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A
d
=
AMs
-
A0
B
d
=
BMs
-
B0
_
A
d
= Psin
A
d
B
d
= Psin
B
d
[1]
Where P is the measurement step,
A
and
B
are the rotation angles relative to the vertical of the two planes X
and Y containing the inclinometer casing grooves. The components A
d
and B
d
are referred at depth d from the
surface. The total displacement of the inclinometer casing, at D depth, is obtained from Eqn. [2], while the
azimuth (heading) angle of the displacement vector on the horizontal plane at the same depth is given by Eqn.
[3].
d
= _(A
d
2
+ B
d
2
) [2]
0
d
= tan
-1
A
d
B
d
[3]
The value determined in Eqn. [2] is defined as incremental deviation at depth d. In order to obtain the total
displacement at the same depth, one needs to postulate the immobility of the casing at the borehole bottom, and
cumulate the single displacements calculated starting from the bottom. The total displacement of an
inclinometric column of n length at depth d is therefore given by Eqn. [4].
d
1ot
=
d-1
1ot
+
d
d
n
[4]
The graphic representations that are normally generated for supporting data interpretation are: a graph where the
incremental deviation is plotted against the depth, another graph where the total displacement is plotted against
the depth and, finally, a polar representation of the
d
azimuth (headings).
3.4 Interpretation of the new MUMS device
The data recorded by the MUMS control unit, at both the 3D digital linear accelerometer sensors and the 3D
digital magnetometer sensors, associate each readout with the date and time of the reading and provide the three
normalized components of the gravity vector along three axes of a coordinate system associated with the
sensors body (Figure 3). In order to interpret the measurement and calculate the displacement, one needs to
postulate that the lower portion of the MUMS (bottom node) is installed and fixed in a stable portion of the
ground (i.e. stable portion of the slope) and the linear distance between two adjacent nodes remains the same.
The data treatment is different depending upon the presence or absence of the 3D digital magnetic sensors.
3.4.1 MUMS without 3D digital magnetic sensors
For this case the procedure requires, for each reading, firstly the determination of the direction cosines of the
MUMS pipe axis relative to a canonical orthonormal system, with the origin located in the centre of the lower
node, axis X directed toward the Earths magnetic north and axis Z vertical. The orientation of magnetic north is
measured at the top of the borehole during installation and is the same for each node since they are hypothesized
as aligned. Secondly, the absolute position of each node with respect to the same coordinate system must be
determined. Using this technique, each system reading is independent from the previous one, and using a
graphical function it is possible to plot the entire shape of the MUMS column in the 3D space. Then, in order to
calculate the incremental deviation of each node from its previous position, it is easy to subtract from the
coordinates of each node, calculated at a given time, those calculated at the beginning (or any other time) of
monitoring.
The MUMS system offers greater flexibility than the standard inclinometer, since the installation procedure
allows for the deformation of the MUMS column and for it to precisely follow the underground deformation; in
fact, the data analysis will give the displacement not only along the horizontal plane, but also along the vertical
axis Z. The choice of the modulus of the vector (either on the horizontal or vertical plane) allows the calculation
of the total displacement relative to a horizontal or vertical plane passing through the center of the node. In the
first case, the displacements are directly comparable with those recorded by a standard inclinometer, while in the
second case one obtains the total vertical displacement of each node. The charts that can be associated with the
data analysis and interpretation could comprise, but not be limited to, the following:
3D graph of the shape and position of the MUMS system at time t;
2D graph of the total displacement of each node on the horizontal plane as a function of the depth
(analogous to the chart of total displacement for the standard inclinometer);
2D graph of the total settlement of each node on the vertical plane as a function of depth;
2D polar representation of the direction of displacement of each node as a function of the azimuth
(heading).
Obviously, due to the 3D nature of the acquired data, many other analyses are foreseen in order to highlight
certain displacement components and features instead of others. In order to evaluate and double check the
measurements obtained from the MUMS system, a linear measuring device at the top of the MUMS system is
installed; this device will directly and independently measure the lowering of the upper node of the MUMS with
respect to the surface and will be useful to check the operational functionality of the system for its entire
duration.
