Production managed and edited by Stephen D.

Myers (EWPCA President, 1996-97)

and coordinated by
Gunnar Fr. Aasgaard and Harsha Ratnaweera (Norwegian Institute for Water Research, NIVA)
European Environmental Agency in collaboration
with European Water Pollution Control Association e.V.
This Report was prepared for the EEA by
the European Water Pollution Control Association e.V.
European Environment Agency (1998)
The European Environment Agency
Kongens Nytorv 6
DK-1050 Copenhagen
Phone: + 45 33367100
Fax: + 45 33367199
Published by
The European Water Pollution Control Association e.V.
Theodor-Heuss-Allee 17
D-53773 Hennef
Phone: +49 2242872189
Fax: +49 2242872135
Printed in Germany by Mocker Merkur Druck GmbH, Cologne
Acknowledgements
The preparation of this Laypersons Guide to Urban Wastewater Projects has only been possible through the
combined efforts of many individuals and organisations and their respective contributions are gratefully
acknowledged.
The European Water Pollution Control Association (EWPCA) first discussed the initiative with the European
Environment Agency (EEA) in 1995. Thanks are due to the EEA for providing funds towards the preparation
of the Guide and in particular, to the Executive Director of the EEA, Domingo Jimz-Beltrand the Project
Manager, Dr Niels Thyssen. Thanks are also due to the Norwegian Government who provided supplementary
funds in the early stage when the concept was being developed. The Norwegian Institute for Water Research
(NIVA) is thanked for providing with supplementary funds during the final editing stage.
A great debt of gratitude is due to all those who actively participated in the development of the project and to
the drafting of the Guide, as they all devoted far more time to the project than was covered by the very
nominal renumeration accorded them. Their respective involvement in the work, all gratefully acknowledged,
were as follows:
Mr Stephen D. Myers (UK), managed the production overall, edited the Guide, wrote Chapters 1, 2, 4 (part),
5 and 9 and permitted Annex C to be reproduced;
Mr Gunnar Fr. Aasgaard and Dr Harsha Ratnaweera (Norway) co-ordinated production and preparation of
the Guide, jointly wrote Chapter 3 and contributed to Chapter 7;
Dr John Hawkins (UK), who wrote Chapters 6 and 7, and Mr David Musco (UK) who wrote much of
Chapter 4;
Dr Peter Matthews (UK), who acted as Technical Editor and who arranged his organisation, Anglian Water
plc, to produce Chapter 8;
Mr Fetter Wang (Norway), who produced cartoons at the head of each Chapter and Mrs Kathleen Soupilas,
who reviewed the text;
the members of the Panel which reviewed the Guide at all stages of its production - Mr Athanasios Soupilas
(Greece), Mr Jorge S. Santos Temido (Portugal), Mr Henri Barthalan (France), Mr Zeljko Telisman (Croatia)
and Mr Miroslav Kollar (Slovak Republic).
In addition, an advanced draft of the Guide was circulated to the EEAs 18 National Focal Points, members of
the EEAs Scientific Committee, Directorate General XI of the European Commission, each of the 24 national
member organisations of the EWPCA, and a broad range of organisations involved in the wastewater sector
throughout Europe. The many comments received were invaluable in the revision and completion of the final
text.
The assistance of the following organisations, which supplied photographs for illustrating the text is gratefully
acknowledged:
Vlaamse Milieumaatschappij (Belgium), Alfa Laval (Denmark); I/S Avedloakv (Denmark); Krystems A/S
(Denmark); Lyonnaise des Eaux (France); Endress + Hauser (Germany); Lurgi GmbH (Germany); Azienda
Po Sangone (Italy); Biovac AS (Norway); Kaldnes Miljologi AS (Norway); Kemira Water (Sweden); Anglian
Water (UK); Biwater Ltd (UK); McDowells (UK); Southern Water (UK); Water Research Centre (UK).

Chapter 1. The Guide - Its Purpose, Structure and Use


Figure
1.1 Purpose of the Guide

Figure

Figure

Figure
The primary purpose of the Guide is to provide persons who do not have a technical background, including
the general public, with information on aspects and issues that arise when planning and implementing an
urban wastewater project.
The Guide is principally aimed at employers and politicians involved in local, regional and national
governments in Member States of the European Union and neighbouring countries. It has also been designed
and written to be of interest to persons at all levels of government who have a technical background and who,
for the first time, are to be involved in the management of wastewater.
The objectives underlying the production of the Guide, with respect to urban wastewater management, are to:
provide a readily understood guide to related EU legislation;
enable options to be identified and to describe the principal characteristics, issues and consequences
associated with choosing between them;
provide a bridge of communication between non-technical persons and their technical colleagues and
professional advisers;
provide laypersons with the basic principles sufficient to understand the proposals for the projects, products
and services put to them by their advisers and commercial entities.
1.2 The Guides Structure
Chapter 2 provides an introduction to urban and rural wastewater management through responses to questions
commonly raised on the subject.
Chapter 3 outlines the EU directive concerning Urban Wastewater Treatment and other legislation, the impact
of wastewater treatment on the environment and introduces the concept of integrated planning of wastewater
management.
Chapter 4 explains the decision making issues in urban wastewater projects, the necessary resources to be
managed and matters that relate to project phasing and institutional arrangements.
Chapter 5 describes sewerage systems, sewer networks, and their construction and management.
Chapter 6 outlines the issues, solutions and process options involved in planning an urban wastewater and
sludge treatment works.
Chapter 7 covers key points of technical detail associated with wastewater and sludge treatment but with each
of the technical points explained only in summary form.
Chapter 8 deals with revenue and user charges.
Chapter 9 explains the options for implementing urban wastewater projects.
All sector-specific terms, or technical terms that a layperson might not be expected to understand, are included
in an Annex B, which contains a glossary of terms used in the Handbook.
1.3 The Use of the Guide
The Guide has been structured to meet the needs of different levels of understanding of the subject. It is
essential to recognise that it is a Guide for the use of laypersons and that, even though it is as technically
accurate as is possible given that context, it is not a textbook on wastewater projects and as such is unlikely to
satisfy technical purists in every respect.
As far as has proved practical, each of the chapters has been written to be self-contained. If time does not
permit a complete reading of the Guide, it is therefore possible to dip into chapters of particular current
interest to the reader. Further, in order to speed reference to the Guide, technical and institutional details have
been removed to the annexes.
In order to minimise the material to be read, and where appropriate, options, issues and the ramifications of
choice have been reported in a summarised tabular form. Use has been made of charts, diagrams and
photographs, to convey the main points in each chapter.
The main chapter headings are as follows:
Chapter 2 An Introduction to Urban and Rural Wastewater Management
Chapter 3 Environmental and Legislative Context
Chapter 4 Planning Issues
Chapter 5 Wastewater Networks
Chapter 6 Wastewater and Sludge Treatment and Disposal - General
Chapter 7 Wastewater and Sludge Treatment and Disposal - Details
Chapter 8 Revenue and User Charges
Chapter 9 Project Implementation
It is recommended that Chapter 2 be read by all persons using the Guide as this deals with a number of key
concepts.

