Vol.14 Operational Procedures

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Table o/Coll/ell/s
CHAPTER 1
Definitions
Introduction .................................................................................................................... . . ........... 1-1
Terms .................................................................................................................. . ............... 1-1
CHAPTER 2
The Operator and the Air Operations Certificate
Introduction .. .................. ............. ................. ... .. ....................................... . ................................................ 2-1
Certification .............. ..... ........... ..... ..................................................... . ................. ..................................... 2-1
Operator.......................... .............. ...................... ............ ... . ... .. ....... .. ............................................... 2-1
General Rules for Certifi cation ................................................................................................................... 2-1
Conditions to be Met for Issue .................................. .. ................................................................... .............. 2-2
Variation and Validity of an AOC... ....................... .............. . ........................................................ 2-2
.Quality System .. . ......... ........................................................................... .2-2
Responsibilities .. .................................................................. . .................... 2-2
Operator Responsibilities ...... ... ....... . ......... .................. ......................................................................... 2-2
Familiarity with Rules and Regulati ons ......... .............. .............................................................................. 2-3
Responsibilities for Flight Operations ............................. ................................... .................. .2-3
Operator Responsibilities .............. .. ......................................................................................................... 2-3
Concerning Passengers ................ ........................................................................................................... 2-3
Carriage of Passengers and Cargo ............................................................................................................. 2-4
Special Consideralions for Special Passenger Categories ................ ........................................ . ...... 2-4
Persons on the Flight Deck .............................................................. ........................................................... 2-4
Safety Concerns ............... ... ......................................... ......................... ..... ................................................. 2-4
Documents................ ................ .......................... ... .......... .................. .............. ........... .. . ........ 2-5
Flight Documents ............................................. ...... .................. ...................................... . ... .............. 2-5
Documentation to be Kept on the Ground ............................................. ................... ....... . .............. 2-6
Preservation of Documents ............................... .. ............................................................. ............. . ..... 2-6
Commercial Practices and Associaled Rules .............................................................................................. 2-6
Leasing .......... ... .... .. ... .... ..... ........................................................ .. .. ........................................................... 2-6
Leasing of Aeroplanes between JAA Operators .......................................................................................... 2-7
Leasing of Aeropl anes between a JAA Operator and Any Body Other Than a JAA Operator ...................... 2-7
Leasing of Aeroplanes at Short Notice.............. ... .. .................................................................. 2-8
Aeroplane Maintenance.. .......... ............ . ................................................................................... ... 2-8
CHAPTER 3
Flights Operations
The Operations Manual (OM) .......................................... .. .................................................................... 3-1
Introducti on ...... ... ...... ....................................................................................................... ..................... ..... 3-1
Content. .... ................ ..... . ................................................................................................................ 3-1
Acceptability ................. ... .......... .......................... ...... ................................ .............. .... . ................. ..... 3-1
Usability ...................................................................................................................... . ............... 3-2
Procedures .................................................................................................................................................. 3-3
Taxiing of Aircraft ............................................................................................. ... ......................................... 3-3
Minimum Equipment List (MEL) ................................................................................................................. 3-3
Master MEL (MMEL) .................................................................................................................................. 3-3
Flight Preparation....... .............. ..................................................................................... . ... 3-4
Documentation ..................... ................. ....... .................................................................................... 3-4
Operational Flight Planning ........ .............. . ....... .............................................................................. 3-4
Passenger Briefings ...... ..... ................ .. ................. .... .................................................................... .. .. .... .. 3-5
Passenger Seat Belts .... ................. .................... ... .................................................................... .. .... 3-5
Smoking on Board Aeroplanes ........................... .............. ............... .. .................................................. 3-5
Refuelling with Passengers on Board ............................................. .............................................. .. ... 3-5
Oxygen Suppl y ................................................................. ............................................................................. 3-5
Aeroplane Flight Crew ................................................................................................................................. 3-6
General. ....... ..... .... . .................................... ........ ............................................................................... 3-6
Operational Procedures VII
Table o/Contents
CHAPTER 3 (continued)
Commander/Pil ot in Command ............ ....................................................................................................... 3-6
Duties...... ............ ..... . ............................................................................................................... 3-7
Co-pilot ..................... .. ......... ........................................................................................................................ 3-7
Cruise Relief Crew ..................................................................................... ..... .................................... 3-7
Flight Engineer (System Panel Operator) .................................................................................................... 3-7
Flight Navigator .......................................................... ... .. .. ... .. ............ ........................................... . .... 3-7
Pilot Proficiency Checks ........................................................ ..................................................................... 3-8
line Checks ............................................................................................................................................... 3-8
Emergency and Safety Equipment.. ................ .................................. ........ ...... .. .......... .. ...... .. ............. 3-8
Training and Checking .............................................................................................................................. 3-8
Duty Stations ................................................................................................... .......................................... 3-8
Flight Operations Officer/Flight Dispatcher (FOPSO/FDO) .... ............. ... .......... .......................................... 3-9
In-Flight Operational Instructions ...................... .............. .......................................................................... 3-9
Journey Log ... ....................... ..................................... ......... ............................. .. .. ................. .. ....... .. 3-9
CHAPTER 4
Operational Planning
Introduction ........ ............................................................................ . .............. ........................................ 4-1
Alternate Aerodromes .................................................. ................... . ................ ...................................... 4-1
Take-Off Alternate...... . ................................................................................ .................................. 4- 1
Destination Alternate .............................................................................................................................. ... 4-2
All Aeroplanes ..... ................... ................ ................. ...... . ........................................ .. 4-2
Propeller-Driven Aeroplanes .................... . ..... ...................... ............................................ 4-2
Aeroplanes equipped wi th Turbo-jet Engines............. ...................... .. ........................................... 4-3
Weather Conditions..... ...................................... ........................ ............ .. ................. .............. ...... 4-4
VMC...... ..... .................. . ....................... ......................................................................... 4-4
VMC JAR OPS Criteria ... ...... ... ....................................... ............................ .. ................. 4-5
Selection of the Route ..... .................................. .. ................. 4-5
Criteria .. ........ .............. .... .. ......... ............................... ......................................... .. ............. .. ....... 4-5
Adequate Aerodromes ............................................................................................................................... 4-5
ETOPS... ........... .................................... .................. .......................................... .. ....... 4-6
Performance Class A ........................................................................... .......... .......................................... 4-6
Performance Class B or C . .............................................. .............................. .......... . .. ................... 4-6
Ditching Considerations ........ .......................... .... ........ ........ ..... ................... .4-7
Landing Requirements .................. ........... ........................... .............. .......... .... ..... .. ........................... 4-7
Performance Class A.... .............. .................... ............ ......... ......................... ............. ................. .. .. 4-7
Performance Class Band C.. ............. .. .............................................................................. 4-7
Minimum Time Routes ............................................................................................................................... 4-7
Commander's Considerations .............. ........ ..... .... ... ..... ....................... .. ...... ................ .............. . ........ 4-8
Filing the ATS Fl ight Plan (FPL) .................................................................................................................. 4-8
Flights Subject to Ai r Traffic Flow Management (ATFM)...... ........................................................ ... 4-9
Flights into Oceanic Airspace.. . ...................... ........... ........................... .. ... 4-9
VllI Operat ional Procedures
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 5
The Aeroplane
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 5-1
Basic Requirements ......... ............................................................. . .... ........................................ 5-1
Internal Doors and Curtains ............................................................ ..... ...................................................... 5-1
First Aid Kits ................................... ........................................... ........ ..................... . ..... 5-2
Hand-Held Fire Extinguishers .................................................................................................................... 5-2
Break-in Markings .................. .......................... ..................... .. . .................................. 5-3
Cockpit Voice Recorders (CVRs). ......................................... . ............................................................ 5-3
Data Recorded ......... ............. ............................................. . . .............................................................. 5-4
CVRs - Operation, Conslruction and Installation .................. ............................ .. ................................... 5-4
Flight Data Recorders (FDRs)...... ................................. ............................ .. ..................................... 5-5
Parameters Recorded ........................................................... ..... . ........... .................................................. 5-5
Data Link Communications .......................................... ,. .. . .......................................................... 5-5
Recording Duralion ........ ..... .... . ....... ............................................................................................... 5-5
Constructi on and Installation ............................. ..... .......................... . . ............................ 5-6
Operation of FDRS .................................................................................................................................... 5-6
Combination Recorders ........................................................... ................. . .................................... 5-6
Flight Recorder Records ..................... . ..................................................................................................... 5-6
Equipment for Compl iance wi th Fl ight Rules........ ............................. .. ............................................. 5-6
Controlled VFR Flights ................................................................................................................................ 5-6
Compliance wit h IFR .................. ........................................................................................... 5-7
Standby Horizon ... ............... . ................................. ..................................................... 5-7
Night Operations ... ................ ... ...... ..................................................................... .. ......... 5-8
Flights Over Water .................. .................... ..................................................... .. .... 5-8
Long Range Flights ............... .. ............................................................................................. 5-8
Remote Areas ....... ........................................................ ................................... . ... 5-8
Weather Radar.. .................... ........ ......... ................. .......... ..... ...................................... .. ........ 5-9
Radiation Monitoring Indicator ........ .................. ,,,.,"', .... , .. ............................................................. ........... 5-9
Machmeter .......... ................. .......... ........ .. .. .. ............................................................. . ....... 5-9
Ground Proxi mity Warning System (GPWS) .............................................................................. 5-9
Communications Equipment.. ..................................... ............................................ .. .. 5-1 0
Internal Communications ........................ .................................................................................................. 5-10
Audio Selector Panel (ASP) ............................ ...................................... ..................................................... 5-10
Navigation Equipment ................................................................................................................................. 5-11
Instrument Procedures .............................................................................................................................. 5-11
Installation ......... . ............................................................................................................................... 5-11
Electrical Circuit Fusi ng ........ ............................................................ ......................................................... 5-1 1
Windshield Wi pers ...................................................................... ............ ................................................. 5-11
Emergency and Survival Equipment .......................................................................................................... 5-11
Performance and Operating Limitations ...................................................................................................... 5-12
Factors Affecting Aeroplane Performance ........................ ............................... .. ................................. 5-12
Mass Limitations ............................. ...................................................... ... . ............. ......................... 5-12
Take-Off........................... .................. ............................... ................................ . .................. ........... 5-12
Enroute - One Power-Unit Inoperative ................................................... .. .......................... 5-13
Enroute - Two Power-Units Inoperative.................................... .... .............. .. .... ................................. 5-13
Landing ...... ....... .......... .. ..................................................................... .. ...... ........................... 5- 13
Aeroplane Performance Operating Limitations ............ ...... ........................ .. ............. 5-1 3
Operational Procedures ix
Table o/Contents
CHAPTER 6
Operating the Aeroplane
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................ 6-1
Performance Considerations - Enroute .......................................................................................... .. .......... 6- 1
Performance Class A - One Engine Inoperative ............................ ...... .. .... ... ............................................. 6-1
Compliance ......... ................. ..... ............ . ... .. .. ........ . ... ..... ...... . .................................................................... 6-2
Performance Class A - Aeroplanes with Three or More Engines, Two Engines Inoperative ....................... 6-3
Performance Class B - Multi-Engine Aeroplanes ................ ........ .. .. ...................................... .. .. .................. 6-4
Performance Class B - Single-Engine Aeroplanes ........ .. ........................................................ 6-4
Performance Class C - All Engines Operating .. .. ........ .. .... ......................................................... 6-4
Performance Class C - One Engine Inoperative ........................ ...... ............................................................ 6-4
Performance Class C - Aeroplanes with Three or More Engines, Two Engines Inoperative ....................... 6-5
Selection of Cruising Speed and Altitude .................................................................................... ................. 6-5
Endurance .......... ..... .......... .... .................................................................................................................... 6-5
Maximum Range .......................................................................................................................................... 6-5
Shortest Time ................. ... ........................................................................................................................... 6-6
CHAPTER 7
Aerodrome Operating Minima
and Low Visibility Operations
Introduction .............. ... ......... ...................................................................... .. ..... .. ........................................ 7- 1
Aircraft Categorisation .... .. ......... .......................................... ........ . ................ ......................................... 7-1
Terminology .................................... ................................. . ................................ 7-2
Take-Off Minima.............................. ............. .......... . ...... ...... .. .................................. 7-3
General ............................................................................ ................................ ..... ... ................................. 7-3
Visual Reference.. .. .... .. .... ........................ ................................................... 7-3
Required RVRNisibility ........................ ..... . ................. ..... ........ .. ................................................ 7-3
Non-Precision Approach System Minima .......................... . . ...... .......................................................... 7-5
Minimum Descent Height.. ........... ...... .................. .. ........................................ ............................... 7-5
Visual Reference ... . ... ......................................................................................................... 7-5
Required RVR .... .. .. ....... .. ... ... ..... ............................................................................................................... 7-6
Night Operations .......... .... ... .. ..................................................................................................................... 7-7
Precision Approach - Category I Operations ................................................................................................ 7-7
General ................. ......... . .............................................................. .. ........................................................... 7-7
Decision Height .............. .............................................................................................................................. 7-7
Visual Reference ... ..... ......... ... .................................................................................................................... 7-8
Required RVR ....... .............. .. .... ................................................................................................................... 7-8
Single Pilot Operations .... ................ ....................... .............. ....................................................... .. .. .. .. 7-8
Ni ght Operations ...... ................ .... ...... ............ .. ............................ .... . ........................................ 7-8
Precision Approach - Category II Operations ........................... .. .. .. .. .............................. 7-9
General .... ........................... ..... ... ........ ..................... .. .................. .... . ................................... 7-9
Decision Height ................................ .. ........ ......... ................ ............. . ...... ... ............................. 7-9
Visual Reference ............................................................... ........................................................................... 7-9
Required RVR.. .. .......................................................................... . .................. .. .. .. ............................ 7-10
Precision Approach - Category III Operations .............................. .... ...... ........ .......................................... 7-10
General ..... ...................... ........ ......... ... ................................................. ... .... . ...... .... .................................. 7-10
Category lilA Operations .... ......................................................... .... .... .... ................................................. 7-10
Category IIIB Operati ons .... .. .......... ........................................................... ............................................ . 7-1 0
Category IliC Operations ................ ........................................................................................................ 7-1 0
Decision Height ........................ ........... .. .................................................................................................... 7- 10
No Decision Height Operations ................................................................................................................ 7-1 1
Visual Reference ....... .... ... .. ........................................................................................................................ 7-11
Required RVR ............................................... .... ....................................................................................... 7-11
Circling ....................................................................................................................................................... 7-12
Visual Approach .......... .......... .. .. ........................................... . ........................................................... 7-12
Conversion of Reported Meteorological Visibility to RVR...................... .. ................................ 7-1 2
Low Visibility Operations .......... ................................. ................................. .. ..................................... 7-1 2
General Operating Rules ................ .. ... ................................ .. . . .......... . .. ............................... 7-12
LV Take-off .... ................. .. ............................................................... 7-12
x Operati onal Procedures
Table o/Conlenls
Aerodrome Considerations ........................................................................................................................ 7-13
Operating Procedures ......................... . ............................................................................................ 7 -13
Minimum Equipment ..... ...... ..... ................................................................................................................... 7-13
Commencement and Continuation of Approach ......................................................................................... 7 -13
Controlling RVR ...... .................................. . ........ .. ..... ......................................................... 7-13
Special VFR. .. .................... ...... .... . . ................... ... .. .............................................................. 7-14
CHAPTER 8
Special Operati onal Procedures and Hazards
Introduction ....................................... ......... ... .... ........ .............................. .. .................................................. 8-1
Ice and Other Contaminants ...................................................................................................... 8-1
Icing ....... .. . ... .... ........................................................................................................................ 8-1
Ice Removal ................................................................................................................................................. 8-2
De-Ici ng on the Ground ......... ...................................................................................................................... 8-2
De-lci ng/Anti-lci ng Fluids ...... ... ..................................................................................................................... 8-3
Holdover Times ............. ...... ........................ . .................................................................................... 8-3
Fi re and Smoke ........................................................................................................................................... 8-3
Fire.... ........................ ...... ..... ..................................................................................... . ........................... 8-3
Carburettor Fire ........... ..... ...... ................................................................... ........ ............................................ 8-3
Engine Fire.... .. ............................ .......................................................... . ....... ................................ 8-4
Hand Fire Extinguishers...... ... ... .. .. ... ..................................................... ....... ............ .... . ........................... 8-4
Class of Fires ............................ .. .. ........ .. .................................. . ............ .. ........... ............................ 8-5
Fire Detection............................ ..... ... ........... .. .............................. .......... . .. ............................ 8-5
Brake Overheat ......................................... ..................... ....... ....... ... ..... . ..................... ........................... 8-6
Crash Axes and Crowbars .......... ........ .................. ......... .................. . .. .................... .. .... .................... 8-6
Smoke ... ......................................... ... ... ...... ................................................................. .................. : ........... 8-6
Smoke in the Cargo Compartment... ... ...................................... .. . ........................ .... .... .............................. 8-6
Security Requirements...................... .. ...... .............................. ... ....... ..... . .. ......... ... ........................... 8-6
Training Programmes ....................... ............................... . . .... .. .... ............................................... 8-6
Aeropl ane Search Procedure Checklist ................................................. ......... .............................................. 8-7
Reporting Acts of Unlawful Interference ...................................................................................................... 8-7
Aeroplane Search Procedure Checklist ........................................................................................................ 8-7
Flight Crew Compartment Security .. .. .. ....................................................................................................... 8-7
Weapons ........ .. ............................ ................................................................................................................. 8-7
Unlawful Interference - Annex 2 .............................................................. ..... ................................................ 8-7
Procedures If the Aircraft Is Unable To Notify an ATS Unit.. ......................................................................... 8-8
Annex 14 - Isolated Ai rcraft Parking Position ....... .................................... ........ ...................... .. ...... 8-8
Fuel Jettisoning System .................... ........................................................... ........ .................. . ............... 8-8
Fuel Jetti soni ng Procedures... ........ ... ................................................................... ........ .... . .............. 8-9
Pressurisation Fail ure ....................... ....... ........... ........................ ... ...... .......... ........................................... 8-10
Windshear and Microburst Definitions and the Meteorological Background .... .. .................. ....................... 8-12
Low Altitude Windshear ............ .. ...... ..... ......... .. ..... ..... ....... ..... .. ...... ... .............................................. ........... 8-12
Meteorological Features ......... .. ............ .................. .................. .............................. .. ... .................. ............. 8-12
Thunderstorms .. ...... ... ....... .. .............. ........ ...................... .. .............. ............... ...... .. ...... . ........................ 8-12
Frontal Passage. ..... .................................... .. ............................. ... ....... .. . .. .. ......... ....................... 8-13
Inversions ........ ........ ...................... ... .... ................................................................. .. .... .... .. .......................... 8-13
Turbulent Boundary Layer............ ........................................ . ....................... .... .. ............................ 8-1 3
Topographical Windshear .. .................................................................. ..... ......... ........ .............................. 8-13
The Effects of Windshear on an Aircraft in Flight.. .......................... .... ........................................................ 8-1 4
Summary ........................................................................................... .. ... .. ................................................... 8- 15
Techniques to Counter the Effects of Windshear ........................................................................................ 8-15
Wake Turbulence .......... .... ........ ........... ..................................................................................................... 8-1 6
Aircraft Wake Vortex Characteristics ..................................... .................................................................. 8- 16
Wake Vortex Avoidance - Advice to Pilots ................................................................................................. 8-17
Wake Turbulence Spacing ..... ..................................................................................................................... 8-1 7
Wake Turbul ence Spaci ng Mi nima - Displaced Landing Threshold .. .. ...... .. ............... .. .............. 8-18
Wake Turbulence Spacing Minima - Opposite Direction ............ .. ...... .. . . . ...... ......... .. ............... 8- 18
Operati onal Procedures XI
Tab/e o/Contents
Wake Turbulence Spacing Minima - Crossing and Parallel Runways... . ..... .......... ........ ... ................. 8-1 9
Wake Turbulence Spacing Minima -Intermediate Approach .................................... ... .... ....... .............. .. 8-19
Transport of Dangerous Goods by Air ................................................................ .... ....... ............ .. ............. 8- 19
Terminology....... ................ . ............. ........................................................... ........ ..... .......................... 8-19
Dangerous Goods Categories.. . ............ ..................................................... ......... ...... 8-22
Requirements...... . ............................................................................................. .... 8-22
Dangerous Goods on an Aeroplane for Operating Reasons .. ..... ..... ... ............. ..8-22
Loading Restri ctions.. . . .. ............. ............................................... . ........ 8-22
Cargo Compartments.. ....... .......... .. .................... . ............................... ............................ 8-23
Packing and Labelling ... ..... .. .............................................................. . ......... ..... ........................ 8-23
Informati on for Passengers and Other Persons .......... ...................................... . .............. 8-23
Information to Crew Members .......................................................... . ............................................. 8-23
Information to the Commander....... ............................................................................. ........ ..8-23
Information in the Event of an Aeroplane Incident or Accident..... ............... ... .. . . ......... 8-23
Contami nated Runways ........ .............................. ....... ...... .................. ......... ...... ...... .... .. . .............. 8-23
Terminology................... .................. ....... ................................. . .... 8-23
Aquaplaning (Hydroplaning). .............. .. ............................. ......... .... .... ............................... . ............ 8-24
Stationary Tyre.. .. . ...................... . .... ........... . ... ......... 8-25
Recommendations .. ............. ... .. ...... . ...................... ................ .... .... .... .... ...... ..................... 8-25
Wheel Braking on Wet Runways ............. . .. ... ...................... . ...... .... .... .... . .......... ........... . ...... .... 8-25
Interpretation ............................................... ...... ......... .... ...................................................... ................. 8-26
Snow, Slush, or Ice on a Runway. .............. ........... .................. . ............. ................... ...... 8-26
Bird Hazard Reduction... ..... ........ ................................................................. .... ... .... .. ......... . 8-27
Bird Hazards and Strikes ........................................................................................................................ 8-27
IBIS ............................ .... ...... ............................................................................... . .............. 8-27
Noise Abatement Procedures ............ ....... ...... .................................. . ................................................... 8-28
Noise Abatement Departure Procedure 1 (NADP1 ) .......................... .......................... ............................. 8-29
Noise Abatement Departure Procedure 2 (NADP2) ...................... . ... .... ... .. ........................... 8-30
Noise Abatement on Approach ............................................ ......................... ... . ......................... 8-31
Stabilised Approach ........................................................ .... ... .... .. . ................... .......... ......................... 8-31
CHAPTER 9
TRANSOCEANIC AND POLAR FLIGHT
Operational Approval and Aircraft System Requirements for Flight in the NAT MNPS Ai rspace.. . ....... 9-1
Minimum Navigation Performance SpeCification Airspace (MNPSA) ............................. ... ... ........... 9-1
RVSM ...... ....... ... .... . ...................... .................................................. .... .... .... .................................... 9-3
Abbreviations ................ ....................... ..................... . ... ....... .......................... ................ ................ 9-3
General..... ............ ......... .......................................................... . .................... .... ............................ .. 9-4
Emergency Locator Transmitters (EL T) ..................................... . ......................................... ............ 9-4
Navigation Requirements for Unrestricted MNPS Airspace Operations ..................................................... 9-4
Longitudinal Navigation ............ ..... .................... .. ....................... . .... .. ... ... . ....... ..................... . .... 9-4
Lateral Navigation. . ....................................................................................................... 9-4
Routes for Aircraft with Only One LRNS .... ......... . ............................ .................. ................................... 9-5
Routes for Aircraft with Short-Range Navigation Equipment Only .............................................................. 9-5
Special Arrangements for the Penetration of MNPS Airspace by Non-MNPS Approved Aircraft..... . ..... 9-5
Equipment Required For Operations at RVSM Levels ........ .......... .................... ............... . ..... 9-5
Special Arrangements for Non-RVSM Approved Aircraft ......... ................................................................. 9-6
Climb/Descent through RVSM Levels.. . ........................ .......................................................................... 9-6
Operation at RVSM Levels ...................................... . ......... ...... ............. ............. ............. 9-6
xii Operational Procedures
Tab/e o/ConlenlS
CHAPTER 10
The Organised Track System (OTS)
General .................................................................................................................................................... 10-1
Mach Number Technique ............................................................................................................................ 10-1
Description of Terms .............. ............................................................................................................. 10-1
Objecti ve ................................................................................... ........ . .. ................................................. 1 0-1
Procedures in NAT Oceanic Airspace................................... . ..... ............................................... 10-1
Procedure after Leaving Oceanic Airspace..................................... . ......................................... 10-2
Construction of the Organised Track System (OTS) ................. . ....... ..................................... 10-2
The NAT Track Message .......... ............................. ........................ .... . ........................................ 10-2
NAT Track Message Conten!............... ................................ . .. .. ......................................... 10-2
Periods of Validity. ... .... ................. ........ ... ............ .... . ...... ....... ......................................... 10-3
OTS Changeover Period ............... ........................................... .......... .................................................... 10-3
CHAPTER 11
The Polar Track Structure (PTS)
General .. . ...................................................................................................................................... 11-1
Abbrevialed Clearances ............................................................................................................................ 11-1
Abbrevialed Position Reports............ .................................................................................... . ............... 11-1
Polar Track Siructure (PTS)... . ........................................ ... .. ........................................................... 11-2
CHAPTER 12
Other Routes and Route Structures Within or Adjacent to NAT MNPS Airspace
General......................................................................................... . .................................................... 12-1
Other Routes within NAT MNPS Airspace ..... .. ......................................................................................... 12-1
Route Structures Adjacent to NAT MNPS Airspace ....... ..................... . .......... ............................... 12-1
Irish/UK Domeslic Route Structures ................................................... . ........ .......................................... 12-1
North American Routes (NARs) ......................................................... ............... ........ . ............................ 12-1
Routes Between North America and the Caribbean Area ......................................................................... 12-2
Shannon Oceanic Transiti on Area (SOTA) .............................................................. .. ................................. 12-2
Brest Oceanic Transition Area (BOTA) ....................................................................................................... 12-2
CHAPTER 13
Flight Planning for NAT Routes
Preferred Route Messages (PRMS) .............. ....................................... ................ ....... ... ....... .................. 13-1
Flight Plan Requirements.. ................................................................... . ................... 13-1
Routings.. . .. ........................... .. ........................................................................ 13-1
Flight Levels....... . .............................. ...................................... ............ ........ .... ......................... 13-2
Appropri ate Direction Levels ................. .............................................. .................. .... . ... 13-2
ATC Flight Plans ... ........... ... .. ........................................... .......................................... . ........................ 13-2
A l i ~ . .......... .................................................................................................................. ~
Approved Fl ights ................ ........................... . ........ ...... .. ................................................................... 13-2
Mach Number and Speed .................................................................... . ............... .................. 13-2
Flights Planning on the Organised Track System ................ . ..... ........................................................ 13-2
Flights Planning on Random Route Segments aVor South of 700N ............................................................ 13-3
Flights Planning on a Generally Eastbound or Westbound Direction
on Random Route Segments North of 70oN ............... ........................................................................... 13-3
Flighls Planning on Random Routes in a Generally Northbound or Southbound Direction ........................ 13-3
Flights Planning on the Polar Track Structure (PTS) ..... ...... ................................... . .................... 13-3
Flights Planning to Operate Without HF Communications .......................................................................... 13-3
Operati onal Procedures XliI
Table o/Contents
CHAPTER 14
Oceanic ATC Clearances
General ......................... ...... ........... .. ...... ... ..... ..... .... ........................................ _ .................................. 14-1
Performance Limitation ........................... ................................................................................................... 14-1
Clearance Delivery ....... ..... ..................... .................................................................................................... 14-1
Critical Fai lure ........ .. .. .... ............................................................. ................... ............................................ 14-1
ETA at OCA Boundary .......... ..................................................... . ... .. ............... ............................... 14 1
Different Route ......... ... .... ...... ........... ................................. ............................................................ ........... 14-2
Clearance Elements ........ ..... .. ........... ....................................................................................................... 14 2
Clearance Not Received . . ............. ................................................................................................... 142
Contents of Clearances...... ........... ........ ................................. . ........................... .......... 143
Oceanic Clearances for Fl ights Intending To Operate Withi n the NAT Region and
Subsequently Enter the EUR or NAM Regions ....................................................................................... 143
Oceanic Clearances for Random Flights Intendi ng To Operate Within the NAT Region and
Subsequently Enter Regions Other Than NAM or EUR .............. ... ... .. ...... ... ........................................ 14 3
Oceanic Flights Originating From the CAR or SAM Regions and Enteri ng NAT MNPS Airspace
via the New York OCA .......................................................................................................................... 14-4
Errors Associated With Oceanic Clearances ....................................................... ...................................... 14-4
Waypoint Insertion Errors .................... .............................. ................................... . ... ................................ 14-4
ATC System Loop Error ........ ............................................................ . ............................ .. ............. 14-4
CHAPTER 15
Communications and Position Reporting Procedures
HF Communi cations..... .. ... ... .... ............................... . ................. ................................................ ........ 15 1
VHF Communications .............................. .......... .................... ... ... .... ........ ............................................... 15-1
Time and Place of Position Reports.. ......... ... ... ..................... ....................................... .. 15-1
Contents of Position Reports ........ . ........................................... ........................................... 151
Standard Message Types . ........................... .. .............................................................................. 152
Addressing of Position Reports .... . . .. ... ... ............................................................................ 152
"When Able Higher" (WAH) Reports ............................ .... ............................... . ................ 15-2
Meteorological Reports .. ... .... ............. .......................... ............................................................................ 153
SELCAL ................... .... .............................................................................................................................. 153
General Purpose VHF Communications (GPN HF)...... ........................ . ............................................ 15-3
Data link Communications ................... ..................................................................................................... 15-4
HF Communications Failure ........................................................ .............................................................. 15-4
General ...................................................................................................................................................... 15-4
Communications Failure Prior to Entering NAT Region ............................... . ................................... 15-4
Communications Failure after Entering NAT Region .... .................... .......................................................... 15 5
Procedure .......................................................... ........ ...... ...... ...................................................... . ..... 15 5
Operation of Transponders .......... .... ............................... .................. ... .... .... ... ................. ................. . 15-5
Ai rborne Collision Avoidance Systems (ACAS) ........ .. .. ... ..... ........... .. ......................... ................. ......... 15-5
xiv Operat ional Procedures
Table o/Con/ems
CHAPTER 16
MNPS Flight Operati on and Navigati on Procedures
Flight Operation ........................................................................................................................................ 16-1
Importance of Accurate Time ................................................... ............... . ........................................ 16-1
The Use of the Master Document ............................................................................................................... 16-1
GPS Operati onal Control Restricti ons ................... : ............................................... ...................................... 16-2
Effects of Satellite Availabil ity ............. .. .................................................................................................... 16-2
Flight Plan Check .. ............... . ................................................................................. 16-2
In Flight Procedures..... . ..................................................................................................... 16-2
ATC Oceanic Clearance ............. ....... ................................... ................................... . ........ 16-2
Navigation Procedures .. . .... ............. ............................................................................................... 16-3
Entering the MNPS Ai rspace and Reaching an Oceanic Waypoint .......... ..................... .. ......................... 16-3
Approaching Landfall .... ....... ... .................................................................................................................... 16-3
Avoi ding Confusion between Magnetic and True Track Reference ............................................................ 16-3
Navigation in the Areas of Compass Unreliabil ity ....................................................................................... 16-3
CHAPTER 17
Gri d Navigati on
Introduction ................ ........... ..................................................................................................................... 17-1
Grid and Plotting on a Polar Chart ............................................................................................................. 17-1
Gyros and Inertial Systems ........................................... ... .. ........................................................... 17-4
Precession ..................... ..... .. ....... .......... ..... ... .. .............................................. . .............. ......... 17-4
Types of Gyro .. ......................... ............................................................ ......... ... ......................................... 17-5
Space (or Free) Gyro ................ . ..... ... .. .. .... ................................... ........... ..... ............ ................................ 17-5
Tied (or Displacement) Gyro ................ ............... .... ........... ... ... .... ... .. . .... ... .. .. .................... ...... ................. 17-5
Earth Gyro.. ...... ..... ... ... ........ ... ... .. ...... .............................................. . .. . ..... ... . .... .. ............................ 17-5
Rate Gyro......... ... .. ........................ .............. ................................................. . . ....... ... ........................... 17-5
Rate Integrating Gyro.. .................... .................................................. . ..................................... 17-5
Solid State (Ring Laser) Gyro .............................................................. . ..... .................... ......................... 17-5
Gyro Wander ..... .... ......................... ............. .... .. .... ............ ................ ... ... .................................................. 17-5
Real Wander ...................... .......................................................................... .. ........................................... 17-5
Apparent Wander ................ .... .. .................................................................................................................. 17-6
Hori zontal Axis Gyro ........................................................................................ ............. ............................. 17-6
Transport Wander ............ .. ..... ....... ........................................................................................................... 17-7
Examples of Gyro Wander ........................................................................................................................ 17-7
CHAPTER 18
Procedures in the Event of Navigati on System Degradation or Failure
General ...... .. . .. .............. . ............................................... .... .... .......... ....... .. ...................... 18-1
Detecti on of Failures ... ......... ........... ...... ................................................ ... . ... ... .. .......... ... .... ... ............... 18-1
Methods of Determining which System is Faulty ........ ..... ............. ... ............... ................... ........................ 18-1
Guidance on What Constitutes a Failed System ............................... ........................................................ 18-2
GPS Satellile Fault Detection Outage .................................................................. .. ..... ........... . ....... 18-2
Partial or Complete Loss of Navigationl FMS Capability by Aircraft Having State Approval for
Unrestri cted Operations in MNPS Ai rspace ........................................................................................... 18-2
Monitoring ............................................................................................ ..... .................................................. 18-3
Complete Failure of Navigation Systems Computer ................................................................................... 18-3
Operational Procedures xv
Table of Conlents
CHAPTER 19
Regional Supplementary Procedures
Doc 7030/4: North Atlantic (NAT) and European (EUR) Supps
North Atlantic (NAT) Region ............................................................... ....................................................... 19-1
Introduction ........................................................................... . ..................................................... 19-1
MNPS Specifications ................................................................................................................................ 19-1
Flight Planning ................................................... ........................................................................................ 19-1
Sepalation of Aircl aft ...... . .... ..... .......... . ........ ....................... .. ........ .... ........................................... 19-1
Lateral Separation .. . ............................................... ....................... ....................................... 19-1
Longitudinal Separation .......................................................................................................... 19-2
Western Atlanti c Route System (WATRS) ......... .............................................................................. 19-2
Opelations Not Meeting the MNPS Airspace Except the WATRS ............................................................. 19-2
European (EUR) Region ...... .................................................................................................................... 19-3
Submission of Flight Plans .................................................. ....................................................................... 19-3
8.33 KHz Spacing ............................................................................................. ..................................... .... 19-3
Separation of Aircraft ......................... .......................................................................... ... ......................... 19-3
Longitudinal Separation ............ ........ ........................... . .................................................................... 19-3
Transfer of Radar Control ...................................... ......... ................ ................................ . .... 19-3
CHAPTER 20
In-Flight Contingencies
Emergency and Precautionary Landings ...................................... .. ......................................................... 20-1
General .............................................. .................. ....... . ...... ................................ ...... . 20-1
Ditchi ng .................................... ................ ................................. . ........................ ................................. 20-1
Precautionary Landing .............. ... .......... ......... .... ...... . ............ .... ...... .................................. 20-2
Passenger Briefing ........................................ ................... ............... ...................... ................................. 20-2
Evacuation.... . ......................... ............................................... 20-2
North Atlantic Procedures. . .. ... ......................................................... .... .. ... ......................................... 20-3
Introducti on ................................................................. ...................... ........................................... 20-3
General Procedures ................. ................................................................................................................ 20-3
Special Procedures ...... ....... ... ...... ..... .... .. ...... ................................................................. ............... . ... 20-3
Wake Turbulence ....................... ...................................... .. ... ... .... ............................................................ 20-4
TCAS Alerts and Warnings .................... ... .. ................. .......... .. .................................................................. 20-4
xvi Operati onal Procedures
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We would like to thank and acknowledge:
For photographs and assistance
Page 1-9 Mr. Ashley Gibb
INTRODUCTION
The examinable subject Operational Procedures encompasses aspects of Air Law, Airworthiness
of Aircraft , requirements for the Issue of an Air Operators Certificate, and emergency procedures
as laid down in Annex 6 to the Chicago Convention and JAR OPS-1.
The Standards and Recommended Practices (SARPs) of Annex 6 (part 1) are applicable to
Operators authorised to carry out international commercial air transportation operations (both
scheduled and non-scheduled) .
The pre-amble to JAR OPS-1 states that it has been issued with no national variants, hence it
may not contain all the information some authorities and organisations would like to see in the
document. As with all JARs, it is a 'living' document and is subject to frequent amendment and
updating. For this reason , the Learning objectives (LOs) for this subject are general rather than
specific in requiring the student to memorise the content of JAR OPS-1 .
Annex 6 lays down the SARPs for Aircraft Operations and the student will be familiar with some
of the content from the study of Air Law.
Additional material is based on the current version 9 of the North Atlantic MNPS Operations
Manual , and from JAR 25 - Large Aeroplanes.
This text is based on JAR OPS-1 including amendment 5 dated March 2003. It is emphasi sed
that this text is not for use as a reference for operational procedures, only for examination
preparation. For matters relating to regulation, the reader must use a current version of the
document, amended to the current amendment state.
The Learning Objectives for 070 Operational Procedures require the student to famil iarise
themselves with the definitions used in the reference documents, reproduced below.
TERMS
Aerial work
An aircraft operation in which an aircraft is used for specialised services such as agri culture,
construction, photography, surveying, observation and patrol , search and rescue, aerial
advertisement, etc.
Operational Procedures I-I
Chapter J Definiliol1s
Aerodrome
A defined area on land or water (i ncluding any buildings, installations, and equipment) intended
for use either wholly or in part for the arrival , departure, and surface movement of aircraft.
Aerodrome operating minima
The limits of usability of an aerodrome for:
Take-off, expressed in terms of runway visual range and/or visibility and, if
necessary, cloud conditions;
Landing in precision approach and landing operations, expressed in terms of visibility
and/or runway visual range and decision altitude/height (OAtH) as appropriate to the
category of the operation; and
Landing in non-precision approach and landing operations, expressed in terms of
visibility and/or runway visual range, minimum descent altitude/height (MDAtH) and, if
necessary, cloud conditions.
Aeroplane
A power-driven heavier-than-air aircraft, deriving its lift in flight chiefly from aerodynamic reactions
on surfaces which remain fixed under given conditions of flight.
Aircraft
Any machine that can derive support in the atmosphere from the reactions of the air other than
the reactions of the air against the Earth's surface.
Aircraft operating manual
A manual acceptable to the State of the Operator, containing normal, abnormal and emergency
procedures, checklists, limitations, performance information, details of the aircraft systems and
other material relevant to the operation of the aircraft. The aircraft operating manual is part of the
operations manual.
