PRAGMATICS 2

Outline A. Recap
B. Austin - the structure of the Speech Act
C. Searle's theory of Speech Acts
A. RCAP
Performative/constatives?
Explicit performatives / primary (implicit) performatives?
Can we say that constatives are primary performatives? What is their
force?
B. T! STR"CT"R O# T! SPC! ACT
To utter so$ethin% - orally or in &ritin% - is to 'o so$ethin%. This is the
central insight of the theory of Speech Acts
Altho!gh this i"ea seems relatively straightforwar"# it raises $!estions a%o!t how
the &earer "etermines the sort of act the Spea'er inten"e" to perform# how the
&erer "etermines the Spea'er(s intention
The speech act) the act one carries o!t when !ttering a sentence (stating,
warning, promising, naming# etc)
(. The facets of the speech act
The !tterance in (*a) can %e reporte" in at least + ways (%,e)
(*) a -ohn) (. will come to yo!r party/(
% -ohn sai") (. yo!r come to will party/(
c -ohn sai") (. will come to yo!r party/(
" -ohn sai" that he accepte" my invitation
e -ohn promise" he wo!l" come to my party
f . was happy that he accepte" my invitation
% , "irect speech) we repeat the wor"s !ttere" %y the spea'er# %!t 0!m%le" !p
c , "irect speech) repeat the wor"s !ttere" in the right or"er
" , in"irect speech) we foc!s on the meaning# we "o not repeat the wor"s !ttere"
%y the spea'er
e , !sing a performative ver% we !n"erline what the spea'er has "one %y !ttering
the respective wor"s# ie his speech act
f , the hearer(s response to the !tterance
(*) 12 several "imensions of !ttering (*a))
, !ttering the so!n"s (wor"s)
, !ttering the so!n"s (wor"s) in a certain or"er# following certain syntactic r!les
, !ttering wor"s with a certain meaning
, !ttering wor"s with a specific intention (illoc!tionary force)# eg# to promise# to
accept an invitation# etc
, the effect of the wor"s on the spea'er
-3 A!stin (*456) How To Do Things With Words 12 The speech act is a complex
comm!nicative act involving the sim!ltaneo!s performance of several acts When
we perform a speech act we perform three types of acts sim!ltaneo!sly)
a locutionary act) an illocutionary act) an' a perlocutionary act.
The str!ct!re of a speech act (SA))
*) a locutionary act , the act of saying
6) an illocutionary act , the act the spea'er has performe" in saying what s/he
sai") (*) , accepting an invitation7
8) a perlocutionary act) the act that is carrie" o!t *y saying something) (*) ,
ca!sing the & to feel happy
9: These acts are not to %e !n"erstoo" as %eing separate parts of a Speech Acts#
%!t rather as "imensions of the same SA
(.(. The locutionary act +or the locution,
-efinition
LA = the act of saying smth: 'the utterance of certain noises, the utterance of
certain words in a certain construction, and the utterance of them with a certain
meaning' (Austin 1!"#
*
The loc!tionary act is the %asic ling!istic act of utterin% a strin% of soun's that
follo&s the syntactic rules of the lan%ua%e an' has a $eanin% in that
particular lan%ua%e.
(6) .(m col"
The loc!tionary act here is the act of !ttering a series of so!n"s that is stringe"
together following the syntax of English# an" has a meaning The meaning
(proposition) is that . refer to myself# as the S!%0ect# an" . pre"icate col"ness of
myself
;) <oes the !tterance in (*%) co!nt as a loc!tionary act? What a%o!t * (a# c,f)?
(.2. The illocutionary act +or the illocution,
Speech acts are always pro"!ce" with the intention to attain a certain p!rpose
The illoc!tionary act refers to the intentions of the spea'er regar"ing what act they
inten"e" to perform %y means of ma'ing that !tterance The illoc!tionary act
refers to what the Spea'er wants to 'o in pro'ucin% an utterance.