Chapter 2 - An Introduction to Urban and Rural Wastewater Management


Figure

Fig. 2 No caption
2.1 Chapter Content
The purpose of this chapter is to provide an introduction to the subject of urban wastewater and the issues it
raises with respect to its management in the best interests of the public and the environment in which it lives.
A list of questions commonly asked by those embarking upon the planning of an urban wastewater project for
the first time has been compiled. Many of the topics are dealt with in greater detail in later chapters.
This chapter has been divided into the following sections:
2.2 The Nature of Urban Wastewater
2.3 Sewer Systems
2.4 Industrial Effluents
2.5 Rural Area Sewage
2.6 Wastewater Treatment
2.7 Effluent Disposal and Beneficial Use
2.8 Sludge - Treatment, Disposal and Beneficial Use
2.2 The Nature of Urban Wastewater
2.2.1 What is urban wastewater?
The main component of urban wastewater is sewage from domestic dwellings, offices and other commercial
premises. Liquid effluents from industrial processes and service industries such as laundries are also
commonly discharged into urban sewers together with domestic sewage. Older sewer systems were also
designed to receive rainwater, drainage from streets, roofs and other paved and impermeable areas. Although
this practice continues today, it is increasingly common to provide a separate network for rainwater.
2.2.2 What is domestic sewage?
The liquid waste produced by domestic activities has two main components:
Grey water; Water that has been used for baths, showers, in wash-basins and the washing of clothes and
floors, and
Black water; Water and waste from toilets and kitchen sinks. In turn, toilet waste in areas not served by
sewer systems may be termed night soil, as it is separately stored and carted away from the house.
Normally both of these components, black water and grey water, are combined and discharged into a single
drainage system and together are referred to as domestic sewage or simply sewage.
2.2.3 Why differentiate between grey water and black water?
Grey water contains very little solid material and under the right circumstances can be considered suitable for
recycling.
If plumbing systems permit the separation of the two components, grey water can be used for watering
gardens in times of drought. However, the adverse influence of increasing amount of detergents in grey water
on gardening should be kept in mind. In very exceptional circumstances, i.e. in chronically water-short areas,
grey water may be treated at the place of origin and reused for toilet flushing.
It should be emphasised that the recycling of grey water imposes not only significant additional costs on
housing construction but also its treatment is subject to many problems. Reuse and recycling of grey water is
not yet a common practice.



2.3 Sewer Systems
2.3.1 Why have we developed a waterborne system for carrying away our waste?
In early urban settlements, waste was dealt with at individual dwellings. The quantity of water used was
considerably less than today. Water would need to be drawn from wells or the nearest watercourse and carried
or hauled to the dwelling. Only rarely was water piped to centres of population and even more rarely to
individual houses. Water used for personal hygiene, the washing of floors and for cooking soaked away into
the ground. Human excreta was at best stored and this nightsoil, as it is sometimes called, was either carted
away to a tip or watercourse or, as was common in China from early times, used as a fertiliser in agriculture.
As towns grew in size, it became an onerous task to cart away nightsoil from an increasing number of houses.
The Romans designed and constructed drains beneath the streets to carry the water and nightsoil mixture away
by gravity to ditches and watercourses.
However, with the passing of the Roman Empire, it appears that its drainage techniques and practices fell into
disuse. Although a few towns could be said to have systematised their water supply and wastewater
infrastructure throughout the ages, in general, most towns and cities grew unplanned and lacked any form of
system to carry away waste. Where a system was provided, it generally consisted of open ditches along the
centre of streets into which all manner of domestic waste was thrown. These ditches were occasionally
cleaned by the municipal authorities but more often than not were left to fill and fester until a storm carried
away the accumulated mess. Open, natural watercourses collected the waste from the streets and when the
flow in them was sufficient, the wastes were carried away from the city. Crowded cities stank from these
practices and periodic bouts of dysentery and bubonic plague, which decimated medieval urban populations
from time to time, were a natural consequence of such unhygienic practices.
2.3.2 So what stimulated the invention and construction of our modern system of sewers to
carry away the wastewater that we produce?
With the advent of the industrial revolution in Europe in the late 1700s, there was a considerable migration of
the rural population to the towns that grew rapidly in size. Local wells and handpumps could no longer cope
with the demand for water and, in addition, human waste seeped into the aquifers and contaminated the water
withdrawn from wells for local use. The invention of steam-driven pumps enabled clean water in considerable
quantities to be brought to the cities from sources remote from centres of population. Increasingly, a clean and
abundant water supply was made available to cities and towns, initially at public standpipes in the streets and
gradually, through a system of pipes, direct into houses and factories.

