AfghanlsLan ubllc ollcy 8esearch CrganlzaLlon

Aprll 2014

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1he A8C research Leam responslble for Lhls pro[ecL are (ln alphabeLlcal order): Anll Shaheer
Ahmad, LnayeLullah 8ashardosL, !os WlnLers, and Shaflullah Zlaee. 1hls worklng paper ls based
on !os WlnLer's MasLer's Lhesls for Lhe MaasLrlchL CraduaLe School of Covernance (MaasLrlchL
unlverslLy, 1he neLherlands). 1he fleld research was conducLed durlng 2010 and 2011.

!os WlnLers auLhored Lhls reporL.

A8C ls graLeful Lo Lhe many casual labourers who made Lhemselves avallable for lnLervlews
wlLh Lhe researchers.


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AfghanlsLan ubllc ollcy 8esearch CrganlzaLlon (A8C) ls an lndependenL soclal research
organlzaLlon promoLlng soclal and pollcy learnlng Lo beneflL developmenL and reconsLrucLlon
efforLs ln AfghanlsLan. A8C ls a non-proflL, non-governmenL organlzaLlon, headquarLered ln
kabul, AfghanlsLan. A8C's mlsslon ls Lo measure developmenL progress agalnsL sLraLeglc
reconsLrucLlon ob[ecLlves Lo provlde lnslghLs on how Lo lmprove performance agalnsL Lhe
developmenL mllesLones seL by Lhe Afghan governmenL and lnLernaLlonal donors. A8C
conducLs applled research, carrles ouL evaluaLlons, and provldes Lralnlng on pollcy analysls,
research meLhods, MonlLorlng and LvaluaLlons, and research meLhods.

lor more lnformaLlon, see: www.appro.org.af
ConLacL: mall[appro.org.af


1he responslblllLy for all omlsslons and errors remalns wlLh Lhe auLhor.








2014. AfghanlsLan ubllc ollcy 8esearch CrganlzaLlon. Some rlghLs reserved. 1hls publlcaLlon
may be reproduced, sLored ln a reLrleval sysLem or LransmlLLed for non-commerclal purposes
only and wlLh wrlLLen credlL Lo A8C and Lhe auLhor(s). Where Lhls publlcaLlon ls reproduced,
sLored or LransmlLLed elecLronlcally, a llnk Lo A8C's webslLe aL www.appro.org.af should be
provlded. Any oLher use of Lhls publlcaLlon requlres prlor wrlLLen permlsslon whlch may be
obLalned by wrlLlng Lo: mall[appro.org.af

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1here ls much enLhuslasm for Lhe llnkages beLween reLurn mlgraLlon and developmenL.
Powever, Lhls has hardly been researched for low-skllled reLurnees ln a souLh-souLh mlgraLlon
conLexL. 1hls research samples a hosL of reLurnees among casual labourers ln kabul. 1he maln
quesLlon ls Lo whaL exLenL Lhese low skllled casual labourers have galned from Lhelr mlgraLlon
experlence upon reLurn ln Lerms of accrued skllls and Lechnlques. 1he hypoLhesls ls LhaL Lhose
who are beLLer prepared (cltcomstooce) for Lhelr reLurn wlll have more galns (lmpocts) from
Lhelr mlgraLlon experlence upon reLurn. 1he maln concluslon of Lhls sLudy ls LhaL desplLe Lhe
many problems LhaL plague AfghanlsLan's soclo-economlc condlLlons, and Lhe dlsLanL prospecL
of Lhese problems belng addressed, Lhe mlgranLs LhaL have galned skllls abroad have a
slgnlflcanL relaLlve advanLage over oLhers wlLhouL Lhose skllls as far as employablllLy. 1hey
learned new generlc and Lechnlcal skllls, aesLheLlc values, and Lhe use of Lools Lhey were noL
accusLomed Lo before. upon reLurn Lhelr quallLy of work ls clalmed Lo be beLLer, Lhelr
employablllLy lncreased and source of lncome ls less volaLlle.

key words: reLurn mlgraLlon, developmenL, lnnovaLlon, souLh-souLh mlgraLlon, sklll Lransfer,
AfghanlsLan










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SouLh-souLh mlgraLlon ls generally deflned as mlgraLlon beLween Lwo 'developlng' or 'less-
developed' counLrles. SouLh-souLh mlgraLlon on a global scale consLlLuLes abouL 30 of Lhe
lnLernaLlonal flows, and of Lhese 80 Lakes place beLween nelghbourlng counLrles.
1
SouLh-souLh
mlgraLlon happens because of spaLlal and culLural proxlmlLy, hence a hlgher lncldence of
avallable neLworks and mlgraLlon becomes affordable for larger segmenLs of Lhe populaLlon.
nelghbourlng counLrles are also by and large used Lo seek refuge from dlsasLer and confllcL, or
Lo LranslL Lo anoLher counLry aL some polnL.
2


SouLh-souLh mlgraLlon ls assoclaLed wlLh lnsLablllLy, as souLh-souLh mlgraLlon ls for many
affecLed famllles Lhe mosL obvlous opLlon Lo seek refuge ln case of confllcL. Plgh numbers of
sudden lnflux puLs soclo-economlc pressures on hosL counLrles. Llkewlse Lhere are larger reLurn
fluxes ln a souLh-souLh conLexL, puLLlng pressures on soclal servlces and boosLlng
unemploymenL ln counLrles of reLurn. Moreover Lhere ls a hlgher lncldence of expulslons of
mlgranLs ln a souLh-souLh conLexL, as ln many cases Lhey mlgraLed lrregularly. LasLly, lL ls
posLulaLed LhaL souLh-souLh mlgraLlon ls more sub[ecL Lo economlc cycles. Pence Lhere are
speclflc characLerlsLlcs and vulnerablllLles assoclaLed wlLh souLh-souLh mlgranLs.

Slnce Lhe uS led lnvaslon ln 2001 and Lhe ousLlng of Lhe 1allban reglme around 6 mllllon Afghans
have reLurned from lran and aklsLan Lo AfghanlsLan.
3
MosL reLurnees moved Lo Lhe clLles ln
AfghanlsLan, as a resulL kabul's populaLlon has grown expanslvely ln recenL years.
4
LsLlmaLes of
Lhe populaLlon of kabul vary from 3 Lo 7 mllllon, whereas kabul had approxlmaLely 1 mllllon
lnhablLanLs ln 2001.
3
Such an unprecedenLed urbanlzaLlon ls Laklng lLs Loll on soclo-economlc
well-belng ln Lerms of access Lo servlces, goods and lnfrasLrucLure.
6
Moreover Loo rapld
urbanlzaLlon puLs hlgh pressures on Lhe labour markeL. 1here ls an oversupply of labour, whlch
promoLes Lhe lnformal secLor and heavy compeLlLlon.
7


ln Lhese clrcumsLances lL remalns unclear ln whaL ways and Lo whaL exLenL reLurn mlgraLlon ln a
souLh-souLh mlgraLlon conLexL changes Lhe soclo-economlc ouLlook of a 'developlng' counLry or
beneflLs a mlgranL (famlly). Several sLudles carrled ouL ln AfghanlsLan have lndlcaLed LhaL a
slgnlflcanL porLlon of Afghans LhaL have been Lo lran and aklsLan have learned new skllls,
lncludlng low-skllled labourers, however.
8
And accordlng Lo lLC (2008:xlv),