(6) can %e inten"e" to perform many acts# "epen"ing on the spea'er(s intentions
an" the context
(6) .(m col" , can %e inten"e")
(a) as a statement
(%) an invitation , =Come over an" sn!ggle=
(c) a re$!est , =Close the win"ow/=
-efinition of IA
This act that the spea$er is intending to perform (e%g% the act of stating, inviting,
re&uesting# is ca''ed the i''ocutionar( act, and e)presses the illocutionary force
of an utterance (ie its comm!nicative p!rpose)
.ota Bene/ Illocutionary force 0 proposition shoul' not *e confuse'
There is a "istinction %etween the proposition expresse" %y a sentence an" the
(i''ocutionar() force of the utterance
The proposition 12 the meaning of sentences 1 more specifically# referring to
sm% an" pre"icating a property of it
The i''ocutionar( force of an !tterance , what the !tterance is meant as (order#
&uestion) >
1a$ples of illocutionary acts) accusing, admitting, apo'ogi*ing,
cha''enging, comp'aining, condo'ing (e)pressing s(mpath(#, congratu'ating,
dec'ining, den(ing, dep'oring, giving permission, giving wa(, greeting,
'eaveta$ing, moc$ing, naming, offering, praising, promising, proposing marriage,
protesting, recommending, refusing, re&uesting, surrendering, stating, than$ing,
toasting%
.n "etermining what was the illoc!tionary act inten"e" %y the Spea'er# &earers
have to ta'e the context into consi"eration
(8) .t(s going to rain
,2 even tho!gh we !n"erstan" the meaning of the sentence# it is not very
clear if it is meant as a statement or as a warning The context clarifies this
To conclu'e
A!stin states that the loc!tionary act is the performance of an act of sayin%
so$ethin%# whereas the illoc!tionary act is the performance of an act in sayin%
so$ethin% The loc!tionary act is the act of saying something with a certain
meaning an" reference# whereas the illoc!tionary act is what yo! inten" to "o %y
means of saying it
What is the illoc!tionary act in (+)
(+) a ?.; tests can %e tric'y@
% ?.t@s not tr!e that Aichael -ac'son is "ea"
c ?.t@ll %e a stormy wee'@
" ?.@ll 0oin yo! at the co!ntry cl!%@
e ?Co!l" . !se yo!r phone# please?@
f ?Than' yo! all for %eing here tonight/(
g ?Can we "o l!nch sometime next wee'?@
h ?Bet o!t of my face/@
6
i ?Co! may %e exc!se"@
0 ?. name this ship ;!een Anne@
' ?. swear loyalty to my master an" comman"er@
l (Wo!l" yo! li'e a c!p of coffee?(
m (After yo!/( (sai" to someone wishing to go thro!gh the same
"oor as the spea'er)
n ?Co! can play o!tsi"e for half an ho!r@
o ?Boo" evening@
p ?Boo" night@
(.2. The perlocutionary act
When a spea'er pro"!ces an !tterance with a certain p!rpose# he wants it to have
an effect on the hearer
A!stin (*456)*D*)) (saying something will often# or even normally# pro"!ce certain
conse$!ential effects !pon the feelings# tho!ghts# or actions of the a!"ience# or of
the spea'er# or of other persons) an" it may %e "one with the "esign# intention# or
p!rpose of pro"!cing them(
-efinition
PA 3 the act throu%h &hich the spea4er affects the hearer in one &ay or
another5 the effect of utterin% a specific locution) &hat is *rou%ht a*out or
achie6e' *y sayin% so$ethin%) e.%. convincing, persuading, surprising)
intimidating s$*.
(E) Tom) (. will show yo! what .(m capa%le of/(
, PA) &e intimi"ate" me %y threatening to show me what he was capa%le of
What co!l" %e the perloc!tionary act of the following !tterances?
(5) a 3ect!rer to st!"ent) ?Co!@ll fin" the %oo' on Swahili infinitives
$!ite fascinating@

% Chil" to playgro!n" s!pervisor) ?Aiss# :illy 0!st swore at me

&e tol" me to piss off@

c Fne chess player to another) ?. 0!st ma"e a %a" move@

" Policeman to man in the street) ?Boo" evening# Sir <o yo! live
aro!n" here?@

!o& 'o the three acts &or4 to%ether7

(G) &elp her/
3oc!tion) &e sai" to me (&elp her/(
.lloc!tion) &e !rge" (or a"vise"/or"ere") me to help her
Perloc!tion , a) &e pers!a"e" me to help her
Perloc!tion , %) &e ma"e me help her
(H) Co! can(t "o that
3oc!tion) &e sai" to me# (Co! can(t "o that#(
.lloc!tion) &e proteste" against my "oing it
Perloc!tion , a) &e stoppe" me
Perloc!tion , %) &e annoye" me
;) <oes a PA always reflect the spea'er(s intentions an" illoc!tionary force of
their speech act?