Fig 2.1 Small diameter sewer under construction

Fig. 2.2 Effluent-producing factory
From the early 1800s, it became necessary to construct a system of drains to carry away such large quantities
of water if the streets of towns and cities were not to become continually awash. Industrialised production of
the water-closet at about this time made its installation in houses more common and further increased the
pressure for sewer systems to be constructed. Quite naturally, drains constructed to carry away water used for
laundering and for personal hygiene were also used to carry away water closet waste.
Although existing open watercourses and storm drains had been used for some time to carry away waste, these
were now culverted, roofed over, and additions to the system were constructed as closed culverts from the
outset. In time, sewer systems were designed to comprehensively serve all development and where a gravity
system could not cope alone, pumping stations were constructed.
At first, wastewater was carried away to the edge of developments and discharged untreated into
watercourses, lakes and the sea. As wastewater quantities increased and the link between sewage, disease and
hygiene became firmly established in the middle of the 19th century, conditions in rivers, lakes and coastal
waters became aesthetically and hygienically unacceptable. In order to reduce the polluting potential of the
wastewater, treatment plants were constructed from about this time. Initially sewage was either subjected to
settlement or conveyed to farmland on the outskirts of towns and cities. So common and important was this
practice that the public still often refer to modern, sophisticated treatment plants as sewage farms.
Treatment techniques have now been developed to the point that, if necessary, under extreme circumstances,
wastewater can be treated and reused as drinking water. However, under most circumstances, it is neither
environmentally necessary nor economic to treat to such a high standard.
2.3.3 What does an urban wastewater system consist of?
An urban wastewater system is composed of a sewer system, a wastewater treatment works and an effluent
discharge pipe. Sewer systems are described in Chapter 5 and wastewater treatment works in Chapters 6 and
7.
2.4 Industrial Effluents
2.4.1 What are industrial effluents?
Industrial effluents are the liquid wastes from industrial processes.
In some cases, industrial effluents are similar in their constituents to domestic sewage, e.g. those from food
processing, soft drinks manufacture or laundries, although they are often stronger and produced in
considerable quantity. In others, they may contain material that would be toxic or corrosive to discharge into a
watercourse or sewer untreated, e.g. those from many chemicals processing plants, refineries, urban gasworks,
electroplating factories and metal-pickling and paint workshops. Some wastes may be akin to domestic
sewage but are extremely polluting due to high concentrations of organic material such as blood, oils and
grease, e.g. effluents from dairies, slaughterhouses, breweries and distilleries.
2.4.1.1 When should the discharge of industrial effluents into sewers be permitted?
With the exception of the effluent from largest industrial sites such as petroleum refineries, it is generally
accepted that, subject to the control of their quality and quantity, most industrial effluents should be
discharged into the public sewer system for treatment at the municipal works. There are a number of reasons
for this:
Many industrial effluents are readily treated by the same processes normally installed at a municipal
wastewater treatment works and some are more easily treated when mixed with domestic sewage than on their
own.
If required to treat the effluents on site, before discharge into a sewer or a watercourse, the plant will often
be poorly operated and maintained, as effluent treatment is rarely considered an integral part of the industrial
process. This results in the need for considerable surveillance by the regulatory authorities. Hence the
expertise of the municipal plants can be exploited in ways that may not exist on the factory.
All industrial effluent treatment plants produce sludges and many produce screened material. These must
either be treated at the site of the industry or carried away for treatment. This can cause considerable odour
and disruption of traffic and, depending upon the type of industry, can be potentially hazardous.
In some cases, effluent treatment adds considerably to the cost of industrial production and it is not good for
the competitiveness of industry, and thus the local economy, if higher than necessary treatment costs are
imposed on industry. The larger the treatment works, the lower the cost of treating a cubic metre of
wastewater. Therefore, to combine industrial effluents with domestic sewage, will result in a lower treatment
cost. The cost of conveying the industrial effluent and of treating it can be calculated and should be charged
back to the industry.
In several countries the discharge of treated/untreated industrial wastewater will be allowed only after
thorough assessment, as it can contain constituents that may adversely affect sludge quality, thus affecting its
reuse potential in agriculture.
However, before an industry is permitted to discharge its processed effluents into the public sewer, the public
authority should agree on the conditions for discharge. These will include a limit on the maximum hourly and
daily effluent flow, limits on physical, chemical and bacteriological content and the charges to be levied for
accepting the effluent into the sewers and treating it. The conditions should be expressed in a legally binding
licence.
It is now common in the EU to practise the precautionary approach. That is to say, an industry is required to
demonstrate that effluents whether, untreated or treated will not adversely affect the public wastewater
system, failing which, permission should not be granted for their discharge into the sewers. In all cases it will
be beneficial to the industry, the community and the environment to encourage processes and practices that
produce a minimum of waste.
Many sources of information exist on the quality limits to be placed on industrial effluents before they can be
accepted into the public sewer system and on methods for charging for this service in a fair and equitable
manner.
Before an industry is permitted to discharge its effluents into the public sewer system, it should be required to
demonstrate that they do not contain substances which, in the sewers, either alone or mixed with sewage or
other effluents, could:
produce toxic or explosive atmospheres;
be corrosive to the fabric of the sewers or machinery in contact with the sewage;
have a detrimental effect on the sewers and the treatment processes at the municipal wastewater works;
have a detrimental effect on the use and disposal of the final effluent and sludge by-products;
suddenly or progressively block the sewers, e.g. excessive amounts of oil or grease;
cause flooding by causing pump failures.
In addition, the effluents should be neither excessively hot or cold. It may be that an industry will need to
install a plant to pre-treat their effluents in order to make them acceptable for discharge into the sewers.
2.4.1.2 When should an industry be refused permission to discharge its effluents
into the public sewers?
If an industry cannot comply with the quality or quantity limitations that the authorities wish to set, then it
must make arrangements for treatment at its own site and for the conveyance of the effluent to a watercourse.
However, there are other concerns that may influence a decision to give or refuse permission for an industry to
discharge its effluents into the public sewers.
A town or city normally has a long term existence. Industry is not so permanent. Due to market uncertainties,
an industry cannot be sure of its future existence beyond the short term, often less than 2 or 3 years. Sewer
systems are designed and built to last for 50 years or more, the structures in Wastewater treatment plants 30
years and machinery 10 to 15 years.
If additional sewer capacity or treatment units have to be provided in order to accommodate an effluent from
industry, the municipal service provider will need to be certain of recovering the significant investment made,
from the industry concerned. It is difficult to be precise as to when additional sewer or treatment capacity will
be needed. However, consideration will need to be given to this when flows and pollution loads from a single
industry exceed 5% of the municipal wastewater flow and some additional capacity will almost certainly be
needed when this figure exceeds 15%.
In the event that additional capacity would need to be built, there are a number of options:
the industry concerned can pay directly for the additional capacity, or
it can make financial provision to guarantee repayment in the event of closure or change of needs due to a
reduction in their manufacturing processes or production capacity.
If the industry can satisfy neither of these, discharge of its effluents may be refused and it will need to treat the
effluents on its own site. However, it can be complicated by many economic factors, for example the
additional development of an area may be positively stimulated by various authorities in a particular area
through subsidies or grants or reduced contributions.
2.5 Rural Area Sewage
2.5.1 How is sewage from rural areas treated?
In rural areas, domestic sewage is normally dealt with on individual premises in cesspools and septic tanks.
Cess-pools are tanks without an outlet that are used solely to store the sewage. The stored waste must be
frequently removed as the tank is filled. Cess-pools are expensive to operate due to the frequent necessity to
empty them. Cess-pools are installed only when the ground is impermeable or the water table rises to near or
above ground level for all or part of the year.