3.4.2 MUMS device with 3D digital magnetic sensor
In this configuration, the aircraft convention, aptly modified, appears to be the most suitable for the indication of
the nodes/tube axis orientation at each measured location along the MUMS. The aircraft convention defines a
device body coordinate using three attitude angles: pitch, roll and heading as shown in Figure 2. Three attitude
angles are referenced to the local horizontal plane which is perpendicular to Earths gravity. Heading is defined
as the angle between the X
b
axis and magnetic north on the horizontal plane, measured in a clockwise direction
when viewed from the top of the device (or aircraft). Pitch is defined as the angle between the X
b
axis and the
horizontal plane. When rotating the device around the Y
b
axis with the X
b
axis moving upwards, pitch is positive
and increasing. Roll is defined as the angle between the Y
b
axis and the horizontal plane. When rotating the
device around the X
b
axis with the Y
b
axis moving downwards, roll is positive and increasing. For our
application, however, the electronic board of each node is generally oriented as in Figure 3 and therefore this
convention needs to be modified accordingly. When the node is in the vertical position (Figure 3) pitch and roll
angles are 0. Then the heading angle can be determined as shown in Figure 4, where the local magnetic field
has a fixed component H
h
on the horizontal plane pointing to the Earths magnetic north. This component can be
measured by the magnetic sensor sensing axes X
M
and Y
M
, which are named X
h
and Y
h
. Then the heading angle
is calculated as in Eqn. [5]. In Figure 5 when the device body X
b
axis is parallel to H
h
, which is pointing to the
magnetic north, then X
h
=max and Y
h
=0 so that heading = 0. Rotating the device clockwise on the horizontal
plane, the heading increases. When X
h
=0 and Y
h
=min, then heading = 90. Keep rotating until X
h
= min and Y
h
= 0, then heading = 180. And so on. After a full 360 rotation, the user sees a centred circle if plotting X
h
and
Y
h
values coming from the magnetic sensor measurements.
EcoJing = aictan [
h
X
h
[5]
Figure 2. Aircraft convention and relation with device body (from STMicroelectronics, 2010 - Modified).
Figure 3. Modified aircraft convention and relationship with MUMS orientation.
If the node is tilted, then the pitch and roll angles are not equal to 0, as shown in Figure 5, where the pitch and
roll can be measured by the 3-axis accelerometer. Therefore, the magnetic sensor measurements X
M
, Y
M
, and Z
M
need to be compensated to obtain X
h
and Y
h
as shown in Eqn. [6]. Then Eqn. [5] should be applied for the
heading calculation.
X
h
= -Z
M
cos Pitcb + X
M
sinPitcb
h
= -Z
M
sin Roll cos Pitcb +
M
cos Roll -X
M
sin Roll cos Pitcb
[6]
In order to calculate pitch and roll angles from the node, as shown in Figure 3, it should be noted that Xb, Yb,
and Z
b
are the node body axes with forward-right-down configuration. X
A,M
, Y
A,M
, and Z
A,M
are the
accelerometer and magnetic sensor sensing axes, respectively. Note that the Y
A,M
sensor axis lies on and is in
agreement with the Y
b
node body axis, the Z
A,M
sensor axis lies on and is in agreement the X
b
node body axis
and the X
A, M
sensor axis lies on and is opposite in sign to the Z
b
node body axis.
Figure 4. Local Earth magnetic field components.
Figure 5. Tilted node and components.
Pitch/roll/heading angles are referenced to the local horizontal plane which is perpendicular to the Earth's
gravity:
Heading () or azimuth is defined as the angle with respect to the magnetic north pole. It is always
positive from 0 to +359 when rotating around the Z
b
axis clockwise, topview with the right-hand rule.
If the heading with respect to geographic north is required, then the declination angle at the user's current
geographic location should be added or subtracted from the magnetic heading;
Pitch () is defined as the angle between the X
b
axis and the horizontal plane. It goes from 0 to +90
when rotating around the Y
b
axis with the X
b
axis moving upwards. When the X
b
axis is moving
downwards, the pitch angle goes from 0 to -90;
Roll () is defined as the angle between the Y
b
axis and the horizontal plane. It goes from 0 to +90
when rotating around the X
b
axis with the Y
b
axis moving downwards. When the Y
b
axis is moving
upwards, the roll angle goes from 0 to -90.
