Revision Notes For P2

EXTENDED
MATHEMATICS
0580

REVISION

Compiled & Edited by:

Dr. Tayeb Abdul Rahman

First Edition
2011

www.drtayeb.tk
Dr. Tayeb www.drtayeb.tk 1
Revision Topic 3: Similar Shapes
Key Points to Remember:
* Shapes are similar if one shape is an enlargement of the other.
* When two shapes are similar, the corresponding sides are in proportion and corresponding
angles are equal.
* The scale factor of enlargement is the ratio:
shape first on side ing correspond of length
shape second on side a of length
.
Example 1: Simple example
The two trapezia below are similar. Find the values of x and y.
7.2 cm 10.08 cm
y cm
9.1 cm
13 cm
x cm
The first step is to find the scale factor of the enlargement. This can be found by dividing the length
of two corresponding sides. We can use the length of the two top sides to find the scale factor here.
So, s.f. = 4 . 1
2 . 7
08 . 10
.
The missing sides can be found by either multiplying or dividing by the scale factor.
To find x: Multiply 13 cm (the corresponding length on the first shape) by 1.4,
i.e. x = 13 1.4 = 18.2 cm.
[You check that this answer is reasonable as x is on the larger shape, x must be bigger than 13 cm]
To find y: Divide 9.1 cm (the corresponding length on the second shape) by 1.4,
i.e. y = 9.1 1.4 = 6.5 cm.
Examination-style question:
The two shapes (wxyz and WXYZ) are mathematically similar.
a) Calculate the length of XY.
b) Find the size of angle YXW (marked on the diagram)
w
x
y
z
W
X
Y
Z
8 cm
9 cm
4 cm
57
Similar Triangles
To show that two triangles are similar, you need to check that
Either they contain the same angles
Or corresponding lengths are in the same ratio.
Example 2: Similar triangles
Explain why the two triangles below are similar. Calculate the lengths marked a and b.
Both triangles contain the same three angles (namely 75, 70 and 35). Therefore they are similar.
First the shapes must be redrawn so that angles that are equal are in the same position.
The scale factor for the enlargement is 3.5 2.8 = 1.25
To find a: a = 1.75 1.25 = 1.4 cm.
To find b: b = 2.6 1.25 = 3.25 cm
75
a 2.6 cm
35
2.8 cm
3.5 cm
35
70
1.75 cm b
75
a 2.6 cm
70 35
2.8 cm
75
1.75 cm b
70 35
3.5 cm
Examination Question:
These triangles are similar.
They are not drawn
accurately.
Angle A equals angle X.
Angle B equals angle Y.
Calculate the length of XY.
State whether or not the triangles ABC and XYZ are similar. Show working to support
your answer.
[Hint: As there are no angles shown, to see whether the triangles are similar or not you will need to calculate the scale
factor based on each of the three pairs of corresponding sides if all the scale factors are identical then the triangles are
similar].
Example 3:
B
C
A
1.75
4.25
Y
X
Z
24.5
77
A
C
B
8 cm
6 cm
4 cm
Y
Z
X
3 cm
4 cm
6 cm
Show that triangles ABC and APQ are similar and calculate the length of AC and BP.
The triangles are similar if they contain the same angles. We can show this:
Angle A is common to both triangles ABC and APQ
Angle APQ = Angle ABC as they are corresponding angles (parallel lines)
Angle AQP = Angle ACB as they are corresponding angles.
So all three angles in the triangles are equal. So the triangles are parallel.
To calculate the lengths it is easiest to draw the two triangles separately:
Using the bases of the two triangles we see that the scale factor is 6 4 = 1.5.
So: AC = 3 1.5 = 4.5 cm
Likewise, AB = 2 1.5 = 3 cm. So BP = AB AP = 3cm 2cm = 1 cm.
In the diagram FG = 5.6 metres, EH = 3.5 metres and
DH = 15 metres.
EH is parallel to FG.
FED and DHG are straight lines.
a) Explain why triangles DEH and DFG are similar.
b) Calculate the length of DG and GH.
A
2cm 3cm
P 4cm Q
A
B 6cm C
A
C B
P Q
3 cm 2 cm
4 cm
6 cm
PQ and BC are parallel
lines.
G
F
E D
H
5.6 m
3.5 m
15 m
X
3cm
C 4 cm D
Example 4:
AB and CD are parallel lines.
AD and BC meet at X.
a) Prove that triangles ABX and DCX are similar.
b) Which side in triangle DCX corresponds to AX in triangle ABX?
c) Calculate the length of AX.
a) To show the triangles are similar we need to show
they contain the same angles:
Angle AXB = Angle CXD (vertically opposite angles)
Angle BAX = Angle XDC (alternate angles)
So the third angles in each triangle must also be equal, i.e. Angle ABX = Angle XCD.
Therefore the triangles are similar.
b) It is simplest to now redraw the two triangles so that they are the same way up and with
equal angles in corresponding positions:
We see that AX corresponds to DX.
c) The scale factor is 5 4 = 1.25
So AX = 3 1.25 = 3.75 cm.
AB is parallel to CD.
Lines AD and BC intersect at point O.
AB = 11 cm. AO = 8 cm. OD = 6 cm.
Calculate the length of CD.
X
B 5 cm A
X
A
B
5cm
C
D
3cm
4cm
C
D
A B
11cm
8cm
6cm
O
Dr Tayeb www.drtayeb.tk 1
Revision Topic 4: Percentages
Percentages Multipliers
The multiplier for an increase of 6% is 1.06 (100% + 6% = 106% or 1.06).
To increase an amount by 6%, multiply it by 10.06.
The multiplier for a decrease of 12% is 0.88 (100% - 12% = 88% or 0.88).
To decrease an amount by 12%, multiply it by 0.88.
For repeated percentage changes, multiply all the multipliers in turn.
Example:
A fast food restaurant decided to decrease by 18% the weight of packaging for their regular meals,
which weighed 40 grams. Calculate the weight of the new packaging.
Method 1: Non-calculator paper
Find 18% of 40g: 10% of 40g = 4g
1% of 40g = 0.4g So 8% of 40g = 3.2g
So 18% of 40g = 4 + 3.2 = 7.2g
So new packaging would weigh 40 7.2 = 32.8g
Method 2: Calculator paper (Multipliers)
To decrease by 18%, the multiplier is 0.82 (100% - 18% = 82%).
So new weight is 0.82 40 = 32.8g
Example 2:
A manufacturer buys a machine for 56800. The machine is expected to depreciate by 12% in the
first year and by 8.5% each future year. What will be the expected value of the machine after 5
years to the nearest 1?
Note: Depreciate means to lose value.
The multiplier for a decrease of 12% is 0.88.
The multiplier for a decrease of 8.5% is 0.915 (as 100% - 8.5% = 91.5% or 0.915).
So value of machine after 5 years is
35036 915 . 0 88 . 0 56800 0.915 0.915 0.915 0.915 0.88 56800
4
years 5th and 4th 3rd, 2nd, for s multiplier
= =
4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 2 1
(to nearest 1)
Examination Question
A shop is having a sale. Each day, prices are reduced by 20% of the price on the previous day.
Before the start of the sale, the price of a television is 450.
On the first day of the sale, the price is reduced by 20%.
Work out the price of the television on
a) the first day of the sale
b) the third day of the sale.
A car was bought for 7600. It depreciated in value by 25% each year. What was the value of the
car after 3 years?
Percentage Change
You need to know the following formulae
100
amount Original
decrease) (or Increase
decrease) (or increase Percentage =
100
price Cost
loss) (or Profit
loss) (or profit Percentage =
Example:
In 1990 a charity sold 2 million lottery tickets at 25p each. 80% of the money was kept by the
charity.
a) Calculate the amount of money kept by the charity.
In 1991, the price of a lottery ticket fell by 20%.
Sales of lottery tickets increased by 20%.
80% of the money obtained was kept by the charity.
b) Calculate the percentage change in the amount of money kept by the charity.
a) Money made by selling tickets = 2 million 25p = 562500
Money kept by charity = 80% of 562500 = 0.8 562500 = 450000.
b) In 1991 price of ticket = 80% of old price = 80% of 25p = 20p
In 1991, sales of lottery tickets = 120% of 1990 sales
= 2700000 2250000
100
120
=
In 1991, money made by selling tickets = 2700000 20p = 540000
So amount to charity is 0.8 540000 = 432000
Therefore:
% 4 100
450000
432000 450000
100
amount Original
decrease
decrease Percentage =
= = .
Examination Style Question:
Del boy Rotter buys an old cottage for 84000. He spends 10400 on repairs and renovation then
sells the cottage for 149000. Find his percentage profit to the nearest 1%.
Percentages- Compound Interest
Compound interest is interest paid on an amount and on the interest already received on that
amount.
You can solve compound interest questions using the formula:
A =
n
R
P
|
.
|
\
|
+
100
1
where: P is the amount invested initially;
R is the rate of interest (percentage per year)
n is the number of years invested;
A is the amount in the account at the end.
Example:
A building society pays compound interest at a fixed rate of 7% per annum. If 480 is invested in
an account, what will be the value of the account after 3 years?
Method 1:
In first year: Interest paid is 7% of 480 = 0.07 480 = 33.60
So balance at end of 1
st
year is 480 + 33.60 = 513.60.
In second year: Interest paid is 7% of 513.60 = 0.07 513.60 = 35.952
nd
year is 513.60 + 35.952 = 549.552
In third year: Interest paid is 7% of 549.552 = 38.46864
rd
year is 549.552 + 38.46864 = 588.02 (to nearest 1p)
Method 2: Use of formula
After 3 years balance would be A = 02 . 588 07 . 1 480
100
7
1 480
100
1
3
3
= =
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
+
n
R
P .
Note: Sometimes you are asked for the total amount of interest that has been received. You get this
by subtracting the initial amount invested from the final balance. Here the total interest received is
588.02 480 = 108.02.
Example:
Tony invests 500 in a bank account that pays 4% (compound) interest p.a. By what single number
must 500 be multiplied by to get the amount in the account after 5 years?
The amount invested after 5 years is
5
100
4
1 500
100
1
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
+
n
R
P .
So the required multiplier is (1.04)
5
= 1.21665 (to 5 decimal places).
500 is invested for 2 years at 6% per annum compound interest.
a Work out the total interest earned over the two years.
250 is invested for three years at 7% per annum compound interest.
b By what single number must 250 be multiplied to obtain the total amount at the end of the 3
years?
Nesta invests 508 in a bank account paying compound interest at a rate of 10% per annum.
Calculate the total amount in Nestas bank account after 2 years.
Reverse Percentage Questions
Calculating the original value of something before an increase or decrease took place is called
calculating a reverse percentage.
Example 1:
Ella bought a pair of climbing boots for 45.60 in a sale that gave 20% off. What was the non-
sale price of the boots.
Let the original price of the boots be 100%. The sale price then is 80%.
So 80% of the price = 45.60
So 1% of the price = 45.60 80 = 0.57
So 100% of the price = 0.57 100 = 57.
So the non-sale price of the boots was 57.
Examination Question 1:
A clothes shop has a sale. All the original prices are reduced by 24% to give the sale price.
The sale price of a jacket is 36.86.
Work out the original price of the jacket.
In a sale all prices are reduced by 16%. Alan buys a shaver in the sale for 21.
How much does he save by buying it in the sale?
[Hint: First work out the price before the sale]
Example 2:
The total price of a bike (including VAT at 17.5%) is 146.85.
Calculate the cost of the bike excluding VAT.
Let the cost of the bike before VAT be 100%. Then the cost including VAT would be 117.5%.
So 117.5% = 146.85.
Then 1% = 146.85 117.5 = 1.249787
So 100% = 1.249787 100 = 124.98 (to nearest 1p).
So the cost of the bike excluding VAT is 124.98.
The price of a new television is 423. This price includes Value Added Tax (VAT) at 17.5%.
a) Work out the cost of the television before VAT was added.
By the end of each year, the value of a television has fallen by 12% of its value at the start of that
year. The value of the television was 423 at the start of the first year.
b) Work out the value of the television at the end of the third year.
The population of a town increased by 20% between 1981 and 1991. The population in 1991 was
43200.
What was the population in 1981?
[Hint: Let the population in 1981 be 100%].
A tourist buys a stereo which costs 155.10, including VAT at 17.5%.
Tourists do not have to pay VAT. How much does the tourist pay?
Revision Topic 6: Loci and Constructions
Constructions
Bisecting an angle
N.B. To bisect an angle means to cut it in half.
(1) Use your compasses to mark points A and B which are the same distance
from the point (or vertex) of the angle.
(2) Without changing the settings of the compasses, put the compass point on A
and draw an arc in the middle. Then put the compass point on B and draw an arc
in the middle which crosses the first.
(3) This new point C will be in the middle of the angle. So we can draw a line
from the point of the angle to C and we will have split the angle in two.
Perpendicular bisector of a line
A line which cuts a straight line in half at right angles is called a
perpendicular bisector.
(1) Draw a line AB.
(2) Open your compasses to just over half the distance of the length AB.
(3) Put your compasses on A and draw an arc above and below the line.
Then put your compasses on B and draw more arcs above and below the line. These arcs will cross
over at two points C and D.
(4) Join up points C and D with a straight line. This is then the perpendicular bisector of the line
AB.
Constructions such as bisecting angles or lines can be used for making scale drawings where
conditions have to be met.
Grape vine wires
Hedge
Fence
A B
C
D
N
Tree
Grape vine wires
Wall
Hedge
Fence
A B
C
D
N
Tree
Greenhouse
Example
A water tap is to be put in a garden
but it must meet these conditions:
1. It must be the same distance
from the two greenhouses, A and
B.
2. It must be the same distance from
the grape line wires as from the
hedge.
Where must the tap be placed?
To meet condition 1 you
draw the perpendicular
bisector of the line BA.
This line is the locus of
all points equidistant from
B and A.
To meet condition 2 you
bisect the angle BAD.
This line is the locus of all points that
are equidistant from the lines BA
and AD.
Where the two loci intersect
Both conditions are met, so
the tap must be at this point.
Examination Question 1: A B
The diagram shows a rectangular field ABCD.
The side AB is 80m long.
The side BC is 50m long.
Draw the diagram using a scale of 1cm to 10m.
Treasure is hidden in the field.
D C
a) The treasure is equidistant from the sides AB and
AD. Construct the locus of points for which this is true.
b) The treasure is 60m from corner C. Construct the locus of points for which this is true.
c) Mark with an X the position of the treasure.
Tap
Greenhouse
The map shows an island with three main towns, Alphaville, Betaville and Gammaville.
The map is drawn to a scale of 1 cm: 10 km.
A radio transmitter is to be installed.
The transmitter must be equidistant from Alphaville and Betaville.
The transmitter must be between 35km and 50 km from Gammaville.
Mark on all the possible sites that the transmitter may be drawn.
Draw the locus of all points that are 2.5 cm away from the line AB.
A B
Scale 1cm : 10km
Gammaville
x
x
Alphaville
x Betaville
On the diagram, draw the locus of the points outside the rectangle that are 3cm from the edge of this
rectangle.
Points to remember
* To construct an angle of 90 degrees, draw a line and construct its perpendicular bisector. By
bisecting this angle you can construct an angle of 45 degrees.
* To construct an angle of 60 degrees, construct an equilateral triangle. By bisecting this angle you
can construct an angle of 30 degrees.
* When you are asked to construct something, do not rub out the construction lines.
Examination Question 5.
The diagram shows a penguin pool at a zoo. It consists of a right-angled triangle and a semi-circle.
The scale is 1 cm to 1 m.
A safety fence is to be put up around the pool. The fence is always 2m from the pool. Draw
accurately the position of the fence on the diagram.
Two straight roads are shown on the diagram.
A new gas pipe is to be laid from Bere equidistant from the two roads.
The diagram is drawn to a scale of 1cm to 1 km.
a) Construct the path of the gas pipe on the diagram.
b) The gas board needs to construct a site depot. The depot must be equidistant from Bere and
Cole. The depot must be less that 3 km from Alton. Draw loci on the diagram to represent this
information.
c) The depot must be nearer the road through Cole than the road through Alton. Mark on the
diagram, with a cross, a possible location for the site depot that satisfies all these conditions.
Alton o
o
Cole
Bere
Revision Topic 9: Pythagoras Theorem
Pythagoras Theorem
Pythagoras Theorem allows you to work out the length of sides in a right-angled triangle.
c
a
b
Example 1: Finding the length of the hypotenuse
Find the value of x.
8.5 cm x cm
20.4 cm
We start by labelling the sides a, b, and c:
(c is the hypotenuse; a and b are the other two sides) a c
8.5 cm x
20.4 cm b
Write down Pythagoras theorem:
2 2 2
c b a
Put in the values of a, b, c:
2 2 2
4 . 20 5 . 8 x
Work out the left-hand side: 72.25 + 416.16 = x
2
488.41 = x
2
Square root: x = 488.41 = 22.1 cm
Finally we should check the answer seems reasonable. The hypotenuse is the longest side in a
right-angled triangle. As our answer is bigger than 20.4 cm, it seems reasonable.
Example 2: Finding the length of a shorter side
Q
Find the length of PQ.
1.7 m
a b
R
P 4.1 m c
We label the triangle a, b, c (c must be the hypotenuse).
Pythagoras theorem:
2 2 2
c b a
Substitute in the numbers:
2 2 2
1 . 4 7 . 1 a
Work out the squares: 81 . 16 89 . 2
2
a
Subtract 2.89 from both sides: 92 . 13
2
a
Square root: a = 3.73 m (2 decimal places)
The side opposite the right-angle is called the
hypotenuse it is the longest side in the triangle.
If the sides are labelled a, b, c (with c being the length
of the hypotenuse), then Pythagoras theorem is
2 2 2
c b a
The answer must
be smaller than
the hypotenuse
The diagram shows the position of a ferry sailing between Folkestone and Calais.
The ferry is at X.
The position of the ferry from Calais is given as:
North of Calais 15km,
West of Calais 24km.
Calculate the distance of the ferry from Calais.
Give your answer to one decimal place.
Examination Question 2
F
26 cm
G 24 cm H
Pythagoras Theorem in Isosceles Triangles
An isosceles triangle can be split into 2 right-angled triangles:
It is therefore possible to use Pythagoras theorem to find lengths
in isosceles triangles.
Example:
Find the area of this triangle.
6cm
9cm
Therefore the area is 9 . 17 97 . 3 9
2
1
2
1
h b cm
2
X 24km
15 km
Calais
In the diagram, triangle FGH is right-angled
at G.
GH = 24cm and FH = 26 cm.
Calculate the length of FG.
Split the triangle into two:
h 6 cm
4.5 cm
We can find the height of the triangle:
2 2 2
6 5 . 4 h
36 25 . 20
2
h
75 . 15
2
h So h = 3.97 cm
B
19.5 m
D A A
16.4 m
19.5 m
C
Note: Pythagoras theorem could occur on the non-calculator paper.
Example for non-calculator paper
4cm x
5 cm
Pythagoras theorem:
2 2 2
c b a
2 2 2
5 4 x
2
25 16 x
2
41 x
So, x = 41 cm
Since you do not have a calculator, leave the answer as a square root. Do not try to estimate the
square root of 41 unless you are told to do so.
Example 2: Non-calculator paper
20 cm
11cm
x cm
Pythagoras theorem:
2 2 2
c b a