Fig. 2.3 Factory-built treatment plant for small, rural developments
Septic tanks are small underground tanks interred in the ground, away from the houses that they serve and
which act as small treatment plants with a low efficiency. Solids settle to the floor of the tank and oils and
grease rise to the surface of the tank contents. A clarified effluent is preferably dispersed into the ground
through a soakaway system. Less acceptably, the effluent may be discharged to a ditch or watercourse but its
quality is such that this may give rise to odour problems or pollute the recipient. Periodically, sludge is sucked
from the septic tank by a purpose-built road tanker and conveyed to a plant for further treatment and safe
disposal.
For larger premises in rural areas, such as hotels and restaurants, a small treatment plant, often factory-built,
will be installed. These plants use the same basic treatment processes as municipal wastewater plants.
However, arrangements are normally made to convey the sludges that they produce to a municipal plant for
treatment and safe disposal.
2.5.2 When is the transition made from individual on-site treatment to the construction of a
sewer system to transmit sewage to communal treatment?
A sewer system and communal treatment plant are constructed when it is either cheaper to do so than
construct and operate individual on-site facilities, or when the ground on which the development is situated is
insufficiently permeable to absorb the discharges from septic tanks. Under these circumstances, unsanitary
conditions and odour nuisance may result from this practice or the quality of the groundwater may be reduced
to an unacceptable level.
2.5.3 Do rural wastewater treatment plants for small populations create particular
problems?
Ideally, a wastewater treatment plant would be served by a short sewer system, receive a constant flow rate of
wastewater and be of a size to justify a full compliment of technical and support staff working on-site. Sewer
systems and small treatment plants serving scattered rural populations and villages do not generally satisfy
these criteria and so the problems created must be taken into account when planning their design and
operation, viz.:
long lengths of sewer and pumping mains serving small populations have long retention times and
wastewater can become septic, creating offensive odours and difficulties in treatment;
the smaller the population served, the more variable is the wastewater flow rate and the pollution load
arriving at the treatment works throughout the day and treatment units must be designed to take this into
account;
it is often difficult to allocate operational staff exclusively to a small treatment works; if there are a number
of such works in an area, the formation of a mobile operations and maintenance team might be justified,
otherwise regular visits should be made by the staff from a larger works, suitably trained in the operational
problems of small units.
2.6 Wastewater Treatment
2.6.1 Why is there a need to treat wastewater?
Briefly, the treatment of wastewater is practised to avoid otherwise unacceptable conditions e.g.:
risks to public health
pollution of natural bodies of water into which effluents are discharged -watercourses, lakes and the sea - to
the point where they damage aquatic plant and animal life or prevent their normal economic, social or
recreational use through contamination or deoxygenation
pollution of the general environment by creating offensive odours or sights and the contamination of
groundwater.
In addition, the provision of wastewater treatment is good social practice, there being a general public
aversion to finding sanitary waste in water bodies of environmental importance.
The European Communitys Urban Wastewater Treatment (UWWT) Directive requires that all Member
States pass legislation which ensures that developments having a population above a given figure to treat their
wastewater before discharge into watercourses, lakes or the sea. However, the degree of treatment to be
provided and the date by which such treatment must be operational, depends partly upon the size of the
population served and partly upon the sensitivity of the body of water into which the effluent is discharged.
This is further detailed in Chapter 3, Section 3.3.
Wastewater treatment is described in greater detail in Chapters 6 and 7.