Perloc!tionary effects may %e inten"e" or !ninte"e" , loc!tions li'e +'under#
ma$e a fau) pas, drop a +ric$ , !ninten"e" perloc!tionary effects
C. SAR8'S T!OR9 O# SPAC! ACTS
-I Searle (*486 , ) , American philosopher (Jniversity of California# :er'eley)
,peech Acts (*454)) his own theory on (illoc!tionary acts( (having %een intro"!ce"
in How To Do Things with Words %y A!stin)
, I!les/felicity con"itions for promises an" other speech acts
, Classification of illoc!tionary acts
8
(. Main tenets of Searle's theory of SAs
*) the *asic unit of 6er*al co$$unication is the speech act (not the wor"# or
sentence)# ie the !tterance of a wor" or sentence with a certain comm!nicative
intention (ie force)
6) Speech Acts are not pro"!ce" in a ran"om way# all SA a*i'e *y certain rules
-!st as it is possi%le for a sentence to %e !ngrammatical if it violates the
r!les of syntax# it is possi%le for a speech act to %e infelicito!s if it
violates the r!les governing speech acts
8) Since SAs are interprete" in context# an" "epen" on the S(s intentions# there are
conte1tual an' intentional restrictions on the use of a SA
Iemem%er that Austin liste" the following felicity con'itions for perfor$ati6es)
(i) There m!st %e a conventional proce"!re having a conventional effect# certain
wor"s m!st %e !ttere"# %y certain persons# !n"er certain circ!mstances
(ii) The circ!mstances an" persons m!st %e appropriate# as specifie" in the
proce"!re
(ii) The proce"!re m!st %e exec!te" correctly an" completely %y all participants
(iv) The sincerity con"ition the persons m!st have the appropriate tho!ghts#
feelings an" intentions# as specifie" in the proce"!re
Searle (*45E) expan"s on A!stin(s felicity con"itions !sing the speech act of
promising as his mode'
Searle as's) , !n"er which con"itions are speech acts pro"!ce"?
, what are the semantic r!les that reg!late the pro"!ction of that
speech act?
Searle %elieves that for a SA to %e felicito!s it nee"s to o%serve the following
types of r!les)
+:, Rules for the felicity of a SA
*) the propositional content rule foc!ses only !pon the semantic content of the
sentence !ttere" (ie the proposition/propositional content/meaning of the
sentence)
6) the preparatory rules foc!s !pon %ac'gro!n" circ!mstances
8) the sincerity rule foc!ses !pon the S@s psychological state
+) the essential rule foc!ses !pon the p!rpose of the illoc!tionary act
2. Rules for Pro$ises
(*D) . will get yo! home/
Rule ( the propositiona'-content ru'e
*) A speech act is a promise only if the sentence pre"icates some f!t!re act of the
spea'er
Rules 2 0 2 preparator( ru'es
6) A speech act co!nts as a promise only if
, the hearer wo!l" prefer the spea'er(s "oing the f!t!re act to his not "oing it
, the spea'er also %elieves that the hearer wo!l" prefer his "oing the f!t!re act to
his not "oing it
8) A speech act co!nts as a promise only if it is not o%vio!s to %oth hearer an"
spea'er that the f!t!re act will %e "one %y the spea'er as part of the normal co!rse
of events
Rule ; the sincerit( ru'e
+) A SA co!nts as a promise only if the spea'er in"en"s to "o the f!t!re act
Rule < the essentia' ru'e
E) A SA co!nts as a promise only if it co!nts as the !n"erta'ing of an o%ligation to
"o a f!t!re act
+
2. Rules for Assertions
(**) .t is snowing , we state/assert that a proposition is tr!e
Rule ( the propositiona'-content ru'e
*) Any proposition can %e expresse" thro!gh an assertive SA
Rules 2 0 2 preparator( ru'es
6) the spea'er m!st have some evi"ence for s!pposing that the asserte"
proposition is tr!e
8) .t is not o%vio!s to %oth S an" & that & 'nows the proposition expresse" %y the
SA
Rule ; the sincerit( ru'e
+) A SA co!nts as an assertion if the spea'er %elieves the proposition
Rule < the essentia' ru'e
E) The SA is an assertion if it co!nts as !n"erta'ing that the expresse" proposition
is tr!e
;. Rules for =uestions
(*6) a <o yo! sell wine here?
% Where can . fin" some goo" recipes for lasagne?