1
See 8aLha and Shaw (2007) p. 3. lL ls unclear wheLher Lhls number lncludes refugees.
2
See 8aLha and Shaw (2007) Ch. 3 and Pu[o and lper (2007) p. 2
3
See unPC8, AfghanlsLan CounLry CperaLlons roflle, aL www.unhcr.org/pages/49e486eb6.hLml. 1he
LoLal number of reLurnees ls 6,234,922. lrom aklsLan 3,607,673 have been asslsLed, 349,383 have
reLurned wlLhouL asslsLance. lrom l ran 839,611 have been asslsLed, 1,403,013 have reLurned wlLhouL
asslsLance.
4
lor lnsLance unPC8 esLlmaLed 41 of asslsLed reLurns come from lran and 48 from aklsLan.
3
unlLed naLlons ueparLmenL of Lconomlc and Soclal Affalr (unuLSA-World urbanlzaLlon rospecLs-
2007) esLlmaLes.
3227000 lnhablLanLs, whereas 8eall and Lsser (2003) suggesL a number beLween 3.6 - 6.4 mllllon.
6
See AlLal ConsulLlng (2010) p. 8
7
See 8eall and SchuLLe (2006) p. 3
8
See AlLal ConsulLlng (2006, 2009, 2010), kronenfeld (2011), SalLo (2009)
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lmprovemenLs ln human caplLal (Lhrough skllls developmenL) ls one of Lhe key deLermlnanLs of
how, and for whom, producLlvlLy growLh LranslaLes lnLo employmenL growLh and, posslbly, lnLo
beLLer work ln Lhe lnformal economy and Lo movemenL from Lhe lnformal Lo Lhe formal
economles.

1he exLenL Lo whlch low-skllled reLurn mlgranLs galn from Lhe newly acqulred skllls ln
AfghanlsLan ln Lerms of lncreased employablllLy or hlgher wages has noL been sLudled
speclflcally. 1hls sLudy lnvesLlgaLes Lhe exLenL low-skllled workers have learned new sklll, how
Lhey have learned Lhem, whaL Lhe clrcumsLances of reLurn were and how Lhey have galned from
Lhose newly acqulred skllls upon reLurn lf aL all.

1he concepLual framework for Lhls research draws largely on Lhe model developed by Casserlno
(2004) ln hls paper 1beotlsloq tetoto mlqtotloo. tbe cooceptool opptoocb to tetoto mlqtotloo. Pe
argues Lhe propenslLy of mlgranLs Lo become acLors of change and developmenL aL home
depends on Lhe exLenL Lo whlch Lhey have provlded for Lhe preparaLlon of Lhelr reLurn" (p. 271).
1he noLlon of preparedness llnks Lhe cltcomstooces of reLurn mlgraLlon wlLh lmpocts of reLurn
mlgraLlon. 1haL llnk ls parLlcularly lmporLanL ln a souLh-souLh mlgraLlon conLexL and reLurn Lo a
posL/ln-confllcL slLuaLlon llke AfghanlsLan, where unusual clrcumsLances of reLurn are llkely Lo
affecL Lhe preparedness and Lhe lmpacL upon reLurn.

1hls sLudy ls relevanL for a number of reasons. ln kabul only 6 percenL of [obs are formal. 1he
pool of casual labourers ls esLlmaLed on 32 of Lhe LoLal labour force ln kabul.
9
1here are abouL
20 polnLs ln kabul where casual labourers come LogeLher and slL on Lhe slde of Lhe road walLlng
Lo geL plcked up. 1here ls no sLaLe regulaLlon, supporL or proLecLlon for Lhem. Moreover Lhere ls
hlgh level of compeLlLlon, hence Lhere ls a hlgh lncldence of under-employmenL and ln some
cases explolLaLlon.
10
Casual labourers work ln condlLlons LhaL vlolaLe Lhe mosL baslc sLandards of
dlgnlLy, safeLy and healLh.
11
1herefore lnformaLlon on how casual labourers can galn more from
Lhelr mlgraLlon experlence, or whaL unLapped resources Lhere are amongsL Lhem ln Lerms of
enhanced human caplLal as a resulL of mlgraLlon, could be very valuable ln lnformlng pollcy
maklng almed aL addresslng Lhe pllghL of casual labourers and formallzaLlon of Lhe labour
markeL, boLh as necessary condlLlons for expandlng Lhe base of economlc acLlvlLy and
generaLlng employmenL growLh ln Lhe longer Lerm.

Second, lnLegraLlon of reLurnees ls consldered one of Lhe mosL lmporLanL lssues ln posL/ln-
confllcL AfghanlsLan.
12
ln a recenL lnLervlew eLer nlcolaus, unlLed naLlons Plgh Commlssloner
for 8efugees
(
unPC8) represenLaLlve ln AfghanlsLan, called Lhe masslve repaLrlaLlon programme
Lhe blggesL mlsLake unPC8 ever made .[].We LhoughL lf we gave humanlLarlan asslsLance
Lhen macro developmenL would klck ln".
13
lL ls, Lherefore, lmporLanL for Lhe CovernmenL of
AfghanlsLan and Lhe lnLernaLlonal CommunlLy Lo have a beLLer undersLandlng of Lhe condlLlons
ln whlch reLurnees can galn from Lhelr mlgraLlon experlence upon reLurn. lurLhermore, lf
preparedness ls Lhe declslve facLor ln Lhe ablllLy Lo galn from Lhe mlgraLlon experlence of reLurn,

9
See 8eall and SchuLLe (2006) p.33
10
See 8eall and SchuLLe (2006) and WrlghL (2010)
11
See WrlghL (2010)
12
See f.e. unPC8 ob[ecLlves Lo provlde llvellhoods Lo reLurnees, global appeal 2010-2011 AfghanlsLan.
lurLhermore reLurn Lo AfghanlsLan ls seen as Lhe ma[or durable soluLlon Lo refugee problem. See also
AnuS secLlon for Mo88
13
See hLLp://www.rellefweb.lnL/node/467313
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Lhls sLudy can polnL ouL concreLe dlrecLlons of lnLervenLlon Lo beLLer prepare reLurnees.

llnally, Lhls sLudy fllls several gaps ln Lhe body of llLeraLure on Lhe (reLurn) mlgraLlon-
developmenL nexus by looklng aL a speclflc group of low-skllled reLurnees ln a SouLh-SouLh and
posL/ln-confllcL conLexL. 1he (reLurn) mlgraLlon - developmenL nexus has mosLly been dlscussed
wlLhln a norLh-SouLh mlgraLlon conLexL. Moreover, Lhe sLudles on Lhe (reLurn) mlgraLlon -
developmenL nexus have malnly focused on lC1 and healLhcare secLors. As well, Lhey have ln
mosL cases focused on Lhe reLurn of hlgh-Lech skllled labourers, hardly ever on Lhe reLurn of
low-skllled labourers.