Fig. 2.4 Medium-sized wastewater treatment plant
2.6.2 What are the detrimental effects of discharging untreated wastewater into a recipient
and what are the benefits of wastewater treatment?
Wastewater Constituent Detrimental Effects Benefit of Wastewater
Treatment for Community
Large solid material -paper,
rags, plastic bags, condoms,
etc.
Unsightly - accumulate as litter on banks
of rivers, lakes and beaches
River banks, lakes and their
surroundings and beaches are rendered
more pleasant and safer environments
for work and for recreation
Can constitute a risk to health on contact Improved economy where based on
recreation and/or tourism
Organic matter - food waste,
faecal matter and some
industrial effluent
Oxygen levels in receiving waters are
reduced by bacteria and higher orders of
aquatic life consuming the organic
matter - fish and other organisms die and
eventually disgusting odours are
produced -similar to rotten eggs and
rotten cabbage
Livelihoods dependent upon fishing are
protected as is fishing for sport
More pleasant environment for living,
working and recreation
Improved economy where based on
recreation and/or tourism
Oils and greases Unsightly and potentially damaging and
harmful scum formed on water surfaces
Impermeable film on water surface
reducing potential for, water to absorb
oxygen from atmosphere
Improved oxygen absorption into the
water body from atmosphere assisting
aquatic life to survive
More pleasant environment for living,
working and recreation
Improved economy where based on
recreation and/or tourism
Nutrients - nitrogen,
phosphorus and trace
materials
Act as fertiliser and stimulates growth of
algae, seaweed and other aquatic plants
choking watercourses and littering banks
of rivers and lakes and beaches with
rotting material, eventually becoming
organic waste
Improved and safer conditions for
shellfish cultivation and other aquatic
organisms
Can stimulate toxic algal blooms which
accumulate in shellfish and can infect
humans who consume them
More pleasant environment for living,
working and recreation
Improved economy where based on
recreation and/or tourism
Disease-causing bacteria and
viruses - e.g. cholera, typhoid
and salmonella
Contamination of water resources used
for drinking or irrigation of crops eaten
raw by humans or animals
Improved public health Improved and
safer conditions for shellfish cultivation
and other aquatic organisms
Contamination of water used for
shellfish cultivation
Improved economy where based on
recreation and/or tourism
Contamination of water used for water
contact sports

Toxic substances - generally
originating from industrial
effluents
Dependent upon toxicity and
concentrations in receiving water can
Improved conditions for aquatic life
Improved public health
- destroy or damage aquatic life
- accumulate in flesh of fish, shellfish
and creatures which feed upon them and
eventually affect humans consuming
them

2.7 Effluent Disposal and Beneficial Use
2.7.1 What are the options for effluent disposal?
Treated effluent from a wastewater treatment plant is normally discharged into the nearest water body capable
of accepting it without detrimentally affecting it. This can be a drainage ditch, a river, stream or torrent, a lake
or the sea.

Fig. 2.5 Agricultural re-use of treated effluent
In some cases, to ensure adequate and effective dilution of the effluent in the receiving water, an underwater
pipeline must be constructed, equipped at its discharge end with a diffuser system. This is particularly so,
when treated effluent is discharged into the sea and acceptable bacterial levels are required at the shoreline
and inshore waters without resorting to disinfection. The issue of mixing zones is important and the
environmental/economic balance of several small discharges versus one large discharge needs careful
assessment.
In addition to providing dilution, a long offshore outfall provides time for natural bacterial die-off to occur
before the considerably diluted effluent reaches the shoreline. Techniques exist for predicting the dilution,
dispersion and die-off that will be achieved.
2.7.2 Under what circumstances is it worthwhile to reuse treated effluent for beneficial use?
Recycling treated effluent for further use is unlikely to be either necessary or worthwhile where natural water
resources are sufficient to satisfy all normal demands placed upon them by an area, e.g. satisfactorily serving
the needs of the population, commerce and industry, the public services, landscaping and agriculture.
However, if water resources are either periodically or continually unable to satisfy water demands in the area,
the recycling of treated effluent for beneficial use should be considered.
It is generally possible to reuse effluent for use as irrigation water in agriculture, landscaping and forestry,
although, unless it has been either disinfected or stored for some time, care should be taken in its use on crops
eaten raw, or where spray irrigation techniques are used.
Treated sewage effluent can be used for secondary industrial purposes such as cooling and quenching without
treatment other than disinfection and dosing with algaecides.
Some water deficient areas have insisted on dwellings and public buildings being provided with dual
plumbing systems for the water supply, one for toilet flushing and the other for all other water uses. It is
possible to use treated effluent in the toilet flushing system as long as suitable precautions have been taken
against cross-connection with the potable supply, e.g. colour coding of pipes and labelling of the effluent,
and the effluent has been disinfected and dosed with algaecide.
If other uses are under consideration, such as in industrial processes or for drinking purposes, it will be
necessary to subject the effluent to considerable further treatment as for any other primary quality potable
supply. As effluent is generally of lower quality than natural water sources, this can be very expensive and has
been practised in very few locations.
2.8 Sludge - Treatment, Disposal and Beneficial Use
2.8.1 What is wastewater sludge?
These solid residues are separated from the watery effluent from the process either by physical screening and
filtration or through sedimentation. Because these processes take place in a watery environment and it is
difficult to remove all of the water, the residues are not dry and, in fact, generally contain a high proportion of
water prior to their further treatment. This mixture of solids and water is termed sludge.
Sludge is, in effect, a concentration of the polluting material in the wastewater, either in its original form or
transformed by the treatment processes. It has a high organic content and, if not treated, rapidly putrefies and
gives off objectionable odours. It is therefore subjected to a series of treatments in order to stabilise it and to
remove sufficient water from it to enable it to be disposed of without its causing nuisance or polluting the
environment.
Depending upon the degree of stabilisation and dewatering required, facilities for the treatment of sludge can
cost between 30% and 50% of the cost of the treatment plant.
Sludge is more viscous than sewage and its treatment often poses more problems in operation than wastewater
treatment. However, it is essential to appreciate that:
no treatment plant can operate without producing sludge at some time and normally it is produced in
significant quantities every day
no treatment plant should be built without ensuring that there is a secure means of disposing of the sludge
every wastewater treatment plant must be provided with sludge treatment processing facilities capable of
adequately preparing the sludge for the disposal option chosen.
Sewage sludge utilisation is regulated by the EU Directive 86/278/EEC. The Urban Wastewater Directive
91/271/EEC prohibits marine disposal of sludge after 1998. However it should be noted that several countries
have much stricter national regulations.