When the device node is at an arbitrary 3D position X'
b
, Y'
b
, and Z'
b
, there are a few rotation procedures to rotate
the device node from the local level frame X
b
, Y
b
, and Z
b
, as shown in Figure 3, to that 3D position. Different
rotation procedures result in a different rotation matrix. The aircraft convention of angle rotation is used in this
case. Firstly, rotate the device node around the Z
b
axis clockwise at an angle () with the view from the origin to
downwards. Then rotate the device around Y
b
at an angle () with X
b
moving upwards. Then rotate the device
around X
b
at an angle () with Y
b
moving downwards. The new node device body axes become X'
b
, Y'
b
, and Z'
b
,
as shown in Figure 6.
Each rotation matrix is then:
R
q
= _
cos sin u
-sin cos u
u u 1
_ R
p
= _
cos p u -sinp
u 1 u
sin p u cos p
_ R
y
= _
1 u u
u cos y siny
u -sin y cos y
_ [7]
And the relationship between X'
b
/Y'
b
/Z'
b
and X
b
/Y
b
/Z
b
is given in Eqn. [8]:
_
X
i
b
i
b
Z
i
b
_ = R
y
R
p
R
q
_
X
b
b
Z
b
_ [8]
Figure 6. Rotation procedures (from STMicroelectronics,
2010).
Figure 7. Representation of the magnetic field H
(Earths and nearby interference) in
the local level frame.
In the local horizontal plane, as shown in Figure 3, X
b
= Y
b
= 0, Z
b
= +1g. At X'
b
/Y'
b
/Z'
b
, the accelerometer raw
measurements are A
x
, A
y
, and A
z
, which are signed integer in terms of LSBs. Let A
x1
, A
y1
, and A
z1
be the
normalized values after applying accelerometer calibration parameters into A
x
, A
y
, and A
z
. So A
x1
, A
y1
, and A
z1
become floating point values less than 1 in terms of g (Earths gravity), and the root sum of their squared values
should be equal to 1 when the accelerometer is still. Eqn. [8], remembering the sign convention and switched
axes, pitch and roll angle can be calculated:
_
-A
z1
A
1
A
x1
_ = R
y
R
p
R
q
_
u
u
1
_ onJ tbcn
Pitcb = = aicsin(-A
z1
)
Roll = y = aicsin [
A
j1
cos p
[9]
It should be noted that Eqn. [9] generates some singularities that must be corrected (i.e. when = 90 it should
be set to 0). Although normalized accelerometer measurement A
x1
is not used for the pitch and roll calculation,
it is useful to check that the magnitude of the normalized vector A is equal to 1; if not, it means that linear or
angular acceleration is detected. For the heading calculation, 3-axis magnetic sensor measurements need to be
normalized by applying magnetic sensor calibration parameters and then reflected onto the horizontal plane by
tilt compensation, as shown in Figure 7. If the device rotates from X
b
/Y
b
/Z
b
to X''
b
/Y''
b
/Z''
b
by roll angle rotation
followed by pitch angle rotation, then the rotation is represented by Eqn. [11].
_
X
b
b
Z
b
_ = R
y
-1
R
p
-1
_
X
b
b
Z
b
_ [10]
Let M
x1
, M
y1
, and M
z1
be the normalized magnetic sensor measurements after applying calibration parameters
correction into magnetic sensor raw measurements M
x
, M
y
, and M
z
at new positions X''
b
/Y''
b
/Z''
b
. M
x
, M
y
and M
z
are signed integers in terms of LSBs, while M
x1
, M
y1
, and M
z1
are floating point values less than 1 in terms of the
magnetic field strength, and the square root of the sum squared values should be equal to 1 when there is no
external interference from the magnetic field. Then from Eqn. [10], remembering the sign convention and
switched axes, tilt compensated magnetic sensor measurements M
x2
, M
y2
, and M
z2
can be obtained as:
H
z2
= H
z1
cos -H
x1
sin p
H
2
= H
z1
sin sin +H
1
cos y +H
x1
siny cos p
H
x2
= -H
z1
cos sin +H
1
sin y - H
x1
cos y cos p
[12]
Therefore:
EcoJing = = orcton [
H
y2
H
z2
or H
z2
> u onJ H
y2
u
= 18u + orcton [
H
y2
H
z2
or H
z2
< u
= S6u + orcton [
H
y2
H
z2
or H
z2
> u onJ H
y2
< u
= 9u or H
z2
= u anu H
y2
< u
= 27u or H
z2
= u anu H
y2
> u
[13]
The magnitude of M
2
should be equal to 1. If not, it means that an external magnetic interference field is
detected or pitch/roll error is present. The same representation of the attitude of each node can be carried out,
with more elegant and efficient mathematical implications and avoiding singularities, by using the quaternions.