Air operator certificate (AOe)
A certificate authorising an operator to carry out specified commercial air transport operations.
Alternate aerodrome
The aerodrome an aircraft proceeds to when it becomes either impossible or inadvisable to
proceed to, or to land at, the aerodrome of intended landing. Alternate aerodromes include the
following:
1-2
Take-off alternate
An alternate aerodrome at which an aircraft can land, if necessary shortly after take-off
and it is not possible to use the aerodrome of departure.
Enroute alternate
An aerodrome at which an aircraft is able to land after experiencing an abnormal or
emergency condition whi le enroute.
ETOPS en route alternate
A suitable and appropriate alternate aerodrome at which an aeroplane is able to land
after experiencing an engine shut-down or other abnormal or emergency condition while
enroute in an ETOPS operation.
Operational Procedures
Definitions Chapter I
Destination alternate
An alternate aerodrome that an aircraft may proceed to if it becomes either impossible or
inadvisable to land at the intended aerodrome.
Note: The aerodrome that a flight departs from may also be an enroute or a destination
alternate aerodrome for that flight.
Approved by the Authority (JAR)
Approval given by a JAA regulatory National Aviation Authority for compliance with the approved
standard or procedure.
Approved Standard (JAR)
A manufacturing/design/maintenance/quality standard approved by the Authori ty.
Cabin attendant
A crewmember who performs, in the interest of safety of passengers, duties assigned by the
operator or the pilot-in-command of the aircraft, but who shall not act as a flight crewmember.
Commercial air transport operation
An aircraft operation involving the transport of passengers, cargo, or mail for remuneration or
hire.
Configuration deviation list (CDL)
A list established by the organisation responsible for the type design wi th the approval of the
State of Design which identifies any external parts of an aircraft type whi ch may be missing at the
commencement of a flight , and contains, where necessary, any information on associated
operating limitations and performance correction.
Crewmember
A person assigned by an operator to duty on all aircraft during flight time.
Cruising level
A level maintained during a significant portion of a flight.
Dangerous goods
Articles or substances capable of posing significant risk to health, safety, or property when
transported by air.
Decision altitude (DA) or decision height (DH)
A specified altitude or height, during a precisi on approach, at which a missed approach must be
initiated if the required visual reference to continue the approach has not been establi shed.
Decision altitude (DA) is referenced to mean sea level, and decision height (DH) is referenced to
the threshold elevation.
Operational Procedures 1- 3
Chapter 1 Definitions
Glideslope
Decision Point
Decision: Missed Approach
Decision Height (DH) ----..
Runway
The required visual reference means that section of the visual aids or of the approach area which
must be in view for sufficient time for the pilot to assess the aircraft position and rate of change of
position, in relation to the desired flight path. In Category III operations with a decision height, the
required visual reference is that specified for the particular procedure and operation.
For convenience, when using both expressions, they may be written in the form "decision
altitude/height" and abbreviated DAlH.
Emergency locator transmitter (EL T)
Generic term describing equipment that broadcasts distinctive signal s on designated frequencies
and, depending on application, may either sense a crash and operate automatically or be
manually activated. An EL T may be any of the foll owi ng:
Automatic fixed EL T (EL T (AF))
An EL T permanently attached to an aircraft.
Automatic portable EL T (EL T (AP))
An EL T, rigidly attached to an aircraft, but readil y removable from the aircraft after a
crash.
Automatically deployable EL T (EL T (AD))
An EL T rigidl y attached to an aircraft, and deployed automatically in response to a crash.
Also possible is manual deployment.
Survival EL T (EL T(S))
An EL T, removable from an aircraft and stowed, facilitates its ready use in an emergency
and activated by survivors. Automatic activation may apply.
Flight crewmember
A licensed crewmember charged with duties essential to the operation of an aircraft during fli ght
time.
Flight duty period
The total time from the moment a flight crewmember commences duty, immediatel y subsequent
to a rest period and prior to making a flight or a series of flights, to the moment the flight
crewmember is relieved of all duties having completed such flight or series of flights.
1-4 Operational Procedures
Definitions Chapter J
Flight manual
A manual, associated with the certificate of airworthiness, containi ng limitations to consider the
aircraft airworthy, and instructions and informati on necessary to the flight crewmembers for the
safe operation of the aircraft.
Flight plan
Specified information provided to air traffic services units, relati ve to an intended flight or portion
of a flight of an aircraft.
Ftight recorder
Any type of recorder installed in the ai rcraft for complementing accidenUincident investigation.
Flight time
The total time from the moment an aircraft first moves under its own power for taking off until the
moment it comes to rest at the end of the flight. Flight time as defined here is synonymous with
the term "block to block" time or "chock to chock" time in general usage, measured from the time
an aircraft moves from the loading point until it stops at the unl oading point.
General aviation operation
An aircraft operation other than a commercial ai r transport operation or an aeri al work operation.
Human Factors principles
Principles which apply to aeronautical design, certification, training, operations, and maintenance
and which seek safe interface between the human and other system components by proper
consideration to human performance.
Human performance
Human capabilities and limitations affecting the safety and efficiency of aeronauti cal operations.
Instrument approach and landing operations
Instrument approach and landing operations using instrument approach procedures are classified
as follows:
Non-precision approach and landing operations
An instrument approach and landing which does not utilise electronic glide path
guidance.
Precision approach and landing operations
An instrument approach and landing using precision azimuth and glide path guidance
wi th minima as determined by the category of operation.
Operational Procedures 1-5
Chapter 1
DefiniTions
Categories of precision approach and landing operations:
Category I (CAT I) operation
A precision instrument approach and landing with a decision height not lower than 60 m
(200 ft) and with either a visibility not less than 800 m or a runway visual range not less
than 550 m.
Category II (CAT II) operation
A precision instrument approach and landing wi th a decision height lower than 60 m (200
ft), but not lower than 30 m (100 ft), and a runway visual range not less than 350 m.
Category iliA (CAT iliA) operation
A precision instrument approach and landing with:
J> a decision height lower than 30 m (100 ft) or no decision height, and
J> a runway visual range not less than 200 m.
Category IIIB (CAT IIIB) operation
A precision instrument approach and landing with:
J> a decision height lower than 15 m (50 ft) or no decision height, and
J> a runway visual range less than 200 m but not less than 50 m.
Category IIiC (CAT IIIC) operation
A precision instrument approach and landing with no decision height and no runway
visual range limitations.
Instrument meteorological conditions (IMC)
Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility, distance from cloud, and ceili ng, less
than the minima specified for visual meteorological conditions.
Large aeroplane
An aeroplane of a maximum certificated take-off mass of over 5700 kg.
Maintenance
Tasks required ensuring the continued airworthiness of an aircraft including anyone or
combination of overhaul, repair, inspection, replacement , modification, or defect rectification.
Master minimum equipment list (MMEL)
A list established for a particular aircraft type by the organisation responsible for the type design
with the approval of the State of Design containing items, one or more of which is permitted as
unserviceable at the commencement of a fiight. The MMEL may be associated wi th special
operating conditions, limitations, or procedures.
Maximum mass
Maximum certificated take-off mass.
1-6 Operati onal Procedures
Minimum descent altitude (MDA) or minimum descent height (MDH)
A specified altitude or height in a non-precision approach or circling approach below which
descent must not be made without the required visual reference.
,
1
Missed Approach
Point (MApPt)
Decision: Missed Approach
Minimum Descent A
Height (MDH)
V
Minimum equipment list (MEL)
Land
Runway
A list providing for the operation of aircraft, subject to specified conditions, with particular
equipment inoperative, prepared by an operator in conformity with, or more restri ctive than, the
MMEL established for the aircraft type.
Night
The hours between the end of evening civil twilight and the beginning of morning ci vi l twilight or
such other period between sunset and sunrise, as prescribed by the appropriate authority.
Note: Civil twilight ends in the evening when the centre of the sun's disc is 6 degrees below the
horizon and begins in the morning when the centre of the sun's disc is 6 degrees below the
horizon.
Obstacle clearance altitude (OCA) or obstacle clearance height (OCH)
The lowest altitude, or the lowest height, above the elevation of the relevant runway threshold or
the aerodrome elevation, as applicable, for establishing compl iance with appropriate obstacle
clearance criteria.
Operational control
The exercise of authority over the initiation, continuation, diversion, or termination of a flight in the
interest of the safety of the aircraft and the regularity and efficiency of the flight.
Operational flight plan
The operator's plan for the safe conduct of the flight based on considerations of aeroplane
performance, other operating limitations and relevant expected conditions on the route to be
followed and at the relevant aerodromes.
Operations manual
A manual containing procedures, instructions, and guidance for use by operational personnel in
the execution of their duties.
Operator
A person, organisation, or enterprise engaged in or offering to engage in an aircraft operati on.
Pilot-in-command
The pilot responsible for the operation and safety of the aircraft during flight time.
Chapter J Definitions
Pre-flight Inspection (JAR)
The inspection carried out before fli ght to ensure that the aeroplane is fi tted for the intended flight.
It does not include any rectification of faults.
Pressure-altitude
An atmospheric pressure expressed in terms of altitude, which corresponds to that pressure in
the Standard Atmosphere.
Psychoactive substances
These include alcohol , opioids, cannabinoids, sedatives and hypnotics, cocaine, other psycho
stimulants (excluding coffee and tobacco), hallucinogens, and volatile solvents.
Required navigation performance (RNP)
A statement of the navigation performance necessary for operation within a defi ned ai rspace.
Navigation performance and requirements are defined for a particul ar RNP type andl or
application.
Rest period
Any period on the ground during which the operator relieves a flight crewmember of all duties.
RNP type
A containment value expressed as a distance in nautical miles from the intended positi on within
which flights are at least 95 per cent of the total flying time.
For example, RNP 4 represents a navigation accuracy of plus or minus 7.4 km (4 nm) on a 95 per
cent containment basis.
Runway visual range (RVR)
The range over which the pilot of an aircraft on the centre line of a runway can see the runway
surface markings or the lights deli neating the runway or identifying its centre li ne.
Small aeroplane
An aeroplane with a maximum certificated take-off mass of 5700 kg or less.
State of Registry
The State on whose register the aircraft is entered.
State of the Operator
The State in which the operators principal place of business is located or, if there is no such place
of business, the operator's permanent residence.
Synthetic flight trainer
Anyone of the following three types of apparatus in which flight conditions are simulated on the
ground:
Flight simulator
Provides an accurate representation of the flight deck of a particular aircraft type to the
extent that the mechanical, electrical , etc., aircraft systems control functions, the normal
envi ronment of flight crewmembers, and the performance and flight characteristics of that
type of aircraft are realisti cally si mulated.
A full motion Boeing 737-200 simulator Inside a Boeing 737 NG simulator
Chapter 1 Definitions
Flight procedures trainer
Provides a realistic flight deck environment, and which simul ates instrument responses,
simple control functions of mechani cal , electri cal, el ectronic, etc. , aircraft systems, and
the performance and flight characteristics of aircraft of a parti cular class.
Paper procedures trainer
Basic instrument flight trainer
Equipped with appropri ate instruments, and simulates the fli ght deck environment of an
aircraft in flight in instrument flight conditions.
Visual meteorological conditions (VMC)
Meteorological conditions expressed in terms of visibility, and distance from clouds.
1-1 0 Operational Procedures
Page 2-4
Page 2-8
Page 2-9
INTRODUCTION
Mr. Ashley Gibb
In the study of Operational Procedures, concern is for commercial air transportat ion. According to
JAR OPS, this is limited to operators whose place of business is in a JAA state. There is no
consideration given to military, customs and police operations, aerial work, parachuting, or
firefighting from aeroplanes.
CERTIFICATION
OPERATOR
Before conducting a commercial aviation operation, the operator (see definition) requires
approval and possession of an Air Operators Certificate (AOC). The national authority in
accordance with JAR OPS-1 approves a JAA operator, whereas a non-JAA operator is approved
under regulations in force in the State of the operator.
GENERAL RULES FOR CERTIFICATION
Aircraft for use in commercial air transportation can only operate in accordance with the terms
and conditions of an AOC. An operator may hold only one AOC and, therefore, is subject to the
regulation of only one authority.
The principal place of operation (main operating base) must be in the state where the AOC is
issued. The operator must satisfy the state issuing the AOC that the operator is capable of
running a safe operation. Normally, the aircraft used by an operator are registered in the state
issuing the AOC, but approval for alternative arrangements is possible with another state. The
operator must allow the authorising authority access to the company, its records, and personnel
for assessing compliance with the terms of the AOe.
The authority requires confirmation that the maintenance of the aircraft meets the requirements of
Annex 8 (ICAO operators) or JAR 145 (JAA Operators).
If the operator is found as not compliant with all the requirements, the AOC can be varied,
suspended, or revoked depending upon the severity of the non-compliance.
Chapter 2 The Operator and the Operations Certificate
Before granting an AOC, the authority looks closely at the organisation and management of the
operation and assesses the suitability of the established organisation to run the operation. As well
as assessing the level of supervision required and provided, the authority requires an acceptable
person, holding a managerial post, be nominated as the accountable manager who has corporate
authority to ensure that the operation is properly financed and meets the standards of the
authority. Persons are also to be nominated for management and supervision of the following:
Flight Operations
Maintenance
Crew Training
Ground Operations
For small operations, one person may hold a combination of some of the above posts.
Required of the operators is the production of an Operations Manual , and the authority must
receive a copy to ensure that all operations are carried out in accordance with the manual. The
aircraft used must be fully equipped and properly maintained for the role, and the crews are to be
fully trained. A main operating base is to be established and maintained with facilities to meet the
needs of the operation.
CONDITIONS TO BE MET FOR ISSUE
VARIATION AND VALIDITY OF AN AOe
In order for an AOC to be issued or re-validated (re issued), the aircraft used must have valid
Certificates of Airworthiness (C of A) as per Annex 8. It is normal for the C of A to be issued by
the State of Registry of the aircraft and where this is not the case, in the case of a JAA operator,
a C of A as per JAR 21 issued by another JAA State is perfectly acceptable. In determining the
continuing airworthiness of an aeroplane, compliance with the maintenance schedule for the
aeroplane is essential.
The operator must show that the organisation remains as originally certificated, and that any
changes were only in accordance with those previously notified to the authority.
QUALITY SYSTEM
Periodic inspection by the authority achieves a demonstration of compliance with the terms of an
AOC. However, this is often time consuming, disruptive to the operation, and costly. Providing the
operator establishes a quality system approved by the authority, it is sufficient to have a periodic
audit of the quality system.
Within the quality system, a quality assurance programme must be established, and a quality
manager appointed to oversee the system. In complex operations (e.g. British Airways) , two
managers may be appointed, one for flight operations and another for maintenance. The JAA
recommended quality system is based on EN ISO 9000. All JAA approved maintenance
organisations must have a quality system approved under JAR 145. Where an AOC holder
contracts out the maintenance of the aircraft, it is sufficient for the maintenance agency to show
JAR 145 approval without further audit of the organisation's quality system.
RESPONSIBILITIES
OPERATOR RESPONSIBILITIES
The Operator runs the operation (has operational control), and is responsible for day-to-day
control over any flights conducted under the terms of the AOC. The Operator produces the
Operations Manual detailing all aspects of the operation, primarily for the guidance of personnel
running the operation.
The Operator and the Operations Certificate Chapter 2
The organisation certifies that all personnel involved in the ground and airborne aspects of the
operation are fully trained in their particular duties, and are aware of their responsibilities.
Crewmembers, other than fiight or cabin crew, who may be carried on aeroplanes require proper
training (security guards, etc.).
Operations and Training Manuals detail the responsibilities and training. The Operations Manual
also contains procedures and instructions for each type of aeroplane operated, including check
lists for normal and abnormal fiight conditions.
FAMILIARITY WITH RULES AND REGULATIONS
Operators must ensure that all employees (aircrew and ground crew) know that they are to
comply with the laws of the state in which they operate. Flight crews must be familiar with the
rules and regulations applicable to the airspace wi thin which they operate. Commanders are to
have on board the aircraft all the essential information concerning Search and Rescue (SAR) and
the SAR services in the areas where they are fiying.
RESPONSIBILITIES FOR FLIGHT OPERATIONS
It is the Operator's responsibility to ensure that crewmembers do not engage in any activity
except those applicable to the safe operation of the aeroplane during the critical phases of fii ght.
Due to the nature of the operations involving the safety of members of the public, Operators must
specify that Air Traffic Control services are for use wherever and whenever such services are
available, implying the conduction of fiights in controlled airspace under IFR.
The Operator must also ensure that all the aerodromes for use in fiight operations are adequate
for the purpose. These include departure and destination aerodromes and all scheduled take-off,
enroute, and destination alternate aerodromes. For the use of ad hoc diversion aerodromes for
use as 'bolt holes' in an emergency, it is to remain the responsibility of the Commander at the
time of the emergency to decide whether or not to use the aerodrome.
For the nominated aerodromes, the Operator must calculate and publish aerodrome operating
minima (AOM). In addition to assessing the suitability of aerodromes, the Operator must also
assess the safety and usability of instrument approach and departure procedures, established by
the State in which the aerodrome is located.
If there is an ATC clearance offered which is different from the published procedures, the
Operator authorises the Commander to use personal discretion after consideration of the
obstacle clearance criteria required. Where an Operator wants amended procedures for use by
aircraft under operational control , use such procedures only when approved by the State in which
the aerodrome is located.
OPERATOR RESPONSIBILITIES
CONCERNING PASSENGERS
The seating configuration of the aircraft must be such that passengers sit in positions where, in
the event of an emergency, their presence does not hinder evacuation from the aircraft. Whilst
'check-i n' baggage is stowed in the hold of the aircraft, hand baggage, or 'walk-on' baggage, may
be carried into the passenger cabin if stowed properly in dedicated stowages, so as not to cause
injury or damage, and not to obstruct aisles and exits.
Before taxiing, carry out take-off and landing checks, ensuring unobstructed exits and escape
paths, and proper stowing of all hand baggage. Likewi,se, properly stow all galley equipment.
Chapter 2 The Operator and Ihe Operations Certificate
CARRIAGE OF PASSENGERS AND CARGO
Passengers are only to be accommodated in parts of the aeroplane specifically designed for the
seating of passengers. The Commander may permit a passenger temporary access to other parts
of the aeroplane to take action for the safety of the aeroplane, persons, animals, and goods on
board or to the cargo areas of the aeroplane if such areas are designed for access in flight. The
Operator must implement procedures to ensure that no persons are hiding on board the
aeroplane. Likewise, procedures are to be established making sure that no unauthorised cargo is
loaded on to the aeroplane.
SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR SPECIAL PASSENGER CATEGORIES
In order to make sure that people with injuries or
disabilities that affect movement (persons with
reduced mobility - PRMs) and babies are carried
with as little disruption as possible, operators must
establish procedures for seating such persons so
as not to hinder emergency egress from the
aircraft, and for their evacuation in the event of an
emergency. Inform the Commander when carrying
such passengers.
Likewise, when carrying certain categories of
passengers subject to judicial deportation, give
notification to the Commander that such
passengers are on board. These include:
Over wing emergency exits (Metroliner)
>- Inadmissible passengers: Passengers refused the right of entry into a destination state
and are being returned to the state of departure;
>- Deportees: Passengers judicially deported from a state under due process of law;
>- Persons in custody: Passengers under police arrest, restrained or free.
PERSONS ON THE FLIGHT DECK
Access to the flight deck is to be strictly controlled and ultimately only the Commander has the
right to admit a person other than constituted flight crew to the flight deck during flight time.
Occasionally, persons who are not crewmembers may be admitted to the flight deck, but these
are limited to persons whose duty, as defined in the Operations Manual and representatives of
the authority responsible for licensing, certification, or inspection, require temporary access to the
flight deck. If the flight deck has an access door, the door must lock from the inside.
SAFETY CONCERNS
The safety of the passengers and crew are of the utmost importance and as such, operators must
establish and maintain flight safety and accident prevention programmes. The Operator must
have measures in place ensuring that no-one acts in a reckless or negligent manner,
endangering an aeroplane.
The use of portable electronic devices on board an aeroplane that can interfere with the
aeroplane systems is prohibited.
Nobody is permitted to enter an aeroplane or be in an aeroplane when under the influence of
alcohol or drugs, to such an extent that the presence of that person endangers the aeroplane or
its occupants. '
The ultimate authority on board during flight time is the Commander, and the Operator empowers
the Commander in accordance with the Law of the State of Registrati on and the State of the
Operator accordingly. Those on board must obey all lawful commands given by the Commander
for the safety of the aeroplane. Where the Commander's commands are not complied with, or
must be forcefully imposed, the person failing to obey the Commander is subject to prosecution in
the State of Destination or in any State in which the Commander elects to land the aeroplane for
that purpose.
DOCUMENTS
FLIGHT DOCUMENTS
International agreements require proper documentation of aircraft engaged in scheduled and non-
scheduled commercial aviation to prove the status of the aeroplane and crew and also the
airworthiness of the aeroplane.
The Authority granting the AOC may demand inspection of the documents and the Operator is to
make them available immediately or within a reasonable period. Carry these documents on all
flights, including:
The Certificate of Registration
The Certificate of Airworthiness
The original copy of the Noise Certificate (if applicable to the type and mark of aircraft)
The original or a copy of the AOC
The Aircraft Radio Licence
The original, or a copy, of the third party liability Insurance Certificate
To enable the crew to carry out their duty and for reference when required, the following manuals
(or extracts from manuals) must be carried on all flights:
Parts of the Operations Manual containing the duties of the crew
Parts of the Operations Manual pertaining to the conduct of the flight
The current aeroplane flight manual , unless the Authority has agreed that the Operations
Manual contains all that is necessary for that aeroplane
The Operator must not conduct the flight without certain documents and forms applicable to that
particular flight on board. Representatives of the Authority may inspect these at any time or the
Commander may be requested to make them available for inspection within a reasonable period.
The documents are:
A-copy of the Operational Flight Plan
The aeroplane technical log
Details of the filed ATS flight plan
Appropriate NOTAM/AIS briefing material
Appropriate meteorological information
Mass and balance documentation
Notification of special categories of passengers (such as security personnel if not
carried as crew, PRMs and inadmissible passengers, deportees and persons in
custody)
Notification of special loads including written parti culars for the Commander of
dangerous goods
Maps and charts, etc.
Other documentation that any of the States invol ved in the flight may require
Forms required for reporting purposes.
It is not necessary for all of the documents above to be in paper form. They can be on electronic
media or in any method, providing accessibility, usability, and assuring reli abi lity.
DOCUMENTATION TO BE KEPT ON THE GROUND
Kept on the ground are certain documents or copies of documents for the duration of a flight or a
series of flights. If there is a need to carry such documents in the air, they are to be carried in a
fireproof container. These include:
A copy of the operational flight plan
Copies of the relevant parts of the technical log
Route specific NOTAM if edited by the Operator
Mass and balance documentation
Specific loads notification
PRESERVATION OF DOCUMENTS
The Operator must preserve the ori ginal documents relating to aircraft for the stated retention
period, even if the aircraft is scrapped or sold. Crewmembers must retain certain documents
(logbooks, licence, documentation, etc.) and make them available to new operators in the event
that the crewmember changes employment to another operator.
COMMERCIAL PRACTICES AND ASSOCIATED RULES
LEASING
Given the cost of new aeroplanes, it is becoming less likely that small or medium sized operators
can afford to buy new aeroplanes. Many new aeroplanes are purchased from the manufacturer
by merchant banks who then lease the aircraft to the operator. Occasionally, the manufacturer
leases the aircraft to the operator.
In any event, the process of leasing an aeroplane owned by an organisation in one state leasing it
to an operator in another state, may incur legal problems if something goes wrong. Equall y, the
requirements of an AOC assume that the aircraft operated by an operator are registered in the
State of the Operator. With a leasing arrangement this may not be the case.
The long term leasing arrangements are arranged by lawyers and attorneys mindful of the
relevant legislation. However, si tuations often arise where an operator needs an aeroplane
quickly to replace an unserviceable one, or to meet a temporary surge in demand for seats. In
this case, short term leasing arrangements are permitted wi th certain restrictions.
The learning objectives require the student to have knowledge of the practice and terminology of
leasing of aeroplanes. The reference for leasing is JAR-OPS. Terms used in JAR-OPS 1.165
have the following meaning:
2-6
Dry lease
Wet lease
JAA operator
Lease In
Lease Out
When operating the aeroplane under the AOC of the lessee (the
company borrowing the aeroplane)
When operating the aeroplane under the AOC of the lessor
(company who lend the aircraft out)
An operator certificated under JAR-OPS Part 1 by one of the
JAA Member States.
The process of 'borrowing' an aeroplane
The process of 'lending' an aeroplane
The Operator and the Operations Certificate
LEASING OF AEROPLANES BETWEEN JAA OPERATORS
Wet lease-out
Chapter 2
If a JAA operator retains all functions and responsibil ities prescribed in Subpart C of JAR-
OPS when providing an aeroplane and complete crew to another JAA Operator, then that
operator remains the operator of the aeroplane.
All leases except wet lease-out
Any leasing activity other than the wet lease out described above, requires approval of
the appropriate JAA authority.
LEASING OF AEROPLANES BETWEEN A JAA OPERATOR AND ANY BODY OTHER
THAN A JAA OPERATOR
Dry lease-in
A JAA operator may not dry lease-in an aeroplane from any entity other than a JAA
operator, unless approved by the Authority. Any conditions that are part of this approval
must be included in the lease agreement. The JAA operator shall ensure that, with regard
to aeroplanes that are dry leased-in, any differences from the prescribed instrument,
navigation, communication and safety equipment are notified to, and are acceptable to,
the Authority.
Wet lease-in
A JAA operator shall not wet lease-in an aeroplane from a body other than a JAA
operator without the approval of the Authority. The JAA operator shall ensure that, wi th
regard to aeroplanes that are wet leased-in:
The safety standards of the lessor with respect to maintenance and operation are
equivalent to the JAR regulations
The lessor is an operator holding an AOC issued by a State whi ch is a Signatory
to the Chicago Convention
The aeroplane has a standard Certificate of Airworthiness issued in accordance
with ICAO Annex 8. Standard Certificates of Airworthiness issued by a JAA
Member State other than the State responsible for issue the AOC will be
accepted when issued in accordance wi th JAR 21, and
Any JAA requirement made applicable by the lessee's Authority is complied with.
Dry lease-out
A JAA operator may dry lease-out an aeroplane for the purpose of commercial air
transportation to any operator of a State which is signatory to the Chicago Convention. In
this case, the JAA Authority exempts the JAA operator from the relevant provisions of
JAR-OPS Part 1. Further, after the foreign regulatory authority accepts responsibil ity in
writing for surveillance of the maintenance and operation of the aeroplane(s), the
aeroplane(s) will be removed from the JAA operator's AOC. Part of the leasing
agreement is the maintainence at the aeroplane(s) according to an approved
maintenance programme.
LEASING OF AEROPLANES AT SHORT NOTICE
In circumstances where a JAA operator faces an immediate, urgent,
and unforeseen need for a replacement aeroplane, the required
approval may be deemed as given, provided that the lessor is an operator holding an AOC issued
by a State which is a signatory to the Chicago Convention, the lease-in period does not exceed 5
consecutive days, and the Authority is immediatel y notified of the use of this provision.
AEROPLANE MAINTENANCE
The Operator is responsible for ensuring that any aeroplane used for international commercial
aviation fits the purpose. This means the aircraft must be maintained to an appropriate standard,
and that after servicing it is released to service in accordance with the approved procedures.
To meet the requirements for a JAA Operator, the aircraft must be maintained in accordance with
JAR 145 by an organisation approved under JAR 145. The pre-flight inspections do not require
carrying out by a JAR 145 approved organisation (i.e. the airline itself may employ personnel to
carry out the pre-flight inspections rather than use the contracted maintenance organisation) . The
standards for maintenance are laid down in JAR 145 for a JAA Operator, and in accordance with
Authority approved schedules based on the manufacturer's recommended maintenance schedule
for non-JAA operators. Failure to maintain the aeroplanes accordingly, results in the
suspension/withdrawal of the AOC.
If a JAA Operator chooses to have the aeroplanes maintained by a non JAR 145 maintenance
organisation, the Operator's quality system must include the maintenance of the aircraft including
audit arrangements and inspections of aircraft during maintenance. The quality system may also
require that all engineers engaged in maintenance of the Operator's aircraft be licensed in
accordance with ICAO or JAR 145 procedures.
If the JAA Operator chooses a JAR 145-approved organisation for maintenance, the
requirements for JAR 145 approval include the provision of a quality system, which the Operator
can rely on. In either case, the Operator must provide an Operator's Maintenance Management
Exposition (exposition - a detailed explanation), which explains the maintenance process and
defines who in the organisation is responsible for maintenance.
The Operator must also produce a maintenance programme, must include detail s of the servicing
to be carried out and the frequency of inspections, and the servicing cycle.
Because the technology used in aircraft and aircraft maintenance is progressing faster than the
regulatory process, the use of alternative means of compliance with the requirements of JAR 145
regarding maintenance is recognised by the Authority. Such technology when approved may be
used instead of the specified procedures. The process of determining the acceptability of such
technology is defined as the Equivalent Safety Case.
Page 3-6
Page 3-8
Mr. Ashley Gibb
THE OPERATIONS MANUAL (OM)
INTRODUCTION
Each operator is autonomous and is required by the Authority to regulate the duties of the
employees engaged in the operation. The duties of personnel are specified in the OM, but it also
contains in detail operational policies, instructions, procedures, and other information in order that
operations personnel can perform their duties to a satisfactory standard.
IGAO permits the OM to be prepared in the language of the State of the Operator, but the JAA
requires the OM for a JAA Operator to be in English. However, approval may be sought for parts
or even the entire OM to be prepared in the language of a JAA State. Such approval is limited in
duration.
CONTENT
The OM must conform to the standards laid down in Annex 6 or JAR OPS (for a JAA Operator).
The material contained should be original (i.e. produced by the Operator) but where included
material is extracted from or copied from other documents or sources, a statement of the fact
must also be included. The Operator remains responsible for the accuracy of any included
material in the OM, regardless of the source of the material. The OM for a JAA Operator is to be
produced in four parts:
Part A - General/Basic
Part B - Aeroplane Operating Matters - Type related
Part G - Route and Aerodrome Instructions and Information
Part D - Training
ACCEPTABILITY
The OM must be approved by the Authority. To this end, standardisation is the key to an
acceptable document. IEM (interpretative and explanatory material) to JAR OPS 1.1045 lays
down the recommended structure of an acceptable OM. This follows the IGAO model in Annex 6.
The LOs require the student to list the contents of the OM.
Chapler 3
Part A contains the following:
0- Administration and Control of the OM
1 - Organisation and Responsibilities
2 - Operational Control and Supervision
3 - Quality System
4 - Crew Composition
5 - Qualification Requirement
6 - Crew Health Precautions
7 - Flight Time Limitation
8 - Operating Procedures
9 - Dangerous Goods and Weapons
10- Security
11 - Handling of Incidents and Occurrences
12 - Rules of the Air
Part B contains the following:
0- General Information and Units of Measurement
1 - Limitations
2 - Normal Procedures
3 - Abnormal and Emergency Procedures
4 - Performance
5 - Flight Planning
6 - Mass and Balance
7 - Loading
8 - Configuration Deviation List (COL)
9 - Minimum Equipment List (MEL)
10- Survival and Emergency Equipment including Oxygen
11 - Emergency Evacuation Procedure
12 - Aeroplane Systems
Flight Operations
Part C contains details of the routes fiown by scheduled operations and details of the aerodromes
used including take-off, enroute and destination alternative aerodromes. It also contains as much
information concerning the services and facilities available along the route and details of agents
and organisations contracted or affiliated for use in a diversion situation.
Part D includes the following:
1 - Training Syllabi and Checking Programmes - General
2 - Training Syllabi and Checking
3 - Procedures
4 - Documentation and Storage
USABILITY
The OM is not just a regulatory requirement. It is meant as a working document and a reference
for the operations personnel at work. Selective parts, carried in the aeroplane, assist the
Commander in the decision making process and to detail procedures for use in abnormal
circumstances.
As the employment market in commercial aviation is volatile, operators must standardise the
paragraph numbering in OMs so that new employees can readily equate data from the new
employer's OM to that of their previous employer. Likewise, certain procedures appear at the
discretion of the Operator (e.g. Flight Time Limitation) whereas in practice these are strictly
regulated and the published procedures must comply exactly with the approved Authority
procedures.
Flight Operations
PROCEDURES
TAXIING OF AIRCRAFT
Chapter 3
Occasions occur when aircraft must be moved on the ground. Whi lst it is always desirable to
have a pilot at the controls, this may not always be possible. Ground engineers may, if approved
by the Operator, taxi aircraft on the ground. In this situation, the person at the controls must be:
Authorised by the Operator (or agent)
Fully competent to taxi the aeroplane
Qualified to use the aircraft radio
Have received instruction from a qualified person regarding:
1. The aerodrome layout
2. Traffic routes
3. Aerodrome signs, markings and lights
4. ATC signals and instructions including RTF phraseology and procedures
5. The operational standards for safe movement of aircraft on the ground
MINIMUM EQUIPMENT LIST (MEL)
Part B of the OM contains the MEL. The purpose of the MEL (compiled by the Operator) is to
enable the Commander (who is the sole authority for determining if a fiight can commence) to
determine whether a fiight may commence or continue in the event of an equipment or system
failure. Aircraft are complex machines and many of the aircraft systems are duplicated, have
redundancy or are desirable rather than essential with regard to the basic fi ying capabi lity of the
aeroplane.
Clearly, unless given special approval by the Authority, an aeroplane should be fully serviceable
prior to any fiight. In practice this is an exception. Because of the complex nature of the machine
and the inclusion of equipment that is there only for the comfort of passengers and crew, it may
be operationally desirable to fi y the aircraft with minor unserviceabilities of such equipment rather
than leave the aircraft sitting on the ground for ages waiting for spare parts. For instance, an
unserviceable TV screen may be no more than an inconvenience for a passenger, whereas a
faulty seat belt is unacceptable.
The MEL specifies all the aircraft systems required for the safe operation of the aircraft until the
replacement or repair of the specific items. In many instances, the ability to continue the
operation may be circumstance dependent.
The MEL for a type or variant must be approved by the Authority and must not be a direct copy of
other MELs.
MASTER MEL (MMEL)
The manufaturer of the aeroplane produces the MMEL with the intention of assisting the Operator
in producing the MEL. The MMEL is applicable to the specific type of aeroplane and also to any
variant within the type (e.g. the Boeing 727 - 400 series). The MMEL is not for use as an MEL by
an Operator.
Chapter 3
FLIGHT PREPARATION
DOCUMENTATION
Flight Operations
Before commencing any fiight, the Commander must be satisfied that the aeroplane is fi t and the
flight is properly planned (the Rules of the Air require the proper planning of each fiight). Specifi c
documentation (retained for three months) is to be prepared and properly certified confirming that:
The aeroplane is airworthy
The necessary equipment (instruments and systems) is installed and adequate for the
flight
A maintenance release has been issued for the aeroplane
The mass of the aeroplane and the centre of gravity (CofG) location are such that the
flight can be conducted safely taking into account the fiight conditions expected
Any load carried is properly distributed and safely secured
The aircraft operating limits have been checked and can be complied with
The operational flight plan procedure has been complied with
OPERATIONAL FLIGHT PLANNING
For all scheduled and non-scheduled operations, detailed operational flight plans (OFP) are
drawn up specific to the individual flight to be undertaken. Do not confuse the OFP with the ATS
FPL, which is submitted purely for ATC clearance of the fiight. The Dispatch department normall y
prepares the OFP and may be presented to the crew as a briefing folder containing the necessary
information.
The specified procedure for making an OFP is in Part B(5) of the OM. The OFP also forms a
record of the fiight for use as the journey log (see the Journey Log heading).
According to JAR OPS the content of the OFP is to include:
1. The aeroplane registration, type and variant
2. Date of the flight
3. Flight identification (schedule number or RTF Callsign)
4. Names of the flight crewmembers (pilots and fiight engineer (if required)) and their
duties and assignments
5. Place of departure and time of departure (actual off blocks time; take off time);
6. Place of arrival and planned arrival time
7. Type of operation (ETOPS, VFR, ferry flight, etc.)
8. Route and route segments with waypoints, distances, times, and required tracks,
etc.
9. Planned cruising speed and times between waypoints, etc.
10. Safe altitudes and minimum levels
11. Fuel calculations (including 'howgozit' )
12. Fuel on board when starting engines
13. Alternate aerodromes for destination (and take-off; en route as required)
14. Initial ATS clearance when issued, and subsequent re-clearance
15. In-flight re-planning calculations
16. Relevant meteorological information
Flight Operations Chapter 3
PASSENGER BRIEFINGS
Given to all passengers is a briefing before take-off covering the safety and emergency
procedures followed. The traditional briefing is given by the cabin crew but modern technol ogy is
permitting its replacement with an audio-video tape presentation. The briefing is to contai n
instructions concerning smoking, seat positions for take-off and landing, emergency exits, floor
lighting and markings, stowage of hand baggage, use of portable electronic devices, and the
location of the safety brief card. The briefing includes a demonstration of the use of the seat belts,
the oxygen equipment and the location and use of the life preservers.
PASSENGER SEAT BELTS
Passengers must be seated and seat belts fastened for take-off and landing when turbulence is
encountered, and in an emergency or whenever the Commander considers it necessary.
SMOKING ON BOARD AEROPLANES
Many states now have strict regulations prohibiting smoking tobacco products in publi c places.
The prohibition extends to airport buildings and aeroplanes registered in that State, and leased
aeroplanes operated by an Operator whose AOC is issued by the State. Where registering or
certifying States do permit smoking, the Commander of the aircraft must ensure that smoking is
not allowed whenever he/she deems necessary for safety, while the aeroplane is on the ground
(unless specifically permitted by the OM), outside designated smoking areas, in cargo
compartments, and in the cabin where the supplying of oxygen is occuring.
Failure of passengers to comply with the Commander's lawful orders in respect of smoking
results in prosecution by the Authority when the the aircraft lands.
REFUELLING WITH PASSENGERS ON BOARD
An aircraft may be refuelled with passengers on board providing qualified personnel attend the
aircraft, are able to able to direct an immediate evacuation by the most expediti ous and practical
means, and maintain two-way communications via the aircraft intercom system between the
refuelling crew and the attending personnel. This procedure may not apply when fuel other than
kerosene is used (e.g. Avgas).
OXYGEN SUPPLY
Modern aeroplanes fly at altitudes where the partial pressure of oxygen is insufficient to support
life. For this reason, aeroplanes are pressurised to a much lower altitude where the normal
mixture of gasses and the atmospheric pressure is life supporting. A pressurisation system,
designed for this purpose, makes this possible.
Operational Procedures. 3-5
Chapter 3 Flight Opera/ions
In the event of a pressurisation failure (for whatever reason) supplemental oxygen must be
supplied to crew and passengers until the aeroplane reaches an altitude where the composition
of the gasses in the atmosphere is life-supporting.