Fig. 2.6 Liquid sludge from wastewater treatment process is stabilised and dewatered prior to disposal or
beneficial use
2.8.2 What are the disposal options for wastewater sludge?
There are not many options for the disposal of sludge. The two most common are disposal into a sanitary
landfill and the beneficial use of sludge in agriculture, horticulture and forestry.
Disposal into a sanitary landfill can either be as dewatered sludge or, following incineration, as ash. When
disposed into landfill, an especially prepared area, rendered impermeable, should be used, if it is necessary to
protect the groundwater below the site from pollution. Surface water runoff and drainage from the sludge from
this area will need to be subjected to treatment.
The use of sludge in agriculture is the preferable alternative. However it should be appreciated that the sludge
can contain disease-causing bacteria, sometimes in a cyst form resistant to disinfection, as well as organisms
that can harm certain crops. It may well be necessary to carry out some form of pasteurisation of the sludge or
long-term storage to avoid harmful effects. There are a number of processes that convert the sludge into a
form of product that is easier and safer to handle in agriculture.
In addition, wastewater sludge contains concentrations of metals where these originate from industrial
discharges. It should be possible to reduce their concentration through controls on the industries concerned, in
order to remain within the acceptable limits for metals in soils.
2.8.3 Are there any other methods of disposal or beneficial uses of sludge?
In the past, disposal of sludge at sea was commonly practised by urban developments at or near the coast. This
practice is prohibited from 1998 by EU Directive, 91/271/EEC.
Considerable work has been carried out on beneficial use options. Particularly noteworthy is the recent
research that has been done in Japan. The use of sludge has been considered for fuel, in ceramic production
and in the formation of building panels. It has even been used to produce decorative brooches, tie-pins and
table mats! At present, these uses are still to be considered experimental and are generally more costly than
conventional disposal or agricultural use. They can only be considered by the very largest of wastewater
plants serving populations in excess of a million.
Where sufficient landfill space is not available and when the sludge is not suitable for use in agriculture,
incineration will have to be considered. Ash resulting from incineration, which will be far smaller in volume
compared to the original sludge, must also be properly disposed of according to the same restrictions as
sludge.
2.8.4 What happens to screened material as well as grit and sand removed in the
preliminary treatment units?
A very important aspect is the removal of sanitary litter e.g. sanitary towel strips, condoms, cotton and sticks.
Very unsightly, blocks equipment, major PR problem in sludge use.
Paper, rags, pieces of timber, etc. arriving through the sewers at the wastewater treatment works can block
pipes and damage machinery and processes. This material is removed by screens at the inlet to the works.
Frequently contaminated with sewage solids, screenings should be separately stored, preferably after a
washing process and strained of excess water. They should either be burnt on site in an appropriately designed
incinerator, or carted into the sanitary landfill used for the disposal of solid refuse.
Sand and grit enter sewers principally from roads and can damage machinery and accumulate in process
pipework. In order to avoid this, and to protect the works, sand and grit, are removed in one of the first
treatment units. Sand and grit should also be disposed of to a sanitary landfill. If units removing the sand and
grit are operating correctly, the material should be inoffensive to handle but, if not, washing prior to disposal
may be necessary.

Fig. 2.7 Grit and sand is disposed of to sanitary landfill

Chapter 3. Environmental and Legislative Context


Figure
3.1 Chapter Content
This chapter explains the background and driving forces behind the current water legislation, and indicates
additional factors to be considered, based on local conditions, when setting effluent standards for wastewater
treatment plants.
The chapter has been divided into the following sections:
3.2 Why Treat Wastewater?
3.3 Environmental Legislation
3.4 The impact on the Environment
3.5 Success through Integrated Planning


3.2 Why Treat Wastewater?

Fig. 3.1 Protecting user interests
Protection of the environment from the adverse effects of urban wastewater discharges is the objective of the
current EU Directive concerning Urban Waste Water Treatment (UWWT), which was adopted in 1991
(91/271/EEC). This directive concerns the collection, treatment and discharge of urban wastewater and the
treatment of wastewater from certain industrial sectors. Additionally there are a number of EU Directives
addressing related specific issues that require consideration, viz.:
Drinking Water (75/440/EEC)
Bathing Water (76/160/EEC)
Fish Farming/Aquaculture (78/659/EEC)
Shellfish Waters (79/923/EEC)
Sewage Sludge Disposal (82/278/EEC)
Discharge of Dangerous Substances (76/464/EEC)
Other relevant Directives are listed in Annex A.
All wastewater management in the European Union is expected to be based on these Directives. Many other
European countries are also implementing them. However, when planning urban wastewater projects, other
EU, national and local legislation must be taken into consideration. These will address the issues of the impact
of all wastewater discharges that affect public health, the economy, aesthetic qualities and the sustainability of
environmental water use, as important driving forces.
The impact of a wastewater discharge on the local environment will vary, depending on the location and the
existing environmental status of the recipient. The need to attain and maintain acceptable local environmental
conditions may often exceed general requirements and hence require special attention. Thus the design of a
wastewater treatment plant should take into consideration both existing legislation and the present condition
of the environment.
An overall view of the legislation and the factors to be taken into account when initiating a wastewater project
is presented in Figure 3.2.
3.3 Environmental Legislation
The principal objectives of environmental legislation are to protect the environment, satisfy aesthetic criteria,
protect public health and safeguard legitimate interests related to the use of water. Regulatory authorities must
establish discharge standards for a given wastewater treatment plant, based on the relevant legislation and on
local and external environmental conditions. The EU Member States are free to adopt legislation in the
absence of EU legislation. However, where the Community has acted, EU legislation is supreme and binding,
taking precedence over both past and future Member State actions. Thus the Member States must at least,
fulfil the requirements of the EU Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive (UWWT).