2
2
2
20 11 x
20 11
2
x
9
2
x
So, x = 3 cm
AB = 19.5 cm, AC = 19.5 cm and BC = 16.4 cm.
Angle ADB = 90.
BDC is a straight line.
Calculate the length of AD. Give your answer in
centimetres, correct to 1 decimal place.
Note that
11 11
2
Application of Pythagoras Theorem: Finding the distance between two points
Example: The coordinates of the points A and B are (6, 8) and (1, 1). Work out the length of AB.
Sketch
A(6, 8)
7 units
B(1,1) 5 units
Other uses of Pythagoras Theorem
Example
Prove that the triangle is right-angled.
24 cm
7cm
25 cm
Solution
Pythagoras theorem only works in right-angled triangles, so we need to show that the triangle
above satisfies Pythagoras theorem.
The longest side is 25 cm so this would have to be the hypotenuse, c. The two shortest sides, a and
b, are 7 cm and 24 cm.
Pythagoras:
2 2 2
c b a
Left-hand side: 625 24 7
2 2 2 2
b a
Right-hand side: 625 25
2 2
c
So the right-hand side is equal to the left-hand side, so Pythagoras works in this triangle.
Therefore the triangle is right-angled.
Special triangles - right-angled triangles with whole number sides
The triangle at the top of this page is special as it is a right-angled triangle that has sides which are
all whole numbers. Two other common right-angled triangles with sides that are whole numbers
are:
3cm 5cm 13 cm
5cm
4cm
12 cm
A sketch showing the positions of points A and B is an
important first step.
2 2 2
c b a
2 2 2
5 7 c
2
25 49 c
74 = c
2
So the length AB is 74 = 8.6 units
This is called
the 3, 4, 5
triangle
You can use these basic triangles to get other right-angled triangles by multiplying all the sides by
the same number. For example, a triangle with lengths 6cm, 8cm and 10cm would be right-angled
(as its sides are double those in the 3, 4, 5 triangle).
Right-angled triangles in semi-circles
A
C B
Example
The side AB is the diameter of a circle. Find the length marked a. Give your answer to 1 decimal
place.
C
B
A
Solution
As AB is a diameter of a circle, angle ACB is a right angle. Therefore the hypotenuse is 16 cm.
Pythagoras:
2 2 2
c b a
2 2 2
16 12 a
256 144
2
a
112 144 256
2
a
a = 112 = 10.6 cm (to 1 dp)
Further examination question
A
10m
B
5m
C D
8m
Look at the triangle shown here.
If AB is a diameter of the circle, then triangle
ACB has a right-angle at C (this is one of the
circle theorems an angle in a semi-circle is
90 degrees).
12cm a
16cm
Find length AB. Give your answer correct to 3 significant
figures.
(Hint: You will need to find length BD first, using the
lower triangle).
Revision Topic 10: Standard Form
Writing Numbers in Standard Form
Standard (index) form is a convenient way to write large numbers (like 230,000,000,000) and small
numbers (like 0.000 000 06).
Standard form notation is
n
a 10 where:
a is a number between 1 and 10, and
n is an integer (i.e. a positive or negative whole number).
(1) Writing large numbers in standard form:
The power of 10 is one less than the number of digits (to the left of the decimal point):
e.g. 230,000,000,000 =
11
10 3 . 2 (there are 12 digits, so the power of 10 is 11)
e.g.2 7,265,000 =
6
10 265 . 7 (there are 7 digits).
e.g.3
5
10 13 . 8 = 813000 (there must be 6 digits altogether)
e.g 4
7
10 074 . 1 = 10,740,000 (there must be 8 digits altogether).
(2) Writing small numbers in standard form:
The power of 10 is negative for small numbers. You get the power by counting to see which
decimal place the first non-zero digit occurs in):
e.g.1 0.000 000 06 =
8
10 6

(the first non-zero digit is in the 8
th
decimal place)
e.g.2 0.0045 =
3
10 5 . 4

(the first non-zero digit occurs in the 3
rd
decimal place)
e.g.3
5
10 135 . 7

= 0.00007135 (the first non-zero digit will be the 5
th
decimal place)
e.g.4
2
10 09 . 5

= 0.0509 (the first non-zero digit will be the 2
nd
decimal place).
Examination Style Question 1
The Earths volume is about 1,080,000,000,000 km
3
. Write this number in standard form.
The approximate area of the Australian desert is
6
10 47 . 1 square miles. Write this number in
ordinary form.
The weight of a bee hummingbird is 0.0016 kg. Write this number in standard form.
Put a decimal point
after first digit
Calculations involving numbers in standard form using a calculator
Your calculator has a key which can be used to enter a number written in standard form.
It is marked:
Worked examination question:
The area of the Earth covered by the sea is 362,000,000 km
2
.
(a) Write 362,000,000 in standard form.
The surface area A km
2
of the Earth may be found using the formula
2
4 r A
where r km is the radius of the Earth, r =
3
10 38 . 6 .
(b) Calculate the surface area of the Earth. Give your answer in standard form correct to 3
significant figures.
(c) Calculate the percentage of the Earths surface that is covered by the sea. Give your
answer correct to 2 significant figures.
Solution:
(a) 362,000,000 =
8
10 62 . 3
(b)
2 3 2
) 10 38 . 6 ( 4 4 r A
The answer is 511506575 = 512000000 (to 3 s.f.)
=
8
10 12 . 5
(c) The percentage is % 71 ....% 7 . 70 100
10 12 . 5
10 62 . 3
8
8

(correct to 2 sf).
The time taken for light to reach Earth from the edge of the known universe is 14,000,000,000
years.
a) Write 14,000,000,000 in standard form.
Light travels at the speed of
12
10 46 . 9 km/year.
b) Calculate the distance, in kilometres, from the edge of the known universe to Earth. Give your
answer in standard form.
(Remember that Distance = Speed Time)
EXP
Use pi
button
Use the
EXP key
Use the x
2
key
The mass of a neutron is
24
10 675 . 1

grams. Calculate the total mass of 1500 neutrons. Give
your answer in standard form.
Calculations involving numbers in standard form without a calculator
Problems involving addition and subtraction:
To add and subtract numbers in standard form without a calculator, you must first change them to
ordinary numbers.
Example:
If x =
5
10 4 and y =
6
10 2 . 8 work out (a) x + y (b) y x giving your answers in standard
form.
Solution:
First write both x and y as ordinary numbers:
x = 400000 (as x must have 5 + 1 = 6 digits altogether)
y = 8200000 (as y has 6 + 1 = 7 digits altogether).
So x + y = 400000 + 8200000 = 8600000 8200000
=
6
10 6 . 8 +400000
8600000
Likewise y x = 8200000 4000000 = 7800000 8200000
=
6
10 8 . 7 400000
7800000
Work out
6 8
10 4 10 4 . Give your answer in standard form
Examination Style Question
Work out
5 4
10 3 . 6 10 57 . 4

. Give your answer as an ordinary number.
Problems involving multiplication and division:
To multiply and divide numbers in standard form without a calculator, there is no need to change
them to ordinary numbers first.
Example
If x =
5
10 4 , y =
6
10 8 and z =
2
10 5

work out (a) x y (b) y z (c) x z giving your
answers in standard form
Solution
(a) x y =
6 5
10 8 10 4 = ) 10 10 ( ) 8 4 (
6 5
(i.e. reorder so that you multiply together the
numbers and the powers of 10)
=
11
10 32 (remember you add the powers together when
you multiply indices)
But this is not yet in standard form as 32 does not lie between 1 and 10. We write 32 in standard
form as
1
10 2 . 3 , so that
x y =
12 11 1
10 2 . 3 10 10 2 . 3
(b) y z =
2
6
10 5
10 8
=
2
6
10
10
5
8
(reorder so that you divide the numbers

and the powers of 10)
=
8
10 6 . 1 (remember that you subtract the powers
when you divide indices and 6 - -2 = 8)
This number is in standard form.
(c) x z =
2
5
10 5
10 4
=
2
5
10
10
5
4
=
7
10 8 . 0
This number is not yet in standard form as 0.8 is not between 1 and 10. So we write 0.8 in standard
form as
1
10 8

.
So x z = (
1
10 8

)
7
10 = 8
6
10 (adding the powers of 10 together).
A =
4
10 3 B =
2
10 5

(a) Calculate A B. Give your answer in standard form.

(b) Calculate A B. Give your answer in standard form.
Carry out these calculations without a calculator, giving your answers in standard form.
(a)
7 8
10 6 10 5 (b)
11 8
10 6 10 3
Examination Question (Non-calculator paper)
4
3
10 2
10 8

q
p
(a) Find the value of p q. Give your answer in standard form.
(b) Find the value of p + q. Give your answer in standard form.
Examination Question (Non-calculator paper)
(a) Write 84,000,000 in standard form.
(b) Work out
12
10 4
84000000
. Give your answer in standard form.