The Operator must ensure that a fiight in a pressurised aeroplane does not commence without a
sufficient supply of stored oxygen for all the crew and passengers for the period when (for
whatever reason) the cabin atmospheric pressure is below 700 hPa (mb) (above approximatel y
10 000 ft AMSL).
If conducting the flight at altitudes above 25 000 ft (376 hPa) or at altitudes below 25 000 ft and
the aircraft cannot descend to 13 000 ft (625 hPa) in 4 minutes, there must be at least 10 minutes
of oxygen supplied for the occupants of the passenger compartment.
De6 flight crew oxygen supply
For fiights in non-pressurised (or partiall y
pressurised) aircraft where the cabin altitude
may exceed 10 000 ft (700 hPa), the fl ight
must not commence unless the Operator
ensures that the flight carries suffi cient stored
oxygen for all crewmembers and 10% of the
passengers for any peri od exceeding 30
minutes when the cabin pressure is between
700 hPa (10 000 ft) and 625 hPa (13 000 ft),
and all the crew and passengers for any
period when the cabin pressure is below 625
hPa (13 000 ft).
Crewmembers must use breathing oxygen continuously whenever circumstances requiring the
use of oxygen exist. For fiights above 25 000 ft, the Operator must fit the flight deck wit h quick-
don oxygen masks.
AEROPLANE FLIGHT CREW
GENERAL
The Certificate of Airworthiness (CofA) for an aeroplane or the Aeroplane Flight Manual (AFM)
specifies the required fiight crew. The crewmembers must hold the appropriate licence and
complete the necessary CRM training for appointment of flight crew. The Operator may include
other flight crewmembers in the required crew providing the OM details the duties of those flight
crewmembers. The minimum crew for IFR operations at night is two pilots.
COMMANDER/PILOT IN COMMAND
Until recently, the office of Pilot-in-Command (PIC) was synonymous with Commander. However,
with the introduction of cruise relief crews and the sharing of the responsibility of the role of PIC,
especially on long-haul operations, the title Commander is more formal and many of the
responsibilities once assumed by the PIC are now the sole concern of the Commander.
JAR OPS states that one pilot qualified as PIC is to be appointed as Commander. The definiti on
of PIC remains that of the pilot responsible for the safety of the aircraft during flight time. In
reality, the PIC sits in the left hand seat of the flig,ht deck (right hand seat on a hel icopter) and
operates the controls of the aeroplane for take-off and landing. The PIC may delegate the duty to
the co-pilot (if qualified) whilst he/she is absent from the fiight deck for comfort reasons. The
Operator confers the status of both PIC and Commander. There can be only one Commander, as
on a ship, and the regulations require that the nominated post-holder is a pilot.
To qualify for appointment as Commander and PIC, the pilot requires knowledge of the operation,
the routes flown, and the aerodromes intended for use. JAR OPS requires that the route
knowledge qualification has a validity of 12 months. Additionally, JAR OPS requires an appointee
as Commander to have completed a command course and have passed an operator proficiency
check whilst acting as Commander.
To act as PIC a pilot must complete at least three take-oils and landings in an aeroplane of the
same type within the preceding 90 days.
DUTIES
Annex 6 specifies the duties of the PIC. In this context, PIC is synonymous with Commander.
JAR OPS states that the duties of the flight crew are to be detailed in the OM. ICAO requires the
PIC to be responsible for the operati on and safety of the aeroplane and for the safety of all
persons on board during flight time. The PIC must also ensure that all checklists are completed.
The PIC must also notify the nearest appropriate authority by the quickest means of any accident
involving the aeroplane resulting in serious injury or death of any person or substantial damage to
the aeroplane or property.
At the end of the flight the PIC is responsible for notifying the Operator of any aircraft defects
(known or suspected). The PIC is also to complete the j ourney log book or the general
declaration (if required by the State of Destination).
If the aircraft is subject to unlawful interference, the Commander is, on landing, to submit a report
without delay to the appropriate local authority.
In the event that for safety reasons or in an emergency, the Rules of the Air or local
procedures/regulati ons are violated when taking the necessary action, the Commander is to
make a report to the authority of the State over which the violation occurred. Submit the report
without delay (within 10 days) and send a copy to the Authority of the State of the Operator.
CO-PILOT
The status of co-pilot is conferred by the Operator. For appointment as co-pi lot, a pil ot must serve
as PIC or co-pilot at the controls of an aeroplane of the same type in the preceding 90 days, or
otherwise demonstrate competence to act as co-pi lot.
CRUISE RELIEF CREW
To relieve the Commander, a pil ot must hold a valid ATPL(A) and be type rated on the ai rcraft
type flown. The pilot must also have the same route qualifications as the Commander. To relieve
the co-pilot, the minimum requirement is that a pilot must hold a valid CPUIR and be type rated,
without the requirement to demonstrate competence at take-oil and landing. Where thi s is met,
the relief co-pil ot may operate as co-pilot only in the crui se and not below FL200. The recent
experience (90 day rule) is not necessary for a cruise relief co-pilot.
FLIGHT ENGINEER (SYSTEM PANEL OPERATOR)
When incorporating a flight engineer's station in the design of the aeroplane, the flight crew must
include a licensed system panel operator (flight engineer). If another flight crewmember can
perform the duty (without interfering with that flight crewmember's duty), the requirement for a
flight engineer may be dispensed with.
FLIGHT NAVIGATOR
If the State of the Operator considers it necessary for the safe navigation of the aeroplane, a
licensed flight navigator is included in the flight crew.
Chapter 3
Flight Operations
PILOT PROFICIENCY CHECKS
The Operator must check the pilots as proficient in piloting technique, handl ing of emergency
situations, and the ability to comply with IFR (if conducting the operation under IFR). There are
two conflicting requirements in this respect:
Annex 6: Requires two proficiency chE!cks within a period of 12 months, providing there
is a minimum period of four months between checks.
JAR OPS: States that the period of validity of an operator proficiency check is 6 months
in addition to the remainder of the month of issue. If satisfactorily checked wi thin the fi nal
3 months of a period of validity the new period of validity extends for 6 months from the
expiry date of the previous check.
Note: Flight simulators, such as the Boeing 737-200 simulator (below) may be used
where approved.
LINE CHECKS
JAR OPS requires the Operator to ensure that each flight crewmember demonstrate competence
on normal line operations as per the OM. The period of validity of a line check is 12 months.
When line-checked within the final three months of a period of validity, the new period of validity
extends for 12 months from the expiry date of the previous period of validity.
EMERGENCY AND SAFETY EQUIPMENT
TRAINING AND CHECKING
JAR OPS requires the operator to ensure that each flight crewmember undergoes training and
checking on the location and use of all emergency and safety equipment carried in the aeroplane.
The same rules for validity as line checks apply.
DUTY STATIONS
The OM for JAR OPS, and Annex 6 for ICAO specify when flight crewmembers should be at their
duty stations. All detailed operating flight crewmembers (excluding cruise relief crew) should be at
their stations on the flight deck for take-off and landing. Whilst in the cruise enroute, detailed fli ght
crewmembers (including cruise relief crew when required) are to remain at their duty stations
except when absence is required in the discharge of their duty, or for comfort needs.
All operating flight crewmembers must be strapped into their seats using the appropriate harness.
If the use of a shoulder harness interferes with the performance of duty, dispense the use of the
shoulder harness.
FLIGHT OPERATIONS OFFICER IFLIGHT DISPATCHER (FOPSO/FDO)
Annex 6 specifies the duties of the Flight Operations Officerl Flight Dispatcher. The FOOI FDO is
the link between the flight crew and the operator. The FOOI FDO is responsible for ground
supervision of the flight. The FOOI FDO has a means of communication (satcoml fax or HF RTF)
with the flight crew when they are airborne. This network is commonly called the company
frequency. Alternative means of communication is available for phone patch (via ARINC for
example) . Duties specified in Annex 6 include:
:.- Assisting the Commanderl PIC with in-flight preparation and the provision of information
:.- Assisting the Commanderl PIC in preparing the OFP and the ATS FPL. The FOO signs
and files (submit) the ATS FPL
:.- Passing information to the Commanderl PIC whilst in flight concerning flight safety
:.- Initiating the procedures detailed in the OM concerning emergencies and diversion to an
undeclared alternate aerodrome.
Any action taken by the FOpsOI FDO is not to conflict with actionsl procedures established by
ATC; the meteorological service, or the communications service.
IN-FLIGHT OPERATIONAL INSTRUCTIONS
If for any reason the Operator wishes to change the route, destination, or alternate aerodromes
for a flight that is already airborne, the requested change is to be co-ordinated by the ATS
authorities involved before passing instructions to the flight crew. If for any reason the co-
ordination is not possible, the CommanderlPIC is responsible for obtaining the necessary ATC
clearance.
JOURNEY LOG
The Commander is responsible for completing the journey log. Whilst only applicable to the
current flight , retain the journey logs for 3 months to provide a record of the operation. Complete
the log in ink or indelible pencil (which cannot be erased or altered), a complete record of the
flight. Many Operators provide a pre-formatted form for the journey log, whist others include the
log as part of the flight information and briefing package prepared by the FOpsOI FDO before the
flight.
The British Airways briefing system, called Sword, consists of a folder full of fan-fold material.
Each flight crewmember has an individual copy.
The ICAO recommendation for the journey log content is:
:.- Aeroplane nationality and registration
:.- Date
:.- Names of the crew and duty assignment
:.- Point and time of departure
:.- Point and time of arrival
:.- Flight duration
:.- Type of flight (scheduled or non scheduled)
:.- Incidents and observations (if any)
:.- Signature of the Commander
Page 4-6
Page 4-7
INTRODUCTION
Mr. Ashley Gibb
Virgin Atlantic Airways with special thanks to Mr. J. Jasper of
Virgi n Atlantic's Cabin Crew Training, Horley.
The Operator must make sure that the aeroplane is fit for the task. The Commander must also be
satisfied that the aeroplane is loaded properly and that the equipment and fuel are sufficient for
the flight. The FOpsO/FDO carries out the majority of the tasks necessary at the pre-flight
planning stage. If the schedule is an established one, this is largely repetitious, perhaps on a day
to day basis or even for multiple repetitions per day. Certainly, the ATS FPL is a repetitive FPL
(RPL), and when activating the RPL for the next flight , the ATS authority informs the
FOpsO/FDO.
One aspect of the operation that may change on a flight-by-flight basis is the requirement for fuel.
Meteorological conditions, ATS route availability, and availability of alternate aerodromes require
the addition of more or less fuel to the basic route requirement. Annex 6 specifies the carrying of
additional fuel for different types of aeroplanes and the nomination requirement for an alternate
destination aerodrome. The criteria for deciding if it is necessary for an alternate destination
aerodrome are below.
ALTERNATE AERODROMES
Things can go wrong and they often do!
When flying under IFR an Operator must specify an alternative course of action to follow in the
event that, for whatever reason, the chosen destination aerodrome is not available. The alternate
aerodrome is the aerodrome specified in the alternate plan (colloquiall y the alternate). The need
for an alternate aerodrome can occur at any time during the flight for technical reasons, whereas
operational reasons usually force a change of destination. For the three phases of the flight ,
departure, enroute, and arrival, alternates must be nominated.
TAKE-OFF ALTERNATE
The Operational Flight Plan (OFP) specifies the take-off alternate. However, if something goes
wrong on take-off that requires an immediate (emergency) landing (no time to dump fuel down to
max landing mass) make an immediate return to the departure aerodrome. If more time is
available and the departure aerodrome is not suitable or is unavailable (or it is not prudent to use
it), use the take-off alternate. The weather conditions at the nominated alternate, at the time of
take-off, must be above the aerodrome minima for the operation.
Chap/er4 Operational Planning
The criteria for the choice of a take-off alternate are:
Aeroplanes with two engines: Not more than 1 hour fl ying time with one engine inoperative; or
for operators with ETOPS approval (see below), the approved ETOPS diversion time up to a
maximum of 2 hours.
Aeroplanes with tflree or more engines: Not more than 2 hours flying distance at the one-
engine-out cruise speed.
DESTINATION ALTERNATE
An operator must select at least one destination alternate for each IFR flight unless:
Case 1
The duration of the planned flight from take-off to landing does not exceed 6 hours. Two
separate runways are available at the destinati on and meteorological conditions prevail ing
are such that for the period from one hour before until one hour after the expected time of
arrival at destination, the approach from the relevant minimum sector altitude and the
landing can be made in VMC or:
Case 2
The destination is isolated and no adequate destination alternate exists.
An operator must select two destination alternates when the appropriate weather reports or
forecasts for the destination, or any combination thereof, indicate that:
1. During a period commenci ng 1 hour before and ending 1 hour after the estimated time
of arrival the weather conditions are below the applicable pl anning minima
2. When no meteorological information is available
ALL AEROPLANES
The basic rule is that a flight shall not commence unless the aeroplane carries sufficient fuel and
oil to ensure that it can safely complete the flight. In calculating this amount of fuel , allow for the
actual and expected meteorological conditions and any forecast delays. Additionall y, carry a
reserve to cover unforeseen circumstances. The requirements are specified in two categories:
propeller dri ven aircraft and turbo jet aircraft.
PROPELLER-DRIVEN AEROPLANES
Two cases are considered, where an al ternate is required, and the other, where it is not required.
In both situations, carry sufficient fuel to accommodate the flight and the alternate course of
action.
When a destination alternate aerodrome is required, either:
4-2
1. Fl y to the aerodrome planned for the flight, then to the most critical (in terms of fuel
consumption) alternate aerodrome, plus a period of 45 minutes; [Total fuel = Route fuel +
worst case diversion fuel + 45 minutes]
Or
Operational Planning Chapter 4
2. Fly to the alternate aerodrome via any predetermined point, and then for 45 minutes,
provided that this is not less than the amount required to fly to the planned destination
aerodrome, plus the lesser of:
a. 45 minutes plus 15% of the flight time planned to be spent at the cruising level(s),
[Total fuel = Route fuel + 45 minutes + 15% of cruise fuel] ;
b. Two hours [Total fuel = Route fuel + 2 hrs]
When a destination alternate aerodrome is not required:
1. Case 1 above, fly to the aerodrome planned for the flight , plus a period of 45 minutes
[Total fuel = Route fuel + 45 minutes]
Or
2. Case 2 above, fly to the aerodrome planned for the flight, plus the lesser of the followi ng:
a. 45 minutes plus 15% of the flight time planned to be spent at the cruising level(s),
[Total fuel = Route fuel + 45 minutes + 15% of cruise fuel]
b. Two hours [Total fuel = Route fuel + 2 hrs]
AEROPLANES EQUIPPED WITH TURBOJET ENGINES
Consider the same two cases concerning the alternative course of action. Carry sufficient fuel to
allow the aeroplane:
When a destination alternate aerodrome is required, either:
1. Fly to and make an approach and a missed approach, at the planned destination, and
then to fly to the nominated destination alternate, and then fly for 30 minutes at holding
speed at 450 m (1500 ft) over the alternate (using ISA conditions), and then make an
approach and landing. An additional amount of fuel is also required to provide for any
increased consumption due to any potential contingencies specified by the operator to
the satisfaction of the State of the Operator. [Total fuel = Route fuel + diversion fuel + 30
minutes holding fuel + additional contingency]
Or
2. Fly to the alternate aerodrome via any predetermined point plus 30 minutes holding at
450 m (1500 ft) above the alternate aerodrome, provision made for additional fuel
sufficient to provide for any increased consumption on the occurrence of any of the
potential. The fuel carried cannot be less than the amount of fuel required to fl y to the
aerodrome planned for the flight plus two hours at normal cruise consumption.
[Total fuel = Route fuel + 30 minutes holding fuel + additional contingency fuel , or Route
fuel + 2 hours, whichever is greater]
When a destination alternate aerodrome is not required:
1. Case 1 above, fly to the planned destination and additionally to fl y 30 minutes at holding
speed at 450 m (1500 ft) above the planned aerodrome (ISA conditions) ; and have an
additional amount of contingency fuel. [Total fuel = Route fuel + 30 minutes holding fuel +
additional contingency]
Or
Operational Procedures 4 3
Chapter 4 Operational Planning
2. Case 2 above, fly to the planned destination aerodrome and remain airborne for two
hours at normal cruise consumption. [Total fuel = Route fuel + 2 hours cruising fuel]
If necessary, a flight may be re-planned to another aerodrome, if the requirements of the above
can be met from the point where the flight is re-planned.
WEATHER CONDITIONS
Conducted flights are under IFR or VFR (see Air Law notes for detailed explanation of the fl ight
rules). Flight under VFR, by definition, can only be elected when the meteorological conditions
are VMC. Part of a route may be flown under VFR if the forecast indicates that VMC exists for
that part of the route.
To begin a flight under IFR, the information must indicate that meteorological conditions at the
destination aerodrome or at least one nominated alternate aerodromes is equal to or better than
the aerodrome operating minima.
VMC - ICAO Annex 2 (Rules of the Air) defines VMC as follows:
Airspace A, B, C, D&E F G
Class (Note 3)
Above 900 m (3000 ft) At and below 900 m
AMSL or above 300 m
(3000 It) AMSL or 300 m
(1000 ft) above terrain,
(1000 ft) above terrain
whichever is higher
whichever is higher
Distance 1500 m horizontally Clear of cloud and
From Cloud 300 m (1000 ft) vertically in sight of the surface
Flight 8 km at and above 3050 m (10 000 ft) 5 km (Note 2)
Visibility
AMSL
5 km below 3050 m (10 000 ft) AMSLA
(Note 1)
Notes:
1. When the height of the transition altitude is lower than 3050 m (10 000 ft) AMSL, use
FL 100 in lieu of 10 000 ft.
2. When the ATS authority prescribe:
a) Lower flight visibilities to 1500 m may be permitted for flights operating:
1) At speeds that , in the prevailing visibility, give adequate opportunity to observe
other traffic or any obstacles in time to avoid collision, or
2) In circumstances in which the probability of encounters with other traffic is
normally low (e.g. in areas of low volume traffic and for aerial work at low
levels).
b) Helicopters may be permitted to operate in less than 1500 m flight visibi lity, if
manoeuvred at a speed that gives adequate opportunity to observe other traffic or
any obstacles in time to avoid colli sion
3. The inclusion of VMC minima for Class A airspace does not imply permitted VFR in
Class A airspace.
Table 1 - ICAO VMC Criteria
Operational Planning Chapler 4
VMC JAR OPS Criteria
Appendix 1 to JAR OPS 1.465 defines the minimum visibilities for VFR operations as foll ows:
F G
Airspace
B CDE
Above 900 m (3000 ft) AMSL or
At and below 900 m
Class above 300 m (1000 ft) above
(3000 ft ) AMSL or 300 m (1000 ft)
terrain, whichever is higher
above terrain whichever is higher
Distance
Clear
1500 m horizontally Clear of cloud and
From Cloud
of
300 m (1000 ft) 'Iertically in sight of the surface
Cloud
Flight 8 km at and above 3050 m (10 000 ft) AMSL
5 km (Note 2)
Visibility
5 km below 3050 m (10 000 ft) AMSLA (Note 1)
Notes:
1. When the height of the transition altitude is lower than 3050 m (10 000 tt) AMSL, FL 100 should be used in lieu
of 10 000 ft.
2. Cat A and B aeroplanes may be operated in flight visibilities down to 3000m provided the appropriate ATS
authority permits use of a flight visibili ty less than 5 km and the ci rcumstances are such that the probability of
encounters with other traffic is low, and the lAS is 140 kt or less.
Table 2 - JAR OPS VMC Criteria
The main difference is that JAR-OPS applies a lower standard for Class B than ICAO, and makes

no mention of VMC criteria for Class. The student is advised to use cauti on when answering
questions concerni ng VMC in the Operational Procedures examination in this respect.
SELECTION OF THE ROUTE
CRITERIA
Whilst the routes flown as part of the operation are usually dictated by economic considerati ons
(people want to go there, traditional links, industry, etc.), the operator must ensure the use of only
those routes along which adequate facilities and services exist. At the departure and destination
aerodromes, ground facilities and services must be adequate to meet the requirements of the
aeroplane, passengers, and crew. These should include meteorological services, etc.
The performance and equipment of the type of aeroplane chosen for the route must be adequate
to cope with meteorological condi ti ons, minimum altitudes, and navigation requirements
(i ncludi ng maps and charts). The requirements of ETOPS (extended twin-engine operations) with
regard to the proximity of adequate aerodromes, and the requirements for suitable landing
surfaces for si ngle engine aircraft must be complied with.
Additionally, any restrictions, requirements, or regulations imposed by the authorities of the states
to be over-flown must be complied with.
ADEQUATE AERODROMES
The regulations require the aerodromes used to be adequate. Broadl y speaki ng, any aerodrome
which the operator considers satisfactory is adequate. However, a satisfactory aerodrome is one
which the topography and runway layout allows the performance requirements of the aeroplane
to be met. The aerodrome also has to be properly equipped (ancillary services, ATS, lighting,
communications, weather reporting, navaids, and emergency services) .

Additionally, for an aerodrome to be considered adequate for ETOPS, ATC must be available and
at least one let down aid (ground radar would suffice) for an instrument approach must be
avail able.
Chapler 4 Operational Planning
ETOPS
The use of large twin-engine aeroplanes for long haul services (B777, 767, A330, etc.) requires
special procedures to cope with the situation following the failure of an engine. Whilst these
aeroplanes have complex and very powerful engines, the simple fact is that if one engine fails on
a four-engine aeroplane there are three left, whereas for a two engine aeroplane, there is only
one left, and if that stops it is a disaster.
The Airbus A330 is now one of the many types to have gained ETOPS approval
Before permitting such extended range operations (i.e. transatlantic) the aeroplane requires
certification that it can function adequately on the one remaining engine. In addition, the
possibility of a failure due to normal operation requires reduction to virtuall y nil. This requires
advanced engine and component design and exhaustive fatigue testing to determine the exact
life of parts, etc. Added to this, strict quality procedures are needed to ensure that standards of
maintenance and manufacture are adhered to. To cover any unforeseen events, the engines
have staggered life, requiring one of the engines to have not less than half its maintenance life
remaining at any time.
The route is then chosen to make sure that in the event of a failure, the aeroplane can land within
specified distances or times as determined for each aeroplane by the performance class.
The operator must determine the speed maintained with one engine inoperative assuming: ISA
conditions, level flight, maximum continuous thrust from the remaining engine, and aeropl ane
mass from worst-case calculation.
PERFORMANCE CLASS A
For Perf A aeroplanes with passenger seating of 20 or more or MTOM of 45 360 kg or more, do
not fiy the aeroplane further than 60 minutes fiying time at the one-engine-out speed calculated
as above, from an adequate aerodrome. For other Perf A aeroplanes, 120 minutes (180 minutes
for certai n types of turbojet aircraft if approved by the authority).
PERFORMANCE CLASS B OR C
For Perf Band C aeroplanes, 120 minutes at the one-engine-out speed or 300 nm whichever is
less.
4-6 Operat ional Procedures
Operational Planning
DITCHING CONSIDERATIONS
Part of the design and testing
procedures for aeroplanes is to
determine the type's ditching
characteristics. This is done
using computer modelling and
accurately scaled models in
large tanks. Once determined,
the ditching characteristics are
compared with the established
requirements for airworthiness.
Chapler4
Aeroplanes which do not comply with the requirements and which have approved passenger
seating of more than 30 are not to be flown more than 120 minutes at cruising speed or 400 nm
(whichever is less), from land suitable for making an emergency landing.
LANDING REQUIREMENTS
The operator must make sure that the destinati on aerodrome is adequate. This includes
assessing the landing distance, determined by performance class. However, for all classes, it is
thought that the pilot crosses the threshold of the landing runway (screen height) at 50 ft . This
may be modified for larger aeroplanes and reflected in higher minimum eye height for visual
approach slope indicators (VAS Is and PAPls).
PERFORMANCE CLASS A
The Operator is to ensure that at the ETA, the mass of the aircraft allows it to come to a halt after
landing safely on the runway.
For turbojet aircraft, this should be achieved wiihin 60% of the landing distance available (LOA)
on a dry runway, and for turboprop aircraft, 70%. If the runway is forecast to be wet, the LOA is at
least 115% of the landing distance required.
PERFORMANCE CLASS BAND C
For dry runways, the requirement is to stop the aircraft within 70% of the LOA. For wet runways,
the LDA is equal to or exceeds the landing distance required. Shorter distance may be
acceptable if the aircraft Flight Manual specifies distances for wet runaways.
MINIMUM TIME ROUTES
A minimum time route (MTR) is the route giving the shortest time from departure to destination,
adhering to all ATC and airspace reservations. The idea is to choose a route at a specified
altitude, which using the forecast winds, gives the greatest ground speed for a specified TAS,
thus giving the minimum time for that route. The procedure involves plotting the track of the
aircraft over a short leg (normally 1 hour) along several different tracks and calculating whi ch
produced the greatest ground distance covered in the shortest period. The procedure repeats for
another period until completing analysis of the whole route and comparison made regarding time
and fuel usage.
Today this is done by computers, which are updated regularly with meteorological information
and produce the MTR from input data includi ng ai rcraft type, zero fuel mass, departure
aerodrome, date and time of departure, destinati on aerodrome, and destination alternate.
Consideration is given to the requirements of the ETOPS route and singe engine cruising speed
for ETOPS fli ghts.
Chapter 4 Operational Planning
COMMANDER'S CONSIDERATIONS
The basic requirement of the Rules of the Air is that the fii ght requires proper planning. The
Commander is responsible for this and the Operator must ensure that the Commander has all the
necessary information to plan the fiight. The Operator invariabl y delegates this responsibil ity to an
FOpsO/FDO.
However, the ultimate responsibility for any fiight rests with the Commander and as such, a fiight
must not be commenced unless the Commander is satisfied that:
i. The aeroplane is airworthy;
ii. The aeroplane is not operated contrary to the provisions of the Configuration Deviation
List (COL);
iii. The instruments and equipment required for the flight are available;
iv. The instruments and equipment are in operable condition except as provided in the
MEL;
v. Those parts of the operations manual required for the flight are avai lable;
vi. The documents, additional information, and forms required are on board;
vii. Current maps, charts, and associated documentation or equivalent data are available
to cover the intended operation of the aeroplane including any diversion which may
reasonably be expected;
viii. Ground facilities and services requi red for the planned fiight are available and
adequate;
ix. The provisions specified in the operations manual in respect of fuel , oil and oxygen
requirements, minimum safe altitudes, aerodrome operating minima and availability of
alternate aerodromes, where required, can be complied with for the planned fiight ;
x. The load is properly distributed and safely secured;
xi. The mass of the aeroplane, at the commencement of take-off roll , is such that the flight
is within the specified performance limitations; and
xii. Any operational limitation in addition to those covered by sub-paragraphs (ix) and (xi)
above can be complied with.
FILING THE ATS FLIGHT PLAN (FPL)
Annex 2 requires that the FPL is filed (submitted to the appropriate ATS authority) not less than
one hour before departure. JAR-OPS 1.300 places the onus on the Operator for ensuring the
filing of the FPL so that the alerting services have adequate information concerning the fiight.
For international flights, file the FPL to the Area Control Centre (ACC) for the Flight Information
Region (FIR) in which the location of the departure aerodrome is located. The process of fi li ng
requires the completed form (in the UK the CA48) be delivered to a recei ving office, indicated by
an information sign on the wall of the building (black C on a yellow background).
The clerk in the receiving office gives the filing agent (or the pilot) the bottom copy of the form,
and then by use of telex, transmits the content of the FPL to the ACC. The ACC acknowledges
receipt of the FPL and then retransmits the FPL to all the 'down-route' FIRs. Once all the FIRs
have acknowledge receipt of the FPL, the ACC , at the appropriate time (usually just after the
aircraft begins to taxi), issues an ATC clearance for the fiight to commence under IFR or VFR (if
in airspace that requires control of VFR flights).
Operational Planning Chapter 4
FLIGHTS SUBJECT TO AIR TRAFFIC FLOW MANAGEMENT (ATFM)
The increasing density of air traffic and the shrinking of air space due to increased aircraft
cruising speed, has forced implementation of fl ow management (the regulation - control , of
movements by the formation and implementation of tactical ATC plans). In order for the ATFM
system to work properly, information concerning projected flights must be available to the ATC
planning system. The use of repetitive flight plans (RPLs) for scheduled operations is ideal for this
purpose. Other flights (non scheduled) are still subject to ATFM and are required to give as much
notice as possible to the ATS authority by way of fili ng a FPL.
It is a requirement for flights subject to ATFM that the FPL is filed at least 3 hours before
departure.
FLIGHTS INTO OCEANIC AIRSPACE
Edition 9 of the North Atlantic Operations Manual requests that for flights entering the North
Atlantic Region, the FPL is filed as far in advance as possible. As ATFM is virtually universally
applied through the FIRs adjacent to the NAT region, the filing in accordance with ATFM satisfies
the need for Oceanic traffic planning.
For diagrams and assistance
Page 5-5
Page 5-7
Page 5-13
Page 5-8
Page 5-10
Page 5-12
INTRODUCTION
Mr. Ashley Gibb.
Aerzur
Virgin Atlantic Airways with special thanks to Mr. J. Jasper of
Virgin Atlantic's Cabin Crew Training, Horley.
NASA Langley
In addition to the minimum equipment necessary for the issue of a Certificate of Airworthiness
(C of A), the instruments, equipment, and fiight documents fitted to or carried in the aeroplane
have to be adequate for the operation. The operalor includes the minimum equipment list (MEL)
in the operations manual, allowing the Commander to decide whether to commence a fiight or
continue from any intermediate stop if any instrument, equipment, or system becomes
unserviceable.
Additionally, the operator provides operations staff and flight crew with an aircraft-operating
manual, for each aircraft type operated, which contains the normal, abnormal , and emergency
procedures relating to the operation of the aircraft. The manual also includes details of the aircraft
systems and of the checklists used.
BASIC REQUIREMENTS
An aeroplane has to be equipped with instruments allowing the flight crew to control the flight
path of the aeroplane, carry out any required procedural manoeuvres, and comply with the
operating limitations of the aeroplane in the expected operating conditions. Other equipment
carried in the aeroplane is necessary for either safety, navigation, or regulatory reasons.
INTERNAL DOORS AND CURTAINS
JAR-OPS has additional requirements concerning doors and curtains. All aeroplanes with more
than 19 passenger seats must have a lockable door between the passenger compartment and
the flight deck. The door is to have a notice on it stating that entry is only permitted to
crewmembers.
Chapter 5 The Aeroplane
Where a compartment not usually occupied passengers has an emergency exi t, the door leadi ng
from the passenger compartment to that area must have an openabl e door. If passage through a
doorway is necessary in the event of an emergency, the door (or curtain) requires a means of
securing it in the open position. Such doors (or curtains) require signs attached indicating that the
doorway leads to an emergency exit. The crew requires a means of unlocking any door that
passengers can lock (toilet doors).
FIRST AID KITS
JAR-OPS requires an aeroplane to be equipped with accessible and adequate medical suppl ies
(First Aid Kits) commensurate with the authorised number of passengers the aeropl ane carri es.
Regular inspection of the kits is necessary, and must be replenished when needed.
Additionally, Annex 6 and JAR-OPS require the carriage of an emergency medical kit, for the use
of doctors or other qualified persons, for treating in-night medical emergencies in aeroplanes
authorised to carry more than 30 passengers, if the night is 60 minutes or more from qualifi ed
medical assistance.
Passenaers First Aid Kits
0-99 1
100 - 199 2
200 - 299 3
300 or more 4
Table 3 - First Aid Kit Requirements
HAND-HELD FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
The aeroplane systems have integrated fire extinguisher systems operated from the pilot stati ons.
However, to fight fires on the flight deck and in the passenger cabin (and cargo compartment
where necessary), hand held extinguishers must be carried. The content of the extinguisher must
be optimised for the type of fire likely to be encountered and to minimise the hazard from toxic
gasses produced.
At least one Halon 1211 (bromochlorodifluromethane) or equivalent extinguisher is to be
positioned on the flight deck. JAR-OPS requires extinguishers to be fitted in the passenger cabin
and when carrying more than one, they must be distributed evenly around the cabin.
The table below details the minimum number of extinguishers required against the passenger
carrying capability of the aeroplane. The location of galleys and toilets may require the fitting of
more.
Maximum Approved Number of Extinguishers
passenger Seating
7 to 30 1
31 to 60 2
61 to 200 3
201 to 300 4
301 to 400 5
401 to 500 6
501 to 600 7
601 or more 8
Table 4 Fire Extinguishers
The Aeroplane Chapter 5
BREAK-IN MARKINGS
Areas of the fuselage suitable for break-in by rescue crews in an emergency are to be marked by
red or yellow lines, and if necessary, they are outlined in white to contrast with the background. If
the corner markings are more than 2 m apart, intermediate lines 9 cm x 3 cm are inserted so
there are no more than 2 m between adjacent markings.
,
,
,
,
i'\ {\\,\
L
<--
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
over 2m
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
,
Fig 1 - Break In Markings
COCKPIT VOICE RECORDERS (CVRS)
Des forward exit, emergency
exit, and break-in point
There are many instances when the transcript of communications to and from the aeroplane or
between crewmembers offers vital evidence to what happened during an incident or before an
accident. In order to assist investigations CVRs are required to be carried and operated at all
times in aircraft involved in commercial air transport.
The regulatory requirements for the carriage of a CVR are complex and determined by the date
on which the certificate of airworthiness was first issued; whether or not the MTOM is greater or
less than 5700 kg, and the configuration of the engines.
5-3
----- ----
There are 3 cases:
Case 1 Aircraft with C of A issued on 1 April 1998 or later; multi-engine turbine; max
passengers more than 9; MTOM greater than 5700 kg.
Case 2 After 1 April 2002, aircraft with C of A issued on or after 1 January 1990 up to and
including 31 March 1998; multi-engine turbine; max passengers more than 9;
MTOM of 5700 kg or less.
Case 3 Any aeroplane with C of A issued before 1 April 1998 and MTOM over 5700 kg.
DATA RECORDED
A CVR records:
>- Voice communication transmitted into or out of the cockpit
>- The aural environment on the flight deck
>- Voice communications of fiight crewmembers using the intercom
>- Voice or audio identification of navigation or approach aids in the headset or on the
speaker
>- Voice communications of flight crewmembers using the PA system
CVRs - OPERATION, CONSTRUCTION AND INSTALLATION
For Case 1 and Case 3, the CVR has to be capable of retaining the information recorded during
at least the last 30 minutes of its operation. For case 2, the CVR has to be capable of recording
the last 2 hours of data (ICAO Annex 6 requires this for aircraft with C of A issued after 1 Jan
2003).
The construction, location, and installation of CVRs are to provide maximum practical protection
for the recordings in order to preserve, recover, and transcribe the recorded information. Flight
recorders must meet the prescribed crashworthiness and fire protection specifications, and are
required to have a device fitted to assist underwater location. Prior to the aeroplane first moving
under its own power, the CVRs must automatically switch on and record until the termination of
the flight.
- ----------- --- --- -
FLIGHT DATA RECORDERS (FDRs)
FORs are more commonly referred to as black boxes, although they are usuall y painted a Oay-
Glo colour (either red or yellow) and have underwater location devices fitted. They must be
capable of recording data pertaining to the operation of the aeroplane systems, control positions,
and performance parameters. As with CVRs, they must assist in the investigation of accidents
and incidents.
An example of a Flight Data recorder. .... .. ........ with the emergency locator beacon
The regulatory requirements for the carriage of FORs occupy many pages in both Annex 6 and
JAR-OPS but the LOs for Operational Procedures require the student to have knowledge only of
the parameters recorded; the rules for retention of data, and the rules regarding location,
construction installation and operation of FORs as detailed in Annex 6 only.
PARAMETERS RECORDED
The parameters recorded are dependent upon the type of FOR fitted.
Annex 6 defines three types:
Type I FOR - records parameters required to determine accurately the aeroplane fiight
path, speed, altitude. engine power, configuration, and operation
Type II FOR - records the same parameters as Type I but with the addition of
configuration of the lift and drag devices
Type IIA FOR - records the same parameters as Type II (for aeroplanes with MTOM
5700 kg or less)
DATA LINK COMMUNICATIONS
For aeroplanes with C of A issued after 1 January 2005, the FORs fitted to aeroplanes that have
CVRs fitted , and which use data link systems for communication, are to be capable of recording
all the data link communications. This becomes a general requirement with effect from 1 January
2007.
RECORDING DURATION
Type I and Type II FORs are capable of recording at least the last 25 hours of their operation.
Type IIA FORs are capable of recording the last 30 minutes of operation.
Chapter 5 The Aeroplal/e
CONSTRUCTION AND INSTALLATION
Clearly, the FOR must be capable of withstanding any disaster that befalls the aeroplane, and it
must be capable of location after an accident. It must be constructed, located, and instal led to
provide maximum practical protection for the recordings.
Specifications laid down are for crashworthiness and fire resistance, and JAR-OPS applies the
standards specified by the European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment (EUROCAE).
The FOR should be located close to the rear pressure bulkhead, or as far aft as possible. The
electrical supply should be from a bus bar that gives the maximum reliability of power suppl y
without jeopardising essential or emergency electrical loads. The FOR system must be capable of
being functionally checked before flight.
OPERATION OF FDRs
Do not switch off FORs during flight time. Following an accident or an incident, de-activate the
FOR after landing and do not switch it on again until cleared for use after the conclusion of any
investigation.
COMBINATION RECORDERS
JAR-OPS permits recorders which act as both an FOR and a CVR. Such a combination recorder
may be fitted to aeroplanes with MTOM of 5700 kg or less, or to larger aeroplanes if two of the
combination recorders are fitted.
FLIGHT RECORDER RECORDS
Operators must make sure that if an aeroplane is involved in an incident or an accident the flight
recorder records and the recorders are retained in safe custody until the requirements of Annex
13 (Accident Investigation) have been met.
EQUIPMENT FOR COMPLIANCE WITH FLIGHT RULES
When operating an aircraft under VFR, it is assumed that the aeroplane can be navigated
visually. Flight under IFR on the other hand, requires the use of radio navigation aids and
instrumentation that is more sophisticated. All aeroplanes operated under VFR flights are to be
equipped with:
A magnetic compass
An accurate timepiece indicating the time in hours, minutes, and seconds
A sensitive pressure altimeter
An ASI
Such additional instruments or equipment as may be prescribed by the appropri ate
authority
CONTROLLED VFR FLIGHTS
VFR flights operated as controlled flights (in class Band C airspace) should be equipped as for
IFR flights.
---------- -- - ------ - --
COMPLIANCE WITH IFR
All aeroplanes operated under IFR, or when the aeroplane cannot maintain the desired attitude
without reference to one or more flight instruments. must be equipped with:
A magnetic compass
An accurate timepiece indicating the time in hours, minutes, and seconds
Two sensitive pressure altimeters with counter drum-pointer or equi valent presentation.