Fig. 3.2 Elements and evaluations when initiating a wastewater project
3.3.1 What is the EU Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive?
The EU Directive on Urban Wastewater Treatment establishes a comprehensive system controlling the quality
of urban wastewater treatment and effluent discharge from most population areas, including industrial
wastewater discharged by industrial sectors to sewage systems and urban wastewater treatment plants.
The UWWT Directive sets minimum standards, which may be improved upon in local circumstances if the
environment requires it. It seeks to combine the principle of quality objectives (with local emission standards)
and uniform emission standards. Table 3.1 lists the principal requirements of the UWWT Directive with
respect to sewage treatment.

Fig. 3.3 Sampling effluent from wastewater treatment plant
Table 3.1 Principal Technology needs of the EU Directive on Urban Wastewater Treatment
Population
Equivalent
Discharge Location Technology
<2000 Inland rivers, lakes Appropriate; probably package biological plants,
septic tanks etc.
< 10 000 Marine waters Appropriate; could include screened long outfalls
> 2 000 Inland rivers, lakes Full secondary treatment
> 2 000 Sensitive inland rivers, lakes Full secondary treatment and nutrient removal
> 10 000 High dispersion marine waters Primary treatment
> 10 000 Low dispersion marine waters Full secondary treatment
> 10 000 Low dispersion marine waters which
are sensitive
Full secondary treatment with nutrient removal
> 150 000 High dispersion marine waters - same -
Table 3.2 Major Deadlines, by 31 of December of the given year
> 15 000 p.e. 10 000 - 15 000 p.e. 2000 - 10 000 p.e.
Urban Wastewater
Collection System
sensitive areas 1998 1998 -
all areas 2000 2005 2005
Secondary treatment
sensitive areas 1998 1998 -
all areas 2000 2005 2005
(if discharges are to freshwater and estuaries)
By certain dates, varying according to the size of the agglomeration and the location, as shown in Tables 3.1
and 3.2, the following degrees of treatment must be provided for municipalities of 2 000 population equivalent
(p.e.) or more, discharging into fresh water and estuaries and municipalities of 10 000 p.e. or more,
discharging into coastal waters:
Standard treatment
Secondary treatment must meet with a certain standard of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) - 25 mg/l
without nitrification - chemical oxygen demand (COD) - 125 mg/l - and total suspended solids (SS) - 35 mg/l,
the latter being optional. Minimum values for SS, BOD and COD removals are also specified as percentages.
The sampling frequency and acceptable number of samples not meeting the requirements are also specified.
For high altitudes, the provision of biological treatment may not be appropriate or practical but its omission is
only permitted subject to a study demonstrating that there will be no adverse environmental effects. In such
conditions, BOD must be reduced by a minimum of 40% and suspended solids must be reduced to 60 mg/l for
populations from 2 000 to 10 000 and to 35 mg/l for populations in excess of 10 000.
Sensitive Areas (particularly those vulnerable to eutrophication)
The Directive sets minimum standards that may be improved upon locally, if environmental circumstances
warrant it. Standard treatment is to be given as a minimum, but in addition phosphate and total nitrogen must
be reduced to specified levels as necessary. Sensitive areas were to have been defined by national
governments by December 1993, although some countries did not comply with the legislation by the due date.
The need for treatment at an individual work in a catchment may be assessed against an overall requirement
for at least 75% reduction in nutrients.
Less Sensitive Areas
Where comprehensive studies indicate that a discharge of less than standard treatment quality would not
adversely affect a coastal, marine or estuarine environment, then primary treatment can be accepted for those
waters for defined sizes of discharges. Primary treatment is defined as settlement or other processes in which
BOD is reduced by at least 20% and solids by at least 50%. These areas were also to have been designated by
December 1993. Discharges are to be treated unless it can be demonstrated that there would be no
environmental benefits from the provision of such treatment.
Provision of Facilities
Sewage collection systems should be provided in accordance with the best practicable techniques not entailing
excessive costs and should be designed to limit pollution from storm sewage. Treatment works must be
designed for a loading of 60 grams of BOD per person per day. Discharges of lesser size than that defined
above should have appropriate treatment by the end of 2005.
Industrial Discharges
Industrial discharges with pollution loads of BOD, COD or suspended solids equivalent to sewage from a
population greater than 4000 should be specified and require a discharge permit.
Sewerage
A collecting system for municipal wastewater must be provided by the end of 1998 - 2005 for agglomerations
larger than 2000 p.e., as indicated in Table 3.2.
Sludge
The Directive also requires that the disposal of sewage sludge to the sea should have ceased by December
1998. In the interim there is to be no increase in volume and a progressive reduction in any toxic persistent
and bio-accumulative constituents of sludge discharged to sea.
Sewage sludge used in agriculture must conform with the provision of the EU Directive 86/278/EEC passed in
1986. It should also be noted that several countries require much stricter standards in this respect.
Other Requirements
There are several other requirements. Industrial discharges into sewers should have been authorised by a
competent authority by December 1993 and be reviewed regularly. Criteria for identification of sensitive
and less sensitive areas are defined in the Directive. The list of sensitive areas must be reviewed every 4
years.
National Legislation and Multinational Agreements
As rivers can flow through more than one European country and lakes and aquifers (groundwater reservoirs)
can be transboundary, individual states affected in this way are working together to harmonise their policies
and actions by establishing multinational agreements. EU water legislation includes aspects related to the
above.
Both multinational agreements and national legislation must be considered when defining the treatment
requirements for any urban wastewater treatment project.
3.4 Impact on the Environment
3.4.1 User interests must be defined
The state of the local water environment -the receiving water quality - may require a greater degree of
treatment from a wastewater treatment plant, than that set down by legislation. This will, in part, be due to the
user interests in the water resource, both now and anticipated for the future. This leads to the concept of water
quality objectives being used to determine discharge standards. Such objectives can be integrated into
environmental protection through integrated river catchment and river basin management plans that take a
holistic view of the combined impact of all discharges.
The required quality of a water resource is related to current or future user interests. Such interests might be:
drinking water
agricultural use
recreation
shellfish and fish farming/aquaculture
commercial and hobby fishing
industrial use
nature protection area, etc.