Mixed Questions
Calculator paper examination question
420000 carrot seeds weight 1 gram.
Each carrot seed weighs the same.
(a) Write the number 420000 in standard form.
(b) Calculate the weight in grams of one carrot seed. Give your answer in standard form correct to
2 significant figures.
Non-calculator paper examination question
(a) i) Write the number
4
10 01 . 5 as an ordinary number.
ii) Write the number 0.0009 in standard form.
(b) Multiply
3
10 4 by
5
10 6 . Give your answer in standard form.
Revision Topic 12: Area and Volume
Area of simple shapes
You need to learn ALL of the following area formulae:
You also need to know how to find the area of a kite:
You can find the area of a kite by splitting it into triangles.
Alternatively, you can find the area of a kite by multiplying
the two diagonals together and then dividing by 2.
Diagonal 1 Area of a kite = diagonals of product
2
1
Diagonal 2
Rectangle
W
L
Area = length width
Triangle
h
b
Area =
2
height base
= bh
Parallelogram
h
b
Area = base height = bh
Trapezium
a
h
b
Area = height
2
sides parallel of sum
= h b a ) (
2
1
Example 1:
Find the area of the following trapezium.
7cm
4.5cm
11cm
To find the area, you add the parallel sides 7 + 11 = 18
you multiply by the height 18 4.5 = 81
you divide by 2 81 2 = 40.5 cm
2
Alternatively, you can use the formula:
Area = 5 . 40 5 . 4 18
2
1
5 . 4 ) 11 7 (
2
1
) (
2
1
h b a cm
2
Note: In all area questions it is important to show your method and to give units.
Example 2:
If the area of this triangle is 24cm
2
, find x.
x
12 cm
The formula for the area of a triangle is h b A
2
1
.
Here the triangle has been rotated the height is 12cm and we need to find the base, x.
So h b A
2
1
24 = x 12
Double both sides 48 = x 12
So x = 4 cm.
Circles
You need to learn the following:
Circumference of a circle = D
Area of a circle = r
2
where D is the diameter of the circle and r is the radius (D = 2r).
Example 3:
A circle has a circumference of 50cm. Calculate the radius of the circle.
Solution
The formula for the circumference is C = D
So. 50 = D
Therefore D = 50
So D = 15.915 cm
The radius of the circle is 15.915 2 = 7.96 cm
Example 4:
Calculate the percentage of the diagram below that is shaded.
The area of the larger circle is 48 . 66 6 . 4
2 2
r cm
2
The area of the smaller circle is 07 . 7 5 . 1
2 2
r cm
2
So the area shaded is 66.48 7.07 = 59.41 cm
2
Therefore the percentage shaded is % 89 100
48 . 66
41 . 59
(to the nearest whole number).
1.52
m
1.86 m
A mat is made in the shape of a rectangle with a semicircle added at one end.
The width of the mat is 1.52 metres.
The length of the mat is 1.86 metres.
Calculate the area of the mat, giving your answer correct to 2 decimal places.
1.5cm
4.6cm
14cm
12 cm
The diagram shows a shape, made from a semi-circle and a rectangle.
The diameter of the semi-circle is 12cm.
The length of the rectangle is 14cm.
Calculate the perimeter of the shape. Give your answer to 3 significant figures.
Examination style question 3
7.4cm
6cm
9.6cm
Calculate the shaded area in the above diagram.
Volume of prisms
A prism is a three dimensional shape with a cross-section that is the same all the way through the
shape.
These are all examples of prisms:
Cylinder Cuboid Triangular prism
(circular cross-section) (rectangular cross-section)
Prism with a trapezium-shaped Prism with a cross-shaped
cross-section cross-section
At grade B/C level, you need to be able to work out the volume of any prism. The formula is
Volume of prism = cross-sectional area length
Cuboids and cylinders have their own formulae, which are special cases of the general formula
above:
Volume of a cuboid = length width height
height
width
length
Volume of a cylinder = h r
2
height, h
radius, r
Worked examination question 1:
A cylinder is 13 cm high.
The diameter of the base is 1.76 m.
Calculate the volume in cm
3
of the
13 cm cylinder. Give your answer correct to
1.76 metres
The formula for the volume of a cylinder is h r
2
(remember this!!).
The diameter is 1.76 m or 176 cm (we want lengths in cm as volume must be given in cm
3
).
So the radius is 176 2 = 88 cm.
As the height is 13 cm, the volume must be
316270 13 88
2
cm
3
or 316000 cm
3
(to 3 sf).
Density
Some questions on volume relate to density. You need to know the formula:
Density =
volume
mass
or mass = density volume
Worked examination question 2:
6cm
5cm 20 cm
8cm
(a) Work out the volume of the prism.
(b) The prism is made out of gold. Gold has a density of 19.3 grams per cm
3
. Work out the
mass of the prism. Give your answer in kilograms.
(a) To find the volume, we must first find the cross-sectional area (i.e the area of the trapezium).
Area of trapezium = 35 5 14
2
1
5 ) 8 6 (
2
1
) (
2
1
h b a cm
2
.
Volume of prism = cross-sectional area length = 35 20 = 700 cm
3
.
(b) Mass = density volume = 19.3 700 = 13510 grams.
The answer must be in kilograms, so 13510g = 13.51 kg.
The diagram shows a prism.
The cross-section of the prism is a trapezium.
The lengths of the parallel sides of the trapezium
are 8 cm and 6 cm.
The distance between the parallel sides of the
trapezium is 5 cm.
The length of the prism is 20 cm.
These two metal blocks each have a volume of 0.5m
3
.
The density of the copper block is 8900 kg per m
3
.
The density of the nickel block is 8800kg per m
3
.
Calculate the difference in the masses of the blocks.
On a farm, wheat grain is stored in a cylindrical tank.
The cylindrical tank has an internal diameter of 6 metres and a height of 9 metres.
9m
6 m
2.5 cm
A gold bar is in the shape of a prism of length 10cm.
It has a cross-section in the shape of this trapezium. 12.4cm
Calculate the volume of the bar.
3.5 cm
COPPER NICKEL
a) Calculate the volume, in m
3
, of the tank. Give your answer
correct to 2 decimal places.
1 m
3
of wheat grain weights 0.766 tonnes.
b) Calculate the weight, in tonnes, of the weight grain in the storage
tank when it is full.
Revision Topic 13: Statistics 1
Averages
There are three common types of average: the mean, median and mode.
The mode (or modal value) is the data value (or values) that occurs the most often.
The median is the middle value, once all the data has been written in order of size. If there are n
values in a list, the median is in position
2
1 n
.
The mean is found by adding all the data values together and dividing by the total frequency.
When to use each type of average
The mode is particularly useful for non-numerical data (such as eye colour or make of car) it is
the only average that can be found for data that is not numerical. It is also frequently used for
sizes of clothes.
The mean is used when the data are reasonably symmetrical with no anomalous (or outlying
values). It is the most commonly used average.
The median is useful when that data are skewed or when there are anomalous values in the data.
Grade C example for the mean
A class took a test. The mean mark for the 20 boys in the class was 17.4. The mean mark for the
10 girls in the class was 13.8.
(a) Calculate the mean mark for the whole class.
5 pupils in another class took the test. Their marks, written in order, were 1, 2, 3, 4 and x.
The mean of these 5 marks is twice the median of these marks.
(b) Calculate the value of x.
Solution
(a) To find the mean mark for the whole class we divide the total of all the classs marks by
30 (since 30 is the number of pupils in the class).
The total of the boys marks is 17.4 20 = 348 (as mean =
frequency
total
so total = mean total frequency)
The total of the girls marks is 13.8 10 = 138.
Therefore the total for the whole class is 348 + 138 = 486
So the mean mark for the class is 486 30 = 16.2.
(b) As the marks are written in order, the median mark is 3 (i.e. the middle mark).
So the mean of all 5 marks must be 6 (as it is twice the median).
Therefore the total of all 5 marks must be 6 5 = 30.
The sum of the first four numbers is 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10.
So, the value of x must be 30 10 = 20.
Examination question 1:
27 boys and 34 girls took the same test.
The mean mark of the boys was 76. The mean mark of the girls was 82.
Calculate the mean mark of all these students. Give your answer correct to 1 decimal place.
Examination question 2 (non-calculator paper):
A shop employs 8 men and 2 women.
The mean weekly wage of the 10 employees is 396. The mean weekly wage of the 8 men is 400.
Calculate the mean weekly wage of the 2 women.
Finding the mean, median and mode from a table
Example 1: Frequency table
The table shows the boot sizes of players on a rugby team.
Boot size Frequency
8 3
9 5
10 6
11 1
Find a) the mode b) the median, c) the mean boot size.
Solution
a) The mode is the boot size that occurs most often. The modal size is therefore size 10.
b) The total number of rugby players is 15 (add up the frequency column).
The median is the value in position 8
2
1 15
2
1
n
.
The first three players have size 8; the next 5 have size 9. Therefore the 8
th
player has
size 9 boots.
c) To find the mean, we add an extra column to the table:
Boot size, x Frequency, f Boot size freq, x f
8 3 8 3 = 24
9 5 9 5 = 45
10 6 10 6 = 60
11 1 11 1 = 11
TOTAL 15 140
You find the mean by dividing the total of the x f column divided by the total of
the frequency column:
Mean = 140 15 = 9.33 (to 3 sf).
Examination question
20 students took part in a competition. The frequency table shows information about the points
they scored.
Points scored Frequency
1 9
2 4
3 7
Work out the mean number of points scored by the 20 students.
This is the
total of the
boot sizes of
all 15 players
Example 2: Grouped frequency table
The table shows the masses of a group of children.
(a) Calculate an estimate of the mean mass.
(b) Find the modal interval.
(c) Find the interval that contains the median.
Note: We cannot find the exact value of the mean from a grouped frequency table as we do not
know the actual values of the data are not known. We can estimate the mean if we assume that all
the values in each class are equal to the mid-point of that class.
(a) We add 2 further columns to the table:
The mean is the total of the x f column divided by the total of the frequency column:
1975 31 = 63.7 kg (to 1 dp)
Note: We should check that our mean mass is sensible (i.e. lies within the range of the data).
(b) The interval that occurs the most often is 70-80 kg. This is the modal interval.
(c) The median is in position 16
2
1 31
2
1
n
.
There are 13 children with weights below 60 kg and 19 children below 70 kg. Therefore the
median weight lies within the 60 70 kg interval.
Examination question:
75 boys took part in a darts competition. Each boy threw darts until he hit the centre of the
dartboard. The numbers of darts thrown by the boys are grouped in this frequency table.
(a) Work out the class interval which contains the median.
(b) Work out an estimate for the mean number of darts thrown by each boy.
Mass (kg) Frequency
40 50 3
50 60 10
60 70 6
70 - 80 12
Mass (kg) Frequency, f Midpoint, x x f
40 50 3 45 345 = 135
50 60 10 55 550
60 70 6 65 390
70 - 80 12 75 900
Total 31 1975
Number of darts
thrown
Frequency
1 to 5 10
6 to 10 17
11 to 15 12
16 to 20 4
21 to 25 12
26 to 30 20
The middle of
the interval 40-
50 is 45
Cumulative frequency tables and curves
Cumulative frequency curves can be used to find the median for grouped tables. They can also be
used to find the interquartile range.
The interquartile range is a measure of spread. It tells you how variable the data are. The
interquartile range (IQR) is found using the formula
IQR = upper quartile lower quartile
The interquartile range is a better measure of spread than the range because it is less effected by
extreme values in the data.
Example:
A secretary weighed a sample of letters to be posted.
Mass (g) 20 - 30 - 40 - 50 - 60 - 70 - 80 90
Number of students 2 4 12 7 8 17 3
Draw a cumulative frequency graph for the data
Use your graph to find the median weight of a letter and the interquartile range of the weights.
Solution:
We first need to work out the cumulative frequencies these are a running total of the frequencies.
We plot the cumulative frequency graph by plotting the cumulative frequencies on the vertical axis
and the masses on the horizontal axis. It is important that the cumulative frequencies are plotted
above the endpoint of each interval. So we plot the points (30, 2), (40, 6), (50, 18), , (90, 54).
As no letter weighed less than 20g, we can also plot the point (20, 0).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Mass (g)
C
u
m
u
l
a
t
i
v
e
f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Mass (g) Frequency Cumulative frequency
20 30 2 2
30 40 4 6
40 50 12 18
50 60 7 25
60 70 8 33
70 80 17 50
80 90 4 54
This interval is
short for 50 60 g
There are 18
letters so far
There are
54 letters
below 90g
The
median is
about 62g
L.Q. is
about 47g
U.Q. is
about 75g
The total number of letters examined was 54. The median will be approximately the 54 2 = 27
th
letter. We draw a line across from 27 on the vertical axis and then find the median on the horizontal
axis. We see that the median is about 62g.
The lower quartile will be the th 5 . 13 54
4
1
value. From the horizontal scale we find that the
lower quartile is about 47g.
The upper quartile is the th 5 . 40 54
4
3
value. This is about 75g.
Therefore the interquartile range is U.Q L.Q. = 75 47 = 28g.
Note: We can represent the data in the above example as a box-and-whisker plot. A box plot is a
simple diagram that is based on 5 measurements:
The lowest value
The lower quartile
The median
The upper quartile
The largest value.
In the example above we dont know the exact values of the lightest and heaviest letters. However
we do know that no letter weighed less than 20g and no letter weighed more than 90g. So we take
the lowest and largest values as 20g and 90g respectively.
The box plot we get is as follows:
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Mass (g)
At a supermarket, members of staff recorded the lengths of time that 80 customers had to wait in the
queues at the checkouts.
The waiting times are grouped in the frequency table below.
Waiting time (t seconds) Frequency
0 < t 50 4
50 < t 100 7
100 < t 150 10
150 < t 200 16
200 < t 250 30
250 < t 300 13
(a) Complete the cumulative frequency table below.
Waiting time (t seconds) Cumulative frequency
0 < t 50
50 < t 100
100 < t 150
150 < t 200
200 < t 250
250 < t 300
Largest value
Upper quartile median
Lower quartile
Smallest value
(b) On the grid below, draw a cumulative frequency graph for this data.
(c) Use your graph to work out an estimate for
the median waiting time,
the number of these customers who had to wait more than three minutes.
The grouped frequency table gives information about the weekly rainfall (d) in millimetres at
Heathrow airport in 1995.
Weekly rainfall
(d) in mm
Number of
weeks
0 d < 10 20
10 d < 20 18
20 d < 30 6
30 d < 40 4
40 d < 50 2
50 d < 60 2
a) Copy the table and complete it to calculate an estimate for the mean weekly rainfall.
b) Write down the probability that the rainfall in any week in 1995, chosen at random, was
greater than or equal to 20mm and less than 40mm.
c) Copy and complete this cumulative frequency table for the data.
Weekly rainfall
(d) in mm
Cumulative
frequency
0 d < 10
10 d < 20
20 d < 30
30 d < 40
40 d < 50
50 d < 60
d) Draw a cumulative frequency graph to show the data.
e) Use your cumulative frequency graph to estimate the median weekly rainfall and the
interquartile range.
Revision Topic 14: Algebra
Indices:
At Grade B and C levels, you should be familiar with the following rules of indices:
b a b a
y y y
+
= i.e. add powers when multiplying;
b a b a
y y y

= i.e. subtract powers when dividing;
ab b a
y y = ) ( i.e. when you have a power of a power, multiply powers together.
1
0
= y i.e. anything to the power 0 is 1.
Example:
Simplify each of the following, if possible:
a)
3 2 4
a a a b)
2
4
c
c c
c)
0
) 4 ( x d) ( )
2
3
e e)
2 3
b a
Solution:
a)
9 3 2 4 3 2 4
a a a a a = =
+ +
(add powers together).
b)
powers g subtractin
top g simplifyin
3
2
5
2
1 4
2
4
c
c
c
c
c c
c
c c
=
=
c) 1 ) 4 (
0
= x (anything to the power 0 is 1)
d) ( )
6
2
3
e e = (multiply powers together)
e)
2 3
b a this cannot be simplified as the base numbers (a and b) are different letters.
Example 2:
Work out the value of each of the following:
a)
4
3 b)
0
7 c)
6 9
2 2
Solution:
a) 81 3 3 3 3 3
4
= =
b) 1 7
0
= (anything to the power 0 is 1)
c) 8 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
3 6 9 6 9
= = = =

Example 3:
Simplify: a)
4
3 4 x x b)
2
7
3
15
y
y
c)
4 2 2 3
4 6 b a b a
Solution:
a)
{
5 4 4
12 3 4 3 4 x x x x x = =
3 2 1
(i.e. multiply together the numbers and add the powers)
b)
5 2 7
2
7
5
3
15
3
15
y y
y
y
= =