Rule ( the propositiona'-content ru'e
*) any proposition can %e $!estione"
Rules 2 0 2 preparator( ru'es
6) The SA is a $!estion only if the Spea'er "oes not 'now the answer
for a CES/9o ; (*6a)# S "oes not 'now whether the proposition
is tr!e or false
for an elicitative wh,; (*6%)# S "oes not 'now the missing
information nee"e" to complete the proposition
8) The SA is a real $!estion only if it is not o%vio!s to %oth S an" & that & will
provi"e the information witho!t %eing as'e"
Rule ; the sincerit( ru'e
+) A SA co!nts as a $!estion only if the S wants this information
Rule < the essentia' ru'e
E) A SA is a $!estion is it co!nts as an attempt to elicit information from the
&earer
<. Rules for R="STS
(*8) Can yo! get me a glass of water?
Rule ( the propositiona'-content ru'e
*) A speech act is a re$!est if the S pre"icates a f!t!re act A of the &
Rules 2 0 2 preparator( ru'es
6) A speech act co!nts as a re$!est only if
, the & is a%le to perform the f!t!re act7
, the S %elieves & is a%le to "o the f!t!re act
, .t is not o%vio!s to %oth S an" & that & will "o A in the normal co!rse of events#
of his own accor"
Rule ; the sincerit( ru'e

A speech act is a re$!est if S wants & to "o A
Rule < the essentia' ru'e
E
A speech act is a re$!est if the !tterance co!nts as an attempt %y S to get &
to "o A
To su$ up
*) the propositional content rule foc!ses only !pon the semantic content
6) the e1ecuti6e/preparatory rules foc!s !pon %ac'gro!n" circ!mstances
8) the sincerity rule foc!ses !pon the S@s psychological state
+) the fulfil$ent>essential rule foc!ses !pon the p!rpose of the illoc!tionary act
-. T! C8ASSI#ICATIO. O# SPC! ACTS
(. Criteria for the classification of SAs
8 essential criteria for the classification of speech acts (among others propose"
%y Searle *4G4 ?A Taxonomy of Speech Acts@ ))
, the illoc!tionary point of the speech act
, the "irection of fit %etween the wor"s an" the worl"
, the expresse" psychological state
(.(. The illocutionary point of the speech act
(.f we a"opt illoc!tionary point as the %asic notion on which to classify !ses of
lang!age# then there are a rather limite" n!m%er of %asic things we "o with
lang!age7 we tell people how things are# we try to get them to "o things# we
commit o!rselves to "oing things# we express o!r feelings an" attit!"es# an"
we %ring a%o!t changes thro!gh o!r !tterances Fften we "o more than one
of these at once in the same !tterance( (Searle *4GE) 854)
The illoc!tionary point of a SA 1
(*+) a 3oc' the "oor
% Fil floats on water
c .@ll clean my room# m!m/
The illoc!tionary point of , an or"er) get the &earer to something7
The illoc!tionary point of , an assertion) get the &earer to something
The illoc!tionary point of , a promise) a %y the Spea'er to perform
some f!t!re act
Illocutionary force 6s. illocutionary point
;) .s the illoc!tionary point of a SA the same as its illoc!tionary force?
(*E) a :ring me a glass of water/ ()
% Co!l" yo! please give me a glass of water? ()
(.2. -irection of fit *et&een the &or's an' the &orl' ?'irec@ia 'e aAustareB
wor"s , the wor"s !ttere"# the worl" , the worl" referre" to
Some illoc!tions have as part of their illoc!tionary point to get the wor"s (more
strictly# their propositional content) to match the worl"# others to get the worl" to
match the wor"s
(*5) a The s'irt is re"
% .@ll %ring yo! some can"y when . come home
wor",to,worl" "irection of fit (get the wor"s to fit the worl")
worl",to,wor" "irection of fit (get the worl" to fit the wor")
*) assertions , have as part of their point to get the wor"s to match the worl"
1 wor",to,worl" "irection of fit
6) promises , have as part of their point to get the worl" to match the wor"s
1 worl",to,wor" "irection of fit
The "irection of fit is a conse$!ence of the illoc!tionary point of a speech act
;) What a%o!t "escriptions# re$!ests# vows# explanations# comman"s# statements?