Neither 'three-pointer' nor 'drum-pointer' altimeters satisfy the requirement
An ASI with means of preventing malfunctioning due to either condensation or icing
A turn and slip indicator
An attitude indicator (artificial horizon)
A heading indicator (directional gyroscope)
A means of indicating whether the power supply to the gyroscopic instrument is adequate
A means of indicating in the fiight crew compartment, the outside air temperature
A rate-of-climb and descent indicator
Such additional instruments or equipment as may be prescribed by the appropriate
authority
Note: The requirements of the turn and slip indicator, attitude indicator, and heading indicator
may be met by combinations of instruments or by integrated flight director systems if the
safeguards against total failure, inherent in the three separate instruments, are retained.
STANDBY HORIZON
All aeroplanes of a maximum certificated take-off mass of over 5700 kg introduced into service
after 1 January 1975 are fitted with an emergency power supply, independent of the main
electrical generating system, for operating and illuminating an attitude indicating instrument
(artificial horizon), clearly visible to the pilot-in-command, for a minimum period of 30 minutes.
The emergency power supply is to automatically operate after the total failure of the main
electrical generating system and give a clear indication on the instrument panel, that the attitude
indicator is being operated by emergency (stand-by) power.
A basic standby
attitude indicator
5-7
----
NIGHT OPERATIONS
All aeroplanes, when operated at night require lighting. In addition to the instrumentation required
for IFR, aircraft equipped for night flight must have:
The lights required by Annex 2 (Rules of the Air) for aircraft in fli ght or operating on the
movement area of an aerodrome
Two landing lights
Illumination for all instruments and equipment that are essential for the safe operation of
the aeroplane that are for use by the flight crew
Lights in all passenger compartments
An electric torch for each crewmember station
FLIGHTS OVER WATER
Regulations apply to flights over water when ai rcraft are considered to be vulnerable to ditchi ng.
For mUlti-engine aircraft, this is considered to be more than 93 km (50 nm) from land. Also,
anywhere over water beyond the gliding distance of a single engine aircraft, or wherever the
Authority of a State considers it necessary.
The latter case results from the crash of the Lockheed Electra into the Potomac Ri ver after take-
off from Washington Nati onal (now Ronald Reagan) Airport, when many passengers drowned
because there was no requi rement then for life preservers to be carried on flights not flying over
the sea.
LONG RANGE FLIGHTS
When required, aeroplanes flying over water must have one
life jacket or equi valent individual floatati on device for each
person on board, stowed in a position easily accessible from
the seat of each person. Each life jacket and equivalent
individual fl oatation device is to be equipped with a location
light.
Flights over water more than 120 minutes at crui sing speed, or 740 km (400 nm), whichever is
less, away from land suitable for maki ng an emergency landing in the case of multi-engine
aeroplanes, and 30 minutes or 185 km (100 nm), whichever is less, for all other aeroplanes, are
required to carry sufficient life-rafts to carry all persons on board. These are to be stowed ready
for use in an emergency, and fitted wi th life-saving equipment including means of sustaining life
(food, water, etc.) and equipment for making the pyrotechnic (rockets and flares) distress signals
described in Annex 2 (Rules of the Air).
REMOTE AREAS
When operated across land areas where search and rescue is difficult, aeroplanes are equipped
wi th the signalling and life-saving equipment (including means of sustaining life; food, water, etc.)
as may be appropriate to the area to be over-flown (i.e. Desert , Arctic, Jungle, and Ocean).
- - --- -- - ----- --
WEATHER RADAR
When carrying passengers in pressurised aircraft, the aeroplane is fitted with serviceable weather
radar whenever operating the aeroplane in areas where thunderstorms or other potentiall y
hazardous weather conditions that can be detected with airborne weather radar are expected to
exist along the route.
JAR-OPS expands the requirement to include
unpressurised aeroplanes with MTOM greater than
5700 kg; and any unpressurised aeroplane with more
than 9 passenger seats after 1 April 1999. For propeller
driven aeroplanes wi th MTOM not exceeding 5700 kg
and not more than 9 passenger seats, a suitable
system for detecting thunderstorms and other
potentially hazardous conditions may be used instead
of radar.
An example of a weather radar display
RADIATION MONITORING INDICATOR
All aeroplanes intended for operation above 15 000 m (49 000 ft), must carry equipment to
measure and continuously indicate on each flight, the current dose rate and the cumulative dose
of cosmic radiation received. The display unit of the equipment shall be readily visible to a flight
crewmember.
Individual records are kept for crewmembers that are liable to high exposure. The Commander or
the pilot delegated to the flight initiates a descent as soon as practicable when exceeding the limit
values of cosmic radiation specified.
MACHMETER
All aeroplanes with speed limitations expressed in terms of Mach number (limiting Mach) are
equipped with a Mach number indicator (Machmeter). This does not stop the use of the airspeed
indicator to derive Mach number for ATS purposes.
GROUND PROXIMITY WARNING SYSTEM (GPWS)
Too many aircraft are lost with crew and passengers killed by inadvertent controlled flight into
terrain. The ATC authority does not accept responsibility for terrain clearance (except during
radar vectoring) and the responsibility rests firmly with the pilots to ensure safe clearance from
the ground is maintained. Misreading of altimeters, misunderstanding procedures, poor
navigation, and misidentification by ATC radar units all conspire to make inadvertent controlled
flight into terrain a continuing danger and hazard.
A GPWS fitted to an aeroplane can give warning to the pilots that the aeroplane is getting too
close to the ground, and is required to be fitted to all commercial air transport aeroplanes with
MTOM greater than 5700 kg.
- --------- - -
The GPWS shall provide, as a minimum, warnings of the following circumstances:
>- Excessive descent rate
>- Excessive terrain closure rate
>- Altitude loss after take-off or go-around
>- Unsafe terrain clearance while not in landing configuration
Gear not locked down
Flaps not in a landing position
>- Excessive descent below the instrument gl ide path
Additionally, from 1 January 2003 all turbine-engine aeroplanes with maximum certificated take-
off mass in excess of 15 000 kg or authorised to carry more than 30 passengers, are fitted with a
GPWS incorporating a predictive terrain warning hazard system.
COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT
An aeroplane used for commercial air transport must be fitted with radio communi cati on
equipment capable of conducting two-way communication with ATC for aerodrome control
purposes and receiving meteorological informati on at any time during fli ght.
JAR-OPS requi res two independent VHF radi o systems to be fitted. The communi cations
equipment must also be capable of tuning to other stations on the frequencies specified by the
Authority of the State being over-flown. Essentiall y, the equipment must be able to
transmit/receive on the aeronautical emergency frequency 121 .500 MHz.
INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
Aeroplanes must have a public address (PA) system and a
crew intercommunications system (crew interphone or
intercom). The PA system is required (by JAR-OPS) for all
aeroplanes engaged in commercial air transport with more than
19 passenger seats. The crew interphone is required for all
aeroplanes with MTOM greater than 15 000 kg or havi ng more
than 19 passenger seats, if the C of A was issued on or after
1 April 1965 and the aeroplane was registered in a JAA state
on 1 April 1995.
AUDIO SELECTOR PANEL (ASP)
The crew interphone system (between the flight crew) also carri es the incoming audio output from
the radio equipment to the pilot's headset or loudspeaker. Each posi ti on of the flight deck must
have an ASP so that the crewmember can select (by switching and vol ume control ) the audio
services required.
Typically and ASP permits the audio output from the VHF and HF radios, VOR, DME, ADF,
markers, and ILS to be routed to the headset. Usually, the ASP has a microphone selector switch
to connect the pilot's microphone to the transmitter ci rcuit of equipment that can transmit audio
frequency (VHF and HF).
5-1 0 Operational Procedures
--------- ------- --- - - - - -
The Aeroplane Chapter j
NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT
The aeroplane is fitted with navigation equipment enabling it to fl y in accordance wi th its
operational flight plan, within the limits specified for RNP types, and as required by ATC.
It is assumed that flights under VFR fly by visual reference to landmarks.
For flights in areas where minimum navigation performance specifications (MNPS) are specified,
an aeroplane is fitted with navigation equipment which continuously provides indications of
adherence to or departure from track to the required degree of accuracy at any point along that
track. The MNPS and the procedures governing their application are published in Regi onal
Supplementary Procedures (Doc 7030).
For flights where RVSM of 300 m (1000 ft) is applied between FL 290 and FL 410, an aeroplane
is fitted with equipment capable of indicating the flight level flown , automaticall y maintaining a
selected flight level, providing an alert to the flight crew when a deviation occurs from the selected
flight level (the threshold for the alert shall not exceed 90 m (300 ft)), and automatically
reporting pressure-altitude (Mode C).
INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES
When operating the aeroplane under IFR and instrument procedures are required to comply with
IFR departure and arrival procedures, the aeroplane is to be fitted with not less than one; VOR;
ADF and DME; one ILS (or MLS); one marker 75 MHz beacon recei ver. The requirement for
VORIDME/ADF doubles where navigation along a route based on that aid alone.
INSTALLATION
The equipment installation is such that the failure of any single unit required for either
communications or navigation purposes, or both, does not result in the failure of another unit
required for communications or navigation purposes.
ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT FUSING
Most circuit protection systems fitted to aeroplanes use circuit breakers rather than fuses.
However, where fuses are used, there must be a supply of replacement fuses for use in flight (for
fuses that can be replaced in flight). There must be at least 10% of each type and fuse rating with
the proviso that there are not less than three of each.
WINDSHIELD WIPERS
Windshield wipers (or an equivalent means of clearing precipitation) must be fitted at each pilot
station if the MTOM is greater than 5700 kg.
EMERGENCY AND SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT
In order to assist the Search and Rescue organisation plan and execute any SAR operation, the
Operator must maintain lists of all the emergency and survival equipment fitted to aeroplanes for
use in the operation. The list includes number, colour, and type of life rafts, details of pyrotechnics
(flares and rockets), details of emergency medical supplies, water supplies, and the type and
frequencies of portable emergency radio equipment.
-- ------------ - - - -
Chapter 5
PERFORMANCE AND OPERATING LIMITATIONS
FACTORS AFFECTING AEROPLANE
PERFORMANCE
Factors that significantly affect the performance of
the aeroplane are to be taken into consideration
either as direct operational parameters, or as
allowances or margins, which may be provided in the
scheduling of performance data or in the code of
performance for the operation of the aeroplane. The
factors include mass, operating procedures, the
pressure-altitude appropriate to the elevation of the
aerodrome, temperature, wind, runway gradi ent, and
condition of the runway (presence of slush, water,
andlor ice etc.).
MASS LIMITATIONS
The Aeroplane
The mass of the aeroplane at the start-up or take-off should not exceed the mass at which take-
off performance requirements can be complied with, or the mass at which the requirements for:
the length of runway available, enroute - one engine inoperative, enroute - two power units
inoperative, and landing, can be complied with, al lowi ng for expected reductions in mass as the
fiight proceeds, and for fuel jettisoning as necessary.
In no case is the mass at the start of take-off to exceed the maximum take-off mass specified in
the fiight manual for the pressure-altitude of the elevation of the aerodrome, and any other local
atmospheric condition (if necessary). Neither is the estimated mass for the expected time of
landing at the aerodrome of intended landing and at any destination alternate aerodrome, to
exceed the maximum landing mass specified in the fiight manual.
Additionally, the mass at the start of take-off, or at the expected time of landing at the aerodrome
of intended landing and at any destination alternate aerodrome, cannot exceed the relevant
maximum masses applicable for noise certification standards, unless otherwise authorised in
exceptional circumstances for an aerodrome or a runway where there is no noise disturbance
problem.
TAKE-OFF
The aeroplane must, in the event of a critical power-unit failing at any point in the take-off, be able
to discontinue the take-off and stop within the accelerate-stop distance available, or to continue
the take-off and clear all obstacles along the fiight path by an adequate margin until the aeroplane
is in a position to comply with the enroute criteria.
In determining the length of the runway available, account is taken of the loss of runway length
due to alignment of the aeroplane prior to take-off.
5- 12 Operational Procedures
EN ROUTE - ONE POWER UNIT INOPERATIVE
The aeroplane must, in the event of the failure of the critical engine at any point along the route,
be able to continue the flight to an aerodrome at which the landing standard can be met, without
flying below the minimum flight altitude at any point.
ENROUTE - TWO POWER UNITS INOPERATIVE
In the case of aeroplanes having three or more engines, where the probability of a second power-
unit becoming inoperative must be allowed for, the aeroplane must be able, in the event of failure
of any two engines, to continue the flight to an enroute alternate aerodrome and land.
LANDING
The aeroplane must be able to land within the landing
distance available, at the aerodrome of intended landing
and at any alternate aerodrome, after clearing all obstacles
in the approach path by a safe margin. Make allowance for
expected variations in the approach and landing
techniques, if no such allowance is made in the scheduling
of performance data.
AEROPLANE PERFORMANCE OPERATING LIMITATIONS
The LOs require the student to be able to state the aeroplane performance operating limitations.
This is a separate subject in its own right and detailed instruction is given during the study of
subject 032 Performance. Remember, however, that matters discussed in Performance lectures
are examinable in the OP examination.
- - - ----------
- ----------------------------------------------------------
INTRODUCTION
Before actually beginning the flight, there are further aspects of aircraft operation to take into
account, namely the actual performance of the aeroplane on the day and the specifi c route to be
flown. The FOpsO/FDO together with the loading team must prepare the load sheet and check
that the aircraft is balanced (the aircraft centre of gravity (C of G) is wi thin the defined limits). The
achievable performance is compared with the required aerodrome operating minima, any ATC
regulations (restrictions) applicable, the preferred runway, and the meteorological conditions
(speci ficall y the temperature devi ation from ISA, and the wind component for the runway). When
complete, the Commander has all the information needed to make the final operational decisions
about the flight.
This chapter covers the required aeroplane performance for the selection of minimum cruising
altitude and the aerodrome operating minima with specific consideration to low visibility
operations.
PERFORMANCE CONSIDERATIONS - EN ROUTE
The normal cruising altitude is largely determined by the mass of the aeroplane (' height for
weight'). Where mass is not limiting, ATC considerations, comfort (avoidance of turbulence), and
economy (flying at or about the Tropopause) normally determines the cruising altitude of turbojet
aeroplanes. Propeller performance is normally otherwise limiting for turboprop aircraft.
However, in the event of a failure of a power unit, the aeroplane may not be able to maintain
normal cruising altitude, and a gradual loss of altitude (drift-down) occurs. The operator is
required to calculate the drift-down factor and specify a minimum cruising altitude to cover the
eventuality.
PERFORMANCE CLASS A -- ONE ENGINE INOPERATIVE
The operator must ensure that with one engine inoperative an aeroplane can fl y above the
minimum enroute altitude along the planned route. The net flight path requires a positive gradient
at 1500 ft above the aerodrome where the landing is made after engine failure. If ice protection
systems are required, take into account the effect of their use on the net flight path.
Chapter 6 Operatil1g the Aeroplane
The gradient of the net fiight path must be positive at least 1000 ft above all terrain and
obstructions along the route within 9.3 km (5 nm) on either side of the intended track.
OR
The net lUght path must permit the aeroplane to continue fnght trom the cruIsIng alUtude to an
aerodrome where a landing can be made. The net flight path must clear vertically, by at least
2000 ft , all terrain and obstructions along the route within 9.3 km (5 nm) on either side of the
intended track with regard to the conditions set out below:
a. The engine is assumed to fail at the most critical point along the route
>- Take into account the effects of winds on the fiight path
>- Fuel jettisoning is permitted to an extent consistent with reaching the aerodrome with
the required fuel reserves, if using a safe procedure
>- The aerodrome where the aeroplane is assumed to land after engine failure must
meet the following criteria:
(1) The performance requirements at the expected landing mass are met
(2) Weather reports or forecasts, or any combination thereof, and fiel d condition
reports indicate that a safe landing can be accomplished at the estimated
time of landing
Where the navigation accuracy cannot meet the 95% containment level an operator can increase
the width margins to 18.5 km (10 nm).
COMPLIANCE
The high terrain or obstacle analvsis required may be carried out in one of two ways:
6-2
a. Make a detailed analysis of the route using contour maps of the high terrain and plotting
the highest points within the prescribed width margins. The next step is to determine
whether it is possible to maintain level fiight with one engine inoperative 1000 ft above
the highest point of the crossing. If this is not possible, or if the associated weight
penalties are unacceptable, work out a drift-down procedure based on engine failure at
the most critical point and clearing critical obstacles during the drift-down by at least 2000
ft. The minimum cruise altitude is determined by the intersection of the two drift-down
paths, taking into account allowances for decision making. This method is time
consuming and requires the availability of detailed terrain maps.
b. Alternatively, the published minimum fiight altitudes (Minimum Enroute Altitude, (MEA), or
Minimum Off Route Altitude, (MORA)) may be used for determining whether one engi ne
inoperative level fiight is feasible at the minimum fiight altitude or it is necessary to use
the published minimum fiight altitudes as the basis for the drift-down construction shown
below. This procedure avoids a detailed high terrain contour analysis but may be more
penal ising than taking the actual terrain profile into account.
Operating the Aeroplane Chapter 6
Minimum Cruise Altitude ------;-.--- ------- ......... '--1
(para b.)
I
Decision Making
Allowance
Minimum Cruise Altitude
(para a.)
Minimum Flight Altitude

Minimum Flight Altitude
\
Para a.
Fig 2 - Drift-down Construction
Note: MEA or MORA normally provides the required 2000 ft obstacle clearance for
drift-down. However, neither is for use directly at and below 6000 ft altitude, as
ensured clearence is only 1000 ft.
PERFORMANCE CLASS A - AEROPLANES WITH THREE OR MORE
ENGINES, TWO ENGINES INOPERATIVE
The operator must ensure that at no point along the intended track is an aeroplane with three or
more engines more than 90 minutes, at the all-engines long range cruising speed at standard
temperature in still air, away from an aerodrome at which the performance requirements
applicable at the expected landing mass are met unless it complies with the details set out below.
The two engines inoperative enroute net fiight path data must permit the aeroplane to continue
the flight, in the expected meteorological conditions, from the point where two engines are
assumed to fail simultaneously, to an aerodrome at which it is possible to land safel y. The net
flight path must clear vertically, by at least 2000 ft all terrain and obstructions along the route
within 9.3 km (5 nm) on either side of the intended track. If using ice protection systems take into
account the effect of their use on the net flight path data. If the navigational accuracy does not
meet the 95% containment level, an operator must increase the width margin to 18.5 km (10 nm).
Assume the two engines fail at the most critical point of the route where the aeroplane is more
than 90 minutes, at the all engines long range cruising speed at standard temperature in still air,
away from an aerodrome at which the performance requirements are met.
The net flight path requires a positive gradient at 1500 ft above the aerodrome where making the
assumed landing after the failure of two engines.
Fuel jettisoning is permitted if using a safe procedure.
Chapter 6 Operating the Aeroplane
The expected mass of the aeroplane at the point where the two engines are assumed to fail must
not be less than that which would include sufficient fuel to proceed to an aerodrome where
making the assumed landing, and to arrive at least 1500 ft directl y over the landing area and
thereafter to fry level for 15 minutes.
PERFORMANCE CLASS B - MUL TIENGINE AEROPLANES
The operator must ensure that the aeroplane, in the event of an engine fail ure, can fry above the
relevant minimum altitudes for safe fiight stated in the Operations Manual to a point 1000 ft above
an aerodrome.
The following must be complied with:
The aeroplane is frying at an altitude where the rate of climb equals 300 ft per minute
with all engines operating.
The enroute gradient with one engine inoperative shall be the gross gradient of
descent or climb respectively increased or decreased by a gradient of 0.5%.
PERFORMANCE CLASS B - SINGLEENGINE AEROPLANES
The aeroplane must be capable of reaching a place where a safe forced landing can be made.
For landplanes, a place on land is required. This point should be 100 ft above the intended
landing area. Apply the following limitations:
The aeroplane is frying at an altitude where the rate of climb is less than 300 ft per
minute
The assumed enroute gradient shall be the gross gradient of descent increased by a
gradient of 0.5%
PERFORMANCE CLASS C - ALL ENGINES OPERATING
The aeroplane must be capable of a rate of climb of at least 300 ft per minute wi th all engines
operating and be able to satisfy the engine inoperative limitations.
PERFORMANCE CLASS C - ONE ENGINE INOPERATIVE
The operator must ensure that the aeroplane is, in the event of a failure at any point on its route
or on any planned diversion and with the other engine or engines operating, capable of continuing
the fiight from the cruising altitude to an aerodrome where a landing can be made clearing
obstacles within 9.3 km (5 nm) either side of the intended track by a vertical interval of at least:
1000 ft when the rate of climb is zero or greater
2000 ft when the rate of climb is less than zero
The fright path requires a positive slope at an altitude of 450 m (1500 ft) above the aerodrome
where making the assumed landing after the failure of one engine. Take the available rate of
climb of the aeroplane as 150 ft per minute less than the gross rate of climb specified. If not, the
width margins are increased to 18.5 km (10 nm) if the navigational accuracy does not meet the
95% containment level. Fuel jettisoning is permitted if using a safe procedure.
Operating the Aeroplane
PERFORMANCE CLASS C - AEROPLANES WITH THREE OR MORE
ENGINES, TWO ENGINES INOPERATIVE
Chapter 6
At no point along the intended track, will an aeroplane with three or more engines be more than
90 minutes at the all-engine long range cruising speed at standard temperature in still air, away
from an aerodrome at whi ch the performance requirements applicable at the expected landing
mass are met unless it complies with the following:
The two-engines inoperative fiight path shown must permit the aeroplane to continue the fiight
clearing all obstacles within 9.3 km (5 nm) either side of the intended track by a vertical interval of
at least 2000 ft , to an aerodrome at which the performance requirements are met. Assume the
failure of the two engines at the most critical point of that portion of the route where the aeroplane
is more than 90 minutes away from an aerodrome at which the performance requirements
applicable at the expected landing mass are met.
The expected mass of the aeroplane at the point where assumed failure of the two engines
occurs, must not be less than that including sufficient fuel to proceed to an aerodrome where the
landing is assumed to be made, and to arrive there at an altitude of a least 450 m (1500 ft)
directly over the landing area and thereafter to fi y level for 15 minutes.
The available rate of climb of the aeroplane shall be taken to be 150 ft per minute less than that
specified. If not, increase the width margins to 18.5 km (10 nm) if the navigational accuracy does
not meet the 95% containment level. Fuel jettisoning is permitted as long as the aircraft can reach
the aerodrome with the required fuel reserves. A safe procedure must be used.
SELECTION OF CRUISING SPEED AND ALTITUDE
Aeroplanes can fly for either maximum endurance (longest time airborne), maximum range, or
shortest route time.
ENDURANCE
When fiying for endurance, use the lowest possible fuel fiow. To achieve this, fiy at the highest
levels where drag is minimum, therefore fuel fiow is lower for the required speed. To improve the
handling of the aeroplane at these high levels, slightly increase the required speed at lower fii ght
levels and higher fiight levels. Effectively, the economy is being obtained because of the reduced
density of the air. Remember, the temperature is isothermal above the tropopause so there is no
inherent gain in engine performance by climbing.
MAXIMUM RANGE
Achieve the greatest range by using the cruise climb technique, whereby the aeroplane climbs to
the most economical level for the mass, and the speed is set at 1.3 times the endurance speed.
From then on, as the aeroplane mass reduces, the aeroplane naturally climbs. Maintain this until
the descent point when the aeroplane descends rapidly. This technique is only possible in
uncongested airspace. Concorde used cruise climb between FL570 and FL650 but there were
not many other aeroplanes at that level.
Chapter 6 Operating the Aeroplane
SHORTEST TIME
This is achieved by operating the aeroplane at maximum cruise thrust to obtain the highest mach
number for a given mass, pressure altitude, and temperature. The fiight manual normally quotes
two speeds: high-speed cruise (0.85 Mach) and long-range cruise (0.82 mach). For fuel
economy, usually the lower speed is used and the time penalty accepted. For both speeds the
fuel flow decreases as mass decreases and climbing to height for weight increases the efficiency,
known as Stepping.
For long range flights, a compromise is to use the stepped climb technique, where the aeroplane
fiies a constant mach number until it is capable of climbing to a higher level at which time a cli mb
is requested and once achieved, the Mach number is regained. Repeat this at approximately
2 hour intervals.
In any event, where maintaining a lower level (usually due to ATe requirements, weather, etc.), a
penalty in either time or increased fuel usage occurs.
6-6
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Page 7-4
Page 7-6
Page 7-9
Page 7-11
INTRODUCTION
Mr Ashley Gibb.
Each aerodrome is different and requires different consideration for the efficient and expeditious
operation of aeroplanes. The Operator must establish by law Aerodrome Operating Minima
(AOM), which specify the minimum meteorological conditions necessary and specific
requirements for pilots to achieve before operating aircraft into or from the aerodrome.
The AOM are not universally applied but are specific to the aerodrome, the type of aeroplane, the
type of operation, the qualification of the crew, and many other criteria. However, the minima
specified by the Operator are not to be less than those approved by the Authority of the State in
which the aerodrome is located which, in turn, is not less than the minima stated in Annex 6 and
JAR-OPS.
In specifying the minima, the Operator needs to take into account:
: The type, performance, and handling characteristics of the aeroplane
: The composition, competence, and experience of the crew
: Dimensions and characteristics of the runway used
: Adequacy and performance of ground aids
: Aeroplane equipment for navigation and/or the control of the aeroplane during the take-
off, approach, the fiare, the landing, the roll-out , and the missed approach
: Obstacles in the approach, missed approach and climb-out areas
: The obstacle clearance heighValtitude (OGH/A) for instrument approaches
: The means of determining and reporting meteorological conditions
AIRCRAFT CATEGORISA nON
In deciding the regulatory minima, IGAO, JAA, and the Authorities use aircraft speed as the
determining factor. The most critical speed is the speed at which the aeroplane is required to
cross the threshold (VAT)' This calculates as follows:
: VAT = 1.3 x Vso (the stalling speed), or
: 1.23 x VS1G (the 1G stalling speed in the landing configuration)
Chapter 7 Aerodrome Operating Minima and Low Visibility Operations
Where both Vso and VS1G are available, the higher resulting VAT is used.
Aeroplane Approach Category
Aeroplane CateQory VAT
A Less than 91 kt
B From 91 to 120 kt
C From 121 to 140 kt
0 From 141 to 165 kt
E From 166 to 210 kt
TERMINOLOGY
Terms used in this chapter have the following meaning:
Circling
The visual phase of an instrument approach to bring an aircraft into position for landing on a
runway, not suitably located for a straight-in approach.
Low Visibility Procedures (LVP)
Procedures applied at an aerodrome for ensuring safe operations during Category II and II I
approaches and Low Visibility Take-offs.
Low Visibility Take-Off (LVTO)
A take-off where the Runway Visual Range (RVR) is less than 400 m.
Flight control system
A system that includes an automatic landing system andl or a hybrid landing system.
Fail-Passive flight control system
A fli ght control system is fail-passive if, in the event of a failure, there is no significant out-of-trim
condition or deviation of flight path or attitude but the landing is not completed automatically. For
a fail-passive automatic flight control system the pilot assumes control of the aeroplane after a
failure.
Fail-Operational flight control system
A fli ght control system is fail-operational if, in the event of a failure below alert height, the
approach, flare and landing, can be compl eted automatically. In the event of a failure, the
automatic landing system operates as a fail-passive system.
Fail-operational hybrid landing system
A system that consists of a primary fail-passive automatic landing system and a secondary
independent guidance system enabling the pil ot to complete a landi ng manually after failure of
the primary system.
Note: A typical secondary independent guidance system consists of a monitored head-up
display providing guidance whi ch normal ly takes the form of command information but it
may alternatively be si tuation (or deviation) information.
Visual approach
When either part or all of an instrument approach procedure is not completed and the execution
of the approach is with visual reference to the terrain.
Aerodrome Operating Min;,na and Low Visibility Operations
TAKEOFF MINIMA
GENERAL
Chapter 7
Take-off minima established by the operator must be expressed as visibility or RVR limits, taki ng
into account all relevant factors for each aerodrome planned to be used and the aeropl ane
characteristics. Where there is a specific need to see and avoid obstacles on departure and/or for
a forced landing, additional conditions (e.g. ceiling) must be specified.
The Commander cannot commence take-off unless the weather conditi ons at the
aerodrome of departure are equal to or better than the mi nima for landi ng at that
aerodrome, unless a suitable take-off alternate aerodrome is avail able.
Where meteorological visibility is bel ow that required for take-off and no report of RVR
exists, commencement of a take-off may onl y commence if the Commander can
determine that the RVR/visibility along the take-off runway is equal to or better than the
required minimum.
VISUAL REFERENCE
Select the take-off minima to ensure sufficient guidance to control the aeroplane in the event of a
discontinued take-off in adverse circumstances and a continued take-off after failure of the critical
power unit.
REQUIRED RVRNlSIBILITY
For multi-engine aeroplanes, whose performance is such that, in the event of a critical power unit
failure at any point during take-off, the aeroplane can either stop or continue the take-off to a
height of 1500 ft above the aerodrome while clearing obstacles by the required margins. The
take-off minima established by an operator are expressed as RVRN isibility values not lower than
those given in the following table.
RVRNisibil il\ For Take-Off
Facilities RVRNisibility (Note 3)
Nil (Day only) 500 m
Runway edge lighting and/or 250/300 m
centreline markinq (Notes 1 and 2)
Runway edge and centreline 200/250 m
lighting (Note 1)
Runway edge and centreline 150/200 m
lighting and multiple RVR (Notes 1 and 4)
information
Notes
1. The higher values apply to Category D aeroplanes.
2. For night operations, at least runway edge and runway end lights are required.
3. The reported RVRNisibility value representative of the initial part of the take-off run can
be replaced by pilot assessment.
4. The required RVR value must be achieved for all of the relevant RVR reporting points
with the exception given in Note 3 above.
For multi-engine aeroplanes whose performance is such that they cannot comply with the
performance requirements in the event of a critical power unit failure, there may be a need to re-
land immediately and to see and avoid obstacles in the take-off area. Such aeroplanes may be
operated to the following take-off minima provided they are able to compl y with the applicabl e
obstacle clearance criteria, assuming engine failure at the height specified.
200 metres visibility ..... . see the De6?
The take-off minima established by an operator must be based upon the height from whi ch the
one engine inoperative net take-off flight path can be constructed.
The RVR minima used may not be lower than either of the values given in the following table:
Take-Off RVRNisibility - Fli!lht Path
Assumed engine failure RVRNisibility
height above the take-off (Note 2)
runway
< 50 ft 200 m
51-100ft 300 m
101-150ft 400m
151 - 200 ft 500 m
201 - 300 ft 1000 m
> 300 ft 1500 m (Note 1)
Notes
1. 1500 m is also applicable if no positive take-off flight path can be constructed.
2. The reported RVRNisibility value representative of the initial part of the take-off run can
be replaced by pilot assessment.
When reported RVR, or meteorological visibility is not available, the Commander shall not
commence take-off unless it can be determined that the actual conditions satisfy the applicable
take-off minima.
Aerodrome Operating Minima and Low Visibility Operations Chapter 7
Exceptions:
Subject to the approval of the Authority, and provided the requirements in paragraphs a. to e.
below have been satisfied, an operator may reduce the take-off minima to 125 m RVR (Category
A, Band C aeroplanes) or 150 m RVR (Category 0 aeroplanes) when:
>- Low Visibility Procedures are in force
>- High-intensity runway centreline lights spaced 15 m or less and high-intensity edge lights
spaced 60 m or less are in operation
>- Flight crewmembers have satisfactorily completed training in a simulator approved for
this procedure
>- A 90 m visual segment is available from the cockpit at the start of the take-off run
>- The required RVR value has been achieved for all of the RVR reporting points
Subject to the approval of the Authority, an operator of an aeroplane using an approved lateral
guidance system for take-off may reduce the take-off minima to an RVR less than 125 m
(Category A, Band C aeroplanes) or 150 m (Category 0 aeroplanes) but not lower than 75 m
provided runway protection and facilities equivalent to Category III landing operations are
available.
NON-PRECISION APPROACH SYSTEM MINIMA
An operator must ensure that system minima for non-precisi on approach procedures, based upon
the use of ILS without glidepath (LLZ only), VOR, NOB, SRA, and VOF, are not lower than the
MOH values given in the following table:
System Minima For Non-Precision Approach Aids
Facility LowestMOH
ILS (no glide path - LLZ) 250 It
SRA (terminatinQ at 'h nm) 250 It
SRA (terminatinq at 1 nm) 300 It
SRA (terminatin[j at 2 nm) 350 It
VOR 300 It
VOR/OME 250 It
NOB 300 It
VOF (OOM and OGH) 300 It
MINIMUM DESCENT HEIGHT
An operator must ensure that the minimum descent height for a non-precision approach is not
lower than the OCH/OCA for the category of aeroplane; or the system minimum.
VISUAL REFERENCE
A pilot may not continue an approach below MOAIMOH unless at least one of the following visual
references for the intended runway is distinctly visible and identifiabl e to the pilot:
>- Elements of the approach light system
>- The threshold
>- The threshold markings
>- The threshold lights
>- The threshold identification lights
>- The visual glide slope indicator
>- The touchdown zone or touchdown zone markings
>- The touchdown zone lights
>- Runway edge lights
>- Other visual references accepted by the Authority
Runway threshold, centreline and edge lighting plus PAPls
REQUIRED RVR
The lowest minima for use by an operator for non-precision approaches are:
Non-Precision Approach Minima Full Facilities (Notes 1, 5, 6, and 7l
MDH RVR/Aeroplane CateQor
A B C 0
250-299 It 800 m 800 m 800 m 1200 m
300-449 It 900 m 1000 m 1000 m 1400 m
450-649 It 1000 m 1200 m 1200 m 1600 m
650 It and above 1200 m 1400 m 1400 m 1800 m
Non-Precision Approach Minima Intermediate Facilities
Notes 2, 5, 6, and 7l
MDH RVR/Aeroplane CateQof'
A B C 0
250-299 It 1000 m 1100 m 1200 m 1400 m
300-449 It 1200 m 1300 m 1400 m 1600 m
450-649 It 1400 m 1500 m 1600 m 1800 m
650 It and above 1500 m 1500 m 1800 m 2000 m
Non-Precision Approach Minima Basic Facilities
Notes 3, 5, 6, and 7)
MDH RVR/Aeroplane Cateaon
A B C 0
250-299 It 1200 m 1300 m 1400 m 1600 m
300-449 It 1300 m 1400 m 1600 m 1800 m
450-649 It 1500 m 1500 m 1800 m 2000 m
650 It and above 1500 m 1500 m 2000 m 2000 m
Non-Precision Approach Minima Nil Approach Light Facilities
Notes 4, 5, 6, and 7)
MDH RVR/Aeroplane Categor
A B C D
250-299 It 1500 m 1500 m 1600 m 1800 m
300-449 It 1500 m 1500 m 1800 m 2000 m
450-649 It 1500 m 1500 m 2000 m 2000 m
650 It and above 1500 m 1500 m 2000 m 2000 m
Notes
1. Full facilities comprise runway markings, 720 m or more of Hil MI approach lights, runway
edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights must be on.
2. Intermediate facilities comprise runway markings, 420-719 m of Hil MI approach lights,
runway edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights must be on.
3. Basic facilities comprise runway markings, <420 m of Hil MI approach lights, any length of
LI approach lights, runway edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights
must be on.
4. Nil approach light facilities comprise runway markings, runway edge lights, threshold
lights, runway end lights or no lights at all.
5. The tables are only applicable to conventional approaches with a nominal descent slope
of not greater than 4. Greater descent slopes will usually require that visual glide slope
guidance (e.g. PAPI) is also visible at the Minimum Descent Height.
6. The above figures are either reported RVR or meteorological visibility converted to RVR
as in sub-paragraph (h) below.
7. The MDH mentioned in these tables refers to the initial calculation of MDH. When
selecting the associated RVR, there is no need to take account of a rounding up to the
nearest ten feet, which may be done for operational purposes, e.g. conversion to MDA.
NIGHT OPERATIONS
For night operations, at least runway edge, threshold, and runway end lights must be on.
PRECISION APPROACH - CATEGORY I OPERATIONS
GENERAL
A Category I operation is a precision instrument approach and landing using ILS, MLS or PAR
with a decision height not lower than 200 It and with a runway visual range not less than 550 m.
DECISION HEIGHT
An operator must ensure that the decision height used for a Category I precision approach is not
lower than:
" The minimum decision height specified in the Aeroplane Flight Manual (AFM), if
stated
" The minimum height to which the precision approach aid can be used without the
required visual reference
" The OCH/OCL for the category of aeroplane, or
" 200 It
VISUAL REFERENCE
A pilot may not continue an approach below the Category I decision hei ght, unless at least one of
the following visual references for the intended runway is distinctly visible and identifiable to the
pilot:
Elements of the approach light system
The threshold
The threshold markings
The threshold lights
The threshold identifi cation lights
The visual glide slope indicator
The touchdown zone or touchdown zone markings
The touchdown zone lights
Runway edge lights
REQUIRED RVR
The lowest minima for use by an operator for Category I operations are:
Category I Minima
Decision Height Facilities/RVR (note 5)
(note 7)
Full Inter Basic Nil
(notes 1 & 6) (notes 2 & 6) (notes 3 & 6) (notes 4 & 6)
200 It 550 m 700 m 800 m 1000 m
201 to 250 It 600 m 700 m 800 m 1000 m
251 to 300 It 650 m 800 m 900 m 1200 m
301 It and above 800 m 900 m 1000 m 1200 m
Notes
1. Full faci lities comprise runway markings, 720 m or more of Hil MI approach lights, runway
edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights must be on.
2. Intermediate facilities comprise runway markings, 420-719 m of Hil MI approach lights,
runway edge lights, threshold li ghts and runway end lights. Lights must be on.
3. Basic facilities compri se runway markings, <420 m of Hi l MI approach lights, any length of
LI approach lights, runway edge lights, threshold lights and runway end lights. Lights
must be on.
4. Nil approach light facil ities comprise runway markings, runway edge lights, threshold
lights, runway end lights or no lights at all.
5. The above figures are either the reported RVR or meteorological visibil ity converted to
RVR in accordance with paragraph h.
6. The Table is applicable to conventional approaches with a glide slope angle up to 4.
7. The DH mentioned in these tables refers to the initial calculation of DH. When selecting
the associated RVR, there is no need to take account of a rounding up to the nearest ten
feet, which may be done for operational purposes, (e.g. conversion to DA).
SINGLE PILOT OPERATIONS
For single pilot operations, an operator must calculate the minimum RVR for al l approaches in
accordance with JAR-OPS. An RVR of less than 800 m is not permitted except when using a
suitabl e autopi lot coupled to an ILS or MLS, in which case normal minima apply. The Decision
Height applied must not be less than 1.25 x the minimum use height for the autopilot.
NIGHT OPERATIONS
For night operations, at least runway edge, threshold, and runway end lights must be on.
Aerodrome Operating Minima and Low Visibility Operations
PRECISION APPROACH - CATEGORY II OPERATIONS
GENERAL
Chapter 7
A Category II operation is a precision instrument approach and landing using ILS or MLS with
decision height below 200 ft but not lower than 100 ft ; and RVR not less than 300 m.
DECISION HEIGHT
An operator must ensure that the decision height for a Category II operation is not lower than:
The minimum decision height specified in the AFM, if stated
The minimum height to which the precision approach aid can be used without the
The OCH/OCL for the category of aeroplane
The decision height to which the flight crew is authorised to operate
100 ft
VISUAL REFERENCE
A pilot may not continue an approach below the Category II decision height unless visual
reference containing a segment, which includes at least three consecutive lights of, the centre
line of the approach lights, touchdown zone lights, runway centre line lights, runway edge lights,
or a combination of these, is attai ned and can be maintained. This visual reference must include
a lateral element of the ground pattern, i.e. an approach lighting crossbar or the landing threshold
or a barrette of the touchdown zone lighting.
Approach lighting at Jersey showing clearly the lateral elements of the approach lighting
REQUIRED RVR
The lowest minima for use by an operator for Category II operations are:
Category II Minima
Decision HeiQht Auto-Coupled to Below DH (Note 1)
RVRlAeroplane RVRlAeroplane
Category A, B, and C Category D
100 to 120 ft 300 m 300 m (Note 2) 1350 m
121 to 140ft 400 m 400m
141 ft and above 450m 450m
Notes:
1. The reference to 'auto-coupled to below DH' in this table means continued use of the
automatic flight control system down to a height that is not greater than 80% of the
applicable DH. Thus, airworthiness requirements may, through minimum engagement
height for the automatic fiight control system, affect the DH applied.
2. 300 m may be used for a Category D aeroplane conducting an autoland.
PRECISION APPROACH - CATEGORY III OPERATIONS
GENERAL
Subdivisions of Category III operations are as follows:
CATEGORY III A OPERATIONS
A precision instrument approach and landing using ILS or MLS with decision height lower
than 100 ft , and RVR not less than 200 m.
CATEGORY III B OPERATIONS
A precision instrument approach and landing using ILS or MLS with decision height
lower than 50 ft, or no decision height, and RVR lower than 200 m but not less than 75 m
(JAR OPS) or 50 m (Annex 6).
Note: Where the decision height (DH) and runway visual range (RVR) do not fall wit hin
the same Category, the RVR determines in which Category the operation is considered.
CATEGORY III C OPERATIONS
A precision instrument approach and landing, usually ILS or MLS, with no decision height
and no RVR requirement.
DECISION HEIGHT
For operations using a decision height, an operator must ensure that the decision height is not
lower than:
7-10
> The minimum decision height specified in the AFM, if stated
> The minimum height to whi ch the precision approach aid can be used without the
> The authorised decision height to which the flight crew operates
NO DECISION HEIGHT OPERATIONS
Operations with no decision height may only be conducted if:
The operation with no decision height is authorised in the AFM
The approach aid and the aerodrome facilities can support operations with no decision
height
The operator has an approval for CAT III operations with no decision height
VISUAL REFERENCE
For Category IliA and IIiB operations with fail-passive flight control systems, a pilot may not
continue an approach below the decision height unless a visual reference containing a segment
of at least 3 consecutive lights of, the centreline of the approach lights, touchdown zone lights,
runway centre line lights, runway edge lights, or a combination of these, and can be maintained.
For Category IIIB operations with fail-operational flight control systems using a decision height, a
pilot may not continue an approach below the Decision Height unless attaining a visual reference
containing at least one centreline light, which can be maintained.
For Category III operations with no decision height there is no requirement for visual contact with
the runway prior to touchdown.
The Boeing 777 aircraft is equipped to land in CAT III conditions
REQUIRED RVR
The lowest minima for use by an operator for Category III operations are:
Cateqory III Minima
Approach Decision Height Roll Out Control! RVR
Category Guidance System
III A Less than 100 It Not Required 200 m
III B Less tha n 100 It Fail Passive 150 m
III B Less than 50 It Fail Passive 125 m
III B Less than 50 It or Fail Operational 75m
no DH at all (50 m Annex 6)
Chapter 7 Aerodrome Operating A1inima and Lo\\' Visibility Operations
CIRCLING
The lowest minima for use by an operator for circling are:
Lowest Circling Minima
A B C D
MDH 400 ft 500 ft 600 ft 700 ft
Minimum 1500 m 1600 m 2400 m 3600 m
Meteorological
Visibility
VISUAL APPROACH
An operator shall not use an RVR of less than 800 m for a visual approach.
CONVERSION OF REPORTED METEOROLOGICAL VISIBILITY TO RVR
An operator must ensure that a meteorological visibility to RVR conversion is not used for
calculating take-off minima, Category II or III minima or when a reported RVR is available. When
converting meteorological visibility to RVR in all other circumstances an operator must ensure
that the following table is used:
Conversion of Reported Meteorological Visibility to RVR
Lighting Elements in RVR - Reported Met Visibility times the followi ng:
Operation
Day Niaht
HI approach and runway 1.5 2.0
lighting
Any type of lighting 1.0 1.5
installation other than
above
No lighting 1.0 Not Applicable
LOW VISIBILITY OPERATIONS
GENERAL OPERATING RULES
An operator shall not conduct Category II or III operations unless:
". Each aeroplane concerned is certificated for operations with decision heights below
200 ft, or no decision height, and equipped in accordance with JAR-AWO or an
equivalent accepted by the Authority.
". A suitable system for recording approach and/or automatic landing success and failure
is established and maintained to monitor the overall safety of the operation.
". The operations are approved by the Authority.
". The flight crew consists of at least 2 pilots.
". Decision Height is determined by means of a radio altimeter.
LV TAKE-OFF
An operator shall not conduct low visibility take-ofts in less than 150 m RVR (Category A, Band C
aeroplanes) or 200 m RVR (Category D aeroplanes) unless approved by the Authority.
AERODROME CONSIDERATIONS
An operator shall not use an aerodrome for Category II or III operations unless the aerodrome
receives approval for such operations by the State in which the aerodrome is located. An operator
shall verify the establishment of the Low Visibility Procedures (LVP), and enforce those
procedures, at those aerodromes where conducting the low visibility operations.
OPERATING PROCEDURES
An operator must establish procedures and instructions to be used for Low Visibi lity Take-Off and
Category II and III operations. These procedures must be included in the Operations Manual and
contain the duties of flight crewmembers during taxiing, take-off, approach, flare, landing, roll-out
and missed approach as appropriate. The Commander shall verify that:
The status of the visual and non-visual facilities is sufficient prior to commencing a Low
Visibility Take-Off or a Category II or III approach.
Appropriate LVPs are in force according to information received from Air Traffic Services,
before commencing a Low Visibility Take-off or a Category II or III approach.
The flight crewmembers are properly qualified prior to commencing a Low Visibility Take-
off in an RVR of less than 150 m (Category A, Band C aeroplanes) or 200 m (Cat D
aeroplanes) or a Category II or III approach.
MINIMUM EQUIPMENT
An operator must include in the Operations Manual the minimum equipment that has to be
serviceable at the commencement of a Low Visibility Take-off or a Category II or III approach in
accordance with the AFM or other approved document. The Commander shall verify that the
status of the aeroplane and of the relevant airborne systems is appropriate for the specific
operation conducted.
COMMENCEMENT AND CONTINUATION OF APPROACH
The pilot of a flight can commence an instrument approach regardless of the reported
RVRNisibility. The approach shall not continue beyond the outer marker or equivalent position if
the reported RVRNisibility is less than the minima required. If the aircraft passes the outer
marker and the RVR falls below the applicable minima then the approach may be continued to
DAlDH or MDAlMDH as applicable.
Where RVR is not available, derive the values using the reported visibility. If no outer marker or
equivalent position exists then the pilot shall make the decision to continue or abandon the
approach before descending below 1000 ft above the aerodrome on the final approach segment.
Where the MDAlMDH is at or above 1000 ft above the aerodrome the operator establishes a
height below which the aeroplane does not descend. The approach may be continued below
DAlDH or MDAlMDH and the landing completed provided the required visual reference is
established.
CONTROLLING RVR
The touchdown zone RVR is always controlling. Where the reported and relevant mid point and
stop end RVRs are also controlling then the following apply (Relevant means that part of the
runway used during the high speed phase of the landing to a speed of approximately 60 kt): the
minimum value for the mid point is 125 m or the required RVR value for the touch down zone if
less, and 75 m for the stop end. Where an aeroplane is fitted with a rollout guidance or control
system the minimum value for the mid point RVR is 75 m.
SPECIAL VFR
In the chapter of the Air Law notes, it discusses the regulations concerning Special VFR (SVFR)
concerning the Rules of the Air. JAR OPS lays down criteri a for the visibi lity for SVFR operations.
Annex 2 states that a SVFR fl ight must not commence when the ground visibi lity at an aerodrome
withi n a eTR is less than 1500 m. JAR-OPS 1.465 on the other hand, states that SVFR fli ghts
must not commence when the visibi lity is less than 3 km. Annex 2 further states that SVFR flights
must not continue if the flight visibil ity is less than 1500 m, whereas JAR-OPS states that SVFR
flights must not conti nue if the visibi lity is less than 1500 m. Students must be aware of the
difference and be careful in the examinations.
7- 14 Operational Procedures
(j =.i .tE!.titJ J
- ... .. lil-!l
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Page 8-27 (top)
INTRODUCTION
Mr. Ashley Gibb.
NASA Langley Research Center
Whilst aviation is inherently safe due mainly to strong legislation and strict enforcement of safety
procedures, the elements of nature often conspire to create situations that pose hazards to
operations which, if not dealt with, could result in the aircraft and people on board being placed in
danger or worse. All authorities publish information concerning hazards and offer advice in
addition to the strict enforcement of regulations where such hazards likely occur. In the UK the
CAA publishes pink AICs which contain information relating to safety matters. This chapter looks
more closely at some of the potential hazards and the procedures operators must apply.
ICE AND OTHER CONTAMINANTS
ICING
During the study of Meteorology, the process of ice formation and the detrimental effects the
accretion of ice has on the performance of an aeroplane are di scussed. These include dramatic
increase in mass, shift of C of G, increased drag, increase in stalling speed, reduced lift, and a
reduction in the efficiency of flying controls. In piston engines, carburettor icing reduces airfl ow
through the venturi resulting in loss of power.
Chapter 8 Special Operational Procedures Gnd Hazards
Rime ice forming on leading edge
For ice to form on an airframe three considerations are necessary: water in a liquid state must be
present, the outside air temperature must be below D' C, and the aeroplane airframe temperature
must be below D' C.
ICE REMOVAL
The law requires the removal of all ice from an aeroplane before any flight begins. The operator
must establish procedures for ground de-icing, anti-icing, and related necessary inspections of
the aeroplane(s). De-icing is removal of ice from the aircraft. Anti-icing is the prevention of ice
forming.
A flight cannot commence unless the external surfaces have been cleared of any contaminant or
deposit that might affect the performance of the aeroplane, and the aeroplane is certificated and
equipped for flight in icing conditions if there are known or expected icing conditions.
At night, the aeroplane must be equipped with a means to il luminate or detect the formation of
ice. Any illumination used must be of a type that does not cause glare or reflection affecting
crewmembers in the performance of their duties.
DE-ICING ON THE GROUND
A pilot can find information on the de-icing and anti-icing of aeroplanes in the operations manual ,
and ICAO DOC 9640 - Manual of Aircraft Ground De-/cingIAnti-/cing. For a contaminated aircraft
on the ground there are three approved de-icing methods:
1. The application of de-icing fluids
2. Heating the airframe by use of hot air
3. Manually sweeping the aircraft
The carrying out of de-icing/anti-icing on the ground is in a one step or two step procedure:
8-2
One Step
Two Step
De-i ci ng/anti -icing is done at the same time.
Ice removal is achieved first and then followed with anti-icing.
Special Operational Procedures and Hazards Chap/er8
DE-ICING/ANTI-ICING FLUIDS
De-icing fluids melt the ice and then prevent ice from forming until a much lower temperature, or it
slows down the ice forming process. Anti-icing fluids slow down the ice forming process. Because
the only difference is in the ability to melt the ice, they are effectivel y the same compounds. There
are three types in use:
1. Type I (unthickened) Fluid
2. Type II (thickened) Fluid
3. Type IV (thickened) Fluid
HOLDOVER TIMES
The fluids are applied neat or diluted depending on the holdover time. Holdover protection is
achieved by a layer of anti-icing fluid remaining on and protecting aircraft surfaces for a period of
time.
For a one-step procedure the holdover time begins at the commencement of de-icing/anti-icing.
With a two-step procedure the holdover time begins at the commencement of the second step.
The holdover times are published and vary with type of agent used and air temperature. At the
expiry of the holdover time, the aircraft is treated again and a new holdover period starts from
then.
FIRE AND SMOKE
FIRE
Fire is always a potential hazard with aeroplanes. The huge quantities of fuel carried and the
catastrophic effects of collisions and crashes result in graphic pictures of fires where accidents
occur. However, less catastrophic fires are more likely from routine operations, and Operators
must ensure the training of all crews to cope with fires both in the aircraft systems and inside the
cabin.
CARBURETTOR FIRE
A carburettor fire can start when a rich fuel mixture or neat fuel ignites by exhaust gasses or poor
starting techniques or a malfunction of the engine. The standard drill for dealing with a carburettor
fire is as follows:
If the engine has not started:
1. Move the mixture control to idle-cutoff.
2. Open the throttle fully.
3. Continue to operate the starter motor.
If the engine has started, keep the engine going. In both cases, if the fire does not go out,
execute the Engine Fire Drill.
Chapter 8 Special Operational Procedures and Hazards
ENGINE FIRE
Take account of whether the aeroplane is in the air or on the ground. The following are general
considerations and are not specific to type.
Piston Engine Fire:
1. Fuel off
2. Allow the engine to run dry
3. The system should then be purged of fuel
4. Ignition off
Jet Engine Fire:
1. Close the thrust lever
2. Engine start lever to cut-off
3. Pull the engine fire warni ng switch
If the warning continues, operate the fire extinguisher system. If this does not work, after
30 seconds, operate the second fire extinguisher system.
Turboprop Engine Fire
Same as for the Jet Engine Fire except that at some stage the propeller needs
feathering.
HAND FIRE EXTINGUISHERS
Provided are hand fire extinguishers for use in crew, passenger, and cargo compartments, and
galleys. The type of extinguisher must be suitable for the kinds of fires likely to occur in the
compartment where the intended use of the extinguisher is and, for personnel compartments, to
minimise the hazard of toxic gas concentration.
At least one hand fire extinguisher, contai ning Hal on 1211 (bromochlorodifiuromethane,
CBrCIF2), or equivalent as the extinguishing agent, must be conveni ently located on the flight
deck for use by the flight crew.
At least one hand fire extinguisher must be located in, or readily accessible for use in, each galley
not located on the main passenger deck.
At least one readily accessible hand fire extinguisher must be available for use in each Class A or
Class B cargo or baggage compartment and in each Class E cargo compartment that is
accessible to crewmembers in flight.
Special Operational Procedures and Hazards Chapter
The number of hand fire extinguishers required in the passenger compartments is listed below:
Requirements for Hand Fire Extinguishers
Maximum approved passenger seating Number of Extinguishers
configuration
7 to 30 1
31 to 60 2
61 to 200 3
201 to 300 4
301 to 400 5
401 to 500 6
501 to 600 7
601 or more 8
When two or more extinguishers are required, they must be evenly distributed in the passenger
compartment. The hand fire extinguishers that may be used in an aircraft are:
Types and Use of Hand Fire Extinguishers
Extinguisher Colour Use Remarks
Halon 1211 - BCF Green General Anywhere on aircraft
Water Red Domestic fires Nil
CO, Black Electrical fires Not on fiight deck
Dry Powder Blue Electrical and liquid Not on fl ight deck
fires
Automatically triggered water or CO, extinguishers generally protect toil ets.
CLASS OF FIRES
Know the following classes of fire:
Class A
Class B
Class C
Class 0
FIRE DETECTION
Solids, ordinary combustible material
Flammable liquids
Gases
Combustible metals
Fire detection systems found on an aircraft include:
Electro optical systems which work by the interruption of a beam of light
Heat detection systems
Chapler 8 Special Operational Procedures and Hazards
BRAKE OVERHEAT
When overheated brakes occur, this presents a danger that the tyres and brakes may explode.
Fire crews should be in attendance in a situation involving overheated breaks . This can take a
substantial time. If approaching the aircraft, do so from the front or rear, not from the side.
CRASH AXES AND CROWBARS
An aeroplane with a MTOM > 5700 kg or having a passenger seating configuration of more than
nine requires a crash axe or crowbar on the flight deck. Where the seating configuration is more
than 200, required in the rearmost galley is a crash axe or crowbar. Do not make these items
visible to passengers.
SMOKE
Smoke in any form at any location is hazardous to life, and when airborne it is particularly
dangerous. Smoke reduces the absorption of oxygen into the lungs. In extreme cases this leads
to asphyxiation and death. It also causes panic which can lead to irrational behaviour. Other
effects include stimulation of the mucus membranes, irritation of the lungs, and obviously,
reduced vision. On the fiight deck, smoke distracts the pilots from their duty and one or both must
take action with the necessary check list to identify the source of the smoke and stop it.
To reduce or negate the physiological effects of smoke on the fiight deck, pilot positions have
smoke hoods and l or goggles together with oxygen masks that do not mix the oxygen with cabin
air. Smoke in the passenger cabin is most likely from a malfunction in the galley, or from
passengers illegally smoking in the toilet compartments.
In the event of smoke in the passenger compartment requiring the use of the drop-out oxygen
masks, passengers are reluctant to cover their mouths. The cabin crew must be forceful in
ensuring compliance with the Commander'S instructions to don the oxygen masks. Necessary
drills and training are in the Operations Manual.
SMOKE IN THE CARGO COMPARTMENT
On the flight deck or in the passenger compartment, smoke is immediately obvious and the drills
can be actioned. Usually unmanned, any smoke present in the cargo compartment may escape
attention until warning devices indicate increased temperature due to the fire. To overcome this,
linked smoke detectors (similar to domestic smoke detector) are in cargo compartments and
crewmembers must visit the compartment (if possible) at regular intervals.
SECURITY REQUIREMENTS
TRAINING PROGRAMMES
All operators must ensure that all appropriate personnel are familiar, and comply with the relevant
requirements of the national security programmes of the State of the operator. An operator must
establish, maintain and conduct approved training programmes which enable the operator's
personnel to take appropriate action to prevent acts of unlawful interference such as sabotage or
unlawful seizure of aeroplanes and to minimise the consequences of such events should they
occur.
Special Operational Procedures and Hazards Chapter8
AEROPLANE SEARCH PROCEDURE CHECKLIST
The operator ensures that all aeroplanes carry and follow a checkl ist of the procedures to search
for:
Concealed weapons
Explosives
Other dangerous devices
The checklist should also give guidance on action taken if a bomb or suspicious object is found.
REPORTING ACTS OF UNLAWFUL INTERFERENCE
An operator shall ensure that all appropriate personnel are familiar, and comply wi th the relevant
requirements of the national security programmes of the State of the operator. Foll owing an act of
unlawful interference on board an aeroplane the Commander or the operator shal l submit, without
delay, a report of such an act to the designated local authority and the Authority in the State of
the Operator.
AEROPLANE SEARCH PROCEDURE CHECKLIST
An operator shall ensure that all aeroplanes carry and follow a checklist of the procedures for that
type in searching for concealed weapons, explosives, or other dangerous devices.
FLIGHT CREW COMPARTMENT SECURITY
If installed, the flight crew compartment door on all aeroplanes operated for the purpose of
carrying passengers shall be able to lock from within the compartment in order to prevent
unauthorised access.
WEAPONS
In order to carry Weapons of War (as defined by JAR OPS) in an aircraft, the operator must
obtain the permission of every State overflown. If States are pre-warned, the crew and the
Operator cannot then be accused of 'gun running' in the event of a non-scheduled diversion.
When carrying such weapons, carry them in accordance with the rules and, if classified as
Dangerous Cargo, apply the rules in full. Other weapons may be carried on board by law
enforcement officers and other persons acting in the discharge of their duty providing the rules
and regulations laid down by the states involved are adhered to.
UNLAWFUL INTERFERENCE - ANNEX 2
Any aircraft that is subject to unlawful interference shall endeavour to:
Notify the appropriate ATS unit of this fact
Inform the ATS of any significant circumstances
Notify any deviation from the current flight plan necessitated by the above
This is to ensure that the ATS unit gives priority to the aircraft and minimises any risk of conflict
with other aircraft. The following procedures are intended as guidance for use by aircraft when
unlawful interference occurs and the aircraft is unable to notify an ATS unit of this fact.
PROCEDURES IF THE AIRCRAFT IS UNABLE TO NOTIFY AN ATS UNIT
Unless considerations on-board dictate otherwise, the Commander should attempt to continue
flying on the assigned track and at the assigned cruising level until notifying an ATS, or, the
aircraft is within radar coverage.
Where the aircraft must depart from its assigned track or level without making radio contact with
ATS, the Commander should, whenever possible:
Attempt to broadcast warnings on the VHF emergency frequency and any other
appropriate frequencies, unless circumstances dictate otherwise
Use other equipment such as on-board transponders, data links, etc. (conditions
permitting)
Proceed in accordance with the applicable special procedures for in-flight
contingencies, where such procedures are established and promulgated
If there is no applicable regional procedure, proceed at a level which differs from the
cruising levels normally used for IFR flight:
300 m (1000 ft) if above FL290, or
150 m (500 ft) if below FL290
ANNEX 14 -ISOLATED AIRCRAFT PARKING POSITION
An isolated aircraft parking position shall be designated or the aerodrome control tower shall be
advised of an area or areas suitable for the parking of an aircraft which is known or believed to be
the subject of unlawful interference, or which for other reasons needs isolation from normal
aerodrome activities.
The isolated aircraft parking position should be located at the maximum distance practicable and
in any case never less than 100 m from other parking positions, buildings, or public areas. Take
care in ensuring that the location of the position is not over underground utilities such as gas and
aviation fuel and, to the extent feasible, electrical or communication cables.
FUEL JETTISONING SYSTEM
A fuel jettisoning system must be installed on each aeroplane unless it is shown that the
aeroplane meets the performance climb requirements at maximum take-off mass, less the actual
or computed weight of fuel necessary for a 15-minute ftight comprised of a take-off, go-around,
and landing at the airport of departure. The aeroplane configuration, speed, and thrust should be
the same as that used in meeting the applicable take-off, approach, and landing climb
performance requirements. In other words, unless the aeroplane can land at or just below
maximum take-off mass, then a fuel jettisoning system must be installed.
Special Operational Procedures and Hazards Chaptera
If required, a fuel jettisoning system must be capable of jettisoning enough fuel within 15 minutes
to enable the aeroplane to meet the performance climb requirements, assuming that the fuel is
jettisoned under the conditions found least favourable during fiight tests. During the fiight tests it
must be shown that:
The fuel jettisoning system and its operation are free from fi re hazard
The fuel discharges clear of any part of the aeroplane
Fuel or fumes do not enter any part of the aeroplane
The j ettisoning operation does not adversel y affect the controllability of the aeroplane
Fuel should not be jettisoned below 10 000 ft . In winter, in exceptional circumstances, this can be
lowered to 7000 ft. In summer in exceptional circumstances, this can be lowered to 4000 ft . The
fuel jettisoning valve must be designed to allow fiight personnel to close the valve during any part
of the jettisoning operation. Unless it is shown that using any means (including flaps, slots, and
slats) for changing the airflow across or around the wings does not adversely affect fuel
jettisoning, there must be a placard, adj acent to the jettisoning control, to warn flight-
crewmembers against jettisoning fuel while using the means that change the airflow.
The fuel jettisoning system must be designed so that any
reasonably probable single malfunction in the system does
not result in a hazardous condition due to unsymmetrical
jettisoning of, or inability to jettison, fuel.
FUEL JETTISONING PROCEDURES
Prior to fuel jettison, inform ATC that fuel jettison is about to
occur, and that VHF RTF communications will be kept to
the absolute minimum. Switch off the HF communications
equipment to prevent inadvertent transmission. All
automati c circuit switching (water heaters, galley
equipment, etc.) is to be electrically isolated until jettison is
complete. An area is to be chosen where there is minimum
turbulence and no Cumulonimbus cloud present.
Ideally, whilst fuel jettisoning, the aircraft should be kept out
of cloud. Inform the cabin crew prior to the jettison, also
inform the passengers that the operation is a routine Fuel jettisoning outlet
procedure to reduce the weight of the aeroplane. Once
jetti son begins, an observer reports the flow from both sides of the aeroplane. During jettison,
limit electrical switching to essential ci rcuitry only. Illuminate the NO SMOKING light. Once
jettison is complete, the observer reports that flow stopped on both sides of the aeroplane.
Normal operation may then resume.

PRESSURISATION FAILURE
Failure of the pressurisation system of an aeroplane is potentially life threatening. At altitudes
above that at which the partial pressure of oxygen is no longer sufficient for normal respiration,
exposure to ambient pressure causes hypoxia (lack of oxygen) leading to reduced brain
functioning and failure of vital life systems in the body. Death results in a relati vel y short time.
Unfortunately, the body is not very efficient at recognising the onset of hypoxia because the maj or
effect is drowsiness and a gradual drift to unconsciousness. For this reason, aircraft have
pressurisation failure warning systems to alert the crew when the required cabin pressure cannot
be maintained. If any failure of the pressurisation system occurs above a level where the outside
atmosphere can not support life, commence a descent to such a level immediately. Inform ATe of
the descent (the RTF call preceded by MAYDAY x 3) and the pilot should broadcast level passing
information and advise when stabilised at the lower level.
Failure of the pressurisation system can be caused by a general failure of the conditioning
system, ruptures in the pressure hull of a size such that the system cannot cope with the rate of
loss of cabin air, total power failure (all engines out) or mishandling of the system by the crew.
The classification of failures is by the rate of decompression of the cabin air: slow, rapid, or
explosive. Slow decompression occurs over a period of time because the system is trying to
replace the lost air and only losing the battle slowly. A failed door seal , stuck pressure discharge
valve, or an open window are likely causes. As the cabin altitude slowly climbs above 10 000 ft
(700 mb) , a warning horn sounds and the drop out system operates after a delay at
approximately 14 000 ft. It is possible that physiological changes were noticed prior to this,
especially by trained personnel , particularly 'ears popping' , the onset of tunnel vision, pain in body
cavities, and excessive venting of air from the body.
Particularly affected is night vision, although this may not be immediately noticed.
Rapid decompression is when a door opens or the hull ruptures and the system cannot replace
the lost air at all. An explosive decompression is the result of a catastrophic failure of the
pressure hull resulting from say, a bomb blast or impact by a missile.
The difference between rapid and explosive decompressions is somewhat academic as the
response by the crew is the same. The crew attempts to regain control of the aeroplane and
execute a rapid descent to a level where the ambient pressure of oxygen is life sustaining. There
may be extreme physiological effects such as exploding sinuses and teeth cavities, rupturing of
ear drums, extensive abdominal distension, and rupturing of internal organs.
Chapter 3 covers the requirements for the carri age of supplemental oxygen, but they are
reiterated here.
Requirements for the Carriage of Supplemental Oxygen
Supply For Duration and Cabin Pressure Altitude
All occupants of flight The entire flight time when the cabin pressure exceeds 13000 ft
deck seats
The entire flight time when the cabin pressure altitude exceeds
10 000 ft but does not exceed 13 000 ft for the first 30 minutes at
those altitudes, but in no case less than:
i. 30 minutes for aeroplanes certificated to fly at altitudes
not exceeding 25 000 ft'
ii. 2 hours for aeroplanes certificated to fly at altitudes
more than 25 000 ft'
All required cabin Entire flight time when the cabin pressure exceeds 13 000 ft but not
crewmembers less than 30 minutes'
The entire flight time when the cabin pressure altitude exceeds
10 000 ft but does not exceed 13 000 ft for the first 30 minutes at
those altitudes,
100% of passengers' The enti re flight time when the cabin pressure altitude exceeds
15000 ft but in no case less than 10 minutes
4
30% of passengers' The enti re flight time when the cabin pressure altitude exceeds
14 000 ft but does not exceed 15 000 ft
10% of passengers' The entire flight time when the cabin pressure altitude exceeds
Notes: 1 .
2.
10000 ft but does not exceed 14000 ft after the first 30 minutes at
these altitudes
The suppl y provided must take account of the cabin pressure altitude
and descent profile for the routes considered.
The required minimum supply is that quantity of oxygen necessary for a
constant rate of descent from the aeroplane's maximum certificated
operating altitude to 10 000 ft in 10 minutes foll owed by 20 minutes at
10 000 ft.
3. The required minimum supply is that quantity of oxygen necessary for a
constant rate of descent from the aeroplane's maximum certificated
operating altitude to 10 000 ft in 10 minutes followed by 110 minutes at
10 000 ft.
4. The required minimum supply is that quantity of oxygen necessary for a
constant rate of descent from the aeroplane's maximum certifi cated
operating altitude to 15 000 ft in 10 minutes.
5. For the purpose of this table, "passengers" means passengers actually
carried and includes infants.
Flight crewmembers use a quick donning oxygen mask, which is a mask that can be donned
within 5 seconds using one hand, and permits normal radi o communications to be maintained.
The masks used by passengers are of no use when there is smoke in the cabi n as the smoke
mixes with the oxygen. The number of oxygen dispensi ng units and outlets must exceed the
number of seats by at least 10%.
WINDSHEAR AND MICROBURST DEFINITIONS AND THE
METEOROLOGICAL BACKGROUND
Windshear is a change in wind direction and/or speed in either a vertical or horizontal sense. A
simple definition is given by the UK CM in a still valid AIC.
Definition: Vari ations in vector wi nd along the ai rcraft fiight path of a pattern, intensity,
and duration to displace an aircraft abruptly from its intended path requiring substantial
control action.
LOW ALTITUDE WINDSHEAR
Low altitude windshear affects the take-off and landing and can be split into 3 motions:
Vertical winds hear
Horizontal windshear
Updraughtldowndraught
The change of a horizontal wi nd vector with height.
The change of a horizontal wind vector wi th horizontal
distance
Changes in the vertical component of wind with horizontal
distance.
A windshear encounter can affect large aircraft suddenly by displacing them beyond the pi lot's
powers of recovery.
METEOROLOGICAL FEATURES
Severe windshear is associated with
cumulonimbus or towering cumulus clouds.
However, windshear can also be experienced in
association with other features such as the
passage of a front , a marked' temperature
inversion, a low-level wi nd maximum, or a
turbulent boundary layer. Topography or
buildings can make the situation worse when
there is a strong wind.
Lightning is only one of the hazards
associated with thunderstorms
8- 12
Towering cumulonimbus
THUNDERSTORMS
The study of thunderstorms in Meteorology covers the
physical propert ies of these phenomena and this
section of the notes describes the wind flows in and
around the thunderstorm which cause the most severe
windshear. The shears and draughts associated wi th
the thunderstorm can affect an aircraft from any angle.
This ma!<es assessment of angle of attack and the
onset of the stall diffi cult to predict.
Special Operational Procedures and Hazards Chap/erB
Gust Front
The gust front is a well-defined area of cold air flowing out from a downdraught in all
directions. The gust front leads the storm along its line of movement and affects the area
out to 24 to 32 km from the storm centre, and from the surface up to about 6000 ft. The
area is subject to turbulence and possibly vertical shear because of the out flowing cold
air undercutting inflowing warm air. If the leading edge has no associated precipitation,
weather radar does not detect the gust front. With some gust fronts, a roll cloud may be
present which may be associated with the onset of precipitation.
Microbursts
A microburst is a highly concentrated,
powerful downdraught of air, typically less
than 5 km across, lasting from 1 to 5
minutes, with downdraughts up to 60 knots
and possible wind speed at the surface of
90 knots. Microbursts are either "wet" or
"dry". The dry microburst has no associated
precipitation, which makes detection
difficult. The wet microburst is associated
with the precipitation that falls below a
cumulonimbus cloud.
FRONTAL PASSAGE
A microburst
The greatest risk of windshear is from well-developed acti ve fronts with narrow surface frontal
zones, and marked temperature differences between the two air masses. Sharp changes in wind
direction as the front passes indicate the possibility of windshear. Signs to look for are a
temperature difference of 5C or more across the frontal zone, and the speed of movement of the
front, especially if 30 kt or more. The cold front poses the greater risk with the wi ndshear
occurring just after the surface passage. The period of windshear for a warm front is longer and
precedes the passage.
INVERSIONS
A strong vertical shear can occur when a lOW-level jet forms in association wi th a strong radiation
inversion. These normally develop at night under clear skies. Low-level inversions may develop
where a strong upper flow is above a calm flow next to the surface. Windshear can be
experienced across the boundary.
TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER
In the boundary layer strong surface winds are associated with large gusts and lulls causing
horizontal windshear. Solar heating of the ground can cause up and downdraughts.
TOPOGRAPHICAL WINDSHEAR
Natural or man made features affect the wind flow and can cause wi nds hear. The direction of fl ow
and wind speed determines the severity of the windshear, mountain waves being the best
example.
THE EFFECTS OF WINDSHEAR ON AN AIRCRAFT IN FLIGHT
In windshear the magnitude of the change of wind vector and the rate at which it happens
determine the severity. An aeroplane at 1000 ft agl may have a headwind component of 40 kt
with a surface headwind component of only of 20 kt on the runway. The 20 kt difference may
reduce evenly and the effect is negligible, or if the speed differential still exists at 300 ft the
change through further descent is marked. Windshear implies a narrow borderl ine and the 20 kt
of wind speed may well be lost over a small vertical distance.
~ ,
1
444 30 kt
lAS 130 kt
Groundspeed 100 kt
... 41<441-<141---1 0 kt
IAS110kt
Groundspeed 100 kt
As shown in the diagram, the loss of airspeed when passing through the shear line is sudden.
The inertia of the aircraft keeps it at its original ground speed of 100 kt and power is needed to
accelerate the aircraft back to its original air speed. This takes time and there is sinking, as lift is
lost. The headwind was a form of energy and when it dropped 20 kt , an equivalent amount of
energy loss occurred.
lAS 120 kt
Groundspeed 100 kt
' ... ~
1
10 kt
.... 4 .... 41<441---
lAS 140 kt
Groundspeed 100 kt
......
30 kt
The opposite effect happens when taking off. Assume a climb with a 10 kt headwind, which
changes to a 30 kt headwind. The target climb speed is 120 kt. The effect of a sudden transition
to a 20 kt increase of headwind increases the lAS by the same amount until the momentum of the
ground speed is lost. The aircraft climbs more rapidly with the added lift.
8- 14 Operati onal Procedures
SUMMARY
Effect of Windshear
lAS Effect
Headwind Increase Increase Climb
Headwind Decrease Decrease Descent
Tailwind Increase Decrease Descent
Tailwind Decrease Increase Climb
TECHNIQUES TO COUNTER THE EFFECTS OF WINDSHEAR
There is no international agreement for grading windshear. Always plan for the worst case
scenario. If the forecast calls for thunderstorms at the planned destination, then expect windshear
and give consideration to the following. Increase the airspeed on the approach. Rule of thumb
guidance include adding half the headwind component of the reported surface wind to VAT, or,
half the mean wind speed plus half the gust factor, in each case up to a maximum of 20 kt.
Where a sudden increase in airspeed occurs, the normal reaction to the rise above the gl idepath
is to reduce power to regain the glidepath. The pilot must be alert to the need to increase power
in good time to avoid dropping below the glidepath. In the later stages of an approach windshear
can be much more hazardous. A drop in the wind speed might bring about a very sudden drop in
airspeed with an increase in the rate of descent. A rapid and positive increase in power is
needed.
Vital actions to counter loss of airspeed caused by windshear near the ground:
Increase power to full go-around
Raise the nose to check descent (to stick shaker operation)
Co-ordinate power and pitch
Be prepared to carry out a missed approach rather than risk landing from a
destabilised approach
The technique for dealing with the effect of a microburst is as follows:
If an initial rise in airspeed and rise above the approach path occurs
Increase thrust to go-around power.
Select a pitch angle for a missed approach, typically about 15', and hold
it against turbulence and buffeting.
The increased airspeed and rate of climb may be rapidly lost. If the downdraught
strikes, airspeed may be lost and the aircraft may start to descend even with the high
power and pitch angle.
The most critical period is when the downdraught begins to change to increasing
tailwind. The rate of descent may decrease, but the airspeed may continue to fall.
If maximum thrust is already applied and there is a risk of striking the ground or an
obstacle, increase the pitch angle until feel ing the stick shaker.
Operati onal Procedures 8- 15
When there is an indefinite risk of windshear, it may be possible to use a longer runway or one
that points away from an area of potential threat. Rotating at a slightly hi gher speed may be
possible. The high power setting and high pitch angle after rotation put the aircraft an optimum
configuration should a microburst strike. In both approach and take-off cases.
Vital actions are:
Use the maximum power available as soon as possible.
Adopt a pitch angle of around 15' and try to hold that attitude. Do not chase
airspeed.
Be guided by stick shaker indications when holding or increasing pitch attitude,
easing the backpressure as required to attain and hold a slightly lower attitude.
Windshear warning can be provided in several ways:
Meteorological warning
ATS warning
Pilot warning
On board pre-encounter warning
On board encounter warning and/or guidance
WAKE TURBULENCE
AIRCRAFT WAKE VORTEX CHARACTERISTICS
Wake vortices are present behind every aircraft in
forward flight. They are most hazardous to aircraft
with a small wi ng span during the take-off, Initial
climb, final approach, and landing phase. The
characteristics of the wake vortex system generated
by an aircraft in flight are determined initially by the
aircraft's gross mass, wingspan, aircraft configuration,
and attitude. Two counter-rotating cylindrical air
masses trailing behind the aircraft make up the vortex
system in the wake of an aircraft.
The two vortices are separated by about three
quarters of the aircraft's wingspan. In still air, the
vortices tend to drift slowly downward and either level
off, usually not more than 1000 ft below the fiight path
of the aircraft, or, approaching the ground, move
sideways from the track of the generating aircraft at a height roughl y equal to half the aircraft's
wingspan. The tangential airspeed can be up to 300 ftlsec immediately behind a large aircraft.
This decays slowly with time.
Special Operational Procedures and Hazards
Wake vortex generation begins when the nose wheel lifts
off the runway on take-off and continues until the nose
wheel touches down on landing. Vortex strength
increases with the weight of the generating aircraft. With
the aircraft in a given configuration, the vortex strength
decreases with increasing aircraft speed, and for a given
weight and speed the vortex strength is greatest when
the aircraft is in a clean configuration. For a given wei ght
and speed, a helicopter produces a stronger vortex than
a fixed-wing aircraft. It is normal for aircraft to take off into
wind.
Chapter8
The wake vortex generated by an aircraft taking off drifts on the wind, and may be a hazard to an
aircraft taking off from a point on the same runway, short of where the first aircraft rotated. Cross
winds cause the vortex to drift sideways and may present a hazard to aircraft using adjacent
parallel or near parallel runways.
WAKE VORTEX AVOIDANCE - ADVICE TO PILOTS
Avoid the area 1000 ft below and behind a large aircraft.
The wake turbulence group of an aircraft should be indicated on the fli ght plan (Item 9) as H, M,
or L according to the ICAO specification.
Wake Turbulence Categories
Category Weight
Heavy (H) > 136000 kg
Medium (M) 7000 - 136 000 kg
Light (L) 7000 kg or less
WAKE TURBULENCE SPACING
ATC applies the following radar (distance) and procedural (time) separati on to counter the effect
of wake turbulence. Note that wake turbulence is not a problem where the foll owing aircraft is
above the preceding aircraft and separation of 1 minute can be achieved between successive
arriving aircraft.
Wake Turbulence Spacing Minima - Arrivals
Leading Aircraft Following Aircraft Spacing Minima Distance
Heavy Heavy 4nm
Heavy Medium 5nm
Heavy Light 6nm
Medium Heavy 3 nm
Medium Medium 3 nm
Medium Light 5nm
Light Heavy
.
3 nm
Light Medium 3nm
Light Light 3nm
Operati onal Procedures 8- 17

Apply the minima when operating behind another aircraft or when crossing the path of an aircraft
at the same altitude or 1000 ft below. Note in the table below, there is no allowance made for
aircraft of the same type. The standard ATC departure separation of 1 minute between take-offs
(minimum of 45
0
track divergence) covers this case.
Wake Turbulence Spacing Minima - Departures
Leading Aircraft Following Aircraft Minimum Spacing at the Time Aircraft are
Heavy Medium or li ght
Medium Light
Heavy Medium or light
Medium Light
Airborne
Departing from the
same posi tion
Departing from an
intermediate point on
the same runway
2 minutes
2 minutes
3 minutes
3 minutes
Differing categories
of aircraft can lead to
separation problems
on departure
WAKE TURBULENCE SPACING MINIMA - DISPLACED LANDING THRESHOLD
Use a spacing of two minutes between medium or light aircraft following a heavy aircraft, and light
ai rcraft following a medium aircraft when operating on a runway with a displaced threshold when:
A departing medium or light aircraft foll ows a heavy aircraft or a departing light
aircraft follows a medium aircraft
An arriving medium or li ght aircraft follows a heavy aircraft departure, or an arrivi ng
light aircraft follows a departing medium aircraft
Expecting the projected flight paths to cross
WAKE TURBULENCE SPACING MINIMA - OPPOSITE DIRECTION
A spacing of two minutes between a medium or light ai rcraft and a heavy ai rcraft, and between a
medium aircraft and a li ght aircraft whenever the heavier aircraft is making a low or missed
approach and the lighter aircraft is:
8-1 8
Taking-off on the same runway in the opposite direction
Landing on the same runway in the opposite direction
Landing on a parallel opposite direction runway separated by less than 760 m
Special Operational Procedures and Hazards Chapler8
WAKE TURBULENCE SPACING MINIMA - CROSSING AND PARALLEL RUNWAYS
When parallel runways separated by less than 760 m are in use, consider these runways as
single runways.
WAKE TURBULENCE SPACING MINIMA -INTERMEDIATE APPROACH
On intermediate approach, apply a minimum wake turbulence spacing of 5 nm between a heavy
and a medium or light aircraft following or crossing behind.
TRANSPORT OF DANGEROUS GOODS BY AIR
TERMINOLOGY
Terms used in this Subpart have the following meanings:
Acceptance Check List
A document used to assist in carrying out a check on the external appearance of
packages of dangerous goods and their associated documents to determine that all
appropriate requirements have been met.
Cargo Aircraft
Any aircraft which is carrying goods or property, but not passengers. In this context the
following are not considered to be passengers:
A crewmember
An operator's employee permitted by, and carried in accordance with the
instructions contained in the Operations Manual
An authorised representative of an Authority
A person with duties in respect of a particular shipment on board
Dangerous Goods Accident
An occurrence associated with and related to the transport of dangerous goods which
results in fatal or serious injury to a person or major property damage.
Dangerous Goods
Incident
An occurrence, other than
a dangerous goods
accident, associated with
and related to the transport
of dangerous goods, not
necessarily occurring on
board an aircraft, which
results in injury to a
person, property damage,
fire, breakage, spillage,
leakage of fluid or radiation
or other evidence of Oops ... incident or accident?
improper maintenance of the integrity of the packaging. Also considered a dangerous
goods incident is any occurrence relating to the transport of dangerous goods which
seriously jeopardises the aircraft or its occupants.
Operational Procedures 8-1 9
8-20
Dangerous Goods Transport Document
A document which is specified by the Technical Instructions. Completion of this document
is by the person who offers dangerous goods for air transport and contains information
about those dangerous goods. The document bears a signed declaration indicati ng that
the dangerous goods are full y and accuratel y described by their proper shipping names
and UN numbers (if assigned) and that they are correctly classified, packed, marked,
label led, and in a proper condi tion for transport.
Freight Container
A freight container is an article of transport
equipment for radioactive materials, designed to
facilitate the transport of such materials, either
packaged or unpackaged, by one or more modes
of transport.
NOT a recommended loading technique!
Handling Agent
An agency which performs on behalf of the operator some or all of the latter' s functions
including receiving, loading, unloading, transferring, or other processing of passengers or
cargo.
Over pack
An enclosure used by a single shipper to contai n one or more packages and to form one
handling unit for convenience of handling and stowage.
Package
The complete product of the packing operation consi sting of the packaging and its
contents prepared for transport.
Packaging
Receptacles and any other components or materials necessary for the receptacle to
perform its containment function and to ensure compl iance with the packing
requirements.
Operati onal Procedures
Proper Shipping Name
The name used to describe a particular article or substance in all shipping documents
and notifications and, where appropriate, on packaging.
Serious Injury
An injury sustained by a person in an accident and which:
Requires hospitali sation for more than 48 hours, commencing within seven days
from the date the injury was received; or
Results in a fracture of any bone (except simple fractures of fingers, toes or
nose); or
Involves lacerations which cause severe haemorrhage, nerve, muscle or tendon
damage; or
Involves injury to any internal organ; or
Involves second or third degree burns, or any burns affecting more than 5% of
the body surface; or
Involves verified exposure to infecti ous substances or injurious radiation.
State of Origin
The Authority in whose territory the dangerous goods were first loaded on an aircraft.
Technical Instructions
The latest effective edition of the Technical Instructions for the Safe Transport of
Dangerous Goods by Air (Doc 9284-AN/905), including the Supplement and any
Addendum, approved and published by decision of the Council of the International Civil
Aviation Organisation.
UN Number
The four-digit number assigned by the United Nations Committee of Experts on the
Transport of Dangerous Goods to identify a substance or a particular group of
substances.
Unit Load Device
Any type of aircraft container, aircraft pallet with a net, or aircraft pallet wi th a net over an
igloo. Note: An over pack is not incl uded in this definition. For a container containing
radioacti ve materials see the definition for freight contai ner.
Operati onal Procedures 8-21
Chapfer 8 Special Operational Procedures and Hazards
DANGEROUS GOODS CATEGORIES
Class 1 - Explosives
Class 2 - Compressed gases
Class 3 - Flammable liquids
Class 4 - Other fiammable hazards
Class 5 - Oxygen rich material, oxidisers, and organic peroxides
Class 6 - Material affecting health, poisons, and infectious substances
Class 7 - Radioactive material
Class 8 - Corrosive material
Class 9 - Miscellaneous hazards
REQUIREMENTS
An operator must comply with the provIsions contained in the Technical Instructions on all
occasions when carrying dangerous goods, irrespective of whether the fiight is wholly or partly
within or wholly outside the territory of a State. Articles and substances, otherwise classed as
dangerous goods, are excluded from the provisions of this Subpart, to the extent specified in the
Technical Instructi ons, provided:
1. They must be aboard the aeroplane in accordance with the relevant JARs or for
operating reasons.
2. They are carried as catering or cabin service supplies.
3. They are carried for use in fiight as veterinary aid or as a humane killer for an
animal.
4. They are carried for use in fiight for medical aid for a patient, if:
a. Gas cylinders were manufactured specifically for the purpose of containing
and transporting that particular gas.
b. Drugs, medicines, and other medical matter are under the control of trained
personnel during the time when they are in use in the aeroplane.
c. Equipment containing wet cell batteries is kept, and when necessary
secured, in an upright position to prevent spillage of the electroly1e.
d. Proper provision is made to stow and secure all the equipment during take-
off and landing and at all other times when deemed necessary by the
Commander in the interest of safety.
5. They are carried by passengers or crewmembers.
DANGEROUS GOODS ON AN AEROPLANE FOR OPERATING REASONS
Dangerous goods required on board an aeroplane in accordance with the relevant JARs or for
operating reasons, are those which are for the airworthiness of the aeroplane, the safe operation
of the aeroplane, or the health of passengers or crew. These incl ude: batteries, fire extinguishers,
first-aid kits, insecticides/air fresheners, life saving appliances, and portable oxygen supplies.
LOADING RESTRICTIONS
An operator shall ensure that dangerous goods are not carried in an aeroplane cabin occupied by
passengers or on the fiight deck, unless otherwise specified in the Technical Instructions.
CARGO COMPARTMENTS
An operator shall ensure that dangerous goods are loaded,
segregated, stowed, and secured on an aeroplane as specified in
the Technical Instructions.
PACKING AND LABELLING
Dangerous goods are to be clearly marked as such and the
packaging must be adequate. Details of labelling and packaging
are contained in the technical Instructions.
INFORMATION FOR PASSENGERS AND OTHER
PERSONS
Chapter8
An operator shall ensure the promulgation of informati on as
required by the Technical Instructions to warn passengers as to
the types of goods that they are forbidden from transporting The DCS cargo compartment
aboard an aeroplane, and ensure the provision of notices at acceptance points for cargo giving
information about the transport of dangerous goods.
INFORMATION TO CREWMEMBERS
An operator shall ensure the provision of information in the Operations Manual to enable
crewmembers to carry out their responsibilities concerni ng the transport of dangerous goods,
including the actions to be taken in the event of emergencies arising involving dangerous goods.
INFORMATION TO THE COMMANDER
An operator shall ensure the provisi on of the Commander with written information, as specified in
the Technical Instructions.
INFORMATION IN THE EVENT OF AN AEROPLANE INCIDENT OR
ACCIDENT
Both the operator and the Commander of an aeroplane involved in an aeroplane incident shall , on
request, provide any information required to minimise the hazards created by any dangerous
goods carried. If involved in an aeroplane accident the operator and/or the Commander is, as
soon as possible, to inform the appropriate authority of the State in which the aeroplane accident
occurred of any dangerous goods carried.
CONTAMINATED RUNWAYS
TERMINOLOGY
Terms used in this section have the following meaning:
Contaminated runway
A runway is considered to be contaminated when more than 25% of the runway surface
area (whether in isolated areas or not) withi n the required length and width used is
covered by the following:
}> Surface water more than 3 mm (0.125 in) deep, or by slush, or loose snow,
equivalent to more than 3 mm (0.125 i ~ of water;
}> Snow whi ch has been compressed into a solid mass which resists further
compression and holds together or breaks into lumps if picked up (compacted
snow); or
}> Ice, including wet ice.
Damp runway
A damp runway is where the surface is not dry, but the moisture on it does not give it a
shiny appearance.
Dry runway
A dry runway is one which is neither wet nor contaminated, and includes those paved
runways, specially prepared with grooves or porous pavement, and maintained to retai n
effectively dry braking action even when moisture is present.
Wet runway
A wet runway is a water covered surface, or equivalent, less than as defined in
'Contaminated runway' above or when there is sufficient moisture on the runway surface
to cause it to appear refiective, but without significant areas of standing water.
Contaminant Depth
If exceeding the following limits, then do not attempt a take-off:
J> Dry snow
J> Very dry snow
J> Water, slush or wet snow
>60mm
>80mm
> 15 mm
AQUAPLANING (HYDROPLANING)
Aquaplaning is the effect of the tyres of an aeroplane riding over water on the surface of a
runway. As the speed of the aeroplane on the ground increases a 'bow wave' of water builds up
in front of the tyre and eventually the tyre is lifted off the surface. This allows the lyre to slow, and
creates a fri ction boundary between the tyre and the surface of the runway. The heat generated
by the friction can cause the tyre to scald and the rubber to melt with the possibility of tyre
explosion. In any event, when a tyre is aquaplaning there is a loss of adhesion and thus loss of
directional control. This is not such a problem for normal take-off except in the case of a rejected
take-off. It is a major concern for aircraft landi ng on to a contaminated runway especially in a
cross wind condi ti on. Aquaplaning does not generall y begin at a speed less than the critical
speed given by the formula:
v = 9-,J P
Where: V is the groundspeed (kt)
P is the tyre pressure (Ib per in')
However, once hydroplaning starts, it continues to speeds well below the criti cal speed. There are
three types of hydroplaning:
8-24
Dynamic Hydroplaning
Dynamic hydroplaning is a condition where the tyre lifts completel y above the surface of
the runway. As little as 2.5 mm of water is sufficient to produce dynamic hydropl aning.
Viscous Hydroplaning
Viscous hydroplaning can occur at slower speeds and rather than the water lifting the tyre
from the pavement, the tyre slips on a thin film. This occurs on smooth runways.
Reverted Rubber (Steam) Hydroplaning
Hard braking during a rejecled takeoff or long landing may causes the brakes 10 lock,
although the maxaret units should act in the same manner as the ABS systems in cars. If
brake locking occurs on a wet runway, the tyre track area heats up due to fricti on causing
some of the rubber to revert back to a gummy state, trapping water. The water turns to
steam and steam pressure lifts the lyre from the runway.
STATIONARY TYRE
Studies show that a tyre that is not rotating does hydroplane at a lower speed than a rotating lyre.
NASA has evaluated the speed as 7.7 x ,JP. There is a question in the question bank concerning
non-rotating tyres.
RECOMMENDATIONS
It is nearl y impossible to land an aeroplane at a speed below the critical speed, but using the
following techniques can reduce the effects of hydroplaning:
Approach to land at the slowest airspeed consistent wi th safety; that is, use the short-field
landing technique.
Land firmly, rather than making the smooth, "greaser" type landing.
Lower the nose wheel to the surface as soon as the main wheels are firmly on the
surface.
Know the hydroplaning criti cal speed and avoid heavy braking above this speed.
Retract the flaps immediately after landing to place more weight on the tyres.
Divert to an alternate aerodrome when conditions indicate a potential hydroplaning
hazard on runways experiencing a strong crosswind.
Tyre Pressure Vs. Hydroplaning Speed
. Tyre Pressure Ibl Bar Hydroplaning Speed Knots
30 /2.0 49
50/3.45 64
100/5.5 90
150/10.35 110
200/13.8 127 (B737)
225/15.5 135 (B777)
If the surface is covered by a contaminant other than water, then divide P by the specific gravity
of the contaminant. Tyre configuration, treading, etc. , increase the speed at which aquaplaning
begins. Beware: there is a question in the exam where the given lyre pressure is in Bar. (1 Bar =
14.5 psi).
WHEEL BRAKING ON WET RUNWAYS
The retardation effect of an aircraft braking system relies on friction with the surface of the
runway. If the surface is not dry then the amount of friction is reduced. The reduction in friction
can be given in a factor known as the co-efficient of braking, defined by the value of friction of the
runway at an instant in time, determined by measurement, divided by the value of friction for the
same runway when dry. If the runway is dry, the coefficient of braking is 1. If not dry, the co-
efficient is less than 1.
All paved runways of 1200 m or longer require calibration for co-efficient of braking. When wet,
good braking action is possible to calculate.
RTF reports the presence of water on a runway as foll ows:
The surface is dry. Dry
Damp
Wet
The surface shows a change of colour due to moisture.
The surface is soaked, but no significant patches of standing water are
visible.
Water Patches
Flooded
INTERPRETATION
Significant patches of standing water are visible.
Extensi ve standing water is visible.
When a runway is reported as dry, damp, or wet, pilots may assume an acceptable level of
braking friction is present. Water patches or flooded means that braking may be affected by
hydroplaning and appropriate adjustments should be considered. Water patches will be reported
if at least 25% of the runway is affected.
When a runway is notified as slippery when wet, take-offs and landings in wet conditions should
only be considered if the distances equal or exceed the distances required for icy runways as
defined in the aircraft manual.
SNOW, SLUSH, OR ICE ON A RUNWAY
Whenever a runway is affected by snow, slush, or ice and it has not been possible to clear the
precipitant fully, assess the conditi on of the runway, and the friction coefficient measured.
The table below, with associated descriptive terms, was developed from friction data collected in
compacted snow and i ~ and should not be taken as absolute values appli cable in all condi tions.
Friction Co-efficient
Measured Coefficient Estimated Braking Action Code
OAO and above Good 5
0.39 to 0.36 Medi um to good 4
0.35 to 0.30 Medium 3
0.29 to 0.26 Medium to poor 2
0.25 and below Poor 1
If the surface is affected by snow or ice and the
braking action reported as "good", pilots should
not expect to find conditions as good as on a
clean dry runway (where the available friction
may well be greater than that needed in any
case). The val ue "good" is a comparative value
and is intended to mean that aeroplanes should
not experience directional control or braking
difficulties especially when landing.
BIRD HAZARD REDUCTION
Chapter8
Assess the bird strike hazard on, or near, an aerodrome, through the establishment of a national
procedure for recording and reporting bird strikes to aircraft, and the collection of information from
aircraft operations personnel on the presence of birds on or around the aerodrome. Report all bird
strikes. On aerodromes, the use of the following deters birds congregating in large flocks:
Long grass
Bird scaring techniques such as:
Pyrotechnics (most effective)
Bird distress calls
Rubbish tips or other equivalent waste areas attract birds. A bird generall y reacts to the proximity
of an aircraft within 3 seconds.
BIRD HAZARDS AND STRIKES
When a potential bird hazard is observed, the Commander immediately informs the local ATSU.
Where a bird strike occurs then a written bird strike report is submitted to the authority after
landing, if the aircraft sustains significant damage. If the Commander is unable to do this, then the
operator must submit the report.
IBIS
ICAO established a system to collect and disseminate information concerning bird strikes, known
as IBIS (ICAO Bird Strike Information System). Other sources of information include pilot reports,
NOTAMS, ground radar detections, and aerodromes VCR observations. Where specific
aerodromes are on migratory routes, local information may be broadcast on ATIS or a BIRDTAM
may be promulgated.
The damage resulting from a
bird strike can be significant.
NOISE ABATEMENT PROCEDURES
ICAO Document 8168 PANS-OPS details the information required for departure and approach
procedures regarding noise abatement. Aircraft are noisy and in the modern era where an airport
is close to a built-up area, designed procedures reduce the noise as much as possible.
The Operator must ensure the compliance of noise abatement procedures. In order to check
compliance, the authority positions noise monitoring stations along the required flight path and
operators must ensure that pilots fly over the stations during departures. Where special departure
procedures are designed, the MTOM may be limited in order to achieve the requirements of the
two noise abatement procedures.
Outlined below are two procedures. In the Los, there is reference to procedures A and B. These
were replaced in 2002 with the procedures (NADP 1 and 2) detailed below. Note, do not initiate
both procedures at less than 800 ft above aerodrome level. Noise abatement procedures in the
form of reduced power take-off should not be required in adverse operating conditions such as:
8-28
If the runway surface conditions are adversely affected (e.g. snow, slush, ice or other
contaminants)
When the horizontal visibility is less than 1.9 km (1 nm)
When the crosswind component, including gusts, exceeds 15 knots
When the tailwind component, including gusts, exceeds 5 knots
When wind shear has been reported or forecast
Thunderstorms are expected to affect the approach or departure
NOISE ABATEMENT DEPARTURE - PROCEDURE 1 (NADP 1)
The intention of this procedure is to provide noise reduction for noise sensitive areas in close
proximity to the departure end of the runway.
The procedure involves a power reduction at or above the prescribed minimum altitude and the
delay of fiap/slat retraction until attaining the prescribed maximum altitude.
3000 ft
800 ft
~ The initial climbing speed to the noise abatement initiation point is not less than V, +
10 knots
~ When at or above 800 ft above aerodrome elevation the engine powerlthrust is
adjusted in accordance with the noise abatement schedule in the aircraft operating
manual
~ A climb speed of V, plus 10 to 20 knots is maintained wi th the fiaps/slats in the take-
off position
~ At no more than 3000 ft above aerodrome elevation while maintaining a positive rate
of climb, the aircraft is accelerated and the fiaps/slats retracted
~ At 3000 ft above aerodrome elevation accelerate to enroute climb speed
Maintain positive rate of climb
Accelerate smoothly to enroute climb speed
At no more than 3000 ft, retract flaps/slats on
schedule
./
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~ - -
Climb at V, + 10 to 20 kt
Maintain reduced power
Maintain flaps/slats in the take-off configuration
# -' Initiate power reduction at or
~ ~ above 800 ft
~ - :
Take-off Thrust
V, + 10 to 20 kt (Or V, + 20 to 40 kmh)
Chapter 8 Special Operational Procedures alld Hazards
NOISE ABATEMENT DEPARTURE PROCEDURE 2 (NADP 2)
The design of this procedure is to all eviate noise distant from the aerodrome. The procedure
involves the initiation of the flap/slat retract ion on reaching the minimum prescribed altitude. While
maintaining a positive rate of climb, on schedule, retract the flaps/slats.
Perform the power reduction:
~ With the first flap/slat retraction
~ When the zero flap/slat configuration is attained
At the prescribed altitude, make the transition to normal enroute climb procedures.
The initial climbing speed to the noise abatement initi ation point is V, + 10 to 20 knots. On
reaching 800 ft above aerodrome elevation, decrease the body angle/angle of pitch while sti ll
maintaining a positive rate of climb. Accelerate the ai rcraft to V
ZF
and:
~ Reduce power with the initiation of the first flap/slat retraction, or
~ Reduce power after flap/slat retraction
Maintain a positive rate of climb and accelerate the aircraft to a climb speed of V'F plus 10 to 20
knots to 3000 ft above aerodrome elevation. Make the transition to normal enroute climb speed at
3000 ft .
3000 It
800 It
8-30
On reaching 3000 It transition smoothly
to enroute climb speed
Not before 800 It with a positive rate of climb accelerate to
V
ZF
and reduce power with the initiation of the first flap/slat
retraction
or
When flaps/slats are retracted with a positive rate of climb
reduce power and climb at V
ZF
+ 10 to 20 kt
: ~ p
~
~ ~
Take-off Thrust
V, +10t020kt
(Or V, + 20 to 40 kmh)
Chapter8
NOISE ABATEMENT ON APPROACH
For an approach, the aircraft is in a final landing configuration 5 nm from the threshold of the
landing runway, or after passing the outer marker if it is more than 5 nm from the threshold. For
landing there is no limitation on the use of reverse thrust. A displaced threshold is only used for
noise abatement if noise is sufficiently reduced and the runway distance is still sufficiently long for
the operations required.
The following conditions preclude the choice of runway to use with regard to noise abatement:
:-- If the runway is not clear and dry
:-- The cloud ceiling is 500 ft (150 m) for landing or the horizontal visibility is less
than 1.9 km for take-off or landing
:-- The cross wind component including gusts exceeds 15 knots
:-- The tail wind component including gusts exceeds 5 knots
:-- When windshear has been reported or is forecast
:-- When thunderstorms are expected to affect the approach or departure
STABILISED APPROACH
A method of reducing noise from approaching aircraft is to use a procedure known as stabilised
approach. This method requires the aircraft to adopt the required rate of descent (usually 300
ft/nm) from the IAF all the way to the threshold of the landing runway. The Approach Controller or
Approach Radar Controller requests the aircraft to fiy at a certain speed (usually about 210 kt)
and by accurate radar vectoring, the aircraft arrives at the outer marker or FAP at the glide path
height. This procedure allows the pilot to set the throttles, lift/drag enhancers, and gear at a very
early stage in the approach (in the case of Heathrow at FL70) and use attitude to adjust speed for
separation.
Page 9-6 Mr. Ashley Gibb.
OPERATIONAL APPROVAL AND AIRCRAFT SYSTEM
REQUIREMENTS FOR FLIGHT IN THE NAT MNPS AIRSPACE
INTRODUCTION
The reference for transoceanic fiight is the North Atlantic MNPS Airspace Operati ons Manual -
Ninth Edition. The North Atlantic Area (NAT) consists of fi ve oceanic FIRs, four of which are
known as Oceanic Control Areas (OCAs). These are Shanwick, Santa Maria, Gander, and New
York. The fifth is the Reykjavik Oceanic FIR. The ICAO Procedures for Oceanic and polar fiight
also apply to operations in the Bod0 and Sonderstrom OCAs. All of these FIRs are Class A
airspace from FL55 up to FL660. Below FL55, the airspace is class G.
Additional material relating to North Atlantic aircraft operations are in the followi ng documents:
.. ICAO Annexes
.. PANS/RAC (Doc.4444)
.. Regional Supplementary Procedures (Doc.7030)
.. State AlPs
.. Current NOT AMs
MINIMUM NAVIGATION PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATION AIRSPACE
(MNPSA)
Within the NAT region, part of the controlled airspace is further classified as airspace within whi ch
a minimum navigation performance is specified. This is to ensure that where aircraft are fi ying out
of the range of ground based radar and navigation aids, they can be navigated so as not to pose
a threat to the navigation of other aircraft. The vertical dimension of MNPS Airspace is between
FL285 and FL420; the cruising levels available are FL290 to FL410 inclusive. The lateral
dimensions include the following Control Areas (CTAs):
.. REYKJAVIK (to the North Pole)
.. SHANWICK AND GANDER OCEANIC
.. SANTA MARIA OCEANIC North of 27"N
.. NEW YORK OCEANIC North of 27N but excluding the area west of 60
0
W and
south of 3830'N
Chapter 9
9-2
NEWYQRK
so'W
GANDER
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
'
ww
MNPS AIRSPACE
Transoceanic and Polar Fliglll
Transoceanic and Polar Flight
Chapter 9
RVSM
RVSM applies within MNPS ai rspace. Ai r Law notes cover RVSM (reduced vertical separation
minima) in detail. Briefly, where applying RVSM, the vertical separation of aircraft remains at
1000 ft above FL300 rather than increasing to the standard 2000 ft in accordance with the rules of
the air. RVSM is appl ied between FL290 and FL410 inclusive.
ABBREVIATIONS
The foll owing abbreviations are for use in conjunction with subsequent chapters.
ACC Area Control Centre HMU Height Monitoring Unit
ADC Air Data Computer LRNS Long Range Navigation System
AFTN Aeronautical Fixed Telecommunication Network MASPS Minimum Aircraft System Performance Spec
AIC Aeronautical Information Circular MEL Minimum Equipment List
AlP Aeronautical Information Publication MNPS Minimum Navigation Performance Spec
AIS Aeronautical Information Service MTI Minimum Time Track
ARINC Aeronautical Radio Incorporated NAM North America
ASR Aviation Safety Report NAR North American Route
ATA Actual Time of Arrival NAT North Atlantic
ATM Air Traffic Management NAT SPG North Atlantic Systems Planning Group
AWPR Automatic Waypoint Reporting NDB Non Directional Beacon
BRNAV Basic Area Navigation nm Nautical Mile
CAR Caribbean OAC Oceanic Area ContrOl Centre
CDU Control Di splay Unit OCA Oceanic Control Area
CMA Central Monitoring Agency OTS Organised Track System
CTA Control Area PRM Preferred Route Message
DCPC Direct Controller/Pilot Communications PTS Polar Track Structure
DME Distance Measuring Equipment RA Resolution Advisory
DR Dead Reckoning RAIM Receiver-Autonomous Integrity Monitoring
ELT Emergency Locator Transmitter RMI Remote Magnetic Indicator
ETOPS Extended Range Twin-engine Aircraft Ops RNP Required Navigalion Performance
EUR Europe RVSM Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum
FDE Fault Detection and Exclusion SELCAL Selective Calling
FIR Flight Information Region SID Standard Instrument Departure
FL Flight Level SSB Single Sideband
FLAS Flight Level Allocation Scheme SSR Secondary Surveillance Radar
FMC Flight Management Computer SST Supersonic Transport
FMS Flight Management System TA Traffic Advisory
GLONASS Global Orbiting Navigation Satellite System TAS True Airspeed
GMU GPS (Height) Monitoring Unit TCAS Traffic Collision Avoidance System
GNE Gross Navigation Error TLS Target Level of Safety
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System TMI Track Message Identification
GP General Purpose WAH When Able Higher
GPS Global Positioning System WATRS West Atlantic Route System
Chapter 9 Transoceanic and Polar Flight
GENERAL
All flights in MNPS airspace must achieve the highest standards of horizontal and vertical
navigation performance and accuracy. Aircraft operating within MNPS Airspace must meet a
Minimum Navigation Performance Specification (MNPS) in the horizontal plane through the
mandatory carriage and use of a specified level of navigation equipment. Aircraft operating at
RVSM levels in NAT MNPS Airspace must be equipped with altimetry and height keeping
systems which meet RVSM Minimum Aircraft System Performance Specifications (MASPS). The
ultimate responsibility for checking that a NAT MNPS/RVSM flight has the necessary approval
rests with the Commander.
EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTERS (EL T)
Carry Emergency Locator Transmitters (ELTs) for flights over the NAT region. These beacons
must operate on frequency 406 MHz and have a 121 .5 MHz search and rescue homing
capability.
NAVIGATION REQUIREMENTS FOR UNRESTRICTED MNPS
AIRSPACE OPERATIONS
LONGITUDINAL NAVIGATION
The assessment of longitudinal separations between aircraft following the same track and
between aircraft on intersecting tracks in the NAT MNPS Airspace is by use of ATAs/ETAs at
common waypoints. The longitudinal separation minima currentl y used in the NAT MNPS
Airspace are expressed in clock minutes and the maintenance of in-trail separations is aided by
the application of the Mach Number Technique. Aircraft clock errors can result in waypoint ATA
reporting errors. The time-keeping device intended for use in indicating waypoint passing times
must be accurate, and synchronised to an acceptable UTC time signal before commencing flight
in MNPS Airspace. The pre-flight procedures for any NAT MNPS operation must include a UTC
time check and resynchronisation of the aircraft Master Clock.
LATERAL NAVIGATION
There are two navigational requirements for aircraft planning to operate in MNPS Airspace:
1. The necessary navigation performance achieved, in terms of accuracy.
2. The need to carry standby equipment with comparable performance characteristics.
For approval of unrestricted operation in the MNPS Airspace, an aircraft must be equipped wi th
two fully serviceable Long Range Navigation Systems (LRNSs). Each LRNS must be capable of
providing to the flight crew a continuous indication of the aircraft position relati ve to desired track.
A LRNS may be one of the following:
9-4
One Inertial Navigati on System (INS)
One Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)
One navigation system using the inputs from one or more Inertial Reference System
(IRS) or any other sensor system complying with the MNPS requirement
Transoceanic and Polar Flight Chapter 9
ROUTES FOR AIRCRAFT WITH ONLY ONE LRNS
A number of special routes have been developed for aircraft equipped with onl y one LRNS and
carrying normal short-range navigation equipment (VOR, DME, ADF). These routes are within
MNPS Airspace, and State approval must be obtained prior to fl ying along them. They are also
available for interim use by aircraft normally approved for unrestricted MN PS operations that
suffered a partial loss of navigation capability and have only a single remaining funct ional LRNS.
Detailed descriptions of the special routes known as Blue Spruce Routes are included later.
ROUTES FOR AIRCRAFT WITH SHORTRANGE NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT
ONLY
Aircraft equipped with only wit h short-range navigati on equi pment (VOR, DME, ADF) may
operate through MNPS Airspace, along routes G3 or G11 , wi th required State approval. It is the
responsibility of pilots with limited certi fication to reject clearances that would otherwise divert
them from officially permitted routes.
SPECIAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE PENETRATION OF MNPS AIRSPACE
BY NONMNPS APPROVED AIRCRAFT
The responsible ATC unit may clear an aircraft to cl imb/descend in MNPS Airspace provided the
completion of the climb or descent is within the coverage of selected VORIDMEs or NDBs and/or
within radar coverage of the ATC unit issuing the clearance and the ai rcraft is able to maintain
Direct Controller/Pilot Communications (DCPC) on VHF; and MNPS approved ai rcraft operating
in that part of the MNPS Airspace affected by any climb or descent are not penalised. Non-MNPS
Approved aircraft may also be cleared to climb or descend through MNPS Airspace for the sole
purpose of landing at or departing from an airport which underlies MNPS Airspace but which does
not have serviceable short range navaids, radar or DCPC. Details are in the AIS publications of
the appropriate ATS Provider State.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR OPERATIONS AT RVSM LEVELS
Embodied in the MASPS for RVSM flight operations is the minimum equipment standard. These
MASPS require:
Two full y serviceabl e independent primary altitude measurement systems
One automatic altitude-control system
One altitude-alerting device
ModeC
A functioning Mode C SSR Transponder is also requi red for flight through radar controll ed
RVSM transition airspace.
Altimeter Checks
When checking altimeters (pre-fli ght or in-flight), confirmation is necessary that all altitude
indications are within the tolerances specified in the ai rcraft operating manual. At least two
primary altimeters must at all times agree within plus or minus 200 ft .
Chapter 9
Independent pitot-static systems are
required for RVSM approval
Transoceanic and Polar Flight
DO NOT PLUG OR OEFORM HOLES
INDICATED AREA MUST BE KEPT
SMOOTH & C l E I ~
STATIC PORTS
SPECIAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR NON-RVSM APPROVED AIRCRAFT
CLIMB/DESCENT THROUGH RVSM LEVELS
MNPS approved aircraft not approved for RVSM operation are permitted to climb/descend
through RVSM levels to attain cruising levels above or below RVSM airspace. Flights have to
climb/descend continuously through the RVSM levels without stopping at any intermediate level
and should report leaving their current level and report reaching their cleared level.
OPERATION AT RVSM LEVELS
ATC may provide an altitude reservation for an MNPS approved aircraft that is not approved for
RVSM operation to fly at RVSM levels provided that the aircraft is on a delivery flight , was RVSM
approved but suffered an equipment failure and is returning to its base for repair and/or re-
approval, or is on a mercy or humanitarian flight.
Operators requiring an altitude reservation should contact the initial Oceanic Area Control Centre
(OAC), normally not more than 12 hours and not less than 4 hours prior to the intended departure
time. The altitude reservation approval should be clearly indicated in item 18 of the ICAO flight
plan.
GENERAL
North Atlantic (NAT) air traffic contributes to two major alternating flows:
1. A westbound flow departing Europe in the morning, and
2. An eastbound flow departing North America in the evening.
The effect is to concentrate the traffic at 30
o
W:
1. Peak westbound traffic occurring between 1130 UTC and 1800 UTC, and
2. Peak eastbound traffic occurring between 0100 UTC and 0800 UTC
Use of OTS tracks is not mandatory. Aircraft may fly on random routes which remain clear of the
OTS or may fly on any route that joins or leaves an outer track of the OTS. There is also nothing
to prevent an operator from planning a route which crosses the OTS. At and above FL55 the NAT
Region is Class A airspace and Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) apply at all times. Airspace
utilisation is achieved by the application of Mach Number Technique, and RVSM.
MACH NUMBER TECHNIQUE
DESCRIPTION OF TERMS
'Mach Number Technique' describes the technique where subsonic turbojet aircraft are cleared
by ATC to maintain appropriate Mach numbers for a portion of the enroute phase of their flight.
OBJECTIVE
The objective of the use of Mach Number Technique is to achieve improved utilisation of the
airspace on long route segments where ATC has no means other than position reports of
ensuring that the longitudinal separation between successive aircraft does not reduce below the
established minimum.
PROCEDURES IN NAT OCEANIC AIRSPACE
The ATC clearance includes the assigned Mach number to maintain. Information on the desired
Mach number is included in the flight plan for turbojet aircraft intending to fly in NAT oceanic
airspace. ATC uses Mach number together with pilot position reports to calculate estimated times
for significant points along track. These times provide the basis for longitudinal separation
between aircraft and for co-ordination with adjacent ATC units. Longitudinal separation between
successive aircraft flying a particular track at the same flight level starts from the oceanic entry
point. Following aircraft on the same track can be assigned different Mach numbers. These
ensure that prescribed separations are maintained throughout the oceanic crossing. Intervention
by ATC is only necessary if an aircraft requires a change to its Mach number due to conflicting
traffic or to change its flight level.
Chapter /0 The Organised Track System (OTS)
PROCEDURE AFTER LEAVING OCEANIC AIRSPACE
After leaving oceanic airspace pilots must maintain their assigned Mach number in domestic
controlled airspace until the appropriate ATC unit authorises a change.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE ORGANISED TRACK SYSTEM (OTS)
The appropriate OAC constructs the OTS after determining the minimum time tracks, taking into
consideration airlines preferred routes and airspace restrictions such as danger areas and military
airspace reservations. The night-time OTS is produced by Gander OAC and the daytime OTS by
Shanwick OAC (Prestwick).
THE NAT TRACK MESSAGE
The agreed OTS is published by means of the NAT Track Message via the AFTN to all interested
addressees. Time of publication of the Daytime OTS is 0000 UTC, and Night-time OTS is 1200
UTC.
NAT TRACK MESSAGE CONTENT
This message gives full details of the coordinates of the organised tracks as well as the flight
levels expected to be in use on each track. In most cases, there are also details of domestic entry
and exit routings associated with individual tracks:
1. In the westbound (daytime) system, the track most northerl y, at its point of origin, is
designated Track A (Alpha) and the next most northerl y track is designated Track B
(Bravo), etc.
2. In the eastbound (night-time) system, the most southerly track, at its point of origin, is
designated Track Z (Zulu) and the next most southerly track is designated Track Y
(Yankee), etc.
The originating OAC identifies each NAT Track Message, wi thin the Remarks section appended
to the end of the NAT Track message, by means of a 3-digit Track Message Identification (TMI)
number. Using the Julian calendar date on which that OTS is effective, the OTS effective on
February 1 st is identified by TMI 032. (The Julian calendar date is a simple progression of
numbered days without reference to months, with numbering starting from the first day of the
year.) Any subsequent NAT Track amendments affecting the entry/exit points, route of flight
(coordinates), or flight level allocation, for an OTS on a given day, include a successive
alphabetic character (i.e. 'A', then 'B', etc.) added to the end of the TMI number. Remarks may
vary periodically depending upon what important aspects of NAT operation Shanwick or Gander
wish to bring to the attention of operators such as clearance delivery frequency assignments; the
vertical extent of MNPS and RVSM Airspace, plus a warning on the occurrence of Gross
Navigational Errors (GNEs).
Note: A GNE is where the aircraft is more than 25 nm displaced from the all ocated track.
The Organised Track System (OTS) Chapter 10
PERIODS OF VALIDITY
The hours of validity of the two Organised Track Systems (OTS) are normall y as follows:
Daytime
Night-time
OTS 1130 UTC to 1800 UTC at 30
0
W
OTS 0100 UTC to 0800 UTC at 30
0
W
Changes to these times are negotiated between Gander and Shanwick OACs and the specific
hours of validity for each OTS are indicated in the NAT Track Message. For flight planning,
operators should take account of the times specified in the relevant NAT Track Message(s).
Oceanic airspace outside the published OTS is available, subject to application of the appropriate
separation criteria and NOTAM restrictions. It is possible to flight plan to join or leave an outer
track of the OTS.
OTS CHANGEOVER PERIOD
To ensure a smooth transition from night-time to daytime OTSs and vice-versa, a period of
several hours is used between the end of one system and the start of the next. These periods are
from 0801 UTC to 1129 UTC: and 1801 UTC to 0059 UTC.
During the changeover periods, imposed are some restrictions to flight planned routes and level s.
Eastbound and westbound aircraft operating during these periods should file flight level requests
in accordance with the Flight Level Allocation Scheme (FLAS) as published. The FLAS as
published in the AlPs applies only to the current phase of NAT RVSM operations. During these
times, there is often a need for clearances individually co-ordinated between OACs and cleared
flight levels may not be in accordance with that flight planned. If a flight is expected to be level
critical, operators should contact the initial OAC prior to filing the flight plan to ascertain the likely
availability of levels.
EXAMPLE OF A WESTBOUND NAT TRACK MESSAGE
(NAT-1I2 TRACKS FLS 310/390 INCLUSIVE
OCTOBER 8/1130Z TO OCTOBER 81 1800Z
PART ONE OF TWO PARTS-
A 59/10 61/20 61/30 61/40 61/50 60/60 CIMAT
EAST LVLS NIL
WEST L VLS 310 320 330 340 350 360 390
EUR RTS WEST NIL
NAR N464B N466B N468B N472B N474B
B 58/10 60/20 60/30 60/40 59/50 PRAWN YDP
EAST LVLS NIL
WEST LVLS 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390
EUR RTS WEST NIL
NAR N322B N328C N334B N336E N346A N348C N352C N356C N362B-
Chapter 10
C 57110 59/20 59/30 58/40 56/50 SCROD VAllE
EAST LVLS NIL
WEST LVLS 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390
EUR RTS WEST NIL
NAR N242B N248B N250C N252B-
D 56/10 58/20 58/30 57/40 55/50 OYSTR STEAM
EAST LVLS NIL
WEST L VLS 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390
EUR RTS WEST NIL
NAR N224C N228A N230B N232B-
(NAT-2/2 TRACKS FLS 310/390 INCLUSIVE
OCTOBER 8/1130Z TO OCTOBER 81 1800Z
PART TWO OF TWO PARTS-
E 55/ 1057/2057/3056/4054/50 CARPE REDBY
EAST LVLD NIL
WEST LVLS 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390
EUR RTS WEST NIL
NAR N204A N208A N210B
F MASIT 56/20 56/30 55/40 53/50 YAY
EAST LVLS NIL
WEST LVLS 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390
EUR RTS WEST VIA DEVOL
NAR N184B N188B N192B-
G 49/15 48/20 45/30 42/40 38/50 35/60 HENCH
EAST LVLS NIL
WEST L VLS 320 340 360
EUR RTS WEST VIA GUNSO
NAR NIL
REMARKS:
1. TRACK MESSAGE IDENTIFICATION NUMBER IS 281 AND OPERATORS ARE
REMINDED TO INCLUDE THE TMI NUMBER AS PART OF THE OCEANIC
CLEARANCE READ BACK
2. MNPS AIRSPACE EXTENDS FROM FL285 TO FL420. OPERATORS ARE REMINDED
THAT SPECIFIC MNPS APPROVAL IS REQUIRED TO FLY IN THIS AIRSPACE. IN
ADDITION, RVSM APPROVAL IS REQUIRED TO FLY BETWEEN FL310 AND FL390
INCLUSIVE
3. EIGHTY PERCENT OF GROSS NAVIGATION ERRORS OCCUR AFTER A REROUTE.
ALWAYS CARRY OUT WAYPOINT CROS,S CHECKS
END OF PART TWO OF TWO PARTS
10-4
EXAMPLE OF DAYTIME WESTBOUND ORGANISED TRACK SYSTEM
Chapter 10
EXAMPLE OF AN EASTBOUND NAT TRACK MESSAGE
(NAT-111 TRACKS FLS 3101390 INCLUSIVE
OCTOBER 91 0100Z TO OCTOBER 91 0800Z
PART ONE OF ONE PARTS-
W CYMON 51 /50 52/40 52/30 52/20 53/15 BURAK
EAST L VLS 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390
WEST LVLS NIL
EUR RTS WEST NIL
NAR N95B N97B-
X YQX 50/50 51 /40 51 /30 51 /20 52/15 DOLIP
EAST L VLS 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390
WEST LVLS NIL
EUR RTS WEST NIL
NAR N79B N83B-
Y VIXUN 49/50 50/40 50130 50/20 51 /15 GIPER
EAST L VLS 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390
WEST LVLS NIL
EUR RTS WEST NIL
NAR N63B N67B-
Z YVT 48150 49/40 49/30 49/20 50/15 KENUK
EAST LVLS 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390
WEST LVLS NIL
EUR RTS WEST NIL
NAR N53B N55A
REMARKS.
1. CLEARANCE DELIVERY FREQUENCY ASSIGNMENTS FOR AIRCRAFT
OPERATING FROM MOATT TO BOBTU INCLUSIVE:
LOACH AND NORTH
SCROD TO YAY
DOTTY TO YQX
VIXUN AND SOUTH
2. TRACK MESSAGE IDENTIFICATION 282.
128.7
135.45
135.05
119.425
REMINDED THAT MNPS APPROVAL IS REQUIRED TO FLY IN THIS
AIRSPACE. IN ADDITION, RVSM APPROVAL IS REQUIRED TO FLY
3. WITHIN THE NAT REGION BETWEEN FL310 AND FL390 INCLUSIVE.
PLEASE REFER TO CANADIAN NOTAM 980097 OR A3797.
4. 80 PERCENT OF GROSS NAVIGATION EF,{RORS OCCUR AFTER A
EROUTE. ALWAYS CARRY OUT WAYPOINT CROSS CHECKS.
END OF PART ONE OF ONE PART
EXAMPLE OF NIGHT-TIME EASTBOUND ORGANISED TRACK SYSTEM

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GENERAL
A Polar Track Structure (PTS) consists of 10 fixed tracks in Reykjavik, CTA, and 5 fixed tracks
through Bod", OCA. The PTS tracks through Bod", OCA are a continuation of the PTS tracks in
Reykjavik CTA. The routes are not mandatory. A recommendation for operators proposing to fl y
between Europe and Alaska from FL310 to FL390 inclusive is to submit flight plans in accordance
with one of the promulgated PTS tracks.
ABBREVIATED CLEARANCES
An abbreviated clearance may be issued to an aircraft to follow one of the polar tracks throughout
its flight. When an abbreviated clearance is issued it includes: the clearance limit, normall y the
destination airfield, the cleared track specified by the track code, the cleared flight level(s), and
the cleared Mach number (if required).
On receipt of an abbreviated clearance, the pilot must read back the contents of the clearance
message and, in addition, the full details of the track specified by the track code.
ABBREVIATED POSITION REPORTS
When operating on the PTS position reports may be abbreviated by replacing the normal latitude
co-ordinate with the word 'Polar' followed by the track code.
Example: "Position, Atlantic 422, Polar Romeo 20 West at 1620, Flight Level 330, Estimating
Polar Romeo 40 West at 1718, Polar Romeo 69 West Next"
Unless otherwise required by ATC, make a position report at the significant points listed in the
appropriate AI P for the relevant PTS track.
Chapter II
The Polar Track Structure (PTS)
POLAR TRACK STRUCTURE (PTS)
11 -2
GENERAL
The Organised Track System and the Polar Track Structure are the most significant route
structures within NAT MNPS Airspace. Other route structures within and adjacent to MNPS
Airspace are below.
OTHER ROUTES WITHIN NAT MNPS AIRSPACE
Other routes within NAT MNPS Airspace are:
A699 and A700 in the western part of the New York OCA;
*Blue Spruce Routes, are established as special routes for aircraft equipped wi th only
one serviceable LRNS. State approval for MNPS operations is required in order to fl y
along these routes;
Routes between Northern Europe and Spain/Canaries/Lisbon FIR. (T9*, T14 and T16);
*Routings between the Azores and the Portuguese mainland and between the Azores
and the Madeira Archipelago;
Special routes of short stage lengths where aircraft equipped with normal short-range
navigation equipment can meet the MNPS track-keeping criteria (G3 and G11 ). State
approval for MNPS operations is required in order to fly along these routes.
* Routes identified with an asterisk above may be flight planned and flown by approved aircraft
equipped with normal short-range navigation equipment (VOR, DME, AD F) and at least one
approved fully operational LRNS.
ROUTE STRUCTURES ADJACENT TO NAT MNPS AIRSPACE
IRISH/UK DOMESTIC ROUTE STRUCTURES
The UK AlP and AlP Ireland both specify the domestic routes used for westbound and eastbound
NAT traffic based upon entry points into and exit points from oceanic airspace.
NORTH AMERICAN ROUTES (NARS)
The North American Routes (NARs) consist of a numbered series of predetermined routes which
provide an interface between oceanic and domestic airspace. The design of the NAR System is
to accommodate major airports in North America. Published in the United States Airport/Facility
Directory - Northeast and the Canada Flight Supplement are full details of all NAR routings
together with associated procedures.
Chapler 12 Other Route and Route Structures Within or Adjacent/o NAT MNPS Airspace
ROUTES BETWEEN NORTH AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN AREA
An extensive network of routes linking points in the United States and Canada with Bermuda, the
Bahamas and the Caribbean area are defined in the New York OCA to the west of 60' W. This
network is known as the Western Atlantic Route System (WATRS). The United States AlP
contains the details of these routes and associated procedures.
SHANNON OCEANIC TRANSITION AREA (SOTA)
Part of the Shanwick OCA is designated as the Shannon Oceanic Transition Area (SOTA). The
purpose of the airspace is to allow aircraft to transition to and descend from oceanic levels and
domestic FIR/UIR levels. MNPS Airspace requirements are still applicable from FL285 to FL420.
SOTA has the same vertical extent as the Shanwick OCA, and is bounded by lines joining
successively the following points:
N5100 W01500 - N5100 W00800 - N4830 W00800 - N4900 W01500 - N5100 W01500
SHANNON ACC using the call sign SHANNON CONTROL provides air Traffi c Service. Full
details of the service provided and the procedures used are contained in AlP Ireland.
BREST OCEANIC TRANSITION AREA (BOTA)
Part of the Shanwick OCA is designated as the Brest Oceanic Transition Area (BOTA). MNPS
Airspace requirements are still applicable from FL285 to FL420. BOTA has the same vertical
extent as the Shanwick OCA, and is bounded by lines joining successively the following points:
N4834 W00845 - N4830 W00800 - N4500 W00800 - N4500 W00845 - N4834 W00845
The Brest ACC provides Air Traffic service, call sign BREST CONTROL.
12-2
Operat ional Procedures
PREFERRED ROUTE MESSAGES (PRMS)
Oceani c planners take into consideration operators' preferred routes in the construction of the
OTS. NAT operators should provide information regarding their proposed fiights and optimum
tracks during the peak traffic periods. The information should be provided as far in advance as
possible, but not later than:
1900 for the following daytime OTS and
1000 UTe for the followi ng night-time OTS.
FLIGHT PLAN REQUIREMENTS
All flights which generally route in an eastbound or westbound direction should normally be fiight
planned so that specified ten degrees of longitude (200W, 30
o
W, 40
o
W, etc.) are crossed at whole
degrees of latitude. Northbound or southbound flights should normall y be fiight planned so that
specified parallels of latitude spaced at fi ve degree intervals (65N, 60
o
N, 55N, etc.) are crossed
at whole degrees of longitude. All flights should plan to operate on great circle tracks j oining
successive significant waypoints. Routes outside of the OTS are referred to as random tracks.
ROUTINGS
During the hours of val idity of the OTS, operators are encouraged to fiight plan in accordance
with the OTS, along a route to join or leave an outer track of the OTS, or on a random route to
remain clear of the OTS. Outside of the OTS periods operators may fiight plan any random
routing, with the provi so that during the two hours prior to each OTS period the foll owing
restricti ons apply:
EastboundlWestbound flights that cross 30
0
W less than one hour pri or to the
incoming/pending OTS should plan to remain clear of the incoming/pending OTS
structure.
Any opposite direction flights crossing 30
0
W between one and two hours prior to the
incoming OTS where the route beyond 30
0
W coincides with the incoming/pending OTS
structure at any point, should plan to join an outer track at any point, or backtrack the
length of one of the incoming/pending tracks.
Chapter 13 Flight Planning/or NAT ROllles
FLIGHT LEVELS
Flight levels for use under RVSM are published in the UK and Canada AlPs, as the Flight Level
Allocation Scheme (FLAS). The FLAS as published in the AlPs applies only to the current phase
of NAT RVSM operations. Different flight level allocation schemes which apply when
implementing subsequent phases of RVSM operations are similarly published as and when these
new phases occur. During the OTS Periods (eastbound 0100-0800 UTC, westbound 1130-1800
UTC) aircraft intending to follow an OTS Track for its entire length may plan at any of the levels
as published for that track on the current daily OTS Message. Fl ights planned to remain entirel y
clear of the OTS or which join or leave an OTS Track (i.e. fol low an OTS track for only part of its
published length), are referred to as Random Flights. Pil ots intending to fl y on a random route or
outside the OTS time periods should normally plan flight level(s) appropriate to the direction of
flight.
APPROPRIATE DIRECTION LEVELS
These are specified by the Semi-circular Rule, ICAO Annex 2, Appendix 3 and NAT RVSM
implementation (FL290-FL410 inclusive). Appropriate Direction Eastbound levels are therefore:
FLs 270, 290, 310, 330, 350, 370, 390, 410 ,450, etc. , and appropriate Direction Westbound
levels are therefore FLs 260, 280, 320, 340, 360, 380, 430, 470, etc.
ATe FLIGHT PLANS
FILING
Submit flight plans as far in advance of departure as possible, for flights departing from points in
other regions and entering the NAT Region without intermediate stops.
APPROVED FLIGHTS
In order to signify that a flight is approved to operate in NAT MNPS Airspace the letter 'X' shall be
inserted, in addi tion to the letter'S', within item 10 of the flight plan. If the flight is approved to
operate at RVSM levels, include a 'W' in item 10.
MACH NUMBER AND SPEED
For turbojet aircraft the Mach number should be specified in item 15 of the flight plan. Item 15 of
the flight plan should reflect the proposed speeds in the following sequence:
1. Cruising True Airspeed (TAS)
2. Oceanic entry point and cruising Mach number
3. Oceanic landfall and cruising TAS
FLIGHTS PLANNING ON THE ORGANISED TRACK SYSTEM
If planning the flight to operate along the entire length of one of the organised tracks, the intended
track is used in item 15 of the flight plan using the abbreviation 'NAT' followed by the code letter
assigned to the track. If it is planned to use part of, or leave, an organised track at some
intermediate point, consider this a random route aircraft. Specify full route details in the flight plan
and the track letter must not be used to abbreviate any portion of the route in these
circumstances.
The planned Mach number and flight level for the organised track should be specifi ed at the last
domestic reporting point prior to oceanic airspace entry or the organised track commencement
point. Geographical co-ordinates in latitude and longitude or as a named waypoint must specify
each point at which a change of Mach number or flight level is planned. For flights operating
along the whole length of one of the organised tracks, estimates are only required for the
commencement poi nt of the track.
Flight Planning/or NAT Routes Chapter 13
FLIGHTS PLANNING ON RANDOM ROUTE SEGMENTS AT/OR SOUTH OF 700N
The requested Mach number and flight level should be specified at either the last domestic
reporting point prior to oceanic airspace entry or the OCA boundary. The route of flight should be
specified in terms of the following significant points, with estimates included in item 18 of the flight
plan:
The last domestic reporting point prior to the oceanic entry point;
The OCA boundary entry point (only required by the Shanwick, New York and Santa
Maria OACs);
Significant points formed by the intersection of half or whole degrees of latitude, with
meridians spaced at intervals of ten degrees of longitude from the Zero degree EIVV
(Greenwich) Meridian to longitude 700W;
The OCA boundary exit point (only required by the Shanwick, New York and Santa Maria
OACs); and
The first domestic reporting point after ocean exit.
Each point at which a change of Mach number or flight level is requested must be specified and
followed in each case by the next significant point.
FLIGHTS PLANNING ON A GENERALLY EASTBOUND OR WESTBOUND DIRECTION
ON RANDOM ROUTE SEGMENTS NORTH OF 700N
Flight planning requirements are identical to those listed for flights on random route segments
allor south of 700N except that the route should be specified at 20 longitude intervals at whole
degrees of latitude to 60
0
W.
FLIGHTS PLANNING ON RANDOM ROUTES IN A GENERALLY NORTHBOUND OR
SOUTHBOUND DIRECTION
Flight planning requirements for flights are identical to those listed for flights operating on random
route segments allor south of 700N except that the route should be specified in terms of whole
degrees of longitude with specified parallels of latitude which are spaced at 5intervals from 200N
to gOON.
FLIGHTS PLANNING ON THE POLAR TRACK STRUCTURE (PTS)
If the flight is planned to operate along the whole length of one of the Polar tracks, the intended
track should be defined in item 15 of the flight plan using the abbreviation 'PTS' followed by the
track code. Flights wishing to join or leave a polar track at some intermediate point are
considered as following a random route and full track details must be specified in the flight plan.
The track code must not be used to abbreviate any portion of the route in these circumstances.
Estimated times over significant points must be specified in item 18 of the flight plan. The
requested Mach number and flight level should be specified at the commencement point of the
PTS or at the NAT Oceanic boundary. Each point at which a Mach number or fli ght level change
is planned must be specified as geographical co-ordinates in latitude and longitude followed in
each case by the abbreviation 'PTS' and the track code.
FLIGHTS PLANNING TO OPERATE WITHOUT HF COMMUNICATIONS
The carriage of HF communications is mandatory for flight in the Shanwick OCA. Aircraft with
only functioning VHF communications equipment should plan their route outside the Shanwick
OCA and ensure that they remain within VHF coverage of appropriate ground stations throughout
the flight.
GENERAL
Oceanic Clearances are required for all flights within the NAT Airspace at or above FL55. Pilots
should request Oceanic Clearances from the ATC unit responsible for the first OCA within which
they wish to fly. The clearances are applicable only from the entry point. Pil ots should request
their Oceanic Clearance at least 40 minutes prior to the Oceanic entry point ETA and should
include the next preferred alternative if requesting an OTS track.
PERFORMANCE LIMITATION
When requesting an oceanic clearance, the pilot should notify the OAC of the maximum
acceptable flight level possible at the boundary. The aircraft must be wi thin radar coverage during
any climb. The pilot must notify the OAC of any required change to:
>- The oceanic flight planned level
>- Track
>- Mach number
CLEARANCE DELIVERY
Methods of obtaining Oceanic Clearances include:
>- Use of published VHF clearance delivery frequencies
>- By HF communications to the OAC through the appropriate radio station (at least 40
minutes before boundary/entry estimate)
>- A request via domestic or other A TC agencies
>- By data link when arrangements have been made with designated airlines to request
and receive clearances using on-board equipment
At some airports situated close to oceanic boundaries, pilots must obtain the Oceanic Clearance
before departure. They can do this either by contacting the OCA directly on the VHF frequency
published or via ATC.
CRITICAL FAILURE
If an aircraft has a critical in-flight equipment failure enroute to the NAT Oceanic Airspace or at
dispatch and is unable to meet the MEL requirements for RVSM or MNPS approval on the flight ,
the pilot must advise ATC at initial contact when requesting Oceanic Clearance.
ETA AT OCA BOUNDARY
After obtaining and reading back the clearance, the pilot should monitor the forward estimate for
oceanic entry and should pass a revised estimate to ATC if this changes by 3 minutes or more.
Chapter 14 Oceanic A TC Clearances
DIFFERENT ROUTE
If the cleared oceanic route differs from the ori gi nal request and/or the oceanic flight level differs
from the current flight level, the pil ot is responsible for obtaining the necessary domestic re-
clearance to ensure that the flight complies with its Oceanic Clearance when entering oceanic
airspace.
CLEARANCE ELEMENTS
There are three elements to an Oceanic Clearance:
:.- Route
:.- Mach number
:.- Flight level
These elements serve to provide for the three basic elements of separati on: lateral , longitudinal ,
and vertical. The Oceanic Clearance issued to each ai rcraft is at a specifi c flight level and cruise
Mach number. Do not make flight level or Mach number changes without prior ATC clearance.
CLEARANCE NOT RECEIVED
Prior to reaching the Shanwick OCA boundary, if pilots have not received their Oceanic
Clearance, they are to remain clear of Oceanic Airspace whil st awaiting the Clearance. This is not
the case for other NAT OCAs where flights may enter whilst pilots are awaiting receipt of a
delayed Oceanic Clearance.
Clearance Examples: An example of a pilot voice request for Oceanic Clearance is as follows:
"Atlantic 442 request Oceanic Clearance. Estimating 56N 010W at 1131. Request Mach decimal
eight zero, Flight Level three five zero, able Flight Level three six zero, second choice Track
Charlie."
If the request also includes a change to the original flight plan, affecting the OCA, then it should
be according to the following example:
"Atlantic 442 request Oceani c Clearance. Estimating 55N 010W at 1147. Request Mach decimal
eight zero, Flight Level three four zero. Now requesting Track Charlie, able Flight Level three six
zero, second choice Track Delta."
Oceanic ATe Clearances Chapler 14
CONTENTS OF CLEARANCES
An abbreviated clearance is issued by Air Traffic Services when clearing an aircraft to fl y along
the whole length of an Organised Track or along a Polar Track withi n the Reykjavik CTA and/or
Bode> OCA. When an abbreviated clearance is issued, it includes:
Clearance Limit, which is normall y the destination airfield
Cleared track specified as "Track" plus code letter or "Polar Track" plus code
identification
Cleared flight level(s)
Cleared Mach number
The phrase "SEND MET REPORTS" if the aircraft is designated to report MET information
enroute
Procedures exist for an abbreviated read back of an Oceanic Clearance issued on VHF. A typical
example of such a clearance is as follows:
"Atlantic 442 is cleared to Toronto via Track Bravo, from 56N 010W maintain Flight Level three
five zero, Mach decimal eight zero."
The flight crew confirms that they are in possession of the current NAT Track message by using
the TMI number in the read-back of the Oceanic Clearance, as follows:
"Atlantic 442 is cleared to Toronto via Track Bravo 283, from 56N 010W maintain Flight Level
three five zero, Mach decimal eight zero."
If the TMI number is included in the read-back, there is no requirement for the pilot to read back
the NAT Track coordinates even if the cleared NAT Track is not the one originally requested. If
any doubt exists as to the TMI or the NAT Track coordinates, the pilot should request the
complete track coordinates from the OAC. Similarly, if the pilot cannot correctly state the TMI , the
OAC reads the cleared NAT Track coordinates in full and requests a full read-back of those
coordinates.
OCEANIC CLEARANCES FOR FLIGHTS INTENDING TO OPERATE WITHIN THE NAT
REGION AND SUBSEQUENTLY ENTER THE EUR OR NAM REGIONS
Oceanic Clearances issued to most flights in this category are strategic clearances intended to
provide a safe separation for each flight from oceanic entry to oceanic track termination point. If
pilots receive a clearance on a track other than originally flight planned, they must check that the
landfall and domestic routings are fully understood.
OCEANIC CLEARANCES FOR RANDOM FLIGHTS INTENDING TO OPERATE WITHIN
THE NAT REGION AND SUBSEQUENTLY ENTER REGIONS OTHER THAN NAM OR
EUR
Oceanic Clearances issued to flights in this category are similar to domestic ATC clearances in
that clearances are to destination on the assumption that coordination is effected ahead of the
aircraft's passage. In this case, the flight profile may be changed enroute, prior to hand-over from
one centre to another, depending upon traffic conditions in the adjacent area.
n
Chapter 14 Oceanic ATC Clearances
OCEANIC FLIGHTS ORIGINATING FROM THE CAR OR SAM REGIONS AND ENTERING
NAT MNPS AIRSPACE VIA THE NEW YORK OCA
Pilots are reminded that Oceanic Clearances from the New York OAC do not need to be
requested until first contact with New York is established on HF frequencies. Note that Oceanic
Clearances are not required for entry to or transit of that portion of the New York OCA outside
MNPS Airspace.
ERRORS ASSOCIATED WITH OCEANIC CLEARANCES
Navigation errors associated wi th Oceanic Clearances fall into several categories. The most
significant are ATC System Loop errors and Waypoint Insertion errors.
WAYPOINT INSERTION ERRORS
Experience has shown that many of the 'track-keeping' errors that occur result from:
J;. Failure to observe the principles of checking waypoints to be inserted in the navigation
systems against the ATC cleared route
J;. Failure to load waypoint information carefully
J;. Failure to cross check on-board navigation systems
ATC SYSTEM LOOP ERROR
An ATC system loop error is any error caused by a misunderstanding between the pilot and the
controller regarding assigned FL, Mach number, or assigned route. Such errors can arise from
incorrect interpretation of oceanic clearances or re-clearances by pilots. Errors of this nature that
are detected by ATC from pilot position reports are normally corrected. However, timely
intervention cannot always be guaranteed especially as it may depend upon HF communication.
14-4 Operat ional Procedures
'J:Jpi:::( 15
:JfJ!J
(tifJY
HF COMMUNICATIONS
Most NAT air/ground communications are conducted on singte side-band HF frequencies.
VHF COMMUNICATIONS
The carriage of HF communications equipment is mandatory for flight in the Shanwick OCA.
Aircraft with only functioning VHF communications equipment should plan their route outside the
Shanwick OCA and ensure that they remain within VHF coverage of appropriate ground stations
throughout the fl ight.
TIME AND PLACE OF POSITION REPORTS
Unless otherwise requested by Air Traffic Control , position reports from flights on routes that are
not defined by designated reporting points should be made at the significant points li sted in the
flight plan. Air Traffic Control may require any flight operating in a north/south direction to report
its position at any intermediate parallel of latitude when necessary.
In requiring aircraft to report their position at intermediate points, ATC is guided by the
requirement to have position information at approximately hourly interval s and also by the need to
cater for varying types of aircraft and varying traffic and MET conditions. Pilots must always
report to ATC as soon as possible on reaching any new cruising level.
CONTENTS OF POSITION REPORTS
For flights outside the PTS and domestic ATS route network, express position in terms of latitude
and longitude except when flying over named reporting points.
For flights whose tracks are predominantly east or west, express latitude in degrees and minutes,
and longitude in degrees only.
For flights whose tracks are predominantly north or south, express latitude in degrees only, and
longitude in degrees and minutes.
All times should be expressed in four digits giving both the hour and the minutes UTC.
Chapler15 Communications and Position Reporting Procedures
STANDARD MESSAGE TYPES
Standard air/ground message types and formats are used within the NAT Region and are
published in State AlPs and Atlantic Orientation charts. To enable ground stations to process
messages in the shortest possible time, pilots should observe the following rules:
}> Use the correct type of message applicable to the data transmitted
}> State the message type in the contact call to the ground station or at the start of the
message
}> Adhere strictly to the sequence of information for the type of message
}> All times in any of the messages should be expressed in hrs and min UTC
Example Messages: The message types are shown below with examples:
POSITION
Example: "Position, Atlantic 442, 56 North 10 West at 1235, Flight Level 330, Estimating
56 North 20 West at 1310, 56 North 30 West Next"
REQUEST CLEARANCE
Example: "Request Clearance, Atlantic 442, 56 North 20 West at 1308, Flight Level 330,
Estimating 56 North 30 West at 1340, 56 North 40 West Next. Request Flight Level 350"
or if a position report is not required,
"Request Clearance, Atlantic 442, Request Flight Level 370"
REVISED ESTIMATE
Example: "Revised Estimate, Atlantic 442, 57 North 40 West at 0305"
ADDRESSING OF POSITION REPORTS
Position reports made by aircraft operating within an OCA at a distance of 60 nm or less from the
boundary with an adjacent OCA, including aircraft operating on tracks through successive points
on each boundary, should also be made to the ACC serving the adjacent OCA using the
message "Shanwick copy Santa Maria".
"WHEN ABLE HIGHER" (WAH) REPORTS
Prior notice to ATC of the time or position that a flight is able to accept the next higher level can
assist ATC in ensuring optimum use of available altitudes. These reports can also be used to help
plan the altitudes for flights as they transition from RVSM to conventional altitudes. All flights
entering the MNPS Airspace portion of the New York OCA and entering the Santa Maria OCA
must provide a WAH Report. Provision of WAH Reports on entering other NAT OCAs is optional
or any OAC may request them. When entering an oceanic FIR, pilots should include the time or
location that the flight is able to accept the next higher altitude in the initial position report. The
report may include more than one altitude if that information is available.
15-2
Example: "Atlantic 442, 40 North 40 West at 1010, Flight Level 350, Estimating 40 North
50 West at 1110, 40 North 60 West Next. Able Flight Level 360 at 1035, Able Flight Level
370 at 1145, Able Flight Level 390 at 1300"
Communications and Position Reporting Procedures Chapter 15
Information provided about the aircraft's future altitude ability is not automatically interpreted by
ATC as an advance request for a step climb. It is used as previously indicated to assist ATC in
planning airspace utilisation. However, should the pilot wish to register a request for one or more
future step climbs, this may be incorporated in the WAH report by appropriately substituting the
word "request" for the word "able. "
Example: "Atlantic 442, 42 North 40 West at 1215, Flight Level 330, Estimating 40 North
50 West at 1310, 38 North 60 West Next. Request Flight Level 340 at 1235, Able Flight
Level 350 at 1325, Request Flight Level 360 at 1415"
Although optimal use of the WAH reports is in conjunction wi th a Position Report, a WAH report
can be made or updated separately at any time.
Example: "Atlantic 442, Able Flight Level 360 at 1035, Request Flight Level 370 at 1145,
Able Flight Level 390 at 1300"
ATC acknowledgement of a WAH report (and any included requests) is NOT a clearance to
change altitude.
METEOROLOGICAL REPORTS
From among the aircraft intending to operate on the organised track system, OACs designate
those that are required to report routine meteorological observations at and midway between
each prescribed reporting point. The designation is made by the OAC when issuing the Oceanic
Clearance using the phrase "SEND MET REPORTS" and is normally made to designate one
aircraft per track at approximately hourly intervals. Pilots flying tracks partly or whol ly off the OTS
should include routine Met observations with every prescribed report . The midpoint observation
should be recorded and then transmitted at the next designated reporting point.
SELCAL
When using HF communications, pilots should maintain a listening watch on the assigned
frequency unless SELCAL is fitted, in which case they should ensure the following sequence of
actions:
1. Provision of the SELCAL code in the flight plan (any subsequent change of
aircraft for a flight requires passing the new SELCAL information to the OAC)
2. Checking the operation of the SELCAL equipment at or prior to entry into
Oceanic airspace with the appropriate radio station (This SELCAL check must be
completed prior to commencing SELCAL watch)
3. Maintenance thereafter of a SELCAL watch
GENERAL PURPOSE VHF COMMUNICATIONS (GPNHF)
Radio stations are also responsible for the operation of GPN HF outlets. It is important for the
pilot to appreciate that when using GPN HF communications, they are wi th a radio station and not
by direct contact with ATC. However, Direct Controller/Pilot Communications (DC PC) can be
arranged if necessary on some GPN HF frequencies.
15-3

Chapter 15 Communications and Position Reponing Procedures
DATA LINK COMMUNICATIONS
Data link communications are gradually being introduced into the NAT environment for position
reporting. Consult AIS publications of the NAT ATS Provider States to determine the extent of
their implementation and any associated procedures.
HF COMMUNICATIONS FAILURE
Each radio station continuously listens out on its appropriate family/families of NAT HF
frequencies. In the event of failure of HF communications, make every effort to relay position
reports through other aircraft. An air-to-air VHF frequency for the Region has been agreed upon.
When out of range of VHF ground stations on the same or adjacent frequencies, 123.45 MHz
may be used to relay position reports.
If necessary, initial contact for such relays can be established on 121 .5 MHz. Great care must be
exercised should this be necessary, as the frequency 121.5 MHz is monitored by al l aircraft
operating in the NAT Region in case aircraft experiencing emergencies are using it. Therefore, in
order to minimise unnecessary use of 121 .5 MHz, it is recommended that aircraft additionally
monitor 123.45 MHz when fiying through NAT airspace.
GENERAL
If so equipped, the pilot of an aircraft experiencing a two-way communications failure should
operate the SSR transponder on identity Mode A Code 7600 and Mode C. The pilot should
attempt to contact any ATC facility or another aircraft and inform them of the difficulty and request
they relay information to the ATC facility wi th whom communications are intended.
COMMUNICATIONS FAILURE PRIOR TO ENTERING NAT REGION
Due to the potential length of time in oceanic airspace, it is strongly recommended that a pilot
experiencing communications failure whilst still in domestic airspace does not enter the OCA but
adopts the procedure specified in the appropriate domestic AlP and lands at a suitable airport.
However, if the pilot elects to continue, one of the following procedures should be followed to
allow ATC to provide adequate separation:
1.
2.
15-4
If operating with a recei ved and acknowledged Oceanic Clearance, the pilot must
enter oceanic airspace at the cleared oceanic entry point, level , and speed and
proceed in accordance with the received and acknowledged Oceanic Clearance.
Any level or speed changes required to comply wi th the Oceanic Clearance must
be completed within the vicinity of the oceanic entry point.
If operating without a received and acknowledged Oceanic Clearance, the pilot
must enter oceanic airspace at the first oceanic entry point, level , and speed
contained in the filed fiight plan and proceed via the filed fiight plan route to
landfall. The initial oceanic level and speed must be maintained until landfall.
Communications and Position Reporting Procedures
COMMUNICATIONS FAILURE AFTER ENTERING NAT REGION
Two situations are considered:
If cleared on the filed flight plan route:
Chapter /5
The pilot must proceed in accordance with the last received and acknowledged Oceanic
Clearance, including level and speed, to the last specified oceanic route point (normall y landfall ),
then continue on the filed flight plan route. After passing the last specified oceani c route poi nt, the
fiight should conform to the relevant State procedures/regulations.
If cleared on other than the filed flight plan route
The pilot must proceed in accordance with the last recei ved and acknowledged Oceanic
Clearance, including level and speed, to the last specified oceanic route point (normally landfall ).
After passing this point, the pilot should conform with the relevant State procedures/regulati ons,
rejoining the filed fiight plan route by proceeding via the published ATS route structure where
possible to the next significant point contained in the filed flight plan.
PROCEDURE
Aircraft with a destination within the NAT Region should proceed to their clearance limit and
follow the ICAO standard procedure to commence descent from the appropriate designated
navigation aid serving the destination aerodrome at or as close as possible to the expected
approach time. Detailed procedures are promulgated in relevant State AlPs.
OPERATION OF TRANSPONDERS
Unless otherwise directed by ATC, pilots of aircraft equipped with SSR transponders fl ying in the
NAT FIRs operate transponders continuously in Mode N C Code 2000, however, the last
assigned code is retained for a period of 30 min after entry into NAT airspace.
Pilots should note that it is important to change from the last assigned domestic code to the Mode
NC Code 2000, since the original domestic code may not be recognised by the subsequent
Domestic Radar Service on exit from the oceanic airspace. This procedure does not affect the
use of the special purpose codes (7500, 7600, and 7700) in cases of unlawful interference, radio
failure, or emergency.
AIRBORNE COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEMS (ACAS)
Report all ACAS Resolution Advisories that occur in the NAT Region to the controlling authority
for the airspace involved.
15-5
FLIGHT OPERATION
IMPORTANCE OF ACCURATE TIME
The proper operation of a correctly functioning LRNS ensures that the aircraft follows its cleared
track. ATC applies standard separations between cleared tracks and assures the safe lateral
separation of aircraft. Longitudinal separations between subsequent aircraft following the same
track and between aircraft on intersecting tracks are assessed in terms of differences in
ETAs/ATAs at common waypoints. Aircraft clock errors resulting in position report time errors can
lead to a shortening of longitudinal separation between aircraft. Prior to entry into the NAT MNPS
Airspace, the time reference system used during the flight must be accurately synchronised to
UTC. The calculation of waypoint ETAs and the reporting of waypoint ATAs are referenced to this
system. Pre-flight procedures for any NAT MNPS fiight must include a UTC time check and
resynchronisation of the aircraft master clock. NAT ATS Provider States have promulgated lists of
acceptable time sources for this purpose.
The following are examples of acceptable time standards:
GPS (Corrected to UTC)
WWV-National Institute of Standards (NIST-Fort Collins, Colorado). WWV operates
continually H24 on 2500, 5000, 10000, 15000, and 20 000 kHz (AMISS B) and provides
UTC (voice) once every minute.
CHU-National Research Council (NRC-Ottawa, Canada). CHU operates continually H24
on 3330, 7335 and 14 670 kHz (SSB) and provides UTC (voice) once every minute
(English even minutes, French odd minutes).
BBC-British Broadcasting Corporation (United Kingdom). The BBC transmits on a
number of domestic and worldwide frequencies and transmits the Greenwich time signal
(referenced to UTC) once every hour on most frequencies, although there are some
exceptions.
THE USE OF THE MASTER DOCUMENT
Navigation procedures must include the use of a master working document to be used on the
fiight deck that lists sequentially the waypoints defining the route, track, and distance between
each waypoint and other information relevant to navigation along the cleared track. This
document may be based upon:
The flight plan
Navigation log
Other suitable documents
.
Chapter 16 MNPS Flight Operations and Navigation Procedures
Misuse of the Master Document can result in gross navi gation errors (GNEs - aircraft more than
25 nm off track). For this reason, establish strict procedures regarding its use. These procedures
should include the following:
,. The crew on the flight deck should use only one Master Document. However, this does
not preclude other crewmembers maintaining a separate flight log.
,. On INS equipped aircraft, the flight crew should establ ish a waypoint numberi ng
sequence from the outset of the flight and enter it on the Master Document. The identical
numbering sequence should be used for storing waypoints in the navigation computers.
,. For aircraft equipped with FMS databases, FMS generated or inserted waypoints shoul d
be carefully compared to Master Document waypoints and cross checked by both pilots.
,. An appropriate symbology should be adopted to indicate the status of each waypoi nt
listed on the Master Document.
GPS OPERATIONAL CONTROL RESTRICTIONS
Any predicted satellite outages that affect the capability of GPS navigation may require the
cancellation, delay, or re-routing of the flight.
EFFECTS OF SATELLITE AVAILABILITY
Gi ven suitable geometry, four appropriately configured satellites are requi red to determine
position, fi ve are required to detect the presence of a single faulty satellite; and six are required to
identify the faulty satellite and exclude it from the navigation solution. The number of satell ites
may be reduced if barometric aiding is used.
FLIGHT PLAN CHECK
The purpose of this check is to ensure complete compatibility between the data in the Master
Document and the calculated output from the navigation systems. Typical actions could include:
,. Checking the distance from the ramp position to the first waypoint
,. Selecting track waypoint 1 to waypoint 2 and doing the fol lowing:
,. Checking accuracy of the indicated distance against that in the Master Document
,. Checking, if possible, that the track displayed is the same in the Master
Document
,. Carrying out similar checks for subsequent pairs of waypoints and any
discrepancies between the Master Document and displayed data checked for
possible waypoint insertion errors.
,. When each leg of the flight has been checked in this manner, it should be annotated
on the Master Document.
IN FLIGHT PROCEDURES
During the initial part of the night, ground navaids should be used to verify the performance of the
LRNSs.
ATC OCEANIC CLEARANCE
Two flight crewmembers should listen to and record every ATC clearance. Any doubt should be
resol ved by requesting clarification from ATC.
16-2
Operat ional Procedures
MNPS Flight Operations and Navigation Procedures
NAVIGATION PROCEDURES
ENTERING THE MNPS AIRSPACE AND REACHING AN OCEANIC
WAYPOINT
When passing waypoints, carry out the following checks:
Chapter /6
Just prior to the waypoint, check the present position coordinates of each navigation
system against the cleared route in the Master Document.
Check the next two waypoints in each navigation system against the Master
Document.
At the waypoint, check the distance to the next waypoint. Confirm that the aircraft
turns in the correct direction and takes up a new heading and track appropriate to the
leg to the next waypoint.
Before transmitting the position report to ATC, veri fy the waypoint coordinates
against the Master Document and those in the steering navigation system. When
feasible, read the position report "next" and "next plus 1" waypoint coordi nates from
the CDU of the navigation system coupled to the autopilot.
APPROACHING LANDFALL
When the aircraft is within range of land-based navaids, and the crew is confident that these
navaids are providing reliable navigation information, they should consider updating the LRNSs.
AVOIDING CONFUSION BETWEEN MAGNETIC AND TRUE TRACK
REFERENCE
Crews who decide to check or update their LRNSs by reference to VORs should remember that
in the Canadian Northern Domestic Airspace, these may be oriented with reference to true north
rather than magnetic north.
NAVIGATION IN THE AREAS OF COMPASS UNRELIABILITY
In areas of compass unreliability, basic inertial navigation requires no special procedures, but
most operators feel it is desirable to retain an independent heading reference in case of system
failure (where the magnetic field is less than 6 microteslas).
Operational Procedure
16-3
Slkl J
INTRODUCTION
At high latitudes, magnetic compasses become unreliable due to the dip angle of the Earth's
magnetic field. Gyrocompasses and grid navigation techniques are one option to overcome this
problem. The other more common technique is to use an IRS based on a triple IN system, all
feeding data into an FMS. The volumes on Instrumentation and Radio Navigation cover this in
depth.
GRID AND PLOTTING ON A POLAR CHART
Where a straight line is drawn on a Polar Stereographic chart, it roughl y equates to a Great
Circle. To allow a constant straight-line course direction, a grid is superimposed upon the Polar
Stereographic chart normally aligned to the 0meridian. This grid is printed because the use of
true or magnetic references in Polar Regions is difficult due to the following:
:>- Magnetic variation changes rapidly over short distances.
:>- The magnetic compass becomes unreliable at latitudes greater than looN.
:>- The convergence of the meridians causes the course to change rapidl y.
Note: Other meridians may be used to reference the grid. The same principle applies.
Chapter J 7 Grid Navigation
The direction of the datum meridian is Grid North. Any course measured from this datum is
known as grid direction. In the diagram above, the gri d is al igned to the prime meridian. A line is
drawn between A (N85 W030) and B (N85 E030). The Grid Course equals the True Course when
the line passes through the O' meridian. Both True North and Grid North are the same:
Grid Course 270' True Course 270'
However, the true and grid courses differ at both A and B. By measurement, if transiting from
B to A:
Grid Course - 270' Grid Course - 270'
True Course - 300' True Course - 240'
The angular difference between the two is convergence:
}> Where True North is west of Grid North (B), convergence is westerl y.
}> Where True North is east of Grid North (A), convergence is easterl y.
The angular difference between the Grid North and True North is 30' . The angular difference
between the Reference Meridian (0' ) and Point A or Point B is 30' .
Foll owing a simple convention:
Convergence west - True best
Point B
Grid Course = True Course - 30'
Convergence east - True least
Poi nt A
Grid Course = True Course + 30'
True Bearing = Grid Bearing + Longitude West (- Longitude East)
The longitude refers to whether True North is to the west of Grid North or to the east.
Grid Navigation Chapter Ii
Ai rcraft Heading In the diagram below, the ai rcraft grid heading is given.
South
,
,
,
,
,
, '
,
,
,
South
1]'
180
0
EIW
~ ~
5
,
85
/
North
Pole
South ::::::l 090
0
W !-__.. .. O"_-f--
South
The Grid Headings are:
Ai rcraft 1
Aircraft 2
Aircraft 3
Aircraft 4
Aircraft 5
,
,
,
,
,
Grid 000
Grid 225
Grid 315
Gri d 000
Gri d 090
I
Grid
North
OOEfW
n
South
(270T)
(180T)
(000T)
(090T)
(270T)
Convergence Factor = ChLong x Sin Lat
Convergence Angle = Y, ChLong x Sin Lat
---- J
75
/
,
80
,
,
,
,
4
,
,
,
,
,
3
,
,
The foll owing are examples of the questions asked in the OP exam.
South
iJ'
135E
,
,
0 9 0 0 E ~ South
,
,
,
,
045E
~
South
1. On a polar stereographi c chart , with a grid referenced on the Greenwich meridian and
convergence of 1 DoW, true heading of 300, what is grid heading?
a. 290
b. 010'
c. 300'
d. 310'
Chapter 17 Grid Navigation
Answer: Convergence west - true best. True heading = 300, therefore Grid heading = 300 -10
= 290G = A
2. If the grid datum is 054W, position SooN 1400E and true heading of 330, what is the grid
heading?
a. 316
b. 276
c. 164
d. 136
Answer: Convergence is West (54W to 140E). At 140E, True North is to the West of Grid North,
hence convergence West. Convergence is 194W.
Convergence West - True Best, True Hdg = 330so Grid Hdg = 330 - 194 = 136= 0
GYROS AND INERTIAL SYSTEMS
The principles of operation of gyroscopes and their application to gyro-compasses and inertial
reference systems are detailed in Instrumentation.
PRECESSION
When an external force is applied a rotating body, the body moves as if the force had been
applied 90 further round in the direction of rotation. Therefore, any external force applied to a
free gyro produces a rotation at right angles to the force applied. If the body is not free to move, a
precession force is induced in the body. When a driver leans a racing motorcycle, the bike turns
in the direction of the lean due to the precession forces induced in the rotating wheels. The
precession force is proportional to the rate of rotation of the body.
PRECESSION
17-4
\
\

FORCE
LEAN TO THE LEFT - TURN TO THE LEFT
Precession of a Rotating Body
Grid Navigation
TYPES OF GYRO
SPACE (OR FREE) GYRO
Choplerr
This gyro has freedom to move in all three planes. It consists of two concentrical ly pivoted lings
called inner and outer gimbal rings. The three planes relate to the three axes of the aeroplane
(e.g. side to side or roll axis, lateral or pitch axis, and the normal or yaw axis). Furthermore, there
is no means of external control over this type of gyro, a feature which distinguishes it from a bed
or earth gyro. This type of gyro would have no practical use in an aeroplane instrument where
gyro is required to be set to and maintain a given direction.
TIED (OR DISPLACEMENT) GYRO
This type of gyro is basically a space gyro which has a means of external control and has
freedom of movement about all three planes. This type is used as a directional gyro (e.g. in the
Direction Indicator (01).
EARTH GYRO
This type of gyro is a lied gyro, where the controll ing force is the gravity of the Earth. This type is
used in gyro horizon or artificial horizon instruments.
RATE GYRO
This gyro has one plane of freedom only; its plane of rotation is 90
0
removed from its plane 0:
freedom. This type of gyro is used to measure the rate of turn, and employs restraining springs
(e.g. in the turn and balance indicator or turn co-ordinator).
RATE INTEGRATING GYRO
This type of gyro is similar to the rate gyro, having a single degree of freedom. However, uses
the viscosity of a fiuid (viscous restraint) to damp the precessional rotation about its output axis
instead of restraining springs. The main function of this type of gyro is to detect turning about
input axis by precessing about its output axis. Inertial navigation stablised platforms use this type
of gyro.
SOLID STATE (RING LASER) GYRO
These are not gyros in the true sense, but they behave like gyros and sense the angular rate of
motion about a single axis. They consist of a solid block of temperature stable glass within which
there is a cavity or laser path filled with a lasing medium, such as helium-neon. Some are
triangular in shape (Honeywell), whilst others have four sides (Litton). They both have sma
tunnels drilled in them, with refiecting mirrors sited at each corner. Two beams of high-energy
laser light are passed in opposite directions around the sealed cavity and initially travel at the
same speed.
Any rotation of the gyro in the plane of the laser results in a change in the path lengths of each
beam. The resultant frequency shift of the beams is measured using a control element. The
frequency differential is directly proportional to the angular turning rate.
GYRO WANDER
Any deviation of the gyro spin axis from its set direction is known as gyro wander, and is
classified as follows:
Real Wander
Any physical deviation of the gyro spin axis is called real wander. A gyro should not wander away
from its preset direction, but various forces act on the rotating mass of a gyro and cause to
precess, for example, the bearing friction that is always present at the spin axis. If thi s friction is
symmetrical, it merely slows down the rotor, but if it is asymmetrical , it causes the gyro to
Operational Procedures 17- -
precess. Similarly, any friction in the gimbal bearings causes the gyro to precess. Wear on the
gyro may result in movement of the C of G, which may also result in a precessing force. Such
errors are not constant or predictable, and cannot be calibrated for or corrections applied to nullify
this error.
Apparent Wander
In this case, the gyro spin axis does not physicall y wander away from its pre-set direction, but to
an observer, it appears to have changed its direction. This is because the gyro maintains its
direction with respect to a fixed point in space, whereas the observer rotates wi th the Earth. With
the passage of time, the gyro appears to have changed direction with reference to an Earth
datum.
Apparent wander is also made up of horizontal components called drift and vertical components
called topple. The rate of drift and topple depends upon the latitude and can vary from zero to a
maximum of 15.04per hour (the rate at which the Earth rotates).
Depending on whether a gyro has a vertical or horizontal spin axis, the rotation of the Earth also
has a different effect.
HORIZONTAL AXIS GYRO
The diagram below shows a horizontal spin axis gyro positioned at the North Pole.
D
18hrs
later
dir of
Earth's
rotation
C 12 hrs later
1
a ~ ~ ~ /-D-
1/
A
Gyro Drift
It shows an observer initially at position A, where the gyro is set so that its spin axis is directly in
line with the observer. Six hours later, the Earth having rotated through 90, the observer now
views the gyro from position B. The observer's own motion is not noticed, and the gyro spin axis
appears to have moved clockwise in the horizontal plane through 90. Twelve hours later, the
gyro spin axis appears to have moved through 180, and finally after twenty-four hours, with the
observer back in the original position, the gyro spin axis again appears as it was first aligned. The
apparent motion in the horizontal plane is known as gyro drift.
If a horizontal spin axis gyro has its axis aligned in a north/south direction along the equator,
during the Earth rotation, the gyro spin axis continues to remain aligned with the local meridian.
This occurs because all of the meridians are parallel to one another at the equator, and a gyro
aligned with a meridian remains with that meridian, over a 24-hour period. This means that the
gyros neither drift nor topple when aligned in this manner.
Grid Navigation Chapter 17
If the horizontal spin axis gyro is positioned at the poles, it drifts through 360' in 24 hours
(maximum drift) (i.e. the rate of drift at the poles is the same as the angular velocity of the Earth
at 15.04' per hour, whil st at the equator, the same gyro with its spin axis aligned with the local
meridi an has zero drift due to Earth rotation).
Drift at intermediate latitudes = 15.04' x Sin Latitude' per hour.
TRANSPORT WANDER
This is an additional form of apparent topple/drift, which principall y occurs when the gyro is
placed on a platform, such as an aeroplane that is fl yi ng in an east or west direction. The gyro is
now carried in space in the same way as the Earth and results in transport wander.
Transport drift = Rate of change of longitude' per hour x Sin latitude' per hour
Transport topple = Rate of change of longitude' per hour x Cos latitude' per hour
Transport Wander = (Ground Speed/60 x Tan Lat) Degrees/hr (-East; +West)
EXAMPLES OF GYRO WANDER
If a gyro with a horizontal spin axis is set with its axis aligned in an east/west di rection at latitude
45' N, the attitude of its spin axis will change as the Earth rotates. Since the gyro axis is aligned in
an east/west direction at an intermediate latitude, the gyro both drifts and topples.
After 3 hours, the change will be:
Drift = 15.04' Sin latitude' per hour = 3 x 15.04' x Sin 45' = 31 .9'
Topple = 15.04' Cos latitude' per hour = 3 x 15.04' x Cos 45' = 31.9'
Note: In the Northern Hemisphere, the gyro axis drifts clockwise. Drift is anti-clockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere.
The spin axis is aligned at 090' + 31.9' = 121 .9' / 301 .9' .
The eastern end of the spin axis appears to have ri sen by 31.9' from the horizontal, and the
western end is similarly depressed.
If the rate of change of longitude during a flight is 25' in one hour, at latitude 50' N, the amount of
transport drift present is:
Transport drift = Rate of change of longitude" per hour x Sin latitude' per hour
Transport drift = 25' x Sin 50' = 19.15'
The following are examples of likel y questions in the OP exam:
1. An aeroplane is at 60' N 01 OOE and is to fl y to 60' N 020
0
E. The fli ght time is 1 Y, hours in
still air. The gyro is set with the reference to true north and not corrected in fl ight for
precession. What is the required initial heading if a constant gyro heading is to be
maintained?
a. 080
0
b. 076
0
c. 066
0
d. 086
0
Answer: The formulae for earth rate drift and latitude nut corrections are identical. However, the
drift corrections are applied to the gyro in opposite senses. For example, in the Northern
Hemisphere, the indications of a 01 decrease over time due to the Earth's rotation. The idea of
the latitude nut is to counteract the earth rate drift so its effect is to increase the direction
indications over time. The latitude nut can be adjusted for corrections of earth rate drift in either
hemisphere. The formula is 15 x Sin of latitude.
For transport wander, the change in direction indication decreases for any transport in an easterly
direction in the Northern Hemisphere and increases for transport westerly. Note here that the
decreasing error is the same for Northern Hemisphere earth rate drift and easterly transport.
Remember that there is no transport wander when travelling directly North or South, but such
movement varies the amount of drift due to earth rate.
The formula is (groundspeed + 60) x Tan mean lat.
The trick is to arrange your work in a very methodical and logical manner. The following order of
calculations is suggested:
Earth Rate ER (This is apparent wander)
Lat nut LN (This is real wander but is cal ibrated to a known amount)
Transport TW (This is apparent wander)
Random RW (Random wander is real wander and cannot be calculated)
Now, apply the general explanation above to the specific question:
An aeroplane is at 60
0
N 010
0
E and is to fly to 60
0
N 0200E. The flight time is 1 Y, hours in still air.
The gyro is set with the reference to true north and not corrected in flight for precession. What is
the required initial heading if a constant gyro heading is to be maintained?
ER - The aircraft remains at 60
0
N for the duration of this flight, therefore:
15 x Sin 60 = 12.99decrease per hour, so 19.48in 1.5 hours.
LN - Not given
TW - The groundspeed is not given but departure is. 10long at 60
0
N = 300 nm.
So, GS is 200 kt. This speed is used in the TW formula.
200/60 x Tan Lat = 5.7r decrease per hour because flight is easterly. For 1.5 hours, the
decrease is 8.65.
RW - Not given or asked for.
The total expected drift is a 28.13decreasing. If a pilot followed a constant gyro heading with a
decreasing indication, the aircraft would track to the right of track, so the initial gyro heading
would be half the expected drift and applied to the left of intended track. Therefore, 090 less
14= 76.
2. You are at a latitude of 5957'N with a heading of 120showing on a gyro compass. You
experience a delay of 2hrs 30mins. What is the effect on your compass?
a. -18.5
b. 18.5
c. -32.5
d. 32.5
Answer: During the delay, the Earth rotates and the gyro is subject to Earth Rate Precession
over the period. This is: 15.04/hr x Sin Lat = 15.04 x 2.5 x 0.866 = 32.56 The rotation is easterly,
so the compass precesses by - 32.56 degrees. Answer C
GENERAL
;.J Ij jfJEJfj!)fJ
!)t rE)jJ!.Jt?J
The navigation systems fitted to MNPS approved aircraft are generally very accurate and very
reliable. GNEs in NAT MNPS Airspace are rare. For unrestricted operation in MNPS Airspace, an
approved aircraft must be equipped with a minimum of two fully serviceable LRNSs. MNPS
approved aircraft that have suffered any equipment failures that result in only a single LRNS
remaining serviceable may still be flight planned and flown through the MNPS Airspace but onl y
on specified routes established for this purpose.
Crew training and consequent approval for MNPS operations should include instruction on what
actions to consider in the event of navigation system failures.
DETECTION OF FAILURES
Normally, navigation installations include comparator and/or warning devices, but it is still
necessary for the crew to make frequent comparison checks. When an aircraft is fitted with three
independent systems, the identification of a defective system should be straightforward.
METHODS OF DETERMINING WHICH SYSTEM IS FAUL TV
With only two systems on board, identifying the defective unit can be difficult. If such a situati on
does arise in oceanic airspace, consider any or all of the following actions:
Check malfunction codes for indication of unserviceability.
Obtain a fix. It may be possible to use the following:
The weather radar (range marks and relative bearing lines) to determine the position
relative to an identifiable landmark such as an island
The AOF to obtain bearings from a suitable NOB
AVOR
Contact a nearby aircraft on VHF and compare information on spot wind or ground speed
and drift.
If such assistance is not available, as a last resort, compare the flight plan wind speed and
direction for the current DR position of the aircraft with that from navigation system outputs.
Chapter 18 Procedures in the Event a/Navigation System Degradation or Failure
GUIDANCE ON WHAT CONSTITUTES A FAILED SYSTEM
Operations or navigation manuals should include guidelines on how to decide when a navigation
system should be considered to have failed. If there is a difference greater than 15 nm between
two aircraft navigation systems, it is advisable to split the difference between the readings when
determining the aircraft's position. If the disparity exceeds 25 nm, one or more of the navigati on
systems should be regarded as havi ng failed.The pilot should notify ATC in this case.
GPS SATELLITE FAULT DETECTION OUTAGE
If the GPS recei ver displays an indication of a fault detection function outage (i.e. RAIM is not
available) , navigation integrity must be provided by comparing the GPS position with the position
indicated by another LRNS sensor. If the only sensor for the approved LRNS is GPS, then
comparison should be made wi th a position computed by extrapolating the last verified position
wi th ai rspeed, heading, and estimated winds. If the positions do not agree within 10 nm, the pilot
should adopt navigation system failure procedures until the exclusion function or navigation
integrity is regained, and should report degraded navigation capabil ity to ATC.
PARTIAL OR COMPLETE LOSS OF NAVIGATIONIFMS CAPABILITY BY AIRCRAFT
HAVING STATE APPROVAL FOR UNRESTRICTED OPERATIONS IN MNPS AIRSPACE
Some aircraft carry triplex equipment (3 LRNSs). If one system fail s, even before take-off, the two
basic requirements for MNPS Airspace operations may stil l be met and the flight can proceed
normally. The foll owing offers guidance for aircraft equi pped with only two operational LRNSs:
18-2
One System Fails Before Take-Off
The pilot should consider delaying departure if timely repair is possible or obtain a
clearance above or below MNPS Airspace. Another option is to plan on the special routes
known as the Blue Spruce Routes. Use of these routes is subject to sufficient navigation
capabil ity. To ensure that MNPS accuracy can be met by relying on short-range navaids,
the pilot files a revised fli ght plan with the appropriate ATS unit and obtains an
appropriate ATe clearance.
One System Fails Before the OCA Boundary is Reached
The pilot must consider landi ng at a suitable aerodrome before the boundary, or returning
to the aerodrome of departure, diverti ng via one of the special routes described
previously, or obtai ning a re-clearance above or below MNPS Airspace.
One System Fails After the OCA Boundary is Crossed
Once the ai rcraft has entered oceanic airspace, the pilot should normal ly conti nue to
operate the aircraft in accordance with the Oceanic Clearance already received,
appreciating that the reli ability of the total navigation system has been significantly
reduced. The pilot should, however, assess the prevailing circumstances in MNPS
Airspace, etc., and prepare a proposal to ATC wi th respect to the prevailing
circumstances; advise and consult wi th ATC as to the most suitable action, and obtain
appropriate re-clearance prior to any deviation from the last acknowledged Oceanic
Clearance.
Procedures in the Event a/Navigation System Degradation or Failure Chapter 18
MONITORING
When a flight with a nav system failure continues in accordance with its original clearance
(especially if the distance ahead within MNPS Airspace is significant), the pilot should begin a
careful monitoring programme to take special care in the operation of the remaining system,
bearing in mind that routine methods of error checking are no longer available. Also, check the
main and standby compass systems frequently against the information that is still avail able, and
check the performance record of the remaining equipment. If doubt arises regarding its
performance andlor reliability, consider the following procedures:
Attempt visual sighting of other aircraft or their contrails, which may provide a track
indication
Call the appropriate OAC for information on other aircraft adjacent to the aircraft's
estimated position andl or call on VHF to establish contact with such aircraft (preferabl y
same track/level) to obtain information from them that could be useful (e.g. drift,
groundspeed, wind details).
The Remaining System Fails after Entering MNPS Airspace
The pilot should:
Immediately notify ATC
Make best use of procedures specified above relating to attempti ng visual sightings and
establishing contact on VHF with adjacent aircraft for useful informat ion
Keep a special look-out for possible conflicting aircraft and make maxi mum use of
exterior lights
Consider climbing or descending 500 ft if instructions are not received from ATC within a
reasonable period. Broadcast the altitude change on 121.5 MHz and advi se ATC as soon
as possible.
This procedure also applies when the remaining system gives an indication of degradation of
performance or neither system fails completely, but the system indications diverge widely, and
the defective system cannot be determined.
COMPLETE FAILURE OF NAVIGATION SYSTEMS COMPUTER
A characteristic of the navigation computer system is that the computer element might fail and
deprive the aircraft of steering guidance and the indication of position relative to cleared track.
However, the basic outputs of the IRS (LAT/LONG, Drift, and Groundspeed) are not impaired. A
typical drill to minimise the effects of a total navigation computer system failure is suggested
below. It requires the carriage of a suitable plotting chart.
Draw the cleared route on a chart and extract mean true tracks between waypoints.
Use the basic IRS/GPS outputs to adjust heading to maintain mean track and to calculate
ETAs.
At intervals of not more than 15 minutes, plot position (LAT/LONG) on the chart and adjust
heading to regain track.
,. -
!'.J!i'!r - ( ( , ' iJ>1j!Jlih (J'J'!rr) E!Jf!J;Er:.JIJ (::!J; S!JPP;;
NORTH ATLANTIC (NAT) REGION
INTRODUCTION
The procedures below are supplementary to the previous NAT Manual concerning MNPS.
MNPS SPECIFICATIONS
Within MNPS the lateral track error of any aircraft is expected to be less than 6.3 nm and the
mean altimetry error to be no more than 80 ft. This applies to ali groups of aircraft. Where an
aircraft has a unique avionics system, the altimetry system error must not be more than 200 ft .
FLIGHT PLANNING
Flights are planned along Great Circle Routes.
SEPARATION OF AIRCRAFT
LATERAL SEPARATION
Minimum lateral separation is:
60 nm between MNPS aircraft
90 nm between aircraft outside MNPS airspace if one aircraft is not MNPS approved
120 nm between other aircraft
The above minima can be referenced to latitude as long as the track does not change latitude by:
3' at or south of 58' N
2' between 58' N and 70' N
l' at or North of 70' N
At or above 80' N, where l ' of latitude is exceeded, the track spacing expression must be in nm.
Chapter 19 Regional Supplementmy Procedures: North Atlantic (NAT) and European (Et"RJ
LONGITUDINAL SEPARATION
Minimum longitudinal separation is 10 minutes when using Mach Number Technique. The aircraft
concerned shoul d have reported over a common point and follow the same track. Where aircraft
have reported over a common point and the tracks diverge:
1 0 minute longitudi nal separation must occur at the point where tracks diverge.
5 minutes longitudinal separation must occur where 60 nm lateral separation occurs.
At least 60 nm lateral separation must occur before the next significant point, or, 90
minutes or within 600 nm of the common point, whichever is first.
If aircraft have not reported over a common point the use of radar may ensure the correct
separation.
If the leading aircraft is faster, then the separati on can be between 10 minutes to 5 minutes using
the following formulae:
Time
9 minutes
8 minutes
7 minutes
6 minutes
5 minutes
Lead Aircraft
M 0.02 faster than the foll owing aircraft
M 0.03 faster than the following ai rcraft
M 0.06 faster than the following aircraft
Separation by Mach number
For MNPS turbojet ai rcraft not covered by any of the above spacing, the minimum separation is
15 minutes.
WESTERN ATLANTIC ROUTE SYSTEM (WATRS)
The minimum longitudinal separation when turbo j et ai rcraft operate within the WATRS area or
west of 60' W are 10 minutes if usi ng Mach Number Technique and the aircraft is at or above
FL280. For non-turbojet ai rcraft the separation is 20 minutes.
OPERATIONS NOT MEETING THE MNPS AIRSPACE EXCEPT THE WATRS
Minimum longitudinal separation is:
19-2
15 minutes
1 0 minutes if the lead aircraft is M 0.03 faster than the following aircraft and radar can
guarantee the separati on
5 minutes if the lead aircraft is M 0.06 faster than the foll owing ai rcraft and radar can
guarantee the separation
Regional Supplementary Procedures: North Atlantic (NAT) and European (EUR)
EUROPEAN (EUR) REGION
SUBMISSION OF FLIGHT PLANS
Chapter 19
For flights subject to air traffic flow management (AFTM) submission must be at least 3 hours
before the estimated off blocks time (EOBT). A modification message must be transmitted for
changes to the EOBT of more than 15 minutes.
8.33 KHZ SPACING
8.33 KHz spacing is utilised in order to increase the frequencies available to aircraft. Where an
aircraft can comply with 8.33 KHz spacing, the letter Y is inserted in ITEM 10 of the flight plan.
Where an exemption has been granted, 'STSIEXM833' is placed in ITEM 18. All aircraft operating
above FL245 in the EUR region must be equipped with 8.33 KHz spacing.
SEPARATION OF AIRCRAFT
LONGITUDINAL SEPARATION
The minimum separation is 3 minutes, provided that the flight is continuously monitored by radar
and the distance between aircraft is never less than 20 nm.
TRANSFER OF RADAR CONTROL
Silent transfer of radar control may occur if the minimum distance between ai rcraft is 10 nm, SSR
is being used, and radar overlap is at least 30 nm. The distance can be reduced to 5 nm if the
ATC units have some electronic means of effecting the transfer.
Mach Number Control , as with NAT Mach Number Control, can be used in the EUR region. The
following conditions must apply:
Aircraft must fly the Mach number assigned
If the Mach number changes by more than M 0.01 ATC must be informed
Where required the Mach number should be included in posi tion reports
EMERGENCY AND PRECAUTIONARY LANDINGS
GENERAL
In extreme circumstances, it may become inevitable that further flight is neither desirable nor
practicable, forcing the Commander to make a decision to land as soon as possible. The
procedures for diversion to an alternate aerodrome have been covered in detail, but a situation
could force the aeroplane to land on unprepared land or the surface of the sea. In either event,
the procedures in the Operations Manual guide the actions of the pilots and crew. One point that
cannot be over-emphasised is that a decision to make such a landing must occur whilst the pilots
are still able to control the aeroplane.
DITCHING
Ditching is the process of landing an aeroplane on the surface of the sea. During the design
phase of the aeroplane construction, tests on computer and scale models occur in water tanks to
determine the ditching characteristics of the aeroplane. The effects are included in the ai rcraft
manual and pilots must be well briefed regarding the methods of ditching the aircraft during the
type rating course.
Statistically, 88% of ditchings result in few if any, injuries to crew and passengers. Unfortunately,
a much smaller percentage survives the ensuing 'survival' phase, with many deaths caused by
drowning after a successful ditching. Surviving the 'survival' phase is all about the speed of
rescue. This depends upon the accuracy and extent of the information conveyed to the ATC
authority by the crew during the run-up to the ditching.
PROCEDURE
Ditching is a controlled operation, with the aeroplane landing deliberately and smoothly (or as
smoothly as possible) on to the surface of the sea, not dropped onto the surface during a stall. It
is recommended to land the aircraft across the swell (using a crosswind landing technique). If the
wind speed is more than 35/40 kt, wave height may well exceed 10ft, making it more prudent to
land into the wind in this case. A Significant speed reduction and a definite nose up pitching
happens, which can cause high-G rotations leading to possible structural damage and injuries.
To minimise the risk of injury, everybody on board should be securely strapped into their seats
and those without shoulder restraint harnesses should adopt a position with the head as far
forward (ideally between the knees) and the hands clasped tightly behind the neck holding the
head forward. Life jackets should be donned before adopting the position. Cabin crew should
ensure that all loose articles are stowed and the seats are correctly positioned before securing
themselves.
After rapidly coming to rest, providing there is no catastrophic fuselage damage, the aeroplane
will float for a considerable time allowing an orderly evacuation via the over-wing exits into the life
rafts or dinghies. These should have been released from the in-wing stowages, but are still
tethered to the aeroplane.
Chapter 20 In-Flight Contingencies
PRECAUTIONARY LANDING
If the command decision is to divert to an enroute alternate, make a MAYDAY or PAN PAN call to
ATC. The Rules of the Air section of the Air Law notes, and the IFR and VFR Communications
notes cover the procedures for emergency communications. The ATC authority will activate the
alerting service and the regional RCC will be informed of the emergency. SAR assets are also
alerted. Preparations on the ground occur at the diversion aerodrome nominated to receive the
aeroplane. Because the diversion is unplanned, ATC makes every effort to route other traffic out
of the way of the aircraft in emergency, but compliance with ATC instructions regarding routing,
heights, and speeds must occur (without exacerbating the emergency situation).
The possibility that the situation could deteriorate rapidl y, requiring a forced landing or ditching
wi th little extra warning, is foremost in the minds of ATC personnel. Measures such as scrambling
long-range SAR aircraft and helicopters may appear some what 'over the top' at the time but such
preparatory action may be crucial to saving lives later.
Within the restrictions of the situations, a normal, controlled landing should be made as well as
can be achieved. Once on the ground, the Commander must make a decision whether or not to
move the aircraft off the landing runway or bring the aircraft to a stop and immediatel y evacuate
the passengers and crew. This will depend very much on the nature and severity of the
emergency situation. In any situation involving fire, all personnel must leave the aeroplane as
quickly as possible. The fire/rescue crew will attempt to control the fire until all personnel are
evacuated.
PASSENGER BRIEFING
In an emergency situation, fear becomes the main enemy. Even the most seasoned traveller and
the most experienced crewmember experience at least apprehension in an emergency. The
inexperienced may tend to panic, and the cabin crew should attempt to impose strict discipline to
overcome irrati onal behaviour, not only with regard to the passengers, but toward themselves as
wel l.
The most valuable weapon the crew has available is to keep the passengers informed of exactly
what is happening. This, together with skill and calmness, provides the passengers the
impression that the situation is totally under control , even if this is not exactly the case. Attention
to detail (stowing small loose items, removing rubbish, and assisting in donning life jackets, etc.)
reassures the passengers.
The flight crew should attempt to provide a virtual running commentary over the PA system. Thi s
further reassures and occupies the minds of the passengers. When the aeroplane is committed to
a course of action: crash landing, ditching, or precautionary landing, a comprehensive brief to the
cabin crew and passengers must happen. Thi s must include a strong statement as to the
authority of the cabin crew and an order from the Commander for the passengers to do as
instructed.
Cabin crew should re-brief the emergency procedures covered during the pre-takeoff stage.
EVACUATION
Once the aeroplane has come to a stop after the landing, rapid evacuation is essential to
preserve life. Fire is always a risk and the aim must be to get everybody as far away from the
aeroplane as possible. During the briefing, the location of exi ts and the route to the exits should
be reiterated.
Cabin crews will have trained in the procedures for evacuation, including strict discipline and firm
control, and the correct use of all the equipment provided to assist the evacuation. The Operator
is responsible for regular training sessions, and the drills to follow should be included in the
Operations manual.

In-Flight Contingencies
NORTH ATLANTIC PROCEDURES
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 20
The following procedures are intended for guidance only. Although all possible contingencies
cannot be covered, they provide for such cases as:
Inability to maintain assigned level due to weather (for example severe turbulence)
Aircraft performance problems
Pressurisation failure
They are appli cable primarily when rapid descent, turn-back, or diversion to an alternate
aerodrome is required. The pilot's j udgment determines the specific sequence of actions taken
regarding the prevailing circumstances.
GENERAL PROCEDURES
If an aircraft is unable to continue its flight in accordance with its ATC clearance, obtain a revised
clearance whenever possible, prior to initiati ng any action, using the radio telephony distress
(MAYDAY, MAYDAY, MAYDAY) signal or urgency (PAN PAN, PAN PAN, PAN PAN) signal as
appropriate.
If prior clearance cannot be obtained, obtain an ATC clearance at the earliest possible time. In
the meantime, the aircraft should broadcast its position (incl uding the ATS Route designator or
the Track Code as appropriate) and its intentions, at frequent intervals on 121 .5 MHz (with 123.45
MHz as a back-up frequency). Until a revised clearance is obtained, careful ly follow the specified
NAT in-flight contingency procedures. Fly the aircraft at a flight level andlor on a track where it is
least likely to encounter other aircraft. Make maximum use of aircraft li ghting and maintain a good
lookout. If the aircraft carries TCAS, use the displayed information to assist in sighting proximate
traffic.
SPECIAL PROCEDURES
The general concept of these NAT in-flight contingency procedures is, whenever operationally
feasible, to offset from the assigned route by 30 nm and climb or descend to a level which differs
from those normally used by 500 ft if below FL41 0 or by 1000 ft if above FL410.
INITIAL ACTION
The aircraft should leave its assigned route or track by initially turning 90" to the right or left.
Factors that may affect the direction of turn are:
Direction to an alternate airport
Terrain clearance
Levels allocated on adjacent routes or tracks
SUBSEQUENT ACTION
An ai rcraft that is able to maintain its assigned fl ight level should, once established on the offset
track:
Climb or descend 1000 ft if above FL41 0
Climb or descend 500 ft when below FL41 0
Climb 1000 ft or descend 500 ft if at FL41 0
Chapter 20 in-Flight Contingencies
An aircraft that is unable to maintain its assigned flight level should, whenever possible, minimise
its rate of descent while acquiring the 30 nm offset track; for the subsequent level flight , select a
flight level that differs from those normally used by 1000 ft if above FL410 or by 500 ft if below
FL410. .
If these contingency procedures are employed by a twin-engine aircraft as a result of the
shutdown of a power unit or the failure of a primary aircraft system the pilot should advise ATC as
soon as practicable of the situation, reminding ATC of the type of aircraft involved and requesting
expeditious handling.
WAKE TURBULENCE
Any pilot who experiences a wake turbulence incident when fiying in NAT MNPS Airspace or
within an adjacent RVSM transition area must report it. When fiying within NAT MNPS Airspace
(but not in adjacent domestic airspace RVSM transition areas), if necessary, the pilot may offset
from cleared track by up to a maximum of 2 nm (upwind) in order to alleviate the effects of wake
turbulence. The fiight crew should advise ATC of this action and the aircraft should be returned to
the cleared track as soon as the situation allows.
TCAS ALERTS AND WARNINGS
In the event that a Traffic Advisory (TA) is issued, commencement of a visual search for the
threat aircraft should occur and preparation made to respond to a Resolution Advisory (RA), if
one should follow. In the event that an RA is issued, initiate the required manoeuvre immediately.
Note that manoeuvres should never be made in a direction opposite to those required by the RA,
and that RAs should be disregarded only after positively identifying the potentially conflicting
traffic and it becomes evident that no deviation from the current flight path is needed. Report al l
RAs to ATC verbally, as soon as practicable; and in writing, to the Controlling Authority, after
landing.
Operational Procedures include the requirements for the issue of an Air Operator's Certificate (AOC), Flight
Operations and Planning, Low Visibility Operations, and Transoceanic Flight. A significant part of the volume covers
Special Operational Procedures and Hazards such as icing, fire, windshear, wake turbulence, pressurisation failure, and
the carriage of dangerous goods. Remember that this text is a study guide and is not to be used as an operational
reference as JAR OPS-l is a "living" document that is regularly amended.
Jeppesen and Atlantic Flight Training (AFT) have teamed to produce these ATPL training volumes. The philosophy of
both Jeppesen and AFT is to train pilots to fly, not to simply pass the exams.
Jeppesen was founded in 1934 by barnstormer and pioneer airmail pilot EIrey B. Jeppesen to provide accurate
airport and airway information to the growing aviation industry. Since then, the company has become the world
leader in navigation information and flight planning products. In the 1960s, Jeppesen emerged as the foremost
creator of stateoftheart flight training materials using the latest technologies. With offices in the United States,
the United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, China, and Russia, Jeppesen is committed to introducing a fully integrated
line of JAA training products.
Atlantic Flight Training, based at Coventry Airport U.K., is an independent Joint Aviation Authority approved Flight
Training Organisation for professional training from a Private Pilots Licence to an Airline Transport Pilots Licence,
including Multi Crew Co-operation and Crew Resource Management. AFT has over twenty years experience in
training Commercial Pilots, including the conversion of ICAO to JAA Licences, and specialises in full time and
distance learning ground school (Aeroplane and Helicopter).
We at Jeppesen and Atlantic Flight Training wish you the best in your flying career, and hope that our materials
contribute to your understanding, safety, and success.
=: .JEPPESEN ..
Jeppesen GmbH
Frankfurter Str. 233
63263 Neu-Isenburg, Germany
+4961025070
www.jeppesen.com
" Atlantic Flight Training Ltd
JA310114000

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