(i.e. divide numbers and subtract powers)
c)
6 5 4 2 2 3 4 2 2 3
24 ) ( ) ( ) 4 6 ( 4 6 b a b b a a b a b a = = .
Find the value of x in each of the following:
a)
x
7 7 7
3 6
= b)
x
7 7 7
3 6
= c)
x
7 ) 7 (
3 6
= d) x =
0
7
Examination Style Question 2:
Simplify fully each of these expressions. Leave your answers in power form.
a)
3 2
3 3 b)
5 2
4 4
c)
3 6
5 5 d)
2 4
9 9

e)
6
3
2
2 2
.
Examination Style Question 3:
Simplify each of the following expressions.
a) a a 3 2
3
b)
2 8
3 6 x x c)
2 2 2 3
5 4 y x y x
Expanding brackets
Expanding out a single bracket: You can remove a single bracket by multiplying everything
inside the bracket by the number, or expression, on the outside.
Example
Expand the following brackets:
a) 6(7d 4) b) y(8y 2x + 1) c) ) 2 3 2 ( 5
2
+ x x x d) 2xy(4x y)
Solution:
a) 6(7d 4): Multiply both the 7d and the 4 by the number on the outside:
We get 6(7d 4) = 42d - 24
b) y(8y 2x + 1): Multiply everything in the bracket by y:
We get: y(8y 2x + 1) = 8y
2
2xy + y
c) ) 2 3 2 ( 5
2
+ x x x : Multiply all the terms inside the bracket by 5x:
We get x x x x x x 10 15 10 ) 2 3 2 ( 5
2 3 2
+ = +
d) 2xy(4x y): Multiply the 4x and y by 2xy:
This gives: 2xy(4x y) = 8x
2
y 2xy
2
.
You need to take care when there is a minus sign in front of a bracket.
Example 2:
Expand and simplify:
a) -4(2x 3y) b) 6x(3x + 2) 3(5x 2)
Solution:
a) Here we multiply everything in the bracket by -4.
This gives: -4(2x 3y) = -8x + 12y
b) If we multiply out the first bracket we get: 6x(3x + 2) = 18x
2
+ 12x
If we multiply out the second bracket, we get: 3(5x 2) = -15x + 6.
Putting it all together: 6x(3x + 2) 3(5x 2) = 18x
2
+ 12x - 15x + 6 = 18x
2
3x + 6.
a) Multiply out: ) (
4 3 2
t t t .
b) Multiply out and simplify: 3(2a + 6) 2(3a 6)
c) Simplify:
ab
b a
4
12
2
.
-4 -3y = +12y
as two minuses
multiply to
make a plus!
Expanding out double brackets: When there is a pair of brackets multiplied together, you need to
multiply everything in the first bracket by everything in the second.
Example: Multiply out the following brackets:
a) (3x 2)(x + 4) b) (2x 3y)(2x 4) c) (2x + 3y)
2
Solution:
a) (3x 2)(x + 4)
We can expand these brackets directly, multiplying everything in the first bracket by the
terms in the second bracket. This gives:
(3x 2)(x + 4) = 3x
2
+ 12x 2x 8 = 3x
2
+ 10x 8.
Alternatively, you can draw a grid to help expand the brackets:
3x -2
x 3x
2
-2x
4 12x -8
b) (2x 3y)(2x 4)
The grid for this would look like:
2x -3y
2x 4x
2
-6xy
-4 -8x +12y
c) (2x + 3y)
2
To square a bracket, you multiply it by itself! Drawing a grid:
2x 3y
2x 4x
2
6xy
3y 6xy 9y
2
Examination Questions:
Expand and simplify:
1) (2x y)(3x + 4y)
2) (2x 5)(x + 3)
3) (3x y)
2
Adding the numbers inside the grid gives:
(3x 2)(x + 4)
= 3x
2
+ 12x 2x 8
= 3x
2
+ 10x 8.
Adding the numbers inside the grid gives:
(2x 3y)(2x 4) = 4x
2
6xy 8x + 12y
This cannot be simplified!
Adding the expressions inside the grid:
(2x + 3y)(2x + 3y) = 4x
2
+ 6xy + 6xy + 9y
2
= 4x
2
+ 12xy + 9y
2
Factorising
Factorising is the reverse of multiplying out brackets, i.e. when you factorise an expression you
need to put brackets back into an expression.
Common factors: Some expressions can be factorised by finding common factors.
Example: Factorise the following expressions.
a) 12e + 18 b) 2xy + 5x c) x
2
6x d) 4x
2
+ 2x e) 10x
2
y 15xy
2
.
a) We look for a common factor of 12e and 18. We notice that 6 goes into both of them. We
therefore write 6 outside a bracket:
12e + 18 = 6(2e + 3)
b) We notice that x appears in both 2xy and 5x. This can be taken outside a bracket:
2xy + 5x = 2xy + 5x = x(2y + 5) = x(2y + 5)
c) As x
2
is xx, both x
2
and 6x have x as a factor.
So, x
2
6x = xx 6x = x(x 6)
d) Looking at the number parts, we notice that 2 is a common factor of both 4 and 2.
4x
2
+ 2x = 2(2x
2
+ x).
This hasnt been completely factorised yet, as both 2x
2
and x also contain an x. We therefore can an
x outside the bracket.
4x
2
+ 2x = 2(2x
2
+ x) = 2x(2x + 1).
e) 10x
2
y 15xy
2
: Looking at the numbers, we see that both 10 and 15 have 5 as a factor. Both
terms also have an x and a y in common. We can therefore factorise by writing 5xy in front of a
bracket.
10x
2
y 15xy
2
= 52xxy 53xyy = 5xy(2x 3y)
Note: You can check your answers by expanding out the brackets.
Factorise completely: (a) x
2
3x (b) 2p
2
q + pq
2
.
6 goes into 18
3 times
6 goes into 12
twice
x is 1x, so when x is taken
outside the bracket, we are
left with 1 inside.
a) Expand and simplify: 5(3x + 1) 2(4x 3).
b) Expand and simplify: (x + 5)(x 3).
c) Factorise completely: 6a
2
9ab.
Factorising quadratics
Simple quadratics like 2 3
2
+ + x x or 12 7
2
+ x x can often be factorised into two brackets.
General steps for factorising c bx x + +
2
Example: Factorise 18 9
2
+ + x x
Step 1: Find two numbers that multiply to make
c and add to make b.
Step 1: Find two numbers that multiply to make
18 and add to give 9. These numbers are 6 and
3.
Step 2: Write these two numbers in the
brackets:
(x )(x )
Step 2: The factorised expression is
(x + 9)(x + 3)
Example 2: Factorise 12 7
2
+ x x
We need to find two numbers that multiply to make 12 and add to give -7. These numbers are -3
and -4.
So the answer is (x 3)(x 4).
Example 3: a) Factorise 20 8
2
x x
b) Solve 0 20 8
2
= x x
a) We have to find two numbers that multiply to make -20 and add to give -8. These are -10 and 2.
The factorised expressions is (x 10)(x + 2).
b) To solve the equation 0 20 8
2
= x x we use our factorised expression: (x 10)(x + 2) = 0.
We have two brackets that multiply together to make 0. The only way this can happen is if
one of the brackets is 0.
If the first bracket is 0, then x 10 = 0, i.e. x = 10.
If the second bracket is 0, then x + 2 = 0, i.e. x = -2.
So the solutions are x = 10 and x = -2.
Factorise 12 4
2
+ x x .
Hence or otherwise solve 0 12 4
2
= + x x .
a) Factorise 2x + 8y.
b) Factorise completely 3ac
2
6ac.
c) Factorise 18 9
2
+ x x .
a) Expand and simplify (x + 5)(x 3).
b) Factorise 14 5
2
x x .
c) Solve 14 5
2
x x = 0.
Difference of two squares
When you expand out the brackets for (x + a)(x a) you get x
2
+ ax ax a
2
which simplifies to
x
2
a
2
.
The result x
2
a
2
= (x + a)(x a) is called the difference of two squares result.
Examples:
1) y
2
16 = y
2
4
2
= (y + 4)(y 4).
2) z
2
25 = z
2
5
2
= (z + 5)(z 5).
3) 9x
2
4y
2
= (3x)
2
(2y)
2
= (3x + 2y)(3x 2y).
a) Factorise x
2
y
2
.
b) Use your answer to a) to work out the EXACT answer to
123456789
2
123456788
2
.
Revision Topic 15: Algebra 2
Sequences
A linear sequence is one which goes up by the same amount each time.
E.g. 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, is a linear sequence it goes up in 3s.
E.g. 2 13, 11, 9, 7, 5, is a linear sequence it goes down in 2s.
nth term formula
The terms of a sequence can often be generated by a formula.
Example: The formula for the nth term of a sequence is 4n + 5.
a) Find the first 4 terms of the sequence.
b) Which term of the sequence is 49.
a) To get the first 4 terms of the sequence you have to replace n by 1, 2, 3, and 4.
The 1
st
term of the sequence is 4 1 + 5 = 9
The 2
nd
The 3
rd
The 4
th
term of the sequence is 4 4 + 5 = 21.
b) To see which term of the sequence is 49 we solve: 4n + 5 = 49
i.e 4n = 44
i.e. n = 11
The 11
th
term of the sequence is 49.
Finding the nth term of a formula
The formula for the nth term of a linear sequence is:
n +
Example: Find an expression for the nth number in the sequence 7, 12, 17, 22, 27.
Solution: The sequence goes up in 5s.
The term before 7 in the sequence would be 2.
The nth term of the sequence is therefore 5n + 2.
Example 2: Find the formula for the nth term of the sequence 19, 16, 13, 10,
Solution: The sequence goes down in 3s. The difference between terms is -3.
The term before 19 in the sequence would be 22.
The nth term of the sequence is therefore -3n + 22
Difference
between
terms
The term in the
sequence that
would be before
the 1
st
term.
Example 3: Find the formula for the nth term of the sequence: 1, 2.5, 4, 5.5,
Solution: The sequence goes up in 1.5s. The previous term in the sequence would be -0.5. So the
formula for the nth term is: 1.5n - 0.5.
Examination Question: Here are the first 4 terms of a number sequence: 3, 7, 11, 15.
a) Write down the next two terms of the sequence.
b) Write down an expression in terms of n for the nth term of the sequence.
Marco writes down a number sequence.
He starts at 120.
Each time he subtracts 12 to get the next number in the sequence.
a) Write down the first 5 numbers in the sequence.
b) Write down an expression for the nth number in the sequence.
Simultaneous Equations
The equations 5x + 2y = 11 and 3x 4y = 4 are known as simultaneous equations there are two
equations and two variables (x and y).
We solve simultaneous equations by trying to get the same number of xs or ys in the equations.
Example 1: Solve 5x + 2y = 11 and 3x 4y = 4.
5x + 2y = 11
3x 4y = 4
To make the number of ys the same we can
multiply the top equation by 2.
10x + 4y = 22
3x 4y = 4
The number of ys is the same but the signs are
different. To eliminate the ys the equations
must be added.
13x = 26
i.e. x= 2
Substitute x = 2 into 5x + 2y = 11
52 + 2y = 11
10 + 2y = 11
2y = 1
y = 0.5
To find the value of y, substitute x = 2 into one
of the original equations.
Check: 32 - 40.5 = 6 2 = 4 as required. You can check the solution by substituting x = 2
and y = 0.5 into 3x 4y = 4.
Example 2: Solve the simultaneous equations x + 3y = 13 and 4x + 2y = 2.
x + 3y = 13
4x + 2y = 2
To make the number of xs the same we can
multiply the top equation by 4.
4x + 12y = 52
4x + 2y = 2
The number of xs is the same and the signs are
the same. To eliminate the xs the equations
must be subtracted.
10y = 50
i.e. y= 5
Substitute y = 5 into x + 3y = 13
x + 35 = 13
x + 15 = 13
x = -2
To find the value of x, substitute y = 5 into one of
the original equations.
Check: 4-2 + 25 = -8 + 10 = 2 as required. You can check the solution by substituting x = -2
and y = 5 into 4x + 2y = 2.
Example 3: Solve the simultaneous equations 2x + 3y = 7 and 3x 2y = 17.
2x + 3y = 7
3x - 2y = 17
To make the number of ys the same we can
multiply the top equation by 2 and the second
equation by 3
4x + 6y = 14
9x - 6y = 51
The ys can be eliminated by adding the
equations.
13x = 65
i.e. x= 5
Substitute x = 5 into 2x + 3y = 7
25 + 3y = 7
10 + 3y = 7
3y = -3
y = -1
To find the value of y, substitute x = 5 into one of
the original equations.
Check: 35 - 2-1 = 15 (-2) = 17 as
required.
You can check the solution by substituting x = 5
and y = -1 into 3x - 2y = 17.
Solve the simultaneous equations: 3x + y = 13
2x 3y = 16
Solve the simultaneous equations: 2x + 5y = -1 and 6x y = 5
Solve the simultaneous equations: x + 8y = 5
3x 4y = 8
Simultaneous Equations: Problems
Example: Two groups visited Waterworld. The first group of four adults and three children paid a
total of 38 for their tickets. The second group of five adults and two children paid 40.50 for their
tickets. What are the charges for adult and child tickets at Waterworld?
Solution: Let a be the cost for an adult and c the cost for a child.
Group 1: 4a + 3c = 38
Group 2: 5a + 2c = 40.50
Multiply top equation by 2 and bottom equation by 3: 8a + 6c = 76
15a + 6c = 121.50
Subtract the bottom equation from the top equation: 7a = 45.50
So, a = 6.50
From the equation for group 1: 46.50 + 3c = 38
3c = 12
c = 4
So adults pay 6.50 and children 4.
Mrs Rogers bought 3 blouses and 2 scarfs. She paid 26.
Miss Summers bought 4 blouses and 1 scarf. She paid 28.
The cost of a blouse was x pounds. The cost of a scarf was y pounds.
a) Use the information to write down two equations in x and y.
b) Solve these equations to find the cost of one blouse.
Revision Topic 17: Probability
Estimating probabilities: Relative frequency
Probabilities can be estimated from experiments. The relative frequency is found using the
formula:
trials of number total
occurs event times of number
.
Example:
This data shows the colour of cars passing a factory gate
one morning.
Estimate the probability that, at a random time, a car
passing will be red.
If 400 cars pass the factory gates the following morning,
estimate the number of cars that will be red.
Solution
The relative frequency of red cars is 30 . 0
228
68
(to 2 d.p.)
So the probability of a red car is 0.30 or 30%.
The following morning 400 cars pass the factory gate. The number of red cars will be
approximately 30% of 400 = 0.3 400 = 120.
The sides of a six-sided spinner are numbered from 1 to 6. The table shows the results for 100
spins.
Number on spinner 1 2 3 4 5 6
Frequency 27 18 17 15 16 7
a) What is the relative frequency of getting a 1?
b) Do you think the spinner is fair? Give a reason for your answer.
c) The spinner is spun 3000 times. Estimate the number of times the result will be a 4.
Colour Frequency
Red 68
Black 14
Yellow 2
Green 34
Blue 52
Grey 35
Other 23
Total 228
Probability diagrams
Example:
Kevin has a spinner in the shape of a regular pentagon, and a normal dice.
The five sections of the spinner are labelled 1, 2, 3, 4, 5.
Kevin spins the spinner once and rolls the dice once.
He records the outcomes.
a) Show all the outcomes in a probability diagram.
b) Find the probability that both of the numbers are prime;
c) Find the probability that the difference between the two numbers is 1.
Solution:
a) The outcomes can be shown in a table:
Number on spinner
1 2 3 4 5
1 1,1 1,2 1,3 1,4 1,5
2 2,1 2,2 2,3 2,4 2,5
3 3,1 3,2 3,3 3,4 3,5
4 4,1 4,2 4,3 4,4 4,5
5 5,1 5,2 5,3 5,4 5,5
N
u
m
b
e
r
o
n
d
i
c
e
6 6,1 6,2 6,3 6,4 6,5
b) The outcomes for which both numbers are prime are shown in bold in the table above.
There are 30 outcomes in the table and 9 have both numbers prime. The probability
therefore is
10
3
30
9
.
c) The outcomes for which the difference between the numbers is 1 are shaded. 9 outcomes
have been shaded so the probability is also
10
3
30
9
.
Jack has two fair dice.
One of the dice has 6 faces numbered from 1 to 6. The other dice has 4 faces numbered from 1 to 4.
Jack is going to throw the two dice. He will add the scores together tom get the total.
Work out the probability that he will get
a) a total of 7,
b) a total of less than 5.
Hint: Draw a diagram as in the example above.
Mutually Exclusive Events
Mutually exclusive events cannot occur at the same time.
When A and B are mutually exclusive events: P(A OR B) = P(A) + P(B).
Example:
A box contains red, green, blue and yellow counters.
The table shows the probability of getting each colour.
Colour Red Green Blue Yellow
Probability 0.4 0.25 0.25 0.1
A counter is taken from the box at random.
What is the probability of getting a red or blue counter?
Solution
P(red or blue) = P(red) + P(blue)
= 0.4 + 0.25
= 0.65
A bag contains some red, some white and some blue counters. A counter is picked at random.
The probability that it will be red is 0.2.
The probability that it will be white is 0.3.
a) What is the probability that a counter picked at random will be either red or white?
b) What is the probability that a counter picked at random will be either red or blue?
Some red, white and blue cubes are numbered 1 and 2.
The table shows the probabilities of obtaining each colour and number when a cube is taken at
random.
Red White Blue
1 0.1 0.3 0
2 0.3 0.1 0.2
A cube is taken at random.
a) What is the probability of taking a red cube?
b) What is the probability of taking a cube numbered 2?
c) State whether or not the following pairs of events are mutually exclusive. Give a reason for your
answer.
(i) Taking a cube numbered 1 and taking a blue cube.
(ii) Taking a cube numbered 2 and taking a blue cube.
Independent Events
The outcomes of independent events do not influence each other.
When A and B are independent events: P(A AND B) = P(A) P(B).
Example (examination question):
Nikki and Romana both try to score a goal in netball.
The probability that Nikki will score a goal on the first try is 0.65.
The probability that Ramana will score a goal on the first try is 0.8.
a) Work out the probability that Nikki and Ramana will both score a goal on their first tries.
b) Work out the probability that neither Nikki nor Ramana will score a goal on their first tries.
a) P(Nikki scores AND Ramana scores) = P(Nikki scores) P(Ramana scores)
= 0.65 0.8
= 0.52.
b) P(Nikki doesnt score AND Ramana doesnt score) = P(Nikki doesnt) P(Ramana doesnt)
= 0.35 0.2
= 0.07.
Samantha takes examinations in maths and English.
The probability that she passes maths is 0.7.
The probability that she passes English is 0.8.
The results in each subject are independent of each other.
Calculate the probability that
a) Samantha passes both subjects;
b) Samantha passes maths and fails English.
Tree Diagrams
A tree diagram is a way of calculating probabilities when two events are combined.
Example (worked examination question):
Helen tries to win a coconut at the fair. She throws a ball at a coconut. If she knocks the coconut
off the standard she wins the coconut. Helen has two throws.
The probability that she wins a coconut with her first throw is 0.2.
The probability that she will win a coconut with her second throw is 0.3.
Work out the probability that, with her two throws, Helen will win
a) 2 coconuts;
b) exactly 1 coconut.
Solution:
We can draw a tree diagram to answer this question.
1
st
attempt 2
nd
attempt
wins 0.2 0.3 = 0.06
0.3
wins 0.7 doesnt win 0.2 0.7 = 0.14
0.2
0.3 wins 0.8 0.3 = 0.24
doesnt
0.8 win
0.7 doesnt win 0.8 0.7 = 0.56
a) From the diagram, the probability that Helen will win 2 coconuts is 0.06.
b) P(Helen wins exactly 1 coconut) = 0.14 + 0.24 = 0.38.
Tina has a biased dice.
When she rolls it, the probability that she will get a six is 0.09.
Tina is going to roll the biased dice dice.
Complete the tree diagram shown.
Work out the probability that she will get:
a) two sixes,
b) exactly one six.
1
st
roll 2
nd
roll
six
not six
six
six
not six
not six
Write
probabilities
on branches
Multiply
probabilities on
branches together.
A machine makes two parts which fit together to make a tool. The probability that the first part will
be made correctly is 0.9. The probability that the second part will be made correctly is 0.95.
a) Complete the tree diagram below giving the missing probabilities.
1
st
part 2
nd
part
correct
correct incorrect
0.9
correct
incorrect
incorrect
b) Use the tree diagram to work out the probability that both parts will be made correctly.
The probability of a person having brown eyes is .
The probability of a person having blue eyes is 1/3.
Two people are chosen at random.
Work out the probability that
a) both people will have brown eyes;
b) one person will have blue eyes and the other person will have brown eyes.
O
p
p
o
s
i
t
e
O
Revision Topic 18: Trigonometry
Trigonometry connects the length of sides and angles in right-angled triangles.
Some important terms
In a right-angled triangle, the side opposite the right angle
is called the hypotenuse. The hypotenuse is the longest
side in a right-angled triangle.
The side opposite the angle of interest is called the
opposite.
The third side (which is next to the angle of interest) is
called the adjacent.
Sin, cos and tan
Three important formulae connect the lengths of O, A and H with the angle x:
H
O
x sin
H
A
x cos
A
O
x tan .
You need to learn these formulae! It sometimes helps to remember them as SOHCAHTOA.
Finding an angle
Trigonometry can be used to find angles in right-angled triangles.
Example 1:
Start by labelling the triangle
H, O and A.
We then have to decide
whether to use sin, cos or tan
SOHCAHTOA
Since we know the values of A
and H, we use cos:
7143 . 0
14
10
cos
cos