(.2. The e1presse' psycholo%ical state
.n the performance of any illoc!tionary act with a propositional content# the
spea'er expresses some attit!"e# state# etc# to that propositional content
5
a man who states# explains# asserts or claims that p e)presses the +e'ief
that p.
a man who promises# vows# threatens or ple"ges to "o the act a
e)presses an intention to do a.
a man who or"ers# comman"s# re$!ests the hearer to "o an act a
e)presses a desire (want, wish# that H do a7
a man who apologiKes for "oing a e)presses regret at having done
a
2. Classes of illocutionary acts
Basic sentence typesC dec'arative (affirmative#, interrogative, imperative
(*G) a Co! are wearing a "ress
% Are yo! wearing a "ress?
c Wear a "ress/
Classes of illocutionary acts or speech acts
(, Asserti6es
(*H) a The earth is flat
% The lesson is too tiring
, the illoc!tionary point of an assertive is to co$$it the spea4er to the
fact that so$ethin% is true) to the tr!th of the expresse" proposition
, "irection of fit) &or's to the &orl' , ma'e the wor"s fit the worl"
, the expresse" psychological state) *elief
, characteristic syntactic pattern) , a "eclarative sentence
, they have a tr!th val!e
, characteristic PL ver%s for assertives) assert, state, c'aim, report,
confirm, confess, +oast, c'aim
The simplest test of an assertive) can yo! characteriKe it (inter a'ia) as tr!e or
false?
2, -irecti6es
(*4) a Can yo! get me some coffee?
% <on(t to!ch that/
c .t wo!l" %e %ettter if yo! reconsi"ere" yo!r position
, the illoc!tionary point is to %et the hearer to 'o a certain action
, the "irection of fit) &orl'-to-&or's , ma'e the worl" fit the wor"s
, the expresse" psychological state) &ant>'esire
, the propositional content is always that the hearer H "oes some f!t!re
action , sho!l" %e controlla%le (within the power of the hearer)#
;) What a%o!t $!estions?
, characteristic PL ver%s for this class are as$, order, command, re&uest,
+eg, p'ead, pra(, entreat, invite, permit, advise# dare, def(, cha''enge,
insist
9: Searle insists that he is classifyin% illocutionary acts) not 6er*s
The PL ver%s advise, suggest, te'' , can %e !se" in either assertive or "irective
speech acts
(6D) a She a"vise" !s that there ha" %een a mista'e
% She a"vise" !s to arrive early
c She s!ggeste" that we sho!l" arrive early
" She s!ggeste" that there ha" %een a mista'e
e She tol" !s to arrive early
f She tol" !s that there ha" %een a mista'e
2, Co$$issi6es
(6*) . promise to "o it
, the illoc!tionary point is to co$$it the spea4er (in some varying
"egrees) to so$e future action#
, the "irection of fit) worl",to,wor"
, the expresse" psychological state ) intention (the spea'er expresses the
intention that the he will "o the act a,
, the propositional content is always that the spea'er , "oes some f!t!re
action%
, prototypical PL ver%s: promising, threatening, offering# vowing# swear
G
;) <irectives vs Commissives M similarities/"ifferences?
;, 1pressi6es
(66) a . congrat!late yo! on winning the race
% . than' yo! for helping me
c . am sorry for %eing late
" F!ch/<amn/
, the illoc!tionary point is to express the Spea'er@s attit!"e/psychological
state to a certain state of affairs referre" to in the propositional content
, prototypical cases) than$, apo'ogise, we'come, congratu'ate, condo'e,
dep'ore
;) is there a "irection of fit for expressives?
(.n performing an expressive# the spea'er is neither trying to get the worl" to
match the wor"s nor the wor"s to match the worl"# rather the tr!th of the
expresse" proposition is pres!ppose"( (Searle)
, a variety of "ifferent psychological states) gratitude, admiration, regret
<, -eclarations
(68) a . fin" yo! g!ilty as charge"
% . now prono!nce yo! man an" wife
c . appoint yo! chairman
" War is here%y "eclare"
;) this class correspon"s to A!stin(s class of (?)
, the s!ccessf!l performance of the illoc!tionary act creates a new reality ,
%rings a%o!t the correspon"ence %etween the propositional content an"
reality#
, "irection of fit) the performance of a "eclarative %rings a%o!t a fit %y its
very s!ccessf!l performance , if . s!ccessf!lly perform the act of
"eclaring a state of war# then war is on
"irection of fit , %oth wor",to,worl" an" worl",to,wor"s
, they have no expresse" psychological state
, they rely heavily on extraling!istic conventions
, PL ver%s) ca'', dec'are, +apti*e, define, name, appoint, e'ect, pronounce
;) SAs an" classes of speech acts in (6+)?
(6+) a A "ate is a 0o%,interview that lasts all night
% Co! are fire"
c . want yo! to p!t &an' Wiggen on the transplant list
" . resign
e &e nee"s a new 'i"ney
f . excomm!nicate yo!
g .@ll spea' to my frien" at the Dai'( /ai' a%o!t yo!r
incompetence/
h . "eplore the heavy !se of cars %y mem%ers of o!r cl!%
i .sn@t he great?
H