1he paper ls sLrucLured as follows. llrsL Lhe ob[ecLlves and meLhodology are descrlbed ln Lhe
nexL secLlon. SecLlon 3 elaboraLes on Lhe concepLual framework developed by Casserlno. 1he
flndlngs are presenLed ln secLlon 4 and Lhe concluslons and recommendaLlons of Lhe sLudy ln
secLlon 3.
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1he maln alm of Lhls research was Lo esLabllsh Lhe exLenL Lo whlch casual (low or unskllled)
Afghan labourers reLurnlng from lran and aklsLan have galned from Lhelr mlgraLlon experlence.
1he flrsL ob[ecLlve was Lhus Lo esLabllsh wheLher Lhe reLurnees had obLalned new skllls and
Lechnlques ln lran and aklsLan whlle Lhe second ob[ecLlve was Lo esLabllsh Lhe exLenL Lo whlch
Lhey had galned from Lhelr mlgraLlon experlence ln Lerms of employablllLy and hlgher wages
upon reLurn Lo AfghanlsLan. 1he Lhlrd ob[ecLlve for Lhls research was Lo esLabllsh wheLher
preparedness was a declslve facLor connecLlng Lhe cltcomstooces of reLurn Lo effects of reLurn,
Lhereby llnklng Lhe flndlngs Lo Lhe concepLual framework.

1he ob[ecLlves were meL Lhrough an exLenslve llLeraLure revlew Lo Lake sLock of whaL ls known
abouL Lhe reLurn mlgraLlon - developmenL nexus ln a souLh-Lo-souLh mlgraLlon conLexL wlLh a
focus on AfghanlsLan. 1he prlmary daLa was collecLed Lhrough 1 focus group dlscusslon (lCu),
18 ln-depLh seml-sLrucLured lnLervlews, and 36 shorL surveys. Slnce reLurnees from aklsLan and
lran are amongsL non-mlgranLs, Lhe shorL survey was used for boLh Lo slngle ouL Lhe reLurnees
for furLher ln-depLh quesLlonlng and Lo provlde some of Lhe counLerfacLual daLa of non-
reLurnees. 1he randomly selecLed fleld slLes were 1almanl SLreeL 8, 8aharlsLan square and
Shomall roundabouL ln kabul. 1he survey quesLlons and seml-sLrucLured lnLervlews were
conducLed aL Lhese Lhree locaLlons. 1he lCu parLlclpanLs also came from Lhose Lhree locaLlons.
1he lCu was conducLed aL a deslgnaLed locaLlon.

1here are several meLhodologlcal llmlLaLlons ln Lhls research. llrsL, kabul, as any oLher caplLal
clLy, ls a melLlng poL of eLhnlclLles and backgrounds prevalenL ln socleLy aL large. CLher sLudles
show LhaL Lhe plck-up polnLs for casual labourers are ofLen (self) organlzed along eLhnlc llnes
and eLhnlclLy bears a dlrecL llnk Lo Lhe desLlnaLlon of mlgraLlon.
14
Second, full random sampllng
was noL carrled ouL due Lo resource consLralnLs and concerns abouL securlLy ln some of Lhe
locaLlons. 1he sample ls Lherefore noL represenLaLlve and serves only as lllusLraLlon of some of
Lhe maln lssues regardlng reLurn mlgraLlon from aklsLan and lran.


14
See koepke (2011).
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1hlrd, 'sklll' ls ofLen undersLood as havlng Lhe sLrucLure of a 'program' or a rouLlne.
13
1he
knowledge abouL Lhe rouLlne glves sklll lLs economlc value Lhrough lLs repeaLablllLy. Slnce low-
level skllls ln, say, brlcklaylng, are based mosLly on LaclL knowledge, lL ls dlfflculL Lo capLure lL by
asklng Lhe low-skllled labourers wheLher Lhey have enhanced Lhelr sklll whlle belng a mlgranL.
As a resulL, parL of Lhelr sklll levels mlghL be overlooked noL only by Lhe researchers asklng Lhe
quesLlon buL also by Lhe newly skllled, low-skllled, labourer. Moreover, sklll would be Loo
narrowly deflned lf one would focus only on Lask performance. 1here are also cognlLlve and
generlc compeLences lnvolved ln acqulrlng skllls, whlch Lend Lo be lnLanglble aL flrsL slghL.

Lven Lhough Lhe survey asked Lhe respondenLs Lo lndlcaLe generlc skllls such as ablllLy Lo learn
and supervlsory skllls, and Lechnlcal skllls such as brlcklaylng and weldlng, Lhe respondenLs were
noL able Lo relay Lo Lhe researchers how well Lhey could masLer Lhese skllls. 1he LaclL feaLures of
sklll, Lhe lnLerdependence of sklll on more generlc compeLences, and Lhe dlfferenL Lechnlques
deployed wlLhln a cerLaln sklll came mosLly forward ln Lhe focus group dlscusslon where
researchers had more opporLunlLles Lo probe and verlfy answers. AnoLher consLralnL ln Lhls
research was Lhe chaoLlc envlronmenL aL Lhe plck-up polnLs. As soon as Lhe casual labourers
slghLed Lhe researchers, Lhere would be a swarm of labourers Loward Lhem ln Lhe expecLaLlon of
geLLlng casual work or handouLs.
LE 7,&="1#$+0 M%+2"?,%>
1he developmenLal lmpacL aLLrlbuLed Lo mlgraLlon has been esLlmaLed dlfferenLly over Llme. up
unLll Lhe 1970s Lhere was mosLly sheer opLlmlsm wlLh mlgraLlon belng consldered as a means Lo
overcome wealLh dlsparlLles beLween developed and developlng counLrles. lrom Lhe 1970s
onwards, pesslmlsm was Lhe domlnanL mood based on some of Lhe ldenLlfled negaLlve lmpacLs
of mlgraLlon on developmenL and because of Lhe dependency of developlng counLrles on
developed counLrles and Lhe fllghL of human caplLal from developlng counLrles. lrom Lhe 1990s
onwards Lhe plcLure becomes more nuanced, and Lends Lo be more opLlmlsLlc agaln.
16


1he relaLlvely recenL falLh and lnLeresL ln Lhe developmenLal lmpacL of mlgraLlon can be largely
aLLrlbuLed Lo Lhe 'dlscovery' of new channels Lhrough whlch mlgraLlon conLrlbuLes Lo
developmenL. llrsLly, Lhere ls much enLhuslasm for Lhe flow of remlLLances, whlch for some
developlng counLrles can make up as much as 30 of Cn.
17
Secondly, reLurn mlgraLlon ls
consldered a channel Lhrough whlch mlgraLlon can poLenLlally conLrlbuLe Lo developmenL ln Lhe
counLrles of orlgln by means of Lhe lnflux of accrued human caplLal and savlngs. Also Lhe
(pollLlcal) lnvolvemenL of dlaspora communlLles can poLenLlally conLrlbuLe Lo developmenL ln
Lhe counLrles of orlgln, Lhrough unllaLeral acLlon, co-developmenL programs and faclllLaLlon of
forelgn dlrecL lnvesLmenL (lul).

1he llLeraLure on Lhe (reLurn) mlgraLlon- developmenL nexus ls spread over dlfferenL dlsclpllnes
such as economlcs, soclology and anLhropology. Analyses are carrled ouL on dlfferenL scales
from household Lo naLlonal level, wlLh funcLlonallsLlc (neo-classlcal Lconomlcs, new Lconomlcs
of Labour MlgraLlon) and sLrucLurallsLlc (MarxlsL) approaches Lo developmenL. And recenLly

13
See nelson, 8.8. and S. WlnLer (1982) ChapLer 3.
16
See cf. Paas, P de (2006), 8lack, 8 & Sward (2009)
17
World 8ank (8aLha, u. 2003).
www.appro.org.af

8
Lhere have been more plurallsLlc approaches, lncludlng llvellhood framework, neLwork analysls
and LransnaLlonallsm.
18
Casserlno's (2004) deploys a crosscuLLlng model LhaL lncorporaLes Lhe
macro and mlcro level of analysls, Lhe exLenL of agency and sLrucLure, and dlfferenL academlc
dlsclpllnes Lhrough Lhe denomlnaLor of 'preparedness'.

Casserlno argues Lhe propenslLy of mlgranLs Lo become acLors of change and developmenL aL
home depends on Lhe exLenL Lo whlch Lhey have provlded for Lhe preparaLlon of Lhelr reLurn"
(p. 271). 1he preparaLlon enLalls wllllngness and readlness Lo reLurn, whlch ln Lurn concerns
Langlble (flnanclal caplLal) and lnLanglble (l.e. conLacLs, relaLlonshlps, skllls, eLc.) resource
moblllzaLlon (see flgure 1).



llqote 1 MoJel tokeo ftom cossetloo (2004) p. 271

8esldes reconclllng many of Lhe LheoreLlcal dlscourses on (reLurn) mlgraLlon and developmenL,
Casserlno's (2004) model places Lhe propenslLy of galnlng from Lhe mlgraLlon experlence ln a seL
of observables. 1he focus on Langlble and lnLanglble resource moblllsaLlon seems Lo be
especlally of lmporLance Lo explaln reLurn mlgraLlon ln a souLh-souLh conLexL, slnce lL ls known
LhaL Afghans rely heavlly on soclal neLworks durlng mlgraLlon.
19


Moreover preparedness as an explanaLory varlable cross cuLs Lhe usual concepLual specLrum of
mlgranL ldenLlLles such as refugee reLurnee, hlgh-skllled reLurnee, sLudenL reLurnee,
enLrepreneur reLurnee, whlch are ofLen used Lo explaln Lhe exLenL reLurnees galn from Lhelr
mlgraLlon upon reLurn. ln Lhe conLexL of AfghanlsLan Lhls ls parLlcularly useful as mlgranL
ldenLlLles are very fluld and mlgranL experlences dynamlc. 1he model leaves room for clrcularlLy,
lnLerplay of sLrucLural consLralnLs, opporLunlLles ln hosL and home counLrles, and pro-acLlvlLy
Lhrough agency.

18
See CasLles and Mlller (2009) 1be oqe of mlqtotloo.
19
cf. Parpvlkken (2009)
www.appro.org.af

9
GE ;"J M)&-)&*5
CuL of Lhe 18 persons selecLed for ln-depLh lnLervlews, Lwo had been Lo aklsLan, flve Lo
aklsLan and lran, and eleven Lo lran. 1en lnLervlewees had been Lo aklsLan and lran aL mulLlple
Llmes, conslsLenL wlLh Lhe vlew of mlgraLlon as belng a way of llfe and a coplng sLraLegy for
many Afghans. Cn average Lhe lnLervlewees had spenL 3.3 years abroad, wlLh 13 years as Lhe
longesL and 9 monLhs of Lhe year as Lhe shorLesL perlod. CuL of Lhe seven focus group
parLlclpanLs Lwo had been Lo aklsLan, Lwo Lo lran, and Lhree Lo boLh aklsLan and lran. Cn
average Lhe focus group parLlclpanLs had spenL a llLLle over 8 years abroad.

MosL of Lhe lnLervlewed reLurnees lndlcaLed LhaL Lhe reasons for golng abroad was a mlx of
push and pull facLors, Lhough Lhere were many more push-facLors Lhan pull facLors. 1he push
facLors lnclude Lhe lnLermlLLenL confllcL / war, Lhe comlng Lo power of Lhe 1allban, droughL, and
general unemploymenL. Many of Lhe respondenLs polnLed Lo famlly members or frlends llvlng
abroad as pull facLors ln Lhelr declslon Lo mlgraLe. 1he general mood and desperaLlon of mosL of
Lhe respondenLs ls well capLured ln a commenL from one of Lhe respondenLs: . Lhere was war
ln AfghanlsLan and Lhere wasn'L any work Lo do, so l walked Lo aklsLan ln 14 days" (8espondenL
#4). Slmllarly, a focus group parLlclpanL (arLlclpanL #3) sald,

l was ln MaLak brldge [arwan provlnce] and saw my house geLLlng burned down. 1he 1allban
Look me Lo Charlkar cenLer of arwan provlnce, Lhey puL me ln Lhe ul-e-charkhl [all. AfLer some
Llme we had been exchanged for 1allban prlsoners LhaL were capLured by Ahmad Shah Massoud.
When l goL released from [all, l wenL dlrecLly Lo aklsLan wlLh my famlly.

1he followlng graphs and narraLlves demonsLraLe Lhe dlfferences ln sklll levels beLween non-
mlgranLs, as a conLrol group, and reLurnees. 1he emphasls ls on how Lhe mlgranL casual
labourers flnd work and whaL Lype of work Lhey perform away from AfghanlsLan.

MosL mlgranLs knew a frlend or famlly member LhaL helped Lhem flndlng work ln Lhe hosL
counLry. ln Lwo lnsLances Lhe smuggler helped wlLh flndlng work. 1he Lype of cross-border
neLworks LhaL mlgranLs can rely on ls well lllusLraLed ln Lhe commenLs from one focus group
parLlclpanL (arLlclpanL #2),

l was ln eshawar wlLh my uncle. Pe knew ashLu and l worked wlLh hlm. l came Lhrough Lhe
mounLalns back Lo AfghanlsLan and found my house desLroyed. Agaln l wenL Lo aklsLan, .. l
sLarLed worklng wlLh my uncle agaln. My uncle had boughL land from aklsLanls and bullL small
houses Lo renL Lo Afghan mlgranLs.

uesplLe exlsLlng neLworks, ln mosL cases Lhe mlgranL workers were performlng casual labour ln
lran and aklsLan. MosL of Lhem worked aL consLrucLlon slLes and were plcked up from
deslgnaLed plck-up polnLs by conLracLors. 1he workers found work as a guard, a vendor ln a shop
or as a menlal worker ln a facLory. Many had performed mulLlple of [obs durlng Lhelr mlgraLlon
span.

1o deLermlne wheLher reLurnees had learned skllls, non-mlgranLs were lnLervlewed as well Lo
creaLe counLerfacLual daLa. 1o capLure Lhe dlfferences ln sklll levels Lhe survey conLalned a llsL of
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10
24 skllls Lyplcally used ln consLrucLlon work. Cf Lhese, 7 skllls were general such as Lhe ablllLy Lo
work ln a Leam, learn and deploy new skllls, and fulfll a leadershlp role. 1he oLher skllls llsLed
were Lechnlques such as masonry, carpenLry, and elecLrlcal consLrucLlon. 1he respondenLs were
asked Lo lndlcaLe Lhelr proflclency level for each of Lhe llsLed skllls from 1 Lo 3, wlLh 1 belng no
masLery aL all and 3 belng excellenL masLery.

M)*$%" H </"%+*" 5>)00 0"/"0 5=,%"


1he dlfferences beLween reLurnees and non-mlgranLs are qulLe slgnlflcanL. 1he survey daLa
suggesLs LhaL reLurnees are slgnlflcanLly beLLer endowed wlLh generlc skllls compared Lo non-
mlgranLs. ln parLlcular, Lhe ablllLy Lo work ln a Leam, perform leadershlp and declslon-maklng
roles, and learn new skllls were reporLed Lo be hlgher among reLurnees Lhan non-mlgranLs. 1hls
mlghL be aLLrlbuLed Lo exposure Lo a dlfferenL culLure and a dlfferenL work envlronmenL Lhough
Lhls needs Lo be verlfled.

1here ls a dlfference ln Lechnlcal sklll level, buL ls noL very blg. ln general, reLurnees reporLed
LhaL Lhey could masLer each of Lhe llsLed skllls sllghLly beLLer. ln parLlcular, Lhey reporLed
slgnlflcanLly hlgher levels of masLery ln brlcklaylng, masonry, and palnLlng and decoraLlng.
Woodcarvlng, on Lhe conLrary, was Lhe only sklll LhaL non-mlgranLs reporLed Lo be beLLer aL.

ln Lhe lndlvldual lnLervlews and focus group dlscusslons reLurnees reporLed Lo have learned a
range of skllls, such as concreLlng, plasLerlng, rooflng, and masonry. 1he vasL ma[orlLy of Lhe
respondenLs reporLed Lo have learned Lhelr skllls on Lhe [ob and noL Lhrough formal Lralnlng. As
one respondenL (lCu arLlclpanL #6) puL lL:

. We were worklng as slmple workers wlLh an lranlan skllled worker. 1he lranlan workers are
Lralned and sLyllsh and dld Lhelr work very beauLlfully. AfLer much Llme of worklng under Lhelr
supervlslon and dlrecLlons glven by Lhe skllled workers Lhere, we learned Lhe skllls and became
skllled.

AnoLher focus group dlscusslon parLlclpanL reporLed LhaL when he was ln AfghanlsLan he llked
masonry and was self-LaughL. Cn golng Lo lran and worklng wlLh masons Lhere, he learned new
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11
ways of dolng masonry, parLlcularly ln mlxlng masonry wlLh plasLer work as new sLyles (lCu
parLlclpanL #1). Some parLlclpanLs lndlcaLed Lo have learned how Lo use cerLaln Lools and
Lechnlques for, for example, preclslon Llle cuLLlng as compared Lo before when Lhey used only a
nall and hammer Lo break off pleces from a Llle.

AL Lhe same Llme, a slgnlflcanL number of Lhe parLlclpanLs reporLed LhaL Lhey had noL learned
anyLhlng from Lhelr experlence of worklng abroad. Cne respondenL reporLed, l was worklng
Lhere, l was Laklng on any klnd of [ob or duLy. l wasn'L Lhlnklng abouL wheLher lL was easy or
hard." (8espondenL #7). AnoLher respondenL conflrmed, . unforLunaLely l dldn'L learn
anyLhlng, l dldn'L learn any sklll, l was [usL worklng as a labourer" (8espondenL #11). 1hese
commenLs suggesL LhaL leavlng AfghanlsLan for work ln nelghbourlng counLrles ls ofLen [usL LhaL,
flndlng work, and LhaL golng abroad Lo work does noL necessarlly resulL ln an lncrease ln Lhe sklll
seL of Lhe mlgranL workers.

lor Lhose who reporLed Lo have learned skllls, Lhere were also numerous examples of upward
moblllLy due, ln parL, Lo acqulslLlon of new skllls. Some also reporLed LhaL Lhey acLlvely pursued
upward moblllLy Lhrough acqulrlng new skllls:

l escaped Lo aklsLan and sLarLed worklng wlLh a aklsLanl mason. l wanLed Lo learn Lhe
plasLerlng as parL of dolng masonry and so l sLarLed Lo work under a aklsLanl mason from whom
l could learn plasLerlng. AfLer some Llme l learned masonry and plasLer work and sLarLed worklng
as a [skllled] mason (lCu parLlclpanL #3)

Cr,

ln my flrsL year ln lran l worked as a slmple worker, Lhen l became a mason. l worked
lndependenLly as a plasLerer, roofer and Lller ln 1ehran for slx years (lCu parLlclpanL #6).

MosL respondenLs and focus group parLlclpanLs lndlcaLed LhaL Lhey would noL have obLalned
Lhelr skllls, had Lhey sLayed ln AfghanlsLan.

Casserlno's (2004) concepL of 'preparedness' conslsLs of a wllllngness Lo reLurn, soclal caplLal,
and moblllzaLlon of Langlble and lnLanglble resources. 1he declslon Lo reLurn for mosL of
respondenLs and parLlclpanLs ls a mlx of push and pull facLors. ln nearly all Lhe cases Lhe
respondenLs reporLed Lo have come back soon afLer Lhe 1allban reglme was ousLed, ln 2002
Lhrough Lo 2010. lor many, Lhe promlses of a beLLer, peaceful, and more prosperous
AfghanlsLan ln 2002 by Lhe Afghan CovernmenL and Lhe lnLernaLlonal donors and mlllLary forces
were key ln Lhe declslon Lo reLurn Lo AfghanlsLan as exempllfled ln Lhe followlng commenL by
one focus group parLlclpanLs:

When we heard abouL Lhe new reglme ln AfghanlsLan [ln 2002] we came back wlLh abouL LwenLy
people LogeLher. We were Lold LhaL lf we hand ln our green card [lssued by Lhe lranlan
CovernmenL for Afghan mlgranL workers and refugees] we would be Laken Lo PeraL free of
charge. We LhoughL LhaL lf Lhe Amerlcan people and soldlers are ln AfghanlsLan, we would en[oy
securlLy and llve ln safeLy (lCu arLlclpanL #1).

ln addlLlon, for many of Lhe mlgranL workers / refugees, Lhe preferred opLlon was Lo work ln
AfghanlsLan slnce home was where Lhelr famllles were. Many of Lhe respondenLs expressed a
sLrong sense of belonglng Lo AfghanlsLan. AparL from Lhe promlse of safeLy and prosperlLy, some
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12
reLurned Lo Lake care of famlly problems or were slmply asked by famlly members Lo come back.
CLher pull facLors lncluded a felL deslre Lo conLrlbuLe Lo Lhe reconsLrucLlon of a new
AfghanlsLan. 1hls ls besL lllusLraLed Lhrough commenLs by many respondenLs abouL Lhelr love of
Lhe counLry, mlsslng home, and home belng Lhe besL place Lo be.

1he maln push facLor for Lhe mlgranLs Lo reLurn was Lhe mlsLreaLmenL of by hosL counLry
auLhorlLles, and ln some cases, by Lhe clLlzens of Lhe hosL counLrles. AlmosL all respondenLs had
gone Lo lran and aklsLan lrregularly. 8uL, even for Lhose who had mlgraLed wlLh documenLs
Lhere appears Lo have been no dlfference as far as mlsLreaLmenL ln Lhe hosL counLrles:

. even lf we were Lhere ln aklsLan legally, Lhe pollce would sLop us and lnLerrogaLe us. uurlng
8amadan my faLher came and l gave hlm 18,000 8upees Lo geL back home. Cn Lhe way Lhe pollce
sLopped my faLher and Look Lhe money from hlm. ParassmenL of Afghans by Lhe pollce
happened everyday ln aklsLan. (lCu parLlclpanL #4).

AbouL half of Lhe respondenLs reporLed LhaL Lhey had been deporLed from lran.

ln AfghanlsLan soclal caplLal would mosL manlfesL as exLended famlly. ln Lerms of Lhelr soclal
caplLal, almosL all reLurnees had famlly members ln AfghanlsLan. ln mosL cases Lhe remalnlng
famlly members lnformed Lhe mlgranL workers abroad abouL Lhe slLuaLlon ln AfghanlsLan.
Powever, ln only a very few cases Lhe respondenLs reporLed LhaL Lhey have been helped by Lhelr
famlly members upon reLurn, and only ln Lerms of belng housed when back ln AfghanlsLan. 1hls
may well be due Lo Lhe facL LhaL ln 2002 hardshlp was, and remalns Loday, as a key feaLure of
exlsLence for Lhe vasL ma[orlLy of Afghan famllles.

MosL of Lhe respondenLs and focus group parLlclpanLs had some savlngs when Lhey reLurned,
buL ln mosL cases Lhls money dld noL go very far ln susLalnlng Lhem. 1he savlngs would help
Lhem wlLh Lhe cosL of Lhe reLurn Lrlp, buL was lnsufflclenL Lo susLaln Lhem over Lhe longer Lerm
or serve as caplLal for a small buslness venLure. A number of oLher respondenLs reporLed havlng
borrowed up Lo 300 uSu Lo reLurn Lo AfghanlsLan.

AbouL half of Lhe respondenLs and focus group parLlclpanLs were beneflclarles of Lhe
repaLrlaLlon programme of unPC8. ln mosL cases Lhls was [usL a cash granL of, reporLedly, 10
uSu per famlly member. ln some cases, ln addlLlon Lo Lhe cash paymenL, some famllles had
been glven a bag of wheaL, blankeLs, Lools for work, and LransporLaLlon cosLs or LlckeL. none of
Lhe respondenLs reporLed LhaL Lhe programme of unPC8 was Lhe lncenLlve Lo reLurn.

1he nexL serles of flndlngs relaLe Lo Lhe relnLegraLlon of Lhe reLurnees ln Lerms of employablllLy
and how Lhe mlgraLlon experlence mlghL have helped. 1o Lhe quesLlon why Lhey were dolng
casual labour, a slgnlflcanLly hlgher percenLage of Lhe non-mlgranLs lndlcaLed LhaL lL was Lhe
only Lype of work Lhey could do. ln conLrasL, a hlgher percenLage of Lhe reLurnees sald LhaL
casual labour was Lhe only employmenL Lhey could flnd (llgure 3). 8egardless of Lhls slgnlflcanL
dlfference Lhe ma[orlLy of boLh reLurnees and non-mlgranLs lndlcaLed LhaL Lhey could noL do
anyLhlng oLher Lhan casual labour. lL should be noLed LhaL Lhe vasL ma[orlLy of manual labour ls
organlsed lnformally.

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M)*$%" L !"+5,&5 :,% -,)&* =+5$+0 0+9,$%


lurLhermore, Lhere ls a small dlfference beLween Lhe exLenL Lhey are able Lo puL Lhelr skllls lnLo
pracLlce (see flgure 4). 1he quesLlon was meanL Lo flnd ouL Lo whaL exLenL Lhey can deploy
cerLaln Lechnlques wlLhln a cerLaln sklll. 1hls seems Lo be conslsLenL wlLh Lhe quesLlon wheLher
Lhey work aL Lhelr sklll level.

M)*$%" G 7+& J,$ 1$# J,$% 5>)005 )&#, 1%+=#)=" )& J,$% =$%%"&# ?,%>Q


8eLurnees have lndlcaLed LhaL by and large Lhey work more or less aL Lhelr sklll level (flgure 3),
whlch means LhaL Lhey can puL Lhelr skllls lnLo pracLlce. 1here ls some amblgulLy ln Lhe answer
'noL aL all', elLher persons have Lhe Lechnlques buL are llmlLed by Lhe naLure of Lhe work, ln
whlch case Lhey work below Lhelr sklll-level, or Lhey don'L have Lechnlques Lhey can deploy ln a
cerLaln sklll, ln whlch case Lhey work above Lhelr sklll level.
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M)*$%" P ., J,$ ?,%> +# J,$% 5>)00 0"/"0 )& J,$% =$%%"&# ?,%>Q


1hose LhaL had learned skllls and Lechnlques durlng Lhelr mlgraLlon span lndlcaLed LhaL
employers favour Lhem, as compared Lo Lhose who dld noL learn skllls and Lechnlques:

1he quallLy of our work [of reLurnees] ls dlfferenL from Lhe oLhers. lf Lhey go somewhere for
work and Lhey don'L do lL so well, Lhe employer wlll dump Lhem afLer Lhe flrsL day of work, buL
[because of our skllls] we wlll sLay Llll Lhe work ls compleLed (lCu arLlclpanL #3).

AnoLher respondenL revealed, l don'L wanL Lo work as a dally wage worker and l make every
efforL Lo Lake work as a conLracLor, Lhrough jotob". L[arah ls a verbal agreemenL beLween Lhe
employer and Lhe casual labourer based on prlclng a [ob. 1he conLracLor fulflls Lhe asslgnmenL
for Lhe flxed prlce regardless of Lhe Llme lL Lakes.
PE 7,&=0$5),& +&- !"=,22"&-+#),&5
1he flrsL ob[ecLlve was Lo esLabllsh wheLher low-skllled workers have learned new skllls ln Lhelr
mlgraLlon span. 1here ls sufflclenL evldence Lo suggesL LhaL a slgnlflcanL number of reLurnees
have galned skllls and Lechnlques Lhey would noL have had, had Lhey noL mlgraLed. 1hose who
acqulred new skllls durlng mlgraLlon dld so ln aL leasL four ways. llrsL, reLurnees reporL havlng
learned aesLheLlc values and superlor workmanshlp ln Lhe flnlsh of Lhelr consLrucLlon work.
Second, Lhey have learned dlfferenL skllls and Lechnlques Lhrough Lralnlng / supervlslon and
lmlLaLlon of from hosL counLry workers. 1hlrd, Lhey have been exposed Lo Lools LhaL Lhey dld noL
use ln AfghanlsLan. lourLh, reporLedly, reLurnees are slgnlflcanLly beLLer endowed ln generlc
skllls such as declslon-maklng, supervlslng, and ablllLy Lo work ln a Leam.

1he maln alm for Lhls research was Lo esLabllsh Lhe exLenL Lo whlch mlgranLs Lo lran and
aklsLan have galned from Lhelr mlgraLlon experlence. 1hose LhaL have, appear Lo have galned
from Lhelr mlgraLlon experlence ln aL leasL Lhree ways: beLLer quallLy of work, lncreased
employablllLy ln a hlghly compeLlLlve labour markeL, and Lhus relaLlvely hlgher lncome securlLy.
1he maln concluslon of Lhls sLudy ls LhaL desplLe Lhe many problems LhaL plague AfghanlsLan's
soclo-economlc condlLlons, and Lhe dlsLanL prospecL of Lhese problems belng addressed, Lhe
mlgranLs LhaL have galned skllls abroad have a slgnlflcanL relaLlve advanLage over oLhers who
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13
wlLhouL Lhose skllls as far as employablllLy ln a hlghly compeLlLlve markeL.

1he Lhlrd ob[ecLlve was Lo esLabllsh wheLher preparedness was a declslve facLor ln Lhe ablllLy Lo
galn from Lhe mlgraLlon experlence. Casserlno's (2004) model sLarLs wlLh Lhe wllllngness and Lhe
readlness Lo reLurn. 1he examlnaLlon of Lhe 'push and pull' facLors reveals LhaL many reLurnees
were wllllng Lo reLurn Lo AfghanlsLan, enLlced by Lhe sheer opLlmlsm of a new beglnnlng afLer
Lhe fall of Lhe 1allban. Powever from Lhe flndlngs Lhe plcLure emerges LhaL people were lll
prepared, as Lhe readlness has been mlnlmal for mosL respondenLs.

1he Langlble and lnLanglble resource moblllzaLlon has been llmlLed for mosL respondenLs. 1he
flnanclal resources were llmlLed, lf any lL was cerLalnly noL enough Lo brldge Lhe Llme needed Lo
reseLLle. Skllls however ls one of Lhe lnLanglble resources LhaL consLlLuLe preparedness, ln LhaL
respecL Lhose LhaL learned skllls Lurned ouL Lo be beLLer able Lo cope wlLh Lhe pressures of Lhe
urban labour markeL. ln mosL cases soclal caplLal dldn'L play a slgnlflcanL role ln Lhe
preparedness of Lhe reLurnees. lurLhermore ln a posL-confllcL slLuaLlon Lhe preparedness ls
embedded ln an unusual 'evenL' of mass reLurn. AcLlng on Lhe assumpLlon LhaL many of
AfghanlsLan's problems would be solved soon afLer Lhe fall of Lhe 1allban, Lhe lnlLlal pollcy by
Lhe CovernmenL and Lhe lnLernaLlonal donors was Lo favour repaLrlaLlon as Lhe mosL durable
soluLlon. 1he pollLlcal lmpllcaLlon of seLLlng up large repaLrlaLlon programmes ls Lo convey Lhe
message LhaL AfghanlsLan under presldenL Pamld karzal was normallzlng.
20
Moreover ln a
number of cases people were arresLed and deporLed, ln Lhese cases Lhe readlness was LoLally
absenL.

Many respondenLs dld reLurn Lo Lhelr provlnces upon reLurnlng Lo AfghanlsLan buL became
mlgranLs Lo Lhe clLles wlLhln AfghanlsLan. urbanlzaLlon as Lhe exLenslon of reLurn mlgraLlon ls
besL descrlbed as 'urban unseLLlemenL'. 1haL ls Lo say, Lhese reLurnees do noL appear Lo be ln a
sLaLe of permanenL seLLlemenL or reLurn. Many of Lhe reLurnees engaged for Lhls research, and
more broadly, vasL segmenLs of Lhe populaLlon ln AfghanlsLan, appear Lo regreL Lhe declslon Lo
have reLurned. As such Lhe model also focuses Loo excluslvely on Lhe lnlLlal momenLs of reLurn
and, Lherefore, overlooks Lhe reLurn mlgraLlon - urbanlzaLlon nexus ln a posL/ln-confllcL
slLuaLlon, as ls Lhe case ln AfghanlsLan and many oLher posL-confllcL counLrles. urbanlzaLlon
should be lncorporaLed as Lhe exLenslon of reLurn LhaL deLermlnes Lhe lmpacLs of reLurn
mlgraLlon ln a posL-confllcL conLexL.

ln concluslon, Lhe maln alm for Lhls research was Lo esLabllsh Lhe exLenL Lo whlch mlgranLs Lo
lran and aklsLan have galned from Lhelr mlgraLlon experlence. 1hose LhaL have, appear Lo have
learned skllls and Lechnlques ln aL leasL Lhree ways: quallLy of work, lncreased employablllLy ln a
hlghly compeLlLlve labour markeL, and Lhus relaLlvely hlgher lncome securlLy. 1he maln
concluslon of Lhls sLudy ls LhaL desplLe Lhe many problems LhaL plague AfghanlsLan's soclo-
economlc condlLlons, and Lhe dlsLanL prospecL of Lhese problems belng addressed, Lhe mlgranLs
LhaL have galned skllls abroad have a slgnlflcanL relaLlve advanLage over oLhers who wlLhouL
Lhose skllls as far as employablllLy.

1he followlng recommendaLlons follow ouL of Lhls research. WlLhouL excepLlon all casual
labourers have sald LhaL Lhey would be helped Lhe mosL by sLable employmenL. 8oLh
governmenL and lnLernaLlonal donors recognlze Lhls, buL have falled ln Lhelr aLLempLs Lo creaLe

20
See also Marsden and 1urLon (2002)
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16
more employmenL ln a sLrucLural manner. Lven Lhough Lhere ls a numerous consLrucLlon
pro[ecLs by Lhe prlvaLe and publlc secLors, Lhey do noL appear Lo be sufflclenL Lo accommodaLe
Lhe oversupplled, boLh skllled and largely unskllled, labour force. llxlng AfghanlsLan's soclo-
economlc problems ls obvlously noL someLhlng LhaL can be addressed ln lsolaLlon from Lhe
confllcL LhaL perslsLs ln many provlnces and even ma[or clLles from Llme Lo Llme. 1he flrsL and
mosL obvlous pollcy lmpllcaLlon from Lhls sLudy ls, LhaL unskllled casual labourers should be
employed ln publlc consLrucLlon work such as flxlng Lhe roads ln and around kabul, wheLher or
noL Lhrough cash for work programmes.

Second, donors and Lhe CovernmenL should conslder developlng a sysLem Lo cerLlfy lnformally
obLalned skllls or oLher ways Lo make lnformally obLalned skllls markeLable ln boLh formal and
lnformal secLors. 1hls conLrlbuLes Lo Lhe emergence of a more sysLemlzed and falr wage sysLem.
Also, sklll cerLlflcaLlon would complemenL oLher pro[ecLs on apprenLlceshlps and skllls Lralnlng.
lor lnsLance, ueuLsche CesellschafL fuer lnLernaLlonale ZusammenarbelL (ClZ) has 1echnlcal and
vocaLlonal LducaLlon and 1ralnlng (1vL1) schools where Lhey provlde vocaLlonal Lralnlng.

1hlrd, glven Lhe facL LhaL souLh-souLh mlgraLlon wlll remaln an lnLegral parL AfghanlsLan's
developmenL, and ln facL one could speak of a posL-repaLrlaLlon phase,
21
donor agencles such as
unPC8 and lnLernaLlonal CrganlzaLlon for MlgraLlon (lCM), ln con[uncLlon wlLh Lhe
admlnlsLraLlons ln 1ehran and lslamabad, should aLLempL Lo manage Lhe mlgraLlon flows. Cne
way ls Lo allow for legal enLry and (Lemporary) work permlsslons for Afghan mlgranLs. 1helr
lllegal sLaLus and subsequenL deporLaLlons dldn'L allow Lhem Lo sLay ln one place Loo long, so as
Lo bulld up connecLlons and learn new skllls, and undermlned Lhe poLenLlal for a conLrlbuLlon Lo
developmenL.

1o LhaL end governmenLs of AfghanlsLan, lran and unPC8 have slgned a LrlparLlLe agreemenL Lo
lssue 200.000 work vlsas for one famlly member of a reLurned famlly ln 2007.
22
ln 2010, aL a
meeLlng ln Ceneva, Lhe mlnlsLer of labour of AfghanlsLan relLeraLed Lhe promlse of Lhe
CovernmenL of lran Lo lssue work permlLs Lo Afghan workers.
23
1here have also been plans Lo leL
lranlan companles arrange legal enLry for Afghan workers when Lhey wanL Lo hlre Afghan
workers.
24
1he sLaLus of Lhe lssuance of lranlan vlsa's and permlLs ls unknown. AL Lhe same Llme
211,023 Afghans were deporLed from lran ln 2011.
23
1he governmenLs of lran and AfghanlsLan
should expedlLe currenL Lalks and slgn slmllar Lemporary labour mlgraLlon agreemenLs as has
been done wlLh CaLar (2008), kuwalL, and Saudl Arabla.
26


lourLh, Lhe condlLlons under whlch reLurn ls Lhe mosL deslred ouLcome should be reLhoughL. lL
has become clear LhaL AfghanlsLan has noL been able Lo absorb Lhe huge lnfluxes of reLurnees. A
more coordlnaLed response LhaL levels ouL Lhe lnflux of reLurnees could reduce pressures on
labour markeLs and urban servlces. ln Lhls respecL uonor Agencles and Lhe CovernmenL should
devlse pollcles LhaL could brldge Lhe rellef phase and Lhe developmenL phase. MosL casual

21
See hLLp://www.lrlnnews.org/8eporL/94174/AlCPAnlS1An-numbers-of-reLurnees-down
22
See 1rlparLlLe AgreemenL, slgned lebruary 17, 2007
23
See koepke (2011)
24
See koepke (2011)
23
See ueparLmenL of SLaLe CounLry 8eporL on Puman 8lghLs pracLlces (2011).
hLLp://www.sLaLe.gov/[/drl/rls/hrrpL/humanrlghLsreporL/lndex.hLm#wrapper
26
See lsLanbul 8LCCA rogress 8eporL
www.appro.org.af

17
labourers fall beLween Lhe cracks beLween Lhese Lwo phases: mosL of Lhe lnLervlewed casual
labourers had recelved rellef asslsLance upon reLurn, buL Lhere were few opporLunlLles Lo
susLaln a llvlng once ln AfghanlsLan.

llnally, Lhe vasL ma[orlLy of reLurnees appear Lo have reLurned wlLh much opLlmlsm and hope,
only Lo be dlsappolnLed and ln many cases regreLLlng reLurn. Whlle Lhls research dld noL focus
on Lhe pollLlcs of reLurn mlgraLlon, lL appears LhaL lnduclng reLurn for pollLlcal purposes can
undermlne Lhe llvellhoods of a mosL vulnerable segmenL of Lhe populaLlon, as AfghanlsLan was
fundamenLally unable Lo absorb such huge numbers of reLurnees. Clearer, pollLlcs-free, and
more honesL communlcaLlon abouL Lhe fundamenLal rlsks and uncerLalnLles of reLurn Lo a posL-
confllcL slLuaLlon could have conLrlbuLed Lo a more manageable slLuaLlon and preparaLlon for
Lhe reLurnees Lhan currenLly prevalenL.


www.appro.org.af

18
!RMR!R37RS

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Otbet
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20
CSC & M88u (2009) NkvA Notloool klsk ooJ voloetoblllty Assessmeot 2007/8.
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tJ
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websltes
AfghanlsLan ConfllcL MonlLor: www.afghanconfllcLmonlLor.org LasL reLrleved:
lebruary 18, 2011
Clobal Appeal unPC8 2010-2011
AfghanlsLan: hLLp://www.unhcr.org/4b02c7e29.hLml LasL reLrleved: lebruary
18, 2011.
llAu, lnLernaLlonal lund for AgrlculLural uevelopmenL: www.lfad.org LasL reLrleved:
lebruary 18, 2011
l8ln news: hLLp://www.lrlnnews.org/8eporL/94174/AlCPAnlS1An-numbers-of- reLurnees-
uown. LasL reLrleved, Aprll 4, 2012.
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