Detailed definition of the quaternions and explanation of such a mathematical treatment goes beyond the purpose
of this paper, but it can be found in literature (Gebre-Egziabher et al. 2000, Diebel 2006). Once the attitude of
each node of the MUMS is detected, the tridimensional reconstruction of the apparatus configuration can be
carried out, remembering the hypothesis according to which at least the lower node (node 1) does not move from
its original position. Therefore, the centre of this node can be used as the origin of a global reference system
(Figure 1) in which the coordinates of the i
th
node (x
bi
, y
bi
, z
bi
) are calculated by cumulating the relative
displacements of all the i
th
- 1 nodes below.
The MUMS apparatus will therefore output a new configuration for each measurement made according to the
time interval between acquisitions, which is arbitrarily chosen at the start of the monitoring and can be changed
at any time during the monitoring period. The difference between two acquisitions made at a time difference of
t will provide the cumulated and/or local displacement occurring during t, as well as the displacement
velocity averaged over that time interval. Further analysis of the monitoring database will allow for a detailed
description of geometry and velocity variation of the landslide (and of any other monitored media) and for their
relation to other relevant parameters (e.g. rainfall, pore pressures variation, etc.).
4 Performance analysis
Several prototypes of the MUMS system were constructed and tested in the laboratory in order to check their
performance in a controlled environment. The first MUMS device was built using 10 nodes equally spaced at 50
mm. These nodes were equipped only with a 3D digital linear acceleration MEMS and connected with a double
deformable wire solder in order to be able to keep the imposed geometrical configuration. After the first series of
experiments, the prototype MUMS size was increased to a distance between nodes of 500 mm for a total length
of 5 m. This series of tests allowed us to evaluate the systems accuracy and the repeatability of measurements;
in order to accomplish this task, several configurations of the prototype MUMS were deployed, performing
various acquisitions for each configuration and comparing the results with those obtained by direct measuring of
the device.
In order to speed up the data analysis process, direct measuring was carried out using photogrammetry
techniques; pictures were taken of each predetermined configuration of the MUMS prototype, using a Canon
EOS 5D Mark II. The MUMS prototype configurations were rested against a wall in order to minimize errors
induced by the photo restitution; however, image calibration techniques, as well as perspective corrections, were
applied to the photographs in order to obtain a high precision photomap. Subsequently, the whole device was
measured from these pictures, using color and pattern matching techniques.
At the same time several measurement samples were taken and analyzed with the MUMS obtaining the device
configuration independently. Lastly, a comparison between the results of the measurements was carried out and
gave satisfactory results. At a later stage, some other laboratory tests were carried out using a large scale tilt test
machine (Figure 8), that was built earlier by the one of the authors for different purposes (Migliazza et al. 2003).
The tests were carried out by installing the MUMS prototype in the machine and fixing it to the bottom of the
lower box, filling up the machine with dry sand and applying a shear displacement to the upper box while
measuring the shearing displacement with an external linear potentiometric transducer. The results of the
measurements were then compared with those calculated from the MUMS recordings. Several MUMS devices
have been installed in landslides and the first results of their measurements will be presented at the Symposium.
Figure 8. MUMS prototype installation in the large scale tilt test box and output after 5 and 180 mm of
horizontal displacement
5 Conclusion
This paper describes the functionality of a new apparatus that has been developed for the 3D measurement and
monitoring of landslides and underground displacements. The new apparatus has been laboratory tested,
examining its performance and reliability, and has subsequently been installed in a few landslides where its
behaviour is compared with that of standard inclinometer probes. The paper presents the operating principles of
the new device, and shows the basics for data manipulation and interpretation. It is believed that the new
apparatus will generate a new and scientifically relevant approach to underground slope stability monitoring,
comprehension and control. At this time, several further developments of the apparatus are foreseen, to improve
its effectiveness as an innovative and modular underground monitoring tool.
6 References
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