x
H
A
x
To find the angle x, you have to
press SHIFT cos 0.7143.
You get:
x = 44.4
Note: Write down several
calculator digits in your
working.
Example 2:
20 cm A
9cm
H O
We start by labelling the
triangle.
This time we will need to use
tan as we know O and A:
SOHCAHTOA
45 . 0
20
9
tan
tan

x
A
O
x
To find angle x, you press
SHIFT tan 0.45.
You get:
x = 24.2
Example 3:
11.2m
H 7.3 m
O
A
The triangle is labelled H, O
and A.
Because we know O and H, we
need to use sin this time:
SOHCAHTOA
So,
6518 . 0
2 . 11
3 . 7
sin
sin

H
O
To recover angle , you press
SHIFT sin 0.6518.
The answer is:
= 40.7.
x
14 cm
H
10 cm A
O
Hypotenuse H
Adjacent A
x
x
A
Calculate the angle marked x.
Give your answer correct to one decimal place.
12 m 15m
B C
B
Work out the size of the angle marked x.
20 m
A 30 m C
Finding a side
Trigonometry can also be used to find sides in right-angled triangles if you know one of the angles.
Example 1:
Start by labelling the triangle
H, O and A.
We then have to decide
whether to use sin, cos or tan
SOHCAHTOA
Since we want to find O and we
know H, we use sin:
24
6018 . 0
24
37 sin
37 sin
x
x
H
O
So, x = 24 0.6018 = 14.4 cm.

Remember to put a unit on the
answer!!
Example 2:
6.8 cm A
xcm
H O
We start by labelling the
triangle.
This time we will need to use
tan as we know A and want O:
SOHCAHTOA
8 . 6
1445 . 2
8 . 6
65 tan
65 tan
x
x
A
O
So, x = 2.1445 6.8 = 14.6 cm.

Example 3:
0.85 m
H O
y A
The triangle is labelled H, O
and A.
Because we know H and want
A, we need to use cos this time:
SOHCAHTOA
So,
85 . 0
61566 . 0
85 . 0
52 cos
52 cos
y
y
H
A
So,
y = 0.85 0.61566 = 0.523 m.
37
24 cm
H
A
xcm
O
x
x
65
52
R Angle Q = 90 degrees, angle P= 32 degrees and PR = 2.6 m.
2.6 cm Calculate the length of QR. Give your answer in metres to
P Q
C
Triangle ABC is shown on the right.
a) Calculate the length of the side BC.
b) Calculate the length of the side AC.
A 6cm B
Finding the length of sides (continued)
Some side lengths are harder to calculate they appear on the denominator of the fractions.
Consider the following example:
Example:
Find the length x cm in this triangle:
A x cm
SOHCAHTOA 18cm H
O
The triangle is labelled H, O and A as normal. Since we know A and want to find H we use cos.
x x H
A 18
7660 . 0 so
18
40 cos so 40 cos
The side we wish to find appears on the denominator. There are two methods that we could use to
find the value of x:
Method 1:
Write both sides as fractions:
x
18
1
7660 . 0
Invert both sides:

18 7660 . 0
1 x
Work out the left hand side: 1.305 =

18
x
Therefore x = 18 1.305 = 23.5 cm
Method 2:
Rearrange the equation by first getting rid of the
fraction (multiply by x): x 0.7660 = 18
Get x on its own by dividing by 0.7660:
5 . 23
7660 . 0
18
x cm.
We can check our answer since we are finding the hypotenuse, it should be the longest side in the
triangle.
32
69
40
Example 2:
C
12.5cm Hyp
Opp
A Adj B
The triangle ABC has a right angle at B. B 8.3 cm C
Angle BAC = 50 degrees and BC = 8.3 cm.
Calculate the length of AC.
A
B
6cm
8cm C
A D
ABCD is a quadrilateral. Angle BDA = 90, angle BCD = 90, angle BAD = 40.
BC = 6 cm, BD = 8cm.
a) Calculate the length of DC. Give your answer correct to 3 significant figures. [Hint: use
Pythagoras theorem!]
b) Calculate the size of angle DBC. Give your answer correct to 3 significant figures.
c) Calculate the length of AB. Give your answer correct to 3 significant figures.
39
Calculate the length of AB.
We need to use tan: SOHCAHTOA
Adj
Opp
39 tan
x
x
5 . 12
8098 . 0
12.5
39 tan
As x appears on the bottom, we need to use one of the

methods used in the previous example.
Eg:
cm 4 . 15
8098 . 0
1
5 . 12 , So
5 . 12 8098 . 0
1

x
x
50
40
Trigonometry: Harder Questions:
Example:
B
19.5 cm
D A
19.5 cm
C
Because triangle ABC is isosceles we can just consider the top triangle BDA. Length BD would be
half of 16.4 cm, i.e. 8.2 cm.
B
8.2 cm 19.5 cm H
A
D O A
C
148 cm
D
A 120cm B
1
6
.
4
c
m
AB = 19.5 cm, AC = 19.5 cm and BC = 16.4 cm.
Angle ADB = 90 degrees.
BDC is a straight line.
Calculate the size of angle ABC. Give your
answer correct to 1 decimal place.
x
1 . 65 4205 . 0 cos SHIFT

4205 . 0
5 . 19
2 . 8
cos
cos

x
x
H
A
x
15
AB and BC are two sides of a rectangle.
AB = 120 cm and BC = 148 cm.
D is a point on BC.
Angle BAD = 15 degrees.
Work out the length of CD. Give your
answer to the nearest centimetre.
Trigonometry and Bearings
Recall that bearings measure direction. They are angles that are measured clockwise from a north
line. Bearings have three digits.
Example:
The diagram shows the path of a jet-ski from P to Q to R.
First it is important to realise that triangle PQR is a right-angled triangle (with the right angle at Q):
Q 160
700m 70 20
70 500m
20
P x
R
We can therefore find angle x using trigonometry:
46 . 54 4 . 1 tan SHIFT
4 . 1
500
700
tan

x
A
O
x
The angle of P from R is the clockwise angle measured from R to P. It is
360 - 20 - 54.46 = 285.54.
So the bearing is 286 (to nearest degree).
Ballymena Larne
N
32 km 15 km
Woodburn
Q 160
700m
500m
P
R
N
N
070
Q is 700m from P on a bearing of 070 degrees.
R is 500m from Q on a bearing of 160.
Calculate the bearing of P from R.
The blue angles are alternate (Z angles) so are
equal.
The red angles add up to 180 degrees as they
make a straight line.
Therefore angle Q is a right angle.
Ballymena is due west of Larne.
Woodburn is 15 km due south of Larne.
Ballymena is 32 km from Woodburn.
a) Calculate the distance of Larne from
Ballymena, correct to 1 decimal place.
b) Calculate the bearing of Ballymena from
Woodburn.
Angle of elevation
Worked examination question
Abbi is standing on level ground, at B, a distance of 19 metres away from the foot E of a tree TE.
She measures the angle of elevation of the top of the tree at a height of 1.55 metres above the
ground as 32.
Calculate the height TE of the tree. Give your answer correct to 3 significant figures.
Solution:
First find the length TR using trigonometry, specifically using tan:
metres 87 . 11 6249 . 0 19
19
6249 . 0
19
32 tan

TR
TR
TR
A
O
So, to get the height of the tree you need to add Abbis height to this distance.
Therefore, height of tree = 11.87 + 1.55 = 13.4 metres (to 3 s.f.)
Revision Topic 20: Sine and Cosine Rules and 3D Trigonometry
The objectives of this unit are to:
* use the sine and cosine rules to find the length of sides and angles in triangles;
* to use the formula for the area of a triangles;
* to solve problems involving the sine and cosine rules;
* to solve problems involving trigonometry in 3 dimensions.
Brief recap of Grade B and C material:
Pythagoras Theorem:
This theorem, which connects the lengths of the sides in right-angled triangles, states that:
2 2 2
a b c
where c is the length of the hypotenuse (i.e. the side opposite the right-angle) and a and b are the
lengths of the other two sides.
Note that the hypotenuse is the longest side in a right-angled triangle.
Trigonometry
The following formulae link the sides and angles in right-angled triangles:
sin
O
x
H
cos
A
x
H
tan
O
x
A
where H is the length of the hypotenuse;

O is the length of the side opposite the angle;
A is the length of the side adjacent to the angle.
These formulae are often remembered using the acronym SOHCAHTOA or by using mnemonics.
Here is a commonly used mnemonic:
Silly Old Harry Couldn't Answer His Test On Algebra
When finding angles, remember that you need to use the SHIFT key.
Further notes, examples and examination questions relating to Pythagoras theorem and
trigonometry are contained in separate revision booklets.
Sometimes you need to calculate lengths and angles in triangles which do not contain any right-
angles. This is when the sine and cosine rules are useful.
c
b
a
H
A
O
x
Labelling a triangle
To use the sine and cosine rules, you need to understand the convention for labelling sides and
angles in any triangle.
Consider a general triangle:
Triangles are named after their vertices - the above triangle is called triangle ABC.
The three angles are commonly referred to as angles A, B and C.
The length of the sides are given lower case letters:
Side a is the side opposite angle A. It is sometimes referred to as side BC.
Side b is the side opposite angle B. It is equivalently called side AC.
Side c is the side opposite angle C. It is also known as side AB.
A triangle doesnt have to be labelled using the letters A, B and C.
For example, consider the triangle PQR below:
Sine Rule
The sine rule connects the length of sides and angles in any triangle ABC:
It states that:
sin sin sin
a b c
A B C
.
An alternative version of the formula is often used when finding the size of angles:
sin sin sin A B C
a b c

A B
C
c
a
b
A B
C
c
a
b
P Q
R
r
p
q
Example: Finding the length of a side
The diagram shows triangle ABC.
Calculate the length of side AB.
Solution:
To find the length of a side using the sine rule, follow these steps:
Step 1: Label the triangle using the conventions outlined earlier.
Step 2: Look to see whether any additional information can be added to the diagram (for example,
can you deduce the length of any other angles?)
Step 3: Substitute information from the diagram into the sine rule formula.
Step 4: Delete the unnecessary part of the formula.
Step 5: Rearrange and then work out the length of the required side.
In our example, we begin by labelling the sides and by working out the size of the 3
rd
angle (using
the fact that the sum of the angles in any triangle is 180.
Substituting into the formula
sin sin sin
a b c
A B C
, we get:
13.2
sin55 sin53 sin 72
a c

As we want to calculate the length c and as the middle part of the formula is completely known, we
delete the first part of the formula:
13.2
sin53 sin 72
c
Rearranging this formula (by multiplying by sin72) gives:

13.2 sin 72
sin53
c

i.e. c = 15.7 cm (to 1 decimal place).
55
o
72
o
A B
13.2 cm
C
55
o
72
o
A B
13.2 cm
C
c
a
b
53
o
Example: Finding the length of an angle
The diagram shows triangle LMN.
Calculate the size of angle LNM.
Solution:
Step 2: Substitute information from the diagram into the sine rule formula
sin sin sin A B C
a b c
.
Step 3: Delete the unnecessary part of the formula.
Step 4: Rearrange and then work out the size of the required angle.
In our example, the labelled triangle looks like:
The cosine rule formula (adjusted for our lettering) is:
sin sin sin L M N
l m n

Substituting into this gives:
sin sin134 sin
17.5 6.9
L N
l

We want to find angle N and we know the middle part of the formula completely. We therefore
delete the first part of the formula, leaving
sin134 sin
17.5 6.9
N
If we multiply by 6.9, we get:

6.9 sin134
sin 0.2836
17.5
N

.
So angle N = SHIFT sin 0.2836 = 16.5 (to 1 d.p.)
134
o
L
M N
17.5 cm
6.9 cm
134
o
L
M N
17.5 cm
6.9 cm
m
l
n
Examination style question
In triangle ABC, angle ABC = 65, angle ACB = 38, BC = 15 cm.
Work out the length of AB.
Examination style question:
In triangle ABC, angle BAC = 115, AC = 5 cm and BC = 9 cm.
Calculate the size of angle ABC.
A
B C
65
o
38
o
15 cm
Diagram NOT
accurately drawn
5 cm
9 cm
115
o
A
B C
Diagram NOT
accurately drawn
Cosine Rule
The cosine rule also connects the length of sides and angles in any triangle ABC:
It states that:
2 2 2
2 cos a b c bc A
Equivalently, we also have these formulae:
2 2 2
2 cos b a c ac B
2 2 2
2 cos c a b ab C
You need to be familiar with the structure of these formulae. In particular note that the letter that
appears as the subject of the formula also appears as the angle.
Note that the cosine rule can be considered as an extension of Pythagoras theorem.
Example: Finding the length of a side
The diagram shows triangle ABC.
Calculate the length of side AB.
Solution:
To find the length of a side using the cosine rule, follow these steps:
Step 2: Write down the appropriate version of the cosine rule formula and substitute information
from the diagram into it.
Step 3: Work out the length of the required side.
Our labelled diagram here is:
As we wish to find the length of c, we need the formula with c as the subject:
2 2 2
2 cos c a b ab C
Substitute in:
2 2 2
14.7 17.9 2 14.7 17.9 cos 62 c
Typing the right hand side into a calculator (in one long string and pressing = only at the end) gives:
2
289.436 c
Square rooting gives
c = 17.0 cm
A B
C
c
a
b
62
o
A B
17.9 cm
C
14.7 cm
62
o
A B
17.9 cm
C
14.7 cm
a
c
b
Example: Finding the length of an angle
The diagram shows triangle BCD.
Calculate the length of angle BDC.
Solution:
To find the length of a side using the cosine rule, follow these steps:
Step 2: Write down the appropriate version of the cosine rule formula and substitute information
from the diagram into it.
Step 3: Rearrange and work out the length of the required angle.
The labelled diagram here looks like:
We want to find angle D. We therefore need to write down a version of the cosine rule formula that
contains angle D.
The subject of the appropriate formula would therefore be d
2
:
2 2 2
2 cos d b c bc D
Substituting into this formula gives:
2 2 2
11.4 10.7 13.2 2 10.7 13.2 cos
129.96 = 114.49 + 174.24 - 282.48 cos (work out the squares of the terms)
129.96 = 288.73 - 282.48cos (add together the first two numbers on the right)
-158.77 = -282.4
D
D
D

8cos (subtract 288.73 from both sides) D

Therefore
cos 0.56206 D
i.e. D = SHIFT cos 0.56206 = 55.8
B
D
11.4 cm
C
10.7 cm
13.2 cm
B
D
11.4 cm
C
10.7 cm
13.2 cm
c
b
d
125
o
7 cm
12 cm
B
A
C
Worked Examination Question
In triangle ABC, AB = 9 cm, BC = 15 cm and angle ABC = 110.
Calculate the perimeter of the triangle.
Give your answer correct to the nearest cm.
Solution:
In order to calculate the perimeter, we need to work out the length of the third side.
Labelling the triangle:
Using the cosine rule:
2 2 2
2 cos b a c ac B
2 2 2
15 9 2 15 9 cos110 b
2
398.345 b
i.e. b = 20 cm (to nearest cm)
So perimeter = 20 + 15 + 9 = 44 cm (to nearest cm)
Past examination question (Edexcel):
In triangle ABC, AB = 7cm, BC = 12 cm and
angle ABC = 125.
Calculate the length of AC.
110
o
15 cm
9 cm
Diagram NOT
accurately drawn.
A B
C
110
o
15 cm
9 cm A B
C
b a
c
Past examination question (SEG):
The diagram shows triangle ABC. AB = 8.6 cm, BC = 3.1 cm and AC = 9.7 cm.
Calculate angle ABC.
When do you use the sine rule and when do you use the cosine rule?
In an examination, you will need to decide whether to use the sine rule or the cosine rule. It is
helpful to remember that you will need to use the sine rule unless
1) you are told all three sides, in which you can use the cosine rule to find any angle;
2) you are given 2 sides and the angle in between, in which case you can find the final side
using the cosine rule.
Worked example:
Calculate
a) the length AC;
b) angle ADC.
Solution
Consider first triangle ABC. In this triangle we know two sides and the included angle (i.e. the
angle in between). We can therefore use the cosine rule to find the third side, AC.
A
B
C
9.7 cm
3.1 cm
8.6 cm
Not to scale
A
B
C
D
7 cm
12 cm
30
o
13 cm
100
o
Using the cosine rule:
2 2 2
2 cos b a c ac B
2 2 2
7 12 2 7 12 cos30 b
2
47.5077 b
b = 6.89 cm
Therefore AC = 6.9 cm (to 1 d.p.)
(b) To find angle ADC, we now consider triangle ADC:
We are not in either of the situations where the cosine rule can be used, so here we will be using the
sine rule:
sin sin sin D A C
d a c

Substituting into this formula gives:
sin sin
6.89
D A
a
sin100
13
Rearranging gives:
6.89 sin100
sin 0.5219
13
D

So D = 31.5
A
B
C
7 cm
12 cm
30
o
b
a
c
A
C
D
13 cm
100
o
6.89 cm a
c
d
Examination Question (Edexcel June 2001)
Diagram NOT
accurately drawn.
a) Calculate the length of AB. Give your answer in centimetres correct to 3 significant figures.
b) Calculate the size of angle ABC. Give your answer correct to 3 significant figures.
Examination Question (Edexcel November 1998)
In the quadrilateral ABCD, AB = 6 cm, BC = 7
cm, AD = 12 cm, angle ABC = 120, angle
ACD = 70.
Calculate the size of angle ADC. Give your
answer correct to 3 significant figures.
A
B
C
80
o
10 cm 8 cm
12 cm
7 cm
6 cm
B
C
D
A
70
o
120
o
Area of a triangle
The area of a triangle can be found using this alternative formula:
Area of a triangle =
1
sin
2
ab C
Alternative versions are:
Area =
1
sin
2
ac B or Area =
1
sin
2
bc A
This can equivalently be thought of as
Area = product of two sides sine of the included angle.
Example:
Find the area of the triangle:
We can use the above formula to find the area of this triangle as we have two sides and the included
angle (i.e. the angle in between the given sides):
Area =
2
1
8.7 9.8 sin112 39.5cm
2
(to 3 s.f.)
Worked examination question
Angle ACB = 150.
BC = 60 m.
The area of triangle is 450 m
2
.
Calculate the perimeter of triangle ABC. Give your answer correct to 3 significant figures.
A B
C
c
a b
112
o
9.8 cm
8.7 cm
150
o
60 m
C
A
B
Diagram NOT
accurately drawn.
We can use the formula for the area of a triangle to find the length of AC:
Area =
1
sin
2
ab C
So
1
450 60 sin150
2
b
450 30 sin150
450 15 as sin150 = 0.5
b
b
So b = 30 m.
To find the perimeter, we also need the length AB. We can use the cosine rule:
2 2 2
2 cos c a b ab C
2 2 2
30 60 2 30 60cos150 c
2
7617.69... c
So c = 87.3 m
Therefore the perimeter is 30 + 60 + 87.3 = 177.3 = 177 m
2
to 3 SF.
Examination question (June 2004)
AB = 3.2 cm. BC = 8.4 cm. The area of triangle ABC is 10 cm
2
.
Calculate the perimeter of triangle ABC.
Give your answer correct to 3 SF.
150
o
60 m
C
A
B
c
b
a
A
B
C
8.4 cm
3.2 cm
Diagram NOT
accurately drawn.
In triangle PQR, PQ = 9 cm, angle PQR = 67 and angle QPR = 60.
Calculate the area of triangle PQR.
Problem style questions
Questions are often set involving bearings or angles of elevation.
If a diagram has not been drawn in the question, you will need to begin by sketching a diagram to
illustrate the situation.
There will usually be several steps required in order to get to the solution.
P
Q
R
9 cm
60
o
67
o
Worked examination question (Edexcel June 2006)
The diagram shows a vertical tower DC on horizontal ground ABC. ABC is a straight line.
The angle of elevation of D from A is 28.
The angle of elevation of D from B is 54.
AB = 25 m.
Calculate the height of the tower. Give your answer to 3 significant figures.
Solution:
Step 1: Use triangle ADB to find the length DB.
Step 2: Use triangle DBC to find the height DC.
Step 1: From the original diagram, we can deduce that angle ABD = 126 and angle ADB = 26.
Using the sine rule:
sin 28 sin126
a b
25
sin 26
So
25sin 28
26.77
sin 26
a m
Step 2:
Using trigonometry for right-angled triangles:
sin54
26.77
26.77 sin54
21.7m
CD
CD
CD
So the tower is 21.7 m tall.

A B C
D
54
o
28
o
25 m
Diagram NOT
accurately drawn.
A B
D
28
o
25 m
a
b
d
126
o
B C
D
54
o
26.77 m
Examination question (NEAB)
A helicopter leaves a heliport H and its measuring instruments show that it flies 3.2 km on a bearing
of 128 to a checkpoint C. It then flies 4.7 km on a bearing of 066 to its base B.
a) Show that angle HCB is 118.
b) Calculate the direct distance from the heliport H to the base.
128
o
66
o
4.7 km
3.2 km
C
B
H
3D trigonometry
Grade A/ A* questions often involve you finding distances and angles in 3 dimensional objects.
The key to these questions is to identify and draw the relevant 2 dimensional triangle.
Example 1:
ABCDEFGH is a cuboid with dimensions 8cm, 6cm and 5cm (as shown in the diagram). X is the
midpoint of side HG.
a) Find length AC.
AC is length diagonally across the base of the cuboid.
* We start by sketching the base ABCD and we mark on the length we want to find:
* We identify a relevant right-angled triangle (here obviously triangle ABC).
* We can then use Pythagoras theorem to find AC:
AC
2
= AB
2
+ BC
2
AC
2
= 6
2
+ 8
2
AC
2
= 100
So AC = 10 cm
b) Find the length AG
* We begin by identifying a relevant right-angled triangle. Here we use triangle AGC (we use this
triangle because C is vertically below G). We mark on the diagram all the lengths we know:
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
X
6 cm
8 cm
5 cm
A B
C
D
6 cm
8 cm
We now use Pythagoras theorem to find AG:
AG
2
= AC
2
+ CG
2
AG
2
= 10
2
+ 5
2
AG
2
= 125
So AG = 11.2 cm
c) Find angle GAC.
The letters mentioned in the name of the angle tell you which triangle to draw (i.e. triangle GAC).
This is the triangle drawn in part (b).
We can use trigonometry to find angle GAC.
tan =
5
10
i.e = 26.6
d) Find the length AX.
* AX is a diagonal length across the cuboid. Let Y be the point vertically below X. We draw
triangle AXY:
* There is not yet enough information in the diagram to find length AX.
* We can work out length AY however if we draw out the base ABCD:
We can use Pythagoras theorem to find AY:
AY
2
= AD
2
+ DY
2
AY
2
= 6
2
+ 4
2
AY
2
= 52
So AY = 7.2111 cm (note that we dont round too early).
Now we can find AX from triangle AXY:

AX
2
= AY
2
+ XY
2
AX
2
= 7.2111
2
+ 5
2
AX
2
= 77
So AY = 8.775 cm = 8.8 cm (to 1 DP)
e) Find angle AXB
We begin by drawing out triangle AXB (i.e. the triangle with the same letters as the angle we want).
This is an isosceles triangle as AX = XB.
We begin by finding :
4
sin
8.8

= 27
So angle AXB = 54
7.2111cm
Example 2:
ABCDE is a square-based pyramid. The length AB is 8cm.
Point E is vertically above point X, the centre point of square ABCD.
The height of the pyramid, EX, is 7cm.
a) Calculate length AC.
* AC lies along the base of the pyramid.
We therefore begin by drawing out the base.
Triangle ABC is a right-angled triangle. We can therefore use
Pythagoras theorem to find AC:
AC
2
= 8
2
+ 8
2
AC
2
= 128
AC = 11.3 cm
b) Calculate length AE.
* The point below E is point X. We therefore draw out triangle AEX.
Note: AX is half of AC, i.e. 5.65 cm.
We can find AE using Pythagoras theorem:
AE
2
= 7
2
+ 5.65
2
AE
2
= 81
AE = 9.00 cm
c) Calculate angle EAC.
* This angle is the same as angle EAX.
We can calculate this angle using the diagram in (b).
Using trigonometry
7
tan( )
5.65
EAX
51.1 EAX
o
So angle EAC = 51.1
d) Calculate the area of face AEB.
* We begin by drawing out triangle AEB, an isosceles triangle (AE = EB).
A
B
E
8 cm
9 cm
9 cm
* One way to find the area of triangle AEB would be to find the height of this triangle (by splitting
it into 2 right-angled triangles) and then using the formula bh. Alternatively, we could find
angle AEB (for example using the cosine rule) and then using the formula: area = absinC.
If we use the first method, then we must begin by finding the height h of the triangle.
Using Pythagoras theorem:
h+ 4 = 9
h+ 16 = 81
h = 65
h = 8.06 cm
Therefore the area is
2
1
8 8.06 32.2cm
2

Examination question (Edexcel November 2004)
The diagram represents a cuboid ABCDEFGH.
CD = 5 cm, BC = 7 cm, BF = 3 cm.
a) Calculate the length of AG. Give your answer
correct to 3 significant figures.
b) Calculate the size of the angle between AG
and the face ABCD. Give your answer correct
to 3 significant figures.
A B
E
h
9 cm
4 cm
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
7 cm
5 cm
3 cm
The diagram shows a pyramid.
The base, ABCD, is a horizontal square of side 10 cm.
The vertex V is vertically above the midpoint, M, of the base.
VM = 12 cm.
Calculate the size of angle VAM.
Examination question (Edexcel)
The diagram represents a prism.
AEFD is a rectangle.
ABCD is a square.
EF and FC are perpendicular to plane ABCD.
AB = AD = 60 cm.
Angle ABE = 90 degrees.
Angle BAE = 30 degrees.
Calculate the size of the angle that the line DE makes with the plane ABCD.
M
V
10 cm
10 cm
A B
C D
A D
B
C
E F
60 cm
60 cm
30
o
Revision Topic 19: Angles
Angles and parallel lines
Recall the following types of angle:
Alternate angles (or Z angles) are equal: *
*
Corresponding angles (or F angles) are equal: *
*
Vertically opposite angles are equal:
*
*
Angles on a straight line add up to 180: x y x + y = 180
Angles around a point add up to 360: a
e
d c a + b + c + d + e = 360
Angles in triangles
x
The three angles inside a triangle add up to 180
y z x + y + z =180
Angles in quadrilaterals
The four angles inside a quadrilateral add up to 360.
a b
c
d
a + b + c + d = 360
b
Interior and exterior angles in polygons
*
# # *
* # #
*
#
*
Sum of interior angles
We can find the sum of the (interior) angles for any polygon by splitting the polygon into non-
overlapping triangles.
Example: Pentagon
A pentagon can be divided into 3 non-overlapping triangles.
The same principle applies for any polygon:
Polygon Number of
sides
Number of non-
overlapping triangles
Sum of interior angles
Triangle 3 1 1 180 = 180
Quadrilateral 4 2 2 180 = 360
Pentagon 5 3 3 180 = 540
Hexagon 6 4 4 180 = 720
Heptagon 7 5 5 180 = 900
Octagon 8 6 6 180 = 1080
General polygon n n- 2 (n-2) 180 = 180(n- 2)
Sum of exterior angles
The exterior angles for any polygon add up to 360 degrees.
The angles marked # are interior angles.
The angles marked * are exterior angles.
The interior and exterior angle at a corner
of the shape add up to 180 degrees.
As the triangles in each triangle add up to
180, the angles in a pentagon must add up to
3180 = 540.
Example:
Find the marked angles in these two diagrams:
50 130
125
a
50 60
80 85 b
65
The first diagram above concerns exterior angles. The sum of exterior angles in any shape is 360
degrees. Therefore angle a is 360 (50 + 65 + 80 + 50) = 115.
The second diagram above concerns interior angles. The interior angles of a pentagon add up to
540. Therefore angle b is 540 (85 + 125 + 130 + 60) = 140.
Regular Polygons
In a regular polygon all the interior angles are the same. Likewise all the exterior angles are the
same.
Because the exterior angles add up to 360, each of them must be 360 n (where n is the number of
sides).
Since each interior and exterior angle adds up to 180, the interior angles in a regular polygon with
n sides must be
n
360
180 .
Example:
a) A regular polygon has 9 sides. Find the size of an interior angle.
b) A regular polygon has an exterior angle of 20. Show that the sum of the interior angles is
2880.
Solution:
a) Each exterior angle must be 360 9 = 40. So the interior angles must be 180 40 = 140.
b) The exterior angle is 20. The number of sides must be 360 20 = 18.
The interior angles must each be 180 20 = 160.
As there are 18 sides, sum of interior angles = 18 160 = 2880.
C
B D
r
X A E Y
p
36
q
The diagram shows a regular pentagon ABCDE.
BD is parallel to XY.
Angle CBD = 36.
Work out the size of angles p, q and r.
Angles in Circles
Circle Theorems
Theorem 1: The angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.
O
Theorem 2: Angles at the circumference are equal.
Theorem 3: Angle at the centre is twice the angle at the circumference
2
A quadrilateral whose vertices ALL lie on the circumference of a circle is called a cyclic
quadrilateral.
Theorem 4: Opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral add up to 180.
+ = 180
Example:
B C

2
A
Angle BOC = 2 53 = 106 (the angle at the centre is twice
the angle at the circumference).
Triangle BOC is isosceles (as OB and OC are equal since
both radii of the circle).
Therefore x = (180 106)/2 = 37.
Tangents to circles
The tangent to a circle at a point is a line that just touches the circle at that point.
Theorem 5: Two tangents are drawn to a circle. One tangent touches the circle at A and the other
touches the circle at B. If the tangents cross over at P, then PA = PB. If O is the centre of the circle
then PO bisects angle AOB.
B
Theorem 6: The angle between a tangent and a radius is 90.
In the diagram, O is the centre of the circle.
Angle COA = 100.
Calculate
a) angle CBA;
b) angle CDA.
The diagram shows a circle with diameter AC.
a) i) What can you say about angles ADB and ACB?
ii) What is angle ABC? Explain your answer.
iii) Explain why x = 28.
b) If AD = BD, find y.
O
A
P
A, B, C and D are points on the circumference of a circle.
TA and TC are tangents to the circle.
The centre of the circle is at O.
ODT is a straight line.
Angle OTC = 42.
a) Write down the size of angle OCT. Give a reason for your answer.
b) Calculate the size of angle COT. Give reasons for your answer.
Grade A circle theorem: The Alternate Segment Theorem
The angle between a tangent and a chord is equal to any angle on the circumference that stands on
that chord.
O is the centre of a circle.

CD is a tangent to the circle.
Angle OCB is 24.
a) Find the size of angle BCD. Give
reasons for your answer.
b) Find the size of angle CAB. Give a
reason for your answer.
www.schoolworkout.co.uk 1
Topic 22: Straight Line Graphs: Perpendicular Lines
The objectives of this unit are to:
* recap the equation of a straight line and to recap finding the equation of parallel lines;
* to understand the relationship between the gradients of perpendicular lines;
* to calculate the equation of a line perpendicular to a given line.
Recap: Grade B and C content
Gradient and parallel lines
The equation of a straight line has the form y = mx + c, where m is the gradient of the line and c is
the y-interecpt.
Parallel lines have the same gradient.
The gradient of a line passing through two points is found using the formula:
s coordinate in x change
s coordinate y in change
gradient .
Example: 5 2 x y
This is already written in the form y = mx + c.
So the gradient is 2 and the y-intercept is 5.
Example 2: x + y = 7
To find the gradient and y-intercept of this line, we need to rearrange to the form y = mx + c.
We get:
y = -1x + 7.
So gradient is -1 and y-intercept is 7.
Example 3: 12 2 3 y x
Rearranging: 2y = 12 3x
y = 6 1.5x.
So gradient is -1.5 and the y-intercept is 6.
Example 4: Find the equation of the line parallel to y = 3x 1 that passes through the point (0, 5).
Solution: As the line is parallel to y = 3x 1, it must have the same gradient, i.e. 3.
As our line must pass through (0, 5), the y-intercept is 5.
So the required equation is y = 3x + 5.
Example 5: Find the equation of the line parallel to y = 8 2x passing through the point (3, 7).
Solution: A parallel line has the same gradient i.e. -2.
The equation of the parallel line therefore is y = -2x + c.
In order to find c, we can use the coordinates of the point that we wish our line to pass through.
Substituting x = 3, y = 7 gives:
7 = -23 + c
c = 7 + 6 = 13.
So the equation is y = -2x + 13.
Examination question (Edexcel March 2003)
Find the gradient of the straight line with equation x y 2 3 5 .
Examination question (Edexcel June 2004)
A straight line has equation y = 2(3 4x).
Find the gradient of the straight line.
The straight line L
1
has equation y = 2x + 3.
The straight line L
2
is parallel to the straight line L
1
.
The straight line L
2
passes through the point (3, 2).
Find an equation of the straight line L
2
.
Example:
Find the equation of the line passing through the points (1, 5) and (5, -3).
Solution: The y coordinates have gone from 5 to -3, a change of -8.
The x coordinates have gone from 1 to 5, a change of 4.
So gradient is 2
4
8

.
The equation of the line therefore has the form y = -2x + c.
If we substitute in the coordinates of one of our points, for example x = 1, y = 5, we get:
5 = -2 + c
c = 7.
So the line has equation y = -2x + 7.
Examination question (Edexcel January 2005)
A straight line passes through the points (0, 5) and (3, 17).
Find the equation of the straight line.
Perpendicular lines
Two lines are perpendicular is their gradients multiply to give -1, i.e. the gradient of one line is the
negative reciprocal of the gradient of the other.
So if one line has gradient m
1
, then the gradient of a perpendicular line must be
1
1
m
.
Example: Which two of the lines below are perpendicular to the line y = 4 2x.
y = -2x + 5
y = 0.5x + 4
2y = x + 5
x + 2y = 7
Solution:
The gradient of the line y = 4 2x is -2.
A perpendicular line must therefore have gradient 5 . 0
2
1
.
We now look to see which of the four lines given have a gradient of 0.5 by rearranging their
equations to the form y = mx + c.
Line Rearranged form Gradient
y = -2x + 5 - -2
y = 0.5x + 4 - 0.5
2y = x + 5 5 . 2
2
1
x y
x + 2y = 7 x y
2
1
5 . 3 -
The lines perpendicular to y = 4 2x therefore are y = 0.5x + 4 and 2y = x + 5
Example 2: Find the equation of the line perpendicular to x y 2 5 3 passing through the point
(4, 10).
Solution:
The equation x y 2 5 3 is equivalent to x y
3
2
3
5
.
The gradient is therefore
3
2
.
A perpendicular line has gradient
2
3
(i.e the negative reciprocal).
So our equation has the form c x y
2
3
Substitute in x = 4 and y = 10:
10 = c 4
2
3
i.e. c = 4
So the perpendicular line has equation 4
2
3
x y .
A straight line, L, passes through the point with coordinates (4, 7) and is perpendicular to the line
with equation y = 2x + 3.
Find an equation of the straight line L.
Examination question (Edexcel June 2004)
ABCD is a rectangle. A is the point (0, 1). C is the point (0, 6).
The equation of the straight line through A and B is y = 2x + 1.
a) Find the equation of the straight line through D and C.
b) Find the equation of the straight line through B and C.
1
6
y
C
B
A
D
x
1
Further Volume and Surface Area
Objectives
* To find the volume and surface area of spheres, cones, pyramids and cylinders.
* To solve problems involving volume and surface area of spheres, cones, pyramids and cylinders.
Section 1: Volume
Recap from grade B and C work
Volume of cuboid = length width height
Volume of prism = cross-sectional area length
Volume of cylinder = h r
2
,
where r is the radius and h is the height of the cylinder.
Example:
A cuboid measures 15 cm by 12 cm by 8 cm. Find the capacity of the cuboid.
Give your answers in litres.
Solution:
Volume = 15 12 8 = 1440 cm
3
.
As 1 litre = 1000 cm
3
, the capacity of the cuboid = 1.44 litres.
width
length
height
length
cross-sectional
area
radius, r
height, h
2
Example 2:
A cylinder has a volume of 965 cm
3
. If the height of the cylinder is 16 cm, find the radius.
Give your answer to 2 significant figures.
Solution:
Substitute the information from the question into the formula for the volume of a cylinder:
2
965 = 16
2
r
965 =
2
16 r
965 = 50.26548
2
r
19.198 =
2
r
4.38156 = r
So the radius of the cylinder is 4.4 cm (to 2 SF)
Past examination question (Edexcel November 2003)
A can of drink has the shape of a cylinder.
The can has a radius of 4 cm and a height of 15 cm.
Calculate the volume of the cylinder.
Give your answer correct to three significant figures.
Past examination question (Edexcel November 2004)
Diagram NOT
accurately drawn
Calculate the volume of the triangular prism.
3 cm
4 cm
5 cm
7 cm
3
Volume of a sphere
Volume of a sphere =
3
3
4
r
(This formula is given on the GCSE formula sheet).
A hemisphere is half a sphere.
Example
The radius of a sphere is 6.7 cm. Find the volume.
Solution:
Substitute r = 6.7 cm into the formula
Volume =
3
3
4
r
V =
3
7 . 6
3
4

V = 1259.833 (remember to use the cube button on your calculator)
V = 1260 cm
3
(to 3 SF)
Example 2:
Find the volume of the hemisphere shown in the diagram.
Solution:
The diameter of the hemisphere is 18.4 cm.
Therefore the radius is 9.2 cm.
Volume of the hemisphere =
2
1
volume of sphere
=
3
3
4
2
1
r
=
3
2 . 9
3
4
2
1

= 76 . 3261
2
1
= 1630 cm
3
(to 3 SF)
radius, r
6.7 cm
diameter = 18.4 cm
4
Example 3:
A sphere has a volume of 86.5 cm
3
. Find the radius of the sphere.
Solution:
Substitute into the formula for the volume of a sphere: Volume =
3
3
4
r
86.5 =
3
3
4
r
So 86.5 =
3
18879 . 4 r
i.e. 20.65035 =
3
r
So r = 2.74 cm (to 3 SF) (cube rooting)
The sphere has radius 2.74 cm.
The object shown is made up from a cylinder and a hemisphere.
The cylinder has radius 5.0 cm and height 22 cm.
Find the volume of the object.
Solution:
2
= 22 5
2

= 1728 cm
3
(to nearest whole number)
The hemisphere must also have radius 5 cm.
Volume of the hemisphere =
2
1
volume of sphere
=
3
3
4
2
1
r
=
3
5
3
4
2
1

= 262 cm
3
Therefore total volume of the object = 1728 + 262 = 1990 cm
3
.
Problem style example
A tank measures 15 cm by 10 cm by 10 cm
The tank is half-full of water.
A solid metal sphere with radius 2 cm is placed into the tank.
Assuming that the sphere sinks to the bottom of the tank, calculate the amount by which the water
level in the tank rises.
5.0 cm
22 cm
15 cm
10 cm
10 cm
5
Solution
As the sphere will be completely submerged, it will displace its volume of water.
Volume of sphere =
3
3
4
r =
3
4
2
3
= 33.51 cm
3
.
Therefore the water displaced is 33.51 cm
3
.
The water displaced has the form of a cuboid with measurements 15 cm by 10 cm by h cm, where h
is the height by which the water level rises.
So 15 10 h = 33.51
i.e. h = 0.22 cm
The water rises by 0.22 cm.
A solid plastic toy is made in the shape of a cylinder which is joined to a hemisphere at both ends.
The diameter of the toy at the joins is 5 cm.
The length of the cylindrical part of the toy is 10 cm.
Calculate the volume of plastic needed to make the toy. Give your answer correct to three
significant figures.
5 cm
10 cm
6
Examination question (Problem style) (AQA June 2004)
A water tank is 50 cm long, 34 cm wide and 24 cm high.
It contains water to a depth of 18 cm.
Four identical spheres are placed in the tank and are fully submerged.
The water level rises by 4.5cm.
Calculate the radius of the spheres.
Volume of a pyramid
Pyramids come in a range of shapes. They can have bases which are any shape e.g. triangular,
square, rectangular, circular etc.
The volume of any pyramid can be found using the formula:
Volume of pyramid = height area base
3
1

(This formula is NOT given to you in the exam you will need to learn it!)
50 cm
34 cm
18 cm
24 cm
7
Example: (non-calculator paper)
The pyramid shown has a square base.
The square has sides of length 12 cm.
The height of the pyramid is 10 cm.
Find the volume.
Solution:
The area of the square base is 12 12 = 144 cm
2
So, the volume of the pyramid is:
Volume = 0 1 44 1
3
1

= 48 10
= 480 cm
3
.
Example 2:
The diagram shows a triangular-based pyramid.
The base of the pyramid is a right-angled triangle.
The volume of the pyramid is 325 cm
3
.
Find the height of the pyramid.
Solution:
The base of the pyramid is as shown:
The area of the base is 36 8 9
2
1
cm
2
.
Substitute information into the formula for the volume of a pyramid.
Volume of pyramid = height area base
3
1

325 = height 36
3
1

325 = 12 height.
So, height = 325 12 = 27.08 cm (to 4 SF).
Volume of a cone
A cone is a pyramid with a circular base.
The formula for the volume of a cone is:
Volume of cone = h
2
r
3
1
where r is the radius of the cone and h is the height of the cone.
8 cm
9 cm
12 cm
10 cm
9 cm
8 cm
radius, r
height, h
8
Example 1 (non-calculator paper)
The base of a cone has a radius of 4 cm.
The height of the cone is 6 cm.
Find the volume of the cone.
Leave your answer in terms of .
Solution:
Substitute the information into the formula for the volume of a cone:
Volume of cone = h
2
r
3
1
= 6 4
3
1
2

= 6 1 2 (start by finding 1/3 of 6)
volume = 32 cm
3
.
Example 2:
A cone has a volume of 1650 cm
3
.
The cone has a height of 28 cm.
Find the radius of the cone.
Give your answer correct to 2 significant figures.
Solution:
Substitute information into the formula:
Volume of cone = h
2
r
3
1
1650 = 28
3
1
2
r
1650 =
2
32153 . 29 r (evaluating 28
3
1
)
2726 . 56
2
r
i.e. r = 7.5 cm (to 2 SF)
The radius of the cone is therefore 7.5 cm.
Problem solving: Worked examination question (Edexcel June 2005 non calculator paper)
The radius of the base of a cone is x cm and its height is h cm.
The radius of a sphere is 2x cm.
The volume of the cone and the volume of the sphere are equal.
Express h in terms of x.
Give your answer in its simplest form.
4 cm
6 cm
radius, r
28 cm
h cm
x cm
2x cm
Diagrams NOT
accurately drawn
9
Solution:
The volume of the cone is h
2
r
3
1
= h x
2
3
1
The volume of the sphere is
3 3
) 2 (
3
4
r
3
4
x (note: the brackets around 2x are important)
=
3
8
3
4
x (cubing both 2 and x)
=
3
3
32
x
As the sphere and the cone have the same volume, we can form an equation:
3 2
3
32
3
1
x h x
3 2
32 x h x (multiplying both sides by 3)
3 2
32x h x (dividing both sides by )
x h 32 (diving both sides by
2
x )
Past examination question (Edexcel 1997)
A childs toy is made out of plastic.
The toy is solid.
The top of the toy is a cone of height 10 cm and base radius 4 cm.
The bottom of the toy is a hemisphere of radius 4 cm.
Calculate the volume of plastic needed to make the toy.
4 cm
10 cm
10
Volume of a frustrum
A frustrum is a cone with a smaller cone sliced off the top.
The diagram shows a large cone of height 24 cm and base radius 4 m.
A small cone of radius 1.5 cm is cut off the top leaving a frustrum.
Calculate the volume of the frustrum.
Solution:
The volume of the large cone is: 12 . 402 24 4
3
1
2
cm
3
To find the volume of the small cone, we need its height.
The radius of the small cone is
8
3
4
5 . 1
of the radius of the large cone.
Therefore the height of the small cone is
8
3
of the height of the large cone, i.e. the small cone has
height 9 24
8
3
cm
So the volume of the small cone is 21 . 21 9 5 . 1
3
1
2
cm
3
The volume of the frustrum is 402.12 21.21 = 381 cm
3
(to 3F)
Section 2: Surface Area
Recap: Grade B and C
You should be familiar with finding the surface area of prisms (such as cuboids, triangular prisms,
etc). The surface area of a prism is found by adding together the area of each face.
24 cm
4 cm
1.5 cm
11
Find the total surface area of the solid prism shown in the diagram.
The cross-section is an isosceles trapezium.
Solution:
The prism has six faces two are trapeziums and 4 are rectangles.
The area of the front and back faces are:
1
(3 9) 4 6 4 24
2
cm
2
The two sides faces each have an area equal to
5 8 = 40 cm
2
The area of the top face is
3 8 = 24 cm
2
The area of the base is
9 8 = 72 cm
2
So the total surface area is 24 + 24 + 40 + 40 + 24 + 72 = 224 cm
2
.
Surface area of cylinders, spheres, cones and pyramids
Cylinders
A solid cylinder has 3 faces a circular face at either end and a curved
face around the middle:
Surface area of a cylinder =
{ {
2
curved area of top
surface area and bottom
2 2 rh r
(This formula is not on the formula sheet).
Sphere
A sphere has a single curved face.
Surface area of a sphere =
2
4 r
(This formula is on the formula sheet)
5 cm
3 cm
4 cm
9 cm
8 cm
The formula for the area of a trapezium
is:
1
(sum of parallel sides) height
2

radius, r
height, h
radius, r
12
Cone
A solid cone has two surfaces the curved surface and the circular base.
The formula for the curved surface area is:
curved surface area = rl
where l is the slant length.
The values of l, r and h are related by Pythagoras theorem:
2 2 2
h r l .
Pyramid
There is no general formula for the total surface area of a pyramid. Just take each face in turn and
use the relevant formula for finding the area of that faces shape.
Worked example 1:
Find the total surface area of the solid hemisphere shown.
Solution:
The hemisphere has a radius of 5.5 cm.
It has 2 surfaces a circular base and a curved surface.
The area of the circular base is
2 2 2
5.5 95.033cm r
The area of the curved surface is
{
2 2 2
formula for surface
area of a whole sphere
1 1
4 4 5.5 190.066cm
2 2
r
So, total surface area = 285 cm
2
(to 3 SF)
Worked example 2
The diagram shows an object made from two cones, one on top of the other.
The top cone has a height of 8 cm and the bottom cone has a height of 10 cm.
Both cones have a radius of 5 cm.
Find the total surface area of the object.
Solution:
The formula for the curved surface area of a cone is: rl .
We can find the slant length, l, for each cone using Pythagoras
theorem we know the radius and the height of each cone.
Top cone:
2 2 2
5 8 25 64 89
89 9.434
l
l cm

Therefore,
Curved surface area = 5 9.434 148.2cm
radius, r
height, h
slant length, l
5.5 cm
8 cm
10 cm
5 cm
13
Bottom cone:
2 2 2
5 10 25 100 125
125 11.180
l
l cm

Therefore,
Curved surface area = 5 11.180 175.6cm
So total surface area is 324cm
2
(to 3SF)
Worked example 3: (non-calculator)
A cylinder is made from metal.
It has a base but no lid.
The height of the cylinder is 8 cm.
The radius of the cylinder is 3 cm.
Find the amount of metal required to make the cylinder.
Leave your answer in terms of .
Solution:
The area of the base is
2 2
3 9 r
The curved surface area is 2 2 3 8 48 rh
So the area of metal required =
2
9 48 57 cm
Examination style question 1:
A solid object is formed by joining a hemisphere to a cylinder.
Both the hemisphere and the cylinder have a diameter of 4.2 cm.
The cylinder has a height of 5.6 cm.
Calculate the total surface area of the whole object.
Give your answer to 3 SF.
8 cm
3 cm
4.2 cm
5.6 cm
14
Examination style question 2:
A sphere has a volume of 356 cm
3
.
Calculate the surface area of the sphere.
Vectors
Vectors on grids:
* The vector
4
3
| |
|
\ .
represents a line going 4 units to the right
and 3 units up.
* The length of a vector (sometimes called the magnitude) can be found using pythagoras thm.
For example, the length of the above vector is 5.
*
2
4
| |
|
\ .
is a vector 2 units to the left and 4 units down. Its length is
2 2
( 2) ( 4) 20 + = = 4.47
(to 2 dp).
* Vectors can be added, subtracted and multiplied by a scalar (number):
e.g.
2 3 5
4 2 2
| | | | | |
+ =
| | |

\ . \ . \ .
;
3 1 4
7 6 1
| | | | | |
=
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
3 12
4
2 8
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
.
* The notation AB
uuur
(or AB) represents the vector needed to go from point A to point B. For
example, if A is (4, 5) and B is (7, 2) then
3
3
AB
| |
=
|
\ .
uuur
(this can be found by subtracting As
coordinates from Bs).
Worked Examination Question [June 1998 Paper 6]
A is the point (2, 3) and B is the point (-2, 0).
a) Find AB
uuur
as a column vector.
C is the point such that
4
9
BC
| |
=
|
\ .
uuur
.
b) Write down the coordinates of the point C.
X is the mid-point of AB. O is the origin.
c) Find OX
uuur
as a column vector.
Solution:
a) To get from A to B, we move 4 units left and 3 units down. So
4
3
AB
| |
=
|
\ .
uuur
b) Since
4
9
BC
| |
=
|
\ .
uuur
, we know that to move from B to C we move 4 units right and 9 units up. B is
the point (-2, 0) so C is the point (2 , 9).
c) A is the point (2, 3) and B is (-2, 0)
Since X is the mid-point of AB, we find the coordinates of X by finding the average of the two x-
coordinates and the average of the two y-coordinates.
So X is the point
2 ( 2) 3 0
, (0, 1.5)
2 2
+ + | |
=
|
\ .
4
3
Worked Examination question (November 1999 Paper 6)
2 1
and
1 2
| | | |
= =
| |
\ . \ .
p q .
a) Write down as a column vector 2p + q and p 2q.
A is the point (15, 15) and O is the point (0, 0). The vector OA
uuur
can be written in the form cp + dq,
where c and d are scalars.
b) Using part (a), or otherwise, find the values of c and d.
Solution:
a) 2p + q =
2 1 4 1 5
2
1 2 2 2 0
| | | | | | | | | |
+ = + =
| | | | |

\ . \ . \ . \ . \ .
p 2q =
2 1 2 2 0
2
1 2 1 4 5
| | | | | | | | | |
= =
| | | | |

\ . \ . \ . \ . \ .
b)
15
15
OA
| |
=
|
\ .
uuur
So we need to find values c and d such that
15 2 1
15 1 2
c d
| | | | | |
= +
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
Reading across the top line: 15 = 2c + d (1)
Reading across the bottom line: 15 = c 2d (2)
We can solve these simultaneous equations by multiplying the top equation by 2:
30 = 4c + 2d
15 = c 2d
Adding these equations gives 45 = 5c
So c = 9
Therefore from equation (1): 15 = 18 + d
So d = -3
Examination Question 1 (June 1999 Paper 5)
A is the point (0, 4).
3
2
AB
| |
=
|
\ .
uuur
.
a) Find the coordinates of B.
C is the point (3, 4). BD is a diagonal of the parallelogram ABCD.
b) Express BD
uuur
as a column vector.
c)
1
3
CE
| |
=
|
\ .
uuur
. Calculate the length of AE.
Examination Question 2 (June 2001 Paper 5)
A is the point (2, 3) and B is the point (-2, 0).
a) i) Write AB
uuur
as a column vector.
ii) Find the length of the vector AB
uuur
.
D is the point such that BD
uuur
is parallel to
0
1
| |
|
\ .
and the length of AD
uuur
is equal to the length of AB
uuur
.
O is the point (0, 0).
b) Find OD
uuur
as a column vector.
C is the point such that ABCD is a rhombus. AC is a diagonal of the rhombus.
c) Find the coordinates of C.
Vector Geometry
Example:
Solution
a) To find an expression for DC
uuur
we look for a route that takes us from D to C.
DC DA AC = + = a b
uuur uuur uuur
(the vector AC
uuur
goes in the opposite direction to vector b and
so is negative)
b) Likewise, BC BA AC = + = c b
uuur uuur uuur
(the vector BA
uuur
goes in the opposite direction to vector c and
so is negative)
c) DB DA AB = + = + a c
uuur uuur uuur
Note: The position vector of a point, is the vector from the origin to that point. So the position
vector of A is the vector OA
uuur
. If A is the point (a, b) then the position vector of A is
a
b
| |
|
\ .
.
Worked Examination Question (June 2000 Paper 5):
a) Find and OM MN
uuuur uuuur
in terms of a and b.
b) X is the mid-point of MN. Find, in terms of a and b, the vector OX
uuur
.
a) OM OP PM = + = + b a
uuuur uuur uuuur
( PM
uuuur
is half of the vector PQ
uuur
, i.e. a).
3 2 MN MP PO ON = + + = + = a b a a b
uuuur uuur uuur uuur
( ON
uuur
is half of OR
uuur
)
b) Using the answers to (a) we see that:
1 1
2 2
1
2
1
2
(2 )
2
OX OM MN = + = + +
= + +
= +
b a a b
b a a b
a b
uuur uuuur uuuur
Using the information in the diagram, find in terms of a, b
and c:
a) DC
uuur
b) BC
uuur
c) DB
uuur
OPQR is a trapezium. PQ is parallel to OR.
, 2 , 6 OP PQ OR = = = b a a
uuur uuur uuur
.
M is the mid-point of PQ
N is the mid-point of OR.
B C
D
A
a
b
c
P
Q
R O
2a
6a
b
Further examination question (June 1997 Paper 5)
(a) Write down, in terms of a and b, the vectors
(i) QT
uuur
(ii) PR
uuur
(iii) RS
uuur
.
(b) Write down one geometrical fact about QT and RS that could be deduced from your answers
to (a).
Q is the mid-point of the side PR and T
is the mid-point of the side PS of
triangle PRS.
and . PQ PT = = a b
uuur uuur
P
R
S
Q
T
a
b

EXTENDED
MATHEMATICS
0580

REVISION

Compiled & Edited by:

Dr. Tayeb Abdul Rahman

First Edition
2011

www.drtayeb.tk

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(reorder so that you divide the numbers

(a) Calculate A B. Give your answer in standard form.

. Give your answer in standard form.

So, x = 24 0.6018 = 14.4 cm.

So, x = 2.1445 6.8 = 14.6 cm.

Invert both sides:

Work out the left hand side: 1.305 =

As x appears on the bottom, we need to use one of the

1 . 65 4205 . 0 cos SHIFT

where H is the length of the hypotenuse;

Rearranging this formula (by multiplying by sin72) gives:

If we multiply by 6.9, we get:

8cos (subtract 288.73 from both sides) D

So the tower is 21.7 m tall.

Now we can find AX from triangle AXY:

O is the centre of a circle.

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