Fig. 3.4 User interests in a watershed
Some of these user interests are described in other EU Directives (see Section 3.2 and Annex A), while
several others are defined within national legislation.
An illustration of various user interests is presented in Figure 3.4.
A governmental authority should define the water uses, for each recipient; either for a part, or for the whole of
it. These must be considered when the treatment efficiencies for a wastewater treatment plant are designed.
3.4.2 How can the acceptable pollution load to a receiving water be established?
The difference between the water quality criteria defined for a water body and its existing water quality
indicates the extent of the need for a reduction in the pollution load of an effluent. Existing water quality can
normally be analysed by a local laboratory, as most of the parameters defined in water classifications are
common.
When the quality of a receiving water is better than the levels required by the defined water quality
classification it is an indication that it is able to accept a certain amount of pollutant load. Armed with this
information, the pollution load which may be discharged without lowering the classification of the water body
or hindering its accepted use can be derived. The degree of treatment efficiency required of the effluent to
meet this limitation can then be calculated.
The acceptable pollution load resulting from the legislative requirements should be compared with the actual
pollution loads to the selected recipients of sectors. Keeping in mind that industrial developments and
population expansion may occur in the future and given a choice, the regulatory authority should select the
most suitable body of water to receive the effluent from the municipal wastewater treatment plant. Both a
technical and an economical evaluation must be carried out together with an environmental impact assessment
(EIA), see Section 4.6, to determine the most appropriate system of sewers and wastewater treatment plant or
plants that will achieve this objective. This is explained in greater detail in Chapter 4.
3.4.3 How can the actual pollution load to a recipient be estimated?
When estimating the pollution load which will enter a municipal wastewater system prior to treatment,
account should be taken of the population to be treated, permanent and transient, industrial effluent and any
pollution from municipal runoff permitted to the sewers. Calculation of pollution loads must also estimate
increases which will take place within the design life of the treatment plant. When calculating pollution load
to surface waters, account should be taken of effluents from wastewater treatment plants, industry not
discharging to the municipal system and agriculture. Households which do not discharge their sewage to a
sewer system may pollute groundwater with discharges from septic tanks.

Fig. 3.5 Sampling of effluents and rivers
If a treatment plant or a sewer system already exists in the area, it is recommended that the calculated
pollution load, should be based on the results of a sampling and analysis campaign.
Where it is not possible to sample the effluents to be treated, typical values for the average daily pollution
load generated per person and for several types of public institutions are available in the literature. An
estimation of pollution loads from industrial units producing significant quantities of polluting effluent should
preferably be made by a direct monitoring of the quantity and quality of their wastewater. Alternatively, if an
effluent sampling is either impractical or not possible, pollution loads should be estimated by a qualified
constancy or environmental institution.

Fig. 3.6 No caption
3.5 Success through Integrated Planning
3.5.1 How can pollution loads be minimised?
Where industry has not previously been concerned with the treatment of its effluents, there is frequently scope
to reduce both volume and polluting load. Environmental audit procedures are used to analyse industrial
processes which give rise to effluent production and it may prove economically beneficial either to modify
operation of installations or consider alternative production processes which lead to effluent and pollution
load reduction. Many industries have achieved a reduction in pollution by improved housekeeping and
through increased awareness among their operational personnel. Introducing Clean Technology will further
reduce adverse environmental impacts of industrial production processes.
There is increasing interest in demand management, i.e. the encouragement of reduction in water usage by
households and, where successfully introduced, this leads to a reduction in wastewater discharged to the
sewers. Examples of savings that can be usefully made are in limiting the size of toilet cisterns and
encouraging manufacturers of water-consuming domestic appliances - washing machines, dishwashers and
power showers - to produce equipment which consumes less water. It should be recognised that sink units
which grind up solid kitchen waste considerably increase the load of pollution which must be expensively
treated at the municipal works. The disposal of kitchen waste in its solid state -as solid refuse - is much less
costly and less harmful to the environment.
3.5.2 What is the sustainable use of water?
Sustainable Development has been defined as development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (WED, 1987). Development is
inevitably related to the use of water and sustainability is a key principle in maintaining the development
process both now and for future generations. Exploitation of water can go beyond the limits which nature can
tolerate, endangering sustainability. This is evident from the impaired state of the water quality seen in many
bodies of water today. To ensure that common interests are safeguarded, various means can be used locally,
regionally, nationally and internationally:
Regulatory: Permits,
Standards, Liability
Technical: Source control,
Treatment,
Impact reduction
Economic: Charges, Levies, Subsidies
Details of the items mentioned in the above groups will be discussed in later chapters. The foundations of an
economic, environmentally-friendly and responsible policