhouse gases
emissions and the increase by 20% of energy savings by 2020 [1, 2].
Thermal energy storage systems could significantly contribute to reduce our dependency on
fossil fuels, while encouraging more efficient and environmentally friendly energy use.
Indeed, the primary role of these systems is to diminish the discrepancy between the
availability of resources and their demand [3, 4, 5, 6].
Thermal energy storage can be achieved either by using sensible heat storage, latent heat
storage, physical sorption heat storage or chemical heat storage [3, 4, 5, 6]. Physical sorption
and chemical heat storage have the highest potential for seasonal heat storage: the storage
energy density is high with minimal heat losses to the environment during the critical period.
Sorption and thermo-chemical storage systems use reversible physico-chemical phenomena to
store energy. Indeed, when considering the working pair A/B, a heat input results in the
separation of the compound AB into two elements A and B which can be stored separately:
the process is endothermic. When the latter elements are put in contact with each other, the
formation of the compound AB is accompanied by a heat production: this time, the process is
exothermic.
(1)
The thermal storage system we wish to design, with the sorption couple zeolite/water,
operates as follows:
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

767

During the summer, the regeneration phase, solar excess heat is used to heat the incoming
ambient air in a heat exchanger. This hot dry air then flows through the storage unit and
dehydrates the material. The exhaust warm air is used to pre-heat the incoming ambient air.
In winter, the discharging phase, humid indoor air flows through the storage unit and
hydrates the material. The heat thus engendered is transferred to the incoming cold air in
the ventilation heat exchanger to produce warm air which is then used for the heating of
the building.
Several international open adsorption seasonal storage projects aiming to show the feasibility
and relevance of such systems have emerged in recent years [5, 6, 7, 8]. The results of these
studies show that there remain some uncertainties as to how to choose the adequate material
and about the power levels reached by the reactor. Once technical specifications have been
defined, in order to reach the required performances, heat and mass transfer in the storage
device have to be optimized.
The design and simulation of a sorption heat storage fixed bed reactor involves the
mathematical modelling of the transport and sorption processes occurring in a multi-phase
(gaseous, adsorbed and solid states) system. Detailed mathematical models of such systems
that account for the flow field, inter- and intra-phase gradients as well as interaction or
exchange between the phases are often complex [9, 10]. Furthermore, these detailed models
contain a considerable number of physico-chemical parameters. Hence, it may be virtually
impossible to study such models and how their solutions vary in the multi-dimensional
parameter space. However, it is possible to simplify these multi-phase models.
In this work, a pseudo-homogeneous model, which does not explicitly account for the
presence of the sorbent beads, has been established in order to simulate the performance of a
zeolite bed during the adsorption of water (the discharging phase) and to determine the
sensitivity of the energy density in the bed to some parameters.
METHODS
Mathematical modelling
The system studied is a fixed bed packed with porous spherical zeolite beads, in which the
adsorption of water (the discharging phase) is carried out. The feed gas, humid air, is supplied
to the bed at ambient temperature.
The equations which govern heat and mass transfer in porous media are generally obtained by
means of scale-changing methods [9, 10]. The latter allow moving from a microscopic scale,
in which the averaging volume is small compared to the pores, to a macroscopic scale, in
which the averaging volume is large next to the pores. The actual discontinuous medium is
thus converted, under certain closure assumptions, to an equivalent fictitious continuous one.
The hypotheses to which the equations in the model describing the dynamics of the system
are subject to are as follows:
(a) The adsorbent beads have identical properties and are uniformly distributed throughout
the bed;
(b) The bed porosity is uniform;
(c) The gas phase behaves as an ideal gas mixture of dry air and water vapour;
(d) Thermal equilibrium is assumed between the three phases (solid, gas, and adsorbed);
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

768

(e) The flow pattern can be described by an axially dispersed plug flow-model;
(f) Radial gradients in the bed are negligible;
(g) Axial conduction in the wall is negligible.
Considering the above assumptions, the macroscopic equations governing heat and mass
transfer in the bed are:
(a) Overall mass balance:
(2)
(b) Component (water vapour) mass balance, where,
, in eq. (3-b) is the water vapour molar

fraction:
(3-a)
(3-b)
The axial dispersion term is expressed as a function of the water vapour molar fraction
according to the method of Choong et al. [11].
(c) The energy balance with heat transfer to the wall:

(4-a)
(4-b)

(4-c)
(d) The heat loss through the wall:
(5-a)
(5-b)
Equilibrium isotherm and kinetics of adsorption
The linear driving force (LDF) model [12] is used to predict the adsorption rate:
(6-a)
The coefficient,
, in eq. (6-a), is a lumped parameter which takes into account different

mass transfer resistances the water molecules encounter before reaching the adsorption sites.
It can be estimated [7] using the following equation:
(6-b)
Where the macro pore diffusivity,
, is given by:
(6-c)
The correlation of Wakao and Funazkri [11] was used to evaluate,
, in eq. (6-b):
(6-d)
Although the LDF approximation underestimates the adsorbed quantities at short times, the
predictions are quite accurate over sufficiently long time intervals.
In this study, a polynomial interpolation is used to evaluate the adsorption equilibrium of
water on the zeolite beads, which is generally considered to be type II according to
Brunauers classification:
(7-a)
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

769

(7-b)
Where:
(7-c)
Coefficients b
i
and a
i
are obtained via polynomial interpolation from the experimental data of
Ahn and Lee [13].
Mass and thermal axial dispersion
The correlation of Wakao and Funazkri [13, 14] is used to estimate mass axial dispersion:
(8)
As for the effective axial thermal conductivity, it can be given by [17]:
(9-a)
Where:
(9-b)
(9-c)
Velocity
The velocity is considered constant and calculated from the feed flow rate:

(10)
Wall heat transfer
The correlation Yagi and Wakao [16] is used to evaluate the heat transfer coefficient at the
inner wall of the column:
(11)
Initial and boundary conditions
During the discharging phase, the initial conditions are as follows:

(12)
As for the boundary conditions:
(13-a)
(13-b)
Energy density in the bed
The amount of energy released, which depends on the quantity of water adsorbed in the bed,
is estimated as follows [8]:

(14-a)
Where:

(14-b)
Eq. 14-a is multiplied by 2.777.10
-7
in order to obtain the energy density in kWh/m
3
instead of
J /m
3
.
Numerical simulation
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

770

First order downward and second order central finite difference schemes are used to
approximate the first and second order spatial derivatives. The set of ordinary differential
equations (ODEs) obtained from the reduction of the partial differential equations (PDEs)
describing the dynamics of the system are solved using the DASSL algorithm in Dymola
.
The CPU time for solving the above is approximately 0.2 seconds on a computer (PC, 3.0
GHz).
RESULTS
Validation of the numerical simulation
The numerical simulation is validated with experimental data [13, 17] of a TSA process. The
adsorption bed has an inner diameter of 3 cm; the wall-thickness is of 0.23 cm and the bed-
height is of 30 cm. The adsorption conditions are as follows: the ambient temperature is equal
to 297K (~24C) with a relative humidity of around 60%; the feed flow rate is equal to
9l/min.

Figure 27: Temporal evolution of the effluent
dimensionless water vapour concentration

Figure 28: Temporal evolution of temperature
in the fixed bed at different positions
The calculated temperature and dimensionless water vapour concentration as well as the
experimental values are plotted in figures 1 and 2. The results are quite satisfactory, especially
when it comes to the description of the temporal evolution of the water vapour concentration.
As far as temperature is concerned, the general trends are good enough.
Sensitivity study of the energy density in the bed
The aim is to assess the sensitivity of the energy density released during the discharging phase
to variations of the model inputs given by variables or parameters and variations of model
assumptions. The results reported below represent the preliminary stage of this sensitivity
analysis since only first order interactions are studied.
Effect of inlet water vapour concentration (or relative humidity)
As seen from figure 3, the discharge duration is shortened when the relative humidity
increases. It is also worth noting that the inlet relative humidity has an impact on the
evolution of the energy density in the bed at short times. For optimal performance of the
reactor, balance has to be found between the initial energy density in the bed, which is a result
of the charging phase, and the discharge duration when choosing the inlet relative humidity.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

771

Indeed, the storage system has to be able to meet the heating needs over the required period of
time.

Figure 29: Influence of the inlet water vapour concentration
Effect of the inlet velocity (inlet feed flow rate)

Figure 30: Influence of the inlet velocity
The discharge duration decreases when the feed flow rate increases as illustrated in figure 4.
As a matter of fact, the time spent by a water molecule in the reactor is reduced, resulting in
less water molecules available for adsorption in the reactor.
Effect of the adsorption coefficient
As can be seen in figures 5 and 6, an increase of the adsorption constant results in the
reduction of the discharge duration. A higher constant of adsorption indicates that the water
molecules take less time to overcome the mass transfer resistances they encounter. Since they
reach the adsorption sites quickly, there are more water molecules available for adsorption in
the reactor.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

772

Figure 31: Influence of the adsorption
coefficient

Figure 32: Influence of the adsorption
coefficient (zoom of figure 5)

Effect of the length of the reactor

Figure 33: Influence of the length of the reactor
The above graphic shows that increasing the length of the reactor leads to higher discharging
durations. By increasing the length of the reactor, the time spent by the water molecules
within it is raised.
DISCUSSION
A pseudo-homogeneous model describing heat and mass transfer during adsorption of water
vapour in a fixed bed packed with zeolite beads was established and solved with finite
difference schemes.
The calculated temperature evolves correctly when compared to experimental results.
However, there remain some differences which could be due to:
the thermal equilibrium assumption;
the 1D assumption;
for low Reynolds numbers, correctly taking into account wall heat transfer is a tricky issue
[16];
the LDF coefficient is supposed constant in our study;
head losses may not be negligible, thus the velocity should be calculated with this in mind.
The preliminary results of the sensitivity study show that the choice of the geometry of the
reactor, the inlet water vapour concentration, the constant of adsorption and the inlet feed
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

773

flow rate seem to have an influence on two variables: the initial energy density in the bed and
the discharge duration.
To obtain optimal performances from the fixed-bed reactor and to meet the heating needs of a
building, balance has to be found between the latter variables.
The next step will be to carry on with the sensitivity analysis during an entire cycle (charging
and discharging phases), with a particular attention to the coupled interactions of the
parameters studied here and their impact on the evolution of the energy density.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The financial assistance of the French Agency for Research and of EDF R&D is gratefully
acknowledged.
NOTATIONS

water vapour and total concentration mol/m

3
fluid, bead and adsorbed phase heat capacity J /kg.K
Knudsen, molecular and bead effective diffusivity m/s
axial dispersion coefficient m/s
heat transfer coefficient at the internal and the external wall W/m.K
length of adsorption column m
effective axial thermal conductivity W/m.K
LDF and fluid film mass transfer coefficients 1/s, m/s
molar mass of adsorbed phase kg/mol

Nusselt number
volume averaged amount adsorbed molH2O/kgads
spatial average of
equilibrium amount adsorbed molH2O/kgads
bead and adsorption column radius m

Reynolds number
Schmidt number
time s

bed, ambient and wall temperature K

interstitial velocity m/s
water vapour molar fraction

axial distance along the fixed bed m
energy density released J /m
3

heat of adsorption J /mol
fluid, bead and wall density kg/m

3

fixed-bed and bead porosity
fluid and bead thermal conductivity W/m.K

volume m
3

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

774

REFERENCES
1. www2.ademe.fr
2. Climate plan. 2004. Lets act together to challenge climate change, Tech.rep. French Ministry of
Ecology and Sustainable Development.
3. Hadorn, J C. 2005. Thermal Energy Storage for solar and low energy buildings, state of the art by
the IEA Solar Heating and Cooling Program Task 32.
4. Abedin, A H, Rosen M A. 2011. A critical review of thermo chemical energy storage systems. The
Open Renewable J ournal. Vol. 4.
5. NTsoukpoe, K E, Liu, H, Le Pierrs, N, Luo, L. 2009. A review on long-term sorption solar
energy storage. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. Vol.13, pp 2385-2397.
6. Tatsidjodoung, P, Le Pierrs, N, Luo L. 2013. A review of potential materials for thermal energy
storage in building applications. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. Vol.18, pp 327-349.
7. Hongois, S. 2011. Stockage de chaleur inter-saisonnier par voie thermochimique pour le chauffage
solaire de la maison individuelle. Ph.D. thesis. INSA Lyon.
8. Duquesne, M. 2013. Rsolution et rduction dun modle non linaire de stockage dnergie par
adsorption sur des zolites. Ph.D. thesis. University of Bordeaux.
9. Kaviany, M. 1995. Principles of heat transfer in porous media. Springer Verlag.
10. Bories, S, Mojtabi, A, Prat, M, Quintard, M. Transferts de chaleur dans les milieux poreux.
Conduction, Convection, Rayonnement. Techniques de lIngnieur BE 8250.
11. Leinekugel-Le-cocq, D. 2004. Contribution la modlisation simplifie dun procd dadsorption
modul en pression (P.S.A.). Ph.D. thesis. Claude Bernard university of Lyon.
12. Sircar, S, Hufton, J R. 2000. Why does the linear driving force model for adsorption kinetics
work? Adsorption. Vol. 6.
13. Ahn, H, Lee, C H. 2004. Effect of capillary condensation and thermal desorption dynamics of
water in zeolite 13X and layered beds. Chemical Engineering Science. Vol. 59, pp 2727-2743.
14. Clausse, M. 2003. Etude dun procd dadsorption TSA (Temperature Swing Adsorption)
chauffage et refroidissement indirects. Ph.D. thesis. CNAM.
15. Quintard, M. 2012. mquintard.free.fr/cours/mp00.pdf
16. Dixon, A G. 2012. Fixed bed catalytic reactor modelling-the radial heat transfer problem. The
Canadian J ournal of Chemical Engineering. Vol. 90.
17. Kim, M B, Moon, J H, Lee C H, et al. 2004. Effect of heat transfer on the transient dynamics of
temperature swing adsorption process. Korean J ournal of Chemical Engineering. Vol. 21 (3), pp
703-711.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

775

A COMPARISON IN TERMS OF COP VALUES OFREFRIGERANTS
USED IN HVAC

Alian Gnl
1
,M. Kemal Sevindir
2
, Esen ztrk
3

1,2,3
The university of Yildiz Technical, Istanbul
Corresponding email: agonul@yildiz.edu.tr

SUMMARY

In this study, general history of refrigerants, which are used wide range of heating and cooling
systems, and their physical and thermodynamic properties are discussed. From finding of the
first refrigerant until in the present development of refrigerants has been examined. After this
research, there has been a comparison between there refrigerants planned to be taken off the
market and its alternatives within the Kyoto and Montreal Protocols. Their advantages and
disadvantages are discussed. In addition, the improvements on refrigerants and their
applications that has been made recently, are pointed out. Also ammonia, CFC-R12, HFC-
R32, HFC-R134a, HC-R600a, HFO-R1234yf refrigerants have been investigated in terms of
performances.

INTRODUCTION

Refrigeration process goes back to ancient times that wereused stored ice, and other
evaporative processes and vaporization of water.Until the 1850s natural ice was the only
available source to meet the demands for conservation and transportation of fresh foods,
manufacture and storage of some alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages, butter and frozen
creams, besides other improved living conditions for the population of every day larger cities.
Experiments in order to obtain artificial reductions of temperature, and thereby producing ice,
were made as far back as the XVI century. Later, Oliver Evans first proposed the use of a
volatile fluid in a closed cycle to freeze water into ice [1].But, he wasnt
accomplishedhisopinion. Later, maybe in light of his opinion,J acob Perkins and Richard
Trevithickencouraged to work on this subject.J acob Perkins made his invention of the vapor-
compression machine by using ether as refrigerant in the1830s. From 1830s to 1930s used
refrigerants has familiarproperties. In this continuum used refrigerants were classified first
generation refrigerants. The most important properties of the first generation of
refrigerantswere whatever worked. The first generations of refrigerants nearly wereneither
toxic nor flammable, or both. At the same time some refrigerants were also highly reactive.
When CarbonDioxide(CO
2
)wasfirstusedasarefrigerantin1866,Ammonia (NH
3
) was first
usedin1873, which are member of naturel refrigerant with water (H
2
O).The second
generation was distinguished by a shift to fluorochemicals for safety and durability. Repeated
leaks, of then prevalent methyl formate (R-611) and sulfur dioxide (R-764), retarded early
efforts to market domestic refrigerators to replace iceboxes. With direction that the
refrigeration industry needs a new refrigerant if they expect to get anywhere, Thomas
Midgley, J r., and his associates Albert L. Henne and Robert R.McNary first scoured property
tables to find chemicals with the desired boiling point. This situationhas led tothe
emergenceof CFCs. Commercial production of R-12 began in 1931 followed by R-11 in 1932
[2, 3].
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

776

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and later especially starting in the 1950s in residential and
small commercial air conditioners and heat pumps hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
dominated the second generation of refrigerants. Ammonia is the most popular refrigerant
especially in large, industrial systems for food and beverage processing and storage continued
as, and remains today. The stable structure of these chemical enables them to attack the ozone
layer[2].The third generation began in the 1990s, with introduction of alternative refrigerants
for environmental protection [4].HCFCs have still continuedtobeusedasa refrigerant for
refrigeration systems at the present time.After 1990s, most of the produced alternative
refrigerants had been backed performances in view of under old criteria.HFCs were improved
new solutions for ODP as new solutions.But, HFCs also causes global warming.Both global
warming and ozone depletion are two major environmental concerns. So, the studies for
development of refrigerants especially focus on decreasing GWP and ODP effects of
refrigerants. Scientists have studied to decrease global warming effect of refrigerant. With this
purpose, performances, GWP and ODP effects of available refrigerants mixing different rates
and new finding refrigerants has been examined by scientists and manufacturer firms. HFO-
1234yf is the first in a new class of refrigerants acquiring a global warming potential less than
that of R-134a in view of a F-gas regulation in Europe. Thermodynamics properties data of
HFO-1234yf represented almost the thermodynamic properties of HFO-1234yf are lower
those of R-134a [5]. Nevertheless, this refrigerant is still four times higher than the alternative
substitute CO
2
and an atmospheric lifetime of about 400 times shorter. R-1234yf has lower
heat of vaporization, higher density at the compressor inlet and higher typical vaporization
pressures than R-134a [6].
In the second phase of in this study, selected six refrigerants have been examined in terms of
performances by us. If vapor-compression machine is used for heating or cooling systems, we
must consider a lot of properties its: flammability, toxicity, critical and operational pressure,
critical and operational temperature, critical density, ODP, GWP, COP and etc.

Figure 52.Refrigerant progression [2].
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

777

Table 1: Thermodynamicsproperties of selectedrefrigerantsby us
Refrigera
nt
Chemical
Formula
Molar
Mass
(kg/
kmol)
Critical
Temperatur
e (C)
Critical
Pressur
e (bar)
Critical
Density
(kg/m)
OzoneDe
pletionPo
tential
(ODP)
Global
Warming
Potential
(GWP)
Ammonia NH3 17,030 132,250 113,330 225,00 0 0
R12 CF2CL2
120,910
111,970 41,361 565,00
1 8100
R32 CH2F2 52,024 78,105 57,820 424,00 0 650
R134a CF3CH2F 102,030 101,060 40,593 511,90 0 1430
R600a CH(CH3)3 58,122 134,670 36,400 224,35 0 3
R1234yf
CF3CF=CH
2 114,040 94,700 33,822 475,55
0 4

Ammonia is a member of naturel refrigerantsis indispensable refrigerant in large scale
industrial applications for about 130 years. Toxicity and high operational pressure is
disadvantages. R12 is a well-known CFCs refrigerant. But, the refrigerant had dropped out of
use for owing to its high ODP value. In this paper, CFC-R12 refrigerant is a reference
refrigerant in terms of development of thermodynamics properties refrigerant.HFC-R32 is
thought as a new refrigerant. Especially, it is used Far East countries for the purpose of air-
conditioning. GWP value of this refrigerant is less than in comparison with a lot of
HFCrefrigerants. HFC-R134a is commonly used air-conditioning both automotive and
domestic applications. Owing to the fact that it has high GWP value, use of this refrigerant
has been planned to abolish until 2030s. The other name of R600a is isobutene. The
refrigerant is members of naturel refrigerant family. In the last years, they are particularly
used to begin domestic refrigerator. HFO-R1234yf is the one of newest refrigerant. This
refrigerant especially has been purposed to use instead of HFC R134a forautomotive air-
conditioning.

METHODS

In this paper, we have compared six refrigerant R12, R32, R134a, R600a, R1234yf and
ammonia which are or were commonly used in the HVAC system and industrial application,
in terms of change of T
evap
(from -20 C to 0 C and T
con
=50 C constant) with COP and
change of T
evap
with operational pressure. Also, evaporation power has been taken value of
constant 2 kW. Isentropic efficiency of compressor had been accepted %100. For finding
thermodynamics properties of selected refrigerants had been used Refprop 9 package
program. The calculations have been made according to ideal vapor-compression cycleis
asystemusedtotransferheatfromlowtemperaturereservoir
tohightemperaturereservoirwiththehelpofworking refrigerant.
In Figure 2, we have seen pressure-enthalpy diagram for ideal vapor-compression cycle.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

778

Figure 2.Pressure enthalpy diagram of ideal vapor-compression cycle

(1)

where
comp
W
is compressor power,
ref
m is mass flow of refrigerant,
1
h is enthalpy of refrigerant
at the evaporator outlet and
2
h is enthalpy of refrigerant at the compressor outlet.

(2)

where
evap
Q
is evaporator power,
ref
m is mass flow of refrigerant,
1
h is enthalpy of refrigerant at
the evaporator outlet and
4
h is enthalpy of refrigerant at the throttling valve outlet.

(3)

whereCOP provides a measure of performance for vapor-compression machine.
Table 2. Enthalpy values of refrigerants for T
evap
=-10
0
C (constant)
Lntha|py
(kI]kg)
k12 k134a k32 k600a k1234yf Ammon|a
h
1
348,29 392,66 313,02 341,67 193,3 1393,9
h
2
373,63 428,42 333,09 610,83 224,34 1714,3
h
3
249,71 271,62 297,49 322,98 73,884 383,77
h
4
249,71 271,62 297,49 322,98 73,884 383,77

Enthalpy values of selected refrigerant have been seen in Table 2 forT
evap
=-10
0
C, T
con
=50
0
C.

RESULTS

In Figure 3, selected refrigerants have compared in terms of pressure valueswith different
evaporation temperature. Pressure is very important vapor-compression machine for choosing
refrigerants. Refrigerant pressure is wanted low values in vapor-compression machine. As
) .(
1 2
h h m W
ref comp
=
comp
evap
W
Q
h h
h h
COP
=
1 2
4 1
) .(
4 1
h h m Q
ref evap
=

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

779

shown Figure 3, when the lowest pressure values are HC-R600a pressure, the highest pressure
values are HFC-R32 refrigerant in compared refrigerant. Pressure of HFO-R1234yf which
especially has been emerged alternatives to HFC-R134a has submitted good pressure range.

Figure 3. The change of pressure of refrigerants with different evaporation temperature

In Figure 4, selected refrigerants have compared in terms of mass flowwith different
evaporation temperature. With decreased evaporation temperature, mass flow have been seen
to decrease linearly. Evoporasyon scaklnn azalmasyla ktlesel debininde lineer azald
grlmektedir. -20-0 C buharlama scaklklarnda en dk ktlesel debi amonyak iken en
yksek CFC-R12 olduu grlmektedir. When vapor-compression machine has been
selected, mass flow is very important. Mass flow directly effects system size and cost of
system.

Figure 4. Thechange of operationalpressurerefrigerantwithdifferentevaporationtemperature
In Figure 5, selected refrigerants have compared in terms of COP value. We have seen in
0
3
10
13
20
23
30
33
-23 -13 -3 3 13 23 33 43 33
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

(
b
a
r
)

Evaporation Temperature (C)
Ammonla
812
832
8134a
8600a
81234yf
0
0.003
0.01
0.013
0.02
0.023
-23 -20 -13 -10 -3 0
M
a
s
s

F
l
o
w

(
k
g
/
s
e
c
o
n
d
)

Ammonla
812
832
8134a
8600A
81234yf
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

780

Figure 5 that COP value of ammonia is the best value among compared refrigerant. Also, we
have seen that HFC-R32 refrigerant give good COP value. HFO-1234yf is a one of the newest
refrigerant giving good COP value among compared other refrigerants. As seen Figure 5,
COP value has increased with decreasing evaporation temperature.

Figure 5. Comparison of refrigerants in view of COP value

DISCUSSIONS

In this paper, we have summarized history of development refrigerants and have compared
refrigerants that are used often in HVAC systems. Refrigerants have been separated four
generations until the present. In reviewing the literature, we have seen that
researchershavestudiedboth experimentaland theoreti cal investigations to findout
thevariousfactorsimpactingtheperformanceof vapor-compression refrigerationsystem.General
objectives of these studies are to find refrigerant which have high performances and
dont harm the environment and peopleshealth. Especially, they have studied to have
zero/low ODP values and low GWP values of refrigerants. But, properties of refrigerants still
have not desired level at the present time.So, these situations have highlighted naturel
refrigerants as Ammonia, CO
2
and H
2
O.Later, we have compared six refrigerant R12, R32,
R134a, R600a, R1234yf and ammonia in terms of performances.Ammonia and HFC-R32
have been offered that figures have been examined. But, these refrigerants have worked high
operational pressure. HC-R600a will be frequently used owing to low working pressure in
domestic refrigeration. HFO-R1234yf has been good performances value by comparison
HFC-R134a and CFC-R12. This refrigerant will be often used in the future in place of HFC-
R134a.

0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
-23 -20 -13 -10 -3 0 3
C
O
P

Ammonla
812
832
8134a
8600a
81234yf
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

781

REFERENCES

1. Reif-Acherman, S. 2012. The early ice making systems in the nineteenth century.International
J ournal of Refrigeration.Vol. 35, pp1224 1254.
2. Calm, J . M.,Fanger, P. O. 2008.The next generation of refrigerants Historical review,
considerations, and outlook. International J ournal of Refrigeration. Vol. 31, pp
1123 1133
3. Downing, R C. 1984. Development of chlorofluoro-carbon refrigerants. ASHRAE
Transactions. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning
Engineers
(ASHRAE), Vol. 90 (2B), pp481491.
4. Calm, J . M.,Didion D. A. 1998. Trade-offs in refrigerant selections: past, present, and
future.
Vol. 21, pp. 308321.
5. Tanaka, K.,Higashi, Y. 2010. Thermodynamicproperties of HFO-1234yf (2,3,3,3-tetra-
fluoropropene). International J ournal of Refrigeration. Vol. 33, pp474 479.
6.Navarro, E.,Martinez-Galvan, I.O., Nohales, J .,Gonzalvez-Macia, J . 2013.Comparattive
experimentalstudy of an opencompressorworkingwith R-1234yf, R134a and R290.
International J ournal of Refrigeration.Vol. 36, pp768 775.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

782

THE STUDY OF ALTERNATIVE REFRIGERANT GAS R152A AS
MOBILE AIR CONDITIONING REFRIGERANT REPLACEMENTS

Kadir Bilen
1
, Ahmet Tahir Kalkm
2
, Ismail Solmu
1

1
Department of Mechanical Eng., Atatrk University, Erzurum, Turkey
2
Dept of Electronic and Control Systems, Vocational College, Gmhane University,
Gmhane, Turkey

Corresponding email: kbilen@atauni.edu.tr
SUMMARY

R134a refrigerant has come under scrutiny for its contribution to greenhouse gases, which is
1,430 times greater than an equivalent mass of CO
2
. Industry has therefore begun searching
for alternative refrigerant with a lower global warming potential (GWP). The researchers try
to find alternative refrigerants in replace with the R-134a. In these days, R-152a has been
considered as an alternative refrigerant with having zero ODS and little GWD.

In this study, the possible usage of the R-152a replace R-134a in the AC system of an
automobile and the properties of the R-152 will be given and compared eachother. The studies
have been conducted in this field so far and the results of these studies have been presented
and compared with the R-134a refrigerant still used. Also, the effect of the R-152a on the
performance of the AC system of an automobile has been examined analytically. At a
constant evaporator cooling load (Q
e
=2 kW), the heat rejected from the condenser,
compressor power and performance coefficient of the AC system (COP) have been studied for
various evaporator temperatures (T
e
=-20
o
C - 10
o
C) and compressor rotation speeds (n=450 -
2000 rpm). As a conclusion, it has been observed that R-152a and R-134a do not lead to any
significant difference on the performance of the cooling system. Therefore, R-152a can be
used alternately as a cooling refrigerant in the AC system of the current automobiles with or
without small modifications of their AC systems.

Keywords: R-152a refrigerant, Air conditioning system of automobile, Global warming
potential GWP), Ozone depletion potential (ODP), Alternative refrigerants

INTRODUCTION

Cooling and heating systems have been received significant attention in recent years due to
desire of human beings to raise the comfort of their living environments. To maintain the
temperature of the spaces at a fixed value since the people feel more comfortable, air
conditioning systems have been improved and these systems have brought a lot of innovation
with both the technological development and the dream of creating a more comfortable
environment [1].

The first cooling systems, using Carbon dioxide (CO
2
), Ammonium (NH
2
) and natural
refrigerants were produced in 1866 and 1873, respectively. The search of more efficient
refrigerants has been accelerated in the light of technological developments, although the
most common natural refrigerants are water, air, ammonia, CO
2
, Ether and SO
2
[2]. The
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

783

refrigerants developed such as CFC and HFC speed up this process. A large number of
synthetic refrigerants that causes the destruction of the ozone layer and can be considered as
environmentally toxic wastes was developed, produced commercially and used as results of
the rapid development of the process and the diversification of the synthetic refrigerants [1].

Earth's temperature increased in a certain extent over the past few years of the 19th century.
The last 15 years of the 20th century were reported to be hottest years of that century. As
results, the snow cover in the Arctic decreased and glaciers began to melt. All over the world,
sea level increased in between 10 and 20 cm and the excessive rainfalls emerged. All of these
extraordinary circumstances have caused to put two important terms such as "greenhouse
effect" and ozone layer into our lives. Hereby, a consciousness has been occurred to
consider the environmental factors for the cooling systems which are previously less
important than the efficiency of these systems. Firstly, the use of CFCs in the current systems
was banned and afterwards, the production and use of the HCFC refrigerants have been
gradually terminated by the Montreal Protocol. For the purpose of the restriction of the use of
greenhouse gases and toxic refrigerants, the European Union and many far eastern countries
signed the Kyoto protocol [3].

The AC system is considered to be one of the most important components of an automobile
for driving comfort. Therefore, we need more effective refrigerants [4].

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF THE REFRIGERANTS

Flammability: ASHRAE 34 proposed three categories to handle the flammability
Class 1: indicates the non-flammable refrigerants at 101 kPa and 21 C.
Class 2: shows low flammable refrigerants (LFL>0.1 kg/m
3
) at 101 kPa, and 21 C
and HOC<19MJ /kg.
Class 3: states highly flammable refrigerants (LFL<0.1 kg/m
3
) at 101 kPa, and 21 C
and HOC>19MJ /kg.

Combustion Fundamentals: Two concepts that determine the limits of the combustion are
the lower flammability limit (LFL) and upper flammability limit (UFL). The lower
flammability limit indicates the presence of minimum amount of refrigerant that requires for
the combustion. The maximum amount of refrigerant in the air for the formation of the
combustion is defined as the upper flammability limit (UFL) [5].

Toxicity: Refrigerants are divided into two groups with respect to their toxicity:
Class A: indicates no evidence of toxicity at concentrations below 400 ppm (low
toxicity).
Class B: indicates evidence of toxicity at concentrations below 400 ppm (high toxicity).

The toxicity effect of some of the refrigerants is shown in Table 1. The value called as ATEL
(acute toxicity exposure limit), shows the maximum amount of refrigerant in the space that
will not affect the health badly in a short period of 30 minutes [6]. In other words, R152a will
not create any toxic effect unless the amount of it in a space doesnt exceed 50 000 ppm. As it
can be seen from the Table.1 that ATEL values of R152a and R134a gases are the same and
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

784

the ATEL value of R-152a is better than that of R12 and CO
2
. The toxicity class of the R-
152a is expressed as B level in the ASHRAE standards.

Thermodynamic Properties: Today, the most widely used refrigerant in the AC systems of
the automobiles is the refrigerant R134a. Thermodynamic properties of the alternative
refrigerant are expected to be same with that of the refrigerant R134a or even better. The
cooling system using refrigerant R152a has a better COP value than that using R12 or R134a
and the thermodynamic and physical properties of the refrigerant R152a are nearly the same
with R12 and R134a and thus, there is no need to make any modifications on the compressor
if it is used as a cooling refrigerant. The thermodynamic properties of the refrigerant R152a
and the refrigerants widely used in cooling systems are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Thermodynamic properties of R-152a, R-134a, R-12 and R-22 Refrigerants [5,6,7,8]
R152a R134a R12 R22
Chemical Symbol C2H4F2 C2H2F4 CCl2F2 CHClF2
Critical Temprature (
o
C) 113.26 101.96 111.97 96.15
Critical Pressure (kPa) 45.17 40.59 41.36 49.90
Boiling Point
o
C -24.7 -26.16 -29.75 -40.80
Molecular Weight (kg/mol) 66 102 120,9 86,47
ODW 0 0 0,820 0,04
GWD 140 1300 8100 1810
Thermal-Conductivity (w/mK) 0.0113 0.095
Gas Constant (kj/kgK) 0.125.8 0.08149 0.06876
Poisining (ATEL) (mg/Lt) 50.000 50.000 18.000
Density (kg/m
3
) 25
o
C 910 1205,9 1311 1191
UFL-LFL (%) 16.9 - 3.9 None None None
Flammable Class A2 A1 A1 A1
Atmospher Life (Year) 2 14.6 102 12.1
Chemical Symbol R152a R134a R12 R22

Other desirable parameters for the substitute refrigerants include high oil solubility, the ability
to blend with other refrigerants, high vapor dielectric strength, easy leak detection and low
cost [9].

The refrigeration system using refrigerant R152a gives better COP than the systems using
refrigerants R12 and R134a and the thermodynamic and physical properties of R152a are very
close to that of refrigerants R12 and R134a and hence, there is no need to make any
modifications on the system during the replacement of the refrigerant and also, it is quite well
compatible with mineral oils. The evaporator pressure is preferred to be higher than
atmospheric pressure to prevent the entry of air into the system since the water vapor in the air
may solidify and causes some operating problems. To make the comparison in terms of the
thermodynamic properties, R152a is compared with the other refrigerants in the design of a
AC system. The results of the same cycle for different refrigerants are compared and
presented.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

785


The variation of the rotation speed according to variation of evaporator temperature at a fixed
heat load (Q
e
=2 kW) is shown in Figure 1. Calculations done according to compressor
rotational speed showed that rotation speed decreases with the increasing value of the
evaporator temperatures. However, the rotation speed becomes comparatively high at low
evaporator temperatures since more work is done on the compressor.

Figure 1. The effect of evaporator temperature on the compressor speed (Q
e
=2 kW, T
c
=60
0
C).

Figure 2. The effect of evaporator temperature
on the condenser heat load (Q
e
=2 kW,
T
c
=60
0
C).

Figure 3. The effect of compressor rotation
speed on condenser heat load (Q
e
=2 kW
T
c
=60
o
C).

In Figure 2, the condenser temperature is specified to be 60
o
C. It can be seen from the figure
that the amount of heat rejected from the condenser for the refrigerants R152a, R134a, R12,
and R22 indicates very similar behavior and at low evaporator temperatures, it is initially
much greater and it decreases slowly with increasing of the evaporator temperature. This is
due to the fact that compressor draws more power at low evaporator temperatures and these
results in an increase in heat load transferred from the condenser to the environment. Because,
the amount of heat rejected from condenser (Q
c
), is equal to sum of the cooling load of
evaporator (Q
e
) and the amount of energy consumed by compressor. The heat load of
0
300
1000
1300
2000
-20 -13 -10 -3 0
n

(

r
p
m

)

1e
o
C
8132a
8134a
812
822
2.3
2.4
2.3
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3
-20 -13 -10 -3 0
c

(

k
W

)

1e
o
C
8132a
8134a
812
822
2.3
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
3
0 300 1000 1300 2000
c

(

k
W

)

n ( rpm )
8132a
8134a
812
822
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

786

condenser (Q
c
) shows an increase with the amount of work done on compressor due to the
specified value of evaporator cooling load (Q
e
=2 kW).

Figure 3 shows the amount of heat rejected from the condenser with the variation of
compressor rotation speed. The heat load transferred from the condenser increases with
increasing value of compressor rotation speed. It can be seen that the amount of heat rejected
from the condenser for R152 is higher than that for R134a as the compressor rotational speed
is increased. Although the work done on the compressor for refrigerant R22 is much higher
than that for the other refrigerants in terms of the rotational speed it doesnt demonstrate the
same effect on the evaporator temperatures.

Figure 4. The effect of evaporator temperature
on the compressor input power (Q
e
=2 kW,
T
c
=60
0
C).

Figure 5. The effect of compressor rotational
speed on compressor input power (Q
e
=2 kW,
T
c
=60
o
C).

The compressor work for various evaporator temperatures at a specified heat load is given in
Figure 4. It is clear in this figure that compressor work decreases with increasing evaporator
temperature. The compressor work for all gases approaches to each other along with the
decreasing value of the evaporator temperature. The lowest and highest compressor works are
done by refrigerant R152a and R134a, respectively., The refrigerant R152a has better
thermodynamic properties than R134a despite it has the lowest compressor work.

The refrigerant R152a which has better thermodynamic properties than R134a for the
increasing values of compressor rotation speed gives the lowest compressor work and it
reaches a higher COP value for high compressor rotational speeds and this can be seen in
Figure 5. A high efficiency is achieved with the less compressor work by the system using
refrigerant R152a and thus, it can be considered as an environmentally friendly refrigerant
since the amount of energy consumed by the system with respect to other refrigerants used is
comparatively low.

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
-20 -13 -10 -3 0
W
c

(

k
W
)

1e
o
C
8132a
8134a
812
822
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
0 300 1000 1300 2000
W
c

(

k
W

)

n ( rpm )
8132a
8134a
812
822
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

787

Figure 6. The effect of the evaporator
temperature on the mass flow rate ( Q
e
=2 kW,
T
c
=60
0
C).

Figure 7. The effect of the compressor
rotational speed on the mass flow rate (Q
e
=2
kW, Tc=60
o
C).

The variation of the mass flow rate with evaporator temperature is given in Figure 6. It is
clear in this figure that the mass flow rate of the refrigerant R152a circulated in the system is
less than that of refrigerant R134a and it leads to a higher cooling power. At the same
evaporator temperature, while the requirement of refrigerant mass flow rate of the system for
R134a is 0.017 kg/s, this is only 0.01 kg/s for refrigerant R152a.

It can be seen from Figure 7 that, the mass flow rate increment according to increasing value
of compressor rotational speeds for R152a is more slowly as it is compared to the other
refrigerants and the difference becomes larger when the compressor rotational speed is
increased.

Figure 8. Variation of the COP value of the
system with the evaporator temperature (Q
e
=2
kW, T
c
=60
0
C).

Figure 9. The comparison of various
refrigerants with respect to COP value of
the system (Q
e
=2 kW, T
c
=60
o
C).

Figure 8 shows variation of the COP value of the system with the evaporator temperature. The
refrigerants R152a and R134a lead to the highest and the lowest COP values, respectively.
R152 refrigerant always gives the highest COP value for all the values of evaporator
temperature and compressor rotational speeds.
0
0.003
0.01
0.013
0.02
0.023
-20 -13 -10 -3 0

-

M
a
s
s

I
|
o
w

k
a
t
e

-

k
g

]

s

1e
o
C
8132
a
8134
a
0
0.003
0.01
0.013
0.02
0.023
0 300 1000 1300 2000
M
a
s
s

I
|
o
w

k
a
t
e

-

k
g

]

s

n ( rpm )
8132a
8134a
812
822
0
0.3
1
1.3
2
2.3
3
3.3
4
-20 -13 -10 -3 0
C
C

1e
o
C
8132a
8134a
812
822
0
0.3
1
1.3
2
2.3
3
3.3
4
0 300 1000 1300 2000
C
C

n ( rpm )
8132a
8134a
812
822
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

788

Figure 10. The effect of evaporator
temperature on the pressure ratio ( Q
c
=2 kW,
T
c
=60
0
C).

Figure 11. The comparison of various
refrigerants with respect to compressor
pressure ratio (Q
e
=2 kW, T
c
=60
o
C).

In Figure 9, the COP value of the system for various refrigerants at a specified condenser
temperature (T
c
=60
o
C) and heat load (Qe =2 kW) is shown. The system using R152 and
R134a refrigerants has the highest and the lowest COP values, respectively.

The variation of compressor pressure ratio with the evaporator temperatures is given in Figure
10. It can be seen that the compressor pressure ratio decreases with increasing of evaporator
temperature and the compressor pressure ratios for the refrigerants R134a and R152a are
almost the same. This result shows us that refrigerant R152a can be used instead of R134a
without making any significant modifications on the existing AC systems. It means that
R152a can be used in the existing air conditioning systems just making small changes that
may be required for safety. In general, a modification on the system may be taken into
consideration when the pressure ratio of the system is changed. In addition to this, it is also
necessary to consider the compatibility of pipe material used with the refrigerant. The piping
system of the unit should be changed in case of incompatibility.
It is seen in Figure 11 that the compressor pressure ratios for refrigerants R152a and R134a
are almost the same for a specified condenser temperature (T
c
=60C), and evaporator
temperature (T
e
=-20C).

RESULTS

The results have been obtained for two different systems. In the first system, for a specified
condenser temperature and heat load, the calculations have been done for various values of
the evaporator temperature. In the second system, for a specified condenser and evaporator
temperatures, the calculations have been done for various values of the compressor rotation
speed. The performance of the system has been compared for various refrigerants such as
R134a, R152a, R12 and R22 and the results obtained presented as below.

The heat load of the condenser shows significant similarity for the refrigerants R152a, R134a,
R12 and R22 and the amount of heat transfer from condenser to environment at low
evaporator temperatures is greater. The heat load of the condenser decreases with the
increasing evaporator temperature. The heat load of the condenser increases along with the
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
-20 -13 -10 -3 0
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

k
a
n
o

1e
o
C
8132a
8134a
812
822
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
0 300 1000 1300 2000
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

k
a
n
o

n ( rpm )
8132a
8134a
812
822
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

789

increasing compressor rotational speed. The reason behind this behavior is that the
compressor work increases with increasing rotational speed and thus, the heat load of the
evaporator increases as well. It can be concluded from the variation of compressor rotational
speed with the evaporator temperature that the compressor rotational speed at low evaporation
temperatures is high, and the compressor rotational speed decreases along with increasing
evaporator temperature.

Compressor rotational speed for R134a and R152a at different evaporator temperatures shows
great similarity. When the variation of the compressor pressure ratio with evaporator
temperature is analyzed, pressure ratio shows a decrease with increasing evaporator
temperature and pressure ratios for R134a and R152 gases are the same. In this case, it can be
stated that without making any modifications on the existing system operating with the same
pressure ratios, R152a can be used instead of R134a. COP value of the system at low
evaporator temperatures is low and it increases with increasing of evaporation temperature.

The highest COP value of the system was obtained at highest evaporator temperature.
According to this result, when the temperature difference between the condenser and
evaporator is increased, the COP value of the system decreases or vice versa. COP value of
the refrigeration system was higher at low compressor rotational speeds and decreased with
increasing value of rotational speed. The COP value of the system using R152a at different
evaporator temperatures is the highest according to other refrigerants. The COP values of the
system using R134a and R12 refrigerants were almost the same. The COP of the system at
high evaporator temperatures has the lowest value for refrigerant R134a.

When the compressor pressure ratio at different evaporator temperatures are examined, the
pressure ratio at low evaporator temperatures is the largest and it increases with increasing of
the evaporator temperature. As it can be seen from the figure that R152a shows great
similarity with R134a and it has almost the same rate of pressure change. As a result of the
calculations done for Q
e
=2 kW, the thermodynamic properties and technical data of R152a
are given and compared. R152a can be used as a cooling refrigerant in the place of R134a in
the air conditioning system of an automobile without making any significant modifications on
its components. The existing systems give a better COP value with this refrigerant and the
cooling is achieved with the less compressor work and thus, energy consumption of the
system decreases.

Due to the mass flow rate lower than that is needed at the same evaporator temperature,
amount of refrigerant used in the system will decrease and hence, along with the less amount
of refrigerant, the same cooling power will be achieved.

REFERENCES

1. omakl,K.,imsek,F., zyurt,., Bakrc K, Soutma Istma sistemlerinde
kullanlan soutucu akkanlar ve alternatifleri, Mhendis ve Makina, 47 (562), 33-
45, 2008
2. Thevenot, R., 1979. A History of Refrigertion Throughout the World Inernational
Institue of Refrigeration (IIR).
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

790

3. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Kyoto
Protocol on Climate Change, 1997.
4. D..Esen, M.Hoz, R12 ve R134a Soutucu Akkanlarnn ve Kompresr Devrinin
Otomobil Klimalarnn Performansna Etkisinin Deneysel Analizi, Tesisat
Mhendislii Dergisi, Say:90,s.62-68,2005.
5. AFROX Material safety Data Sheet (MSDS) R-152a, April,2012.
6. Spatz, M., Minor, B.; HFO-1234yf : A Low GWP Refrigerant for MAC, SAE
World Congress, Detroit, Michigan, 14-17 April ,2008.
7. M.Z.Sogut, H.Bulgurcu, Soutma Sektrnde Soutucu Akkanlara Bal Emisyon
Envanteri, I.Ulusal klimlendirme Soutma Eitimi Sempozyumu, Eyll 2012,
Balkesir
8. ASHRAE, Safety Code for Mechanical Refrigeration, 15-1994. USA.
9. M.O. McLinden, D.A. Didien, Quest for Alternatives,ASHRAE J OURNAL, p.32-
38, December 1987.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

791

A STUDY ON THE OPTIMUM INSULATION THICKNESS AND
ENERGY SAVINGS OF A RADIANT HEATING PANEL MOUNTED
WALL FOR VARIOUS PARAMETERS

B.Burak Kanbur
1,2
, S.Ozgur Atayilmaz
2
, Aliihsan Koca
1,2
, Zafer Gemici
1
and Ismail Teke
2

1
Mir Research and Development Company, Istanbul
2
Yildiz Technical University, Istanbul

Corresponding email: burakkanbur@mirholding.com.tr

SUMMARY

Large part of heat loss from buildings occurs through external walls. Therefore, thermal
insulation is applied to reduce it, where insulation thickness is a significant parameter. In this
study; effect of external insulation thickness of a radiant heating panel mounted wall on heat
loss was investigated by using two different methods, that is, numerical and analytical
methods. Present Worth Factor (PWF) method was used in order to determine the optimum
insulation thickness. Components of the radiant panel mounted wall system are gypsum,
heating pipe, panel insulation, brick, external wall insulation and plaster. Optimum insulation
thickness was calculated provided various parameters such as outdoor temperature, pipe
spacing, insulation material and panel insulation thickness were controlled. Four cities from
different climatic regions in Turkey corresponding to different outdoor temperatures were
considered. Results show that optimum insulation thickness varies between 1,31 cm and
10,67 cm and energy savings varies between 0.26 and 5.14 $/m
2
; depending on climatic
region, pipe spacing, panel insulation thickness and insulation materials.

INTRODUCTION

Today supplying energy that meets demand is a challenging issue, whereas energy
consumption increases day by day proportionally to growing population. The report of
International Energy Agency [1] predicts an increase in global energy demand by one-third
from 2010 to 2035. Economy has been growing gradually in Turkey accompanying an
increase in energy demand. It is a drawback that the energy policy of Turkey is still dependent
heavily on imported energy. Although the government invested 25 million $ in energy
production between the years 2002 and 2011; Turkey still has to import 71% of energy, while
31% of total energy consumption occurs in buildings [2].

Insulation is an important, applicable and rational solution to achieving energy efficiency by
altering the thermo-physical properties of building envelopes [3] and decreasing heat flux that
occurs through exterior walls. Also, it gives way to reduction in emission of CO
2
and other
green-house gases which are by-products of fossil fuel burning process. Insulation thickness
is a determining parameter in balancing investment and operating cost. There are many
studies where optimum value of insulation thickness, which depends on outdoor climate
conditions of the region concerned, is investigated.

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

792

There are many studies where optimum value of insulation thickness, which depends on
outdoor climate conditions of the region concerned, is investigated. omakl and Yksel [4]
obtained the optimum insulation thickness based on heating load for Erzurum, Kars and
Erzincan. Dombayc et al. [5] studied on optimum insulation thickness of external wall for
two different insulation materials (EPS and rock wool). They determined corresponding
optimum insulation thicknesses for coal, natural gas, LPG, fuel-oil and electricity. Sisman et
al. [6] determined the optimum insulation thicknesses of the external walls and roof (ceiling)
for Turkeys different degree-day regions. Kaynakl [7] studied on residential heating energy
requirement and optimum insulation thickness. Bolattrk [8] calculated the optimum
insulation thickness for building walls with respect to cooling and heating degree-hours in the
warmest zone of Turkey. Ucar [9] studied the thermo-economic analysis method for
optimization of insulation thickness for the four different climatic regions of Turkey.

Radiant wall panels being a low heating temperature system; combine thermal radiation,
forced and natural convection to provide human thermal comfort. Energy saving, high exergy
efficiency, more uniform indoor air distribution and complete zoning capability are the main
attributes [10]. Many studies have been carried out on analysis of radiant panel performance.
Gingras and Gosselin [11] studied comfort and energy consumption of hydronic heating on
ceilings and walls based on CFD analysis. Kanbur et al [12] studied the effect of aluminium
foil to heat flux of radiant panels. Koca et al. [13] investigated the thermal comfort of radiant
heating and cooling panels for various parameters.

In this study, optimum value of external wall insulation thickness was determined for
different operating conditions of radiant wall heating system. Outdoor climate conditions
were taken as of the cities Istanbul and Erzurum; corresponding to 2
nd
and 4
th
climatic
regions in Turkey, which are associated with different values of optimum external wall
insulation thickness. Calculations were carried out through two methods, that is, CFD and
analytical method of EN 1264 Standards. Provided results of both methods well agreed,
energy cost was investigated in case of that optimum external wall insulation thickness was
applied [14]. The parameters related to panel mounted wall system were listed in Table 1.

Table 1: Optimization parameters of calculations.
Insulation Material
Water Inlet
Temperature
Pipe Spacing Climatic Regions
Panel insulation
thickness
EPS
XPS
30 C
37 C
150 mm

Antalya
Istanbul
Ankara
Erzurum
2 cm
3 cm

Structure of the external wall, with radiant panel excluded, is the same as used in conventional
heating systems and it consists of layers of brick, insulation and plaster. Thickness of the
brick layer is 190 mm and that of plaster is 8 mm. The radiant panel and exterior wall
constitute together the combined wall system which has two separate insulation layer.
Insulation materials are chosen as EPS and XPS which are used as panel insulation and
exterior wall insulation alternatively. Provided the value of panel insulation thickness fixed,
optimum insulation thickness of external wall was investigated. Thermal conductivities of
materials were determined pursuant to Turkish Standards No.825 [15]
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

793

METHODS

Calculations were carried out through two methods, that is, CFD and analytical method of EN
1264 Standards. Numerical solutions have been obtained by solving the governing integral
equations for the conservation of mass, momentum and energy(the governing equations) with
the usage of CFD package program. The governing equations (conservation of continuity,
momentum and energy equations) for laminar flow can be written as Equation 1,2,3,4 and 5.
The analytical formula used for calculation of total heat flux from radiant panel surface is
shown Equation 6. After the validation of numerical results with analytical results, heating
load for panel were calculated as Equation 7.

To calculate the optimum insulation thickness, several values are required. These are given in
Table 2

Table 2: Characteristics of the fuel, costs on insulation materials, and fuel

Natural Gas 0.467 $/kg 34.542 x 10
6

J /kg
83.46 $/m
3
100,15 $/m
3
0.95

The optimum insulation thickness, corresponding to minimum total cost, is calculated by the
formula which is given in Equation 8

RESULTS

To determine the optimum external wall insulation thickness values, analytical and numerical
methods were used. Firstly, analytical method was validated by comparing its results with that
of CFD for the same combination of parameters where external wall insulation had the same
arbitrary thickness in both methods. Then analytical method was used for optimizing external
wall insulation thickness for different values of insulation materials, water inlet temperature,
pipe spacing, panel insulation thickness and outdoor temperature dependent on different
climatic regions of Turkey.

The minimum of the total cost, which includes the cost of insulation and fuel, corresponds to
the optimum insulation thickness which is of concern. Fig.1 illustrates the effect of insulation
thickness on the total cost over ten-year life time of a radiant panel mounted wall, where the
panel has 150 mm pipe-spacing and insulation thickness of 2 cm and 3 cm, respectively, for
four different climatic regions in Turkey. It can be seen that the smallest value of optimum
external wall insulation thickness is 2.05 cm for 3 cm panel insulation thickness in Antalya,
while the largest optimum thickness is 9.4 cm for 2 cm panel insulation thickness in Erzurum,
in case of that insulation material was EPS in both panel and external wall. Fig.5 also shows
that panel insulation thickness has less effect than outdoor conditions do on total cost and
optimum external wall insulation thickness. Another conclusion to drawn is that below the
optimum external wall insulation thickness, decrease in fuel cost is larger than increase in cost
of external wall insulation material, which explains the relative steepness of curves up to the
optimum value. Furthermore, Fig.5 shows that slope of the curves related to Antalya is
steeper than the ones related to Erzurum because of different fuel cost effects versus climatic
regions.
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

794

Figure 1: Variation of total cost with external insulation thickness for various outdoor
conditions and panel insulation thicknesses

Values of optimum insulation thickness versus various parameters were given in Table 5. It
can be seen in Table 3 that minimum and maximum optimum insulation thickness values
occurs in Antalya and Erzurum, respectively, for all combinations of pipe spacing in heating
season. For pipe-spacing of 150 mm, the smallest optimum external insulation thickness is
1.31 cm for Antalya as panel and external wall insulation materials are XPS, panel insulation
is 3 cm thick and water inlet temperature is 30 C. The biggest optimum insulation thickness
is 10.67 cm for Erzurum as panel and external wall insulation materials are EPS, panel
insulation is 2 cm thick and water inlet temperature 37 C

Table 3a: Optimum insulation thickness(cm) for different cities according to 150 mm pipe
spacing; 2cm Panel insulation thickness, EPS and XPS insulation materials and different
water inlet temperature, respectively

150 mm
2 cm Panel Insulation Thickness
EPS Panel Insulation XPS Panel Insulation
EPS XPS EPS XPS
30C 37C 30C 37C 30C 37C 30C 37C
Antalya 3.1 4.11 3.08 4.08 2.82 3.88 2.31 3.22
Istanbul 5.3 6.48 5.19 6.33 5.04 6.25 4.23 5.27
Ankara 6.7 7.89 6.54 7.67 6.47 7.66 5.46 6.49
Erzurum 9.4 10.67 9.08 10.31 9.15 10.44 7.78 8.9
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

795

Table 3b: Optimum insulation thickness(cm) for different cities according to 150 mm pipe
spacing; 3cm Panel insulation thickness, EPS and XPS insulation materials and different
water inlet temperature, respectively

150 mm
3 cm Panel Insulation Thickness
EPS Panel Insulation XPS Panel Insulation
EPS XPS EPS XPS
30C 37C 30C 37C 30C 37C 30C 37C
Antalya 2.05 3.11 1.61 2.53 1.71 2.76 1.31 2.22
Istanbul 4.27 5.48 3.53 4.58 3.93 5.14 3.23 4.27
Ankara 5.7 6.89 4.77 5.8 5.35 6.55 4.46 5.49
Erzurum 8.38 9.67 7.08 8.21 8.03 9.33 6.78 7.9

Table 7 presents energy saving for the cases where wall and panel insulation materials are
identical. The maximum energy savings 5.14 $/m
2
for Erzurum as panel and external wall
insulation materials are EPS and water inlet temperature is 37 C. The minimum energy
savings 0,26 $/m
2
for Antalya as panel and external wall insulation materials are XPS and
water inlet temperature is 30C.

Table 7: Energy savings($/m
2
) for different cities according to 0.150 m pipe spacing;, EPS
and XPS insulation materials and different water inlet temperature and panel insulation
thicknesses, respectively

0.150 m
2 cm Panel Insulation 3 cm Panel Insulation
EPS XPS EPS XPS
30C 37C 30C 37C 30C 37C 30C 37C
Antalya 0,70 1,09 0,58 0,93 0,38 0,65 0,26 0,51
Istanbul 1,60 2,22 1,40 1,98 1,03 1,50 0,84 1,26
Ankara 2,35 3,08 2,09 2,76 1,59 2,14 1,34 1,84
Erzurum 4,12 5,14 3,73 4,68 2,93 3,71 2,56 3,28

Equations

( ) ( ) ( ) 0 u v w
x y z

+ + =

(1)

2 2 2
2 2 2
u u u p u u u
u v w
x y z x x y z

+ + = + + +

(2)

2 2 2
2 2 2
v v v p v v v
u v w
x y z y x y z

+ + = + + +

(3)

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

796

2 2 2
2 2 2
w w w p w w w
u v w
x y z z x y z

+ + = + + +

(4)

2 2 2
2 2 2
u v w
x y z x y z

+ + = + +

(5)

T
m
T U WL K H
q B a a a a = , (6)

where
H
is the heating/cooling medium differential temperature (K) and is relevant
panel geometry, a
T
, m
T
, a
U
,
WL
a ,
K
a are shown in EN 1264-2 tables.

86400
A u
Q q NHD = (7)
Q
A
is annnual heat loss, q
U
is the outward heat flux of panel and NHD is the number of heating days
of different cities which belong to different climatic regions.

( )
1/2
86400 ( ) 0,71
1

o i U f e p pi
b
opt e
U e o p b pi
R q NHD PWF C x x
x
x
H C h

+

= + + +

(8)

x
opt
is the optimum insulation thickness (m) ,
o
R is combined thermal resistance of gypsum
and inner surface and holds a constant value (m
2
K/W),
i
and
u
are indoor and outdoor
temperature (K) respectively. PWF is the Present Worth Factor, C
f
($/kg) and C
e
( $/m
3
) are
the fuel cost and cost of external wall insulation respectively, H
u
is the low heating values of
the fuel (J /kg), is the efficiency of space heating system. h
0
is the convective heat exchange
coefficient on outer wall surface (W/m
2
K). x
p
, x
b
, x
pi
are the insulation thicknesses of plaster,
brick and panel insulation respectively.
e
,
p,
b,
pi
are the thermal conductivities of
external wall insulation, plaster, brick and panel insulation(W/mK) respectively.

DISCUSSION

In order to achieve energy efficiency in buildings, application of thermal insulation is
essential. Therefore, determining the optimum insulation thickness of external wall is of vital
importance for energy saving and energy efficiency. In this study, optimum external
insulation thicknesses were determined corresponding to different set of input parameters.
Findings of this study can be summarized as follows:

Panel insulation thickness has less effect than outdoor conditions do on total cost and
on optimum external wall insulation thickness.
It is more cost efficient to use radiant wall heating system in cold regions than in
relatively warmer regions. Also, water inlet temperature has a larger effect on total
cost in the former.
Radiant heating systems can be paid off in a period shorter than their lifetime, even
when fossil fuels are used. Fortunately, radiant systems in fact are low heating
___________________________________________________________________________________________________

797

systems, thus cheaper alternative energy sources can be exploited and payback period
can be further reduced, meanwhile increasing energy saving.
It must be taken into consideration that in climatic regions having relatively less
number of heating days, optimum wall insulation thickness must be determined
according to number of cooling days; since in relatively warmer regions insulation
thickness determined for heating condition may most likely not be adequate in cooling
season.
REFERENCES

1. International Energy Agency, World Energy Outlook, 2011
2. http://www.enerji.gov.tr/EKLENTI_VIEW/index.php/raporlar/raporVeriGir/5480/2 ;
01.05.2013
3. Al-Homoud MS. 2005. Performance characteristics and practical applications of common
building thermal insulation materials. Building and Environment. Vol. 40, pp 353-66.
4. omakl K, Yksel B. 2003. Optimum insulation thickness of external walls for energy saving.
Applied Thermal Engineering. Vol 23, pp 473-479.
5. Dombayc .A, Glc M, Pancar Y. 2006. Optimization of insulation thickness for external
walls using different energy-sources. Applied Energy. Vol 83, pp 921-928.
6. Sisman N, Kahya E, Aras N, Aras H. 2007. Determination of optimum insulation thicknesses of
the external wall and roof(ceiling) for Turkeys different degree-day regions. Energy and Policy.
Vol. 35 pp 5151-5155.
7. Kaynakl O. 2008. A study on residential heating energy requirement and optimum insulation
thickness. Renewable Energy. Vol. 33, pp 1164-1172.
8. Bolattrk A. 2008. Optimum insulation thicknesses for building walls with respect to cooling
and heating degree-hours in the warmest zone of Turkey. Building and Environment Vol.43 pp
1055-1064.
9. Ucar A. 2010. Thermoecenomic analysis method for optimization of insulation thickness for the
four different climatic regions of Turkey. Energy. Vol. 35 pp 1854-1864.
10. Kilkis B.I. 2006. Cost optimization of hybrid HVAC system with composite radiant wall panels.
Applied Thermal Engineering. Vol.26 pp 10-17.
11. Tye-Gingras Maxime, Gosselin L. 2012. Comfort and energy consumption of hydronic heating
radiant ceilings and walls based on CFD analysis. Building and Environment. Vol.54 pp 1-13.
12. Kanbur, B.B., Cubuk, H, Calikiran, C., Kaya, K., Atayilmaz, O., 2013. Investigation of Radiant
Heating Panels Heat Fluxes according to Different Panel Configuration (in Turkish), 11
th

National HVAC and Sanitary Enginnering Congress. Vol.1 pp 89-105
13. Koca, A, Gemici, Z, Bedir, K, Bke, E, Topaolu, Y, Kanbur, B.B, Thermal Comfort Analyses
of Radiant Heating and Cooling Systems (in Turkish) , 11
th
National HVAC and Sanitary
Engineering Congress, Vol.2 pp 2025-2042
14. Kanbur B.B. 2012 . Optimum Insulation Thickness Analysis, Calculating and Comparison of
Radiant Wall Heating System. Bachelors Thesis [in Turkish]. Yldz Technical University
15. TS 825. 2008. Turkish Standard 825 Official Gazette Number 27019. Ankara; (in Turkish)

Climamed&#39;13 Congres Oct 10 Proceedings

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Climamed&#39;13 Congres Oct 10 Proceedings

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

CONTENTS

is net solar radiation,

is net longvawe radiation and

issensible heat flux.

is the absorption coefficient of surface, is incidence angle of direct solar

is sky view factor of the surface.

is sum of longwave radiation

and atmospheric radiation

is sky view factor of surrounding buildings and ground,

C turbulence model constant and

characteristic length and d is the jet slot width [5].

are the surface area of the floor and piping respectively,

are the temperature of the solid capacitive

are the thicknesses from the tube center to solid

are the convective heat transfer coefficient

is obtained by applying the

are volume, density, specific heat capacity, flow rate, inlet

, y of floor, the corresponding equations are obtained:

are the floor volume corresponding to capacitive nodes 1 and 2 respectively,

are the temperatures of the upper and lower floor

the characteristic matrix of the wall, where

of the left half

takes the value of 0.85, while for

is the water vapor diffusion

0,362 TL/kWh= 7.100 TL

0,362 TL/kWh= 6.864 TL

0,362 TL/kWh= 6.468 TL

: Mass per volume of the air, kg/m

: Monthly average gain utilization factor.

h : Calculation value of heat transmission capability, W/mK.

: Lateral losses from the thermal bridge, W/mK.

i : Relative humidity of the internal environment %.

d : Relative humidity of the external environment %.

g , ay : Monthly average solar energy gains, W.

i : Monthly average internal gains, W.

: Heat capacity of element 1

: Thermal conductivity of element 1

: Thickness of the glass 1

: Temperature of the outer surface 7

: Temperature of inner surface 1

: Air temperature of the enclosure

: Short wavelength radiation absorbed by surface 1

: radiation of the surface 1

: Emissivity of the surface 1

) is utilized in the desorption process of

is isosteric heat of adsorption 2510 in kJ /kg.

(W) 62.1 53.1 37.3 - - -

(W), can be calculated from

CLIMAMED VII. Mediterranean Congress of Climatization, Istanbul, 3-4 October, 2013

) can be described by the equation:

is the number of occupants; is the CO

CLIMAMED VII. Mediterranean Congress of Climatization, Istanbul, 3-4 October, 2013

to be determined with clean filters and dry mounting parts

the velocities are related to the filter cross-section of the AHU-device

. The equipment offered by this manufacturer includes open control systems, in

CLIMAMED VII. Mediterranean Congress of Climatization, Istanbul, 3-4 October, 2013

, in eq. (3-b) is the water vapour molar

, in eq. (6-a), is a lumped parameter which takes into account different

water vapour and total concentration mol/m

fluid, bead and adsorbed phase heat capacity J /kg.K

Knudsen, molecular and bead effective diffusivity m/s

axial dispersion coefficient m/s

effective axial thermal conductivity W/m.K

LDF and fluid film mass transfer coefficients 1/s, m/s

Climamed'13 Congres Oct 10 Proceedings

Climamed'13 Congres Oct 10 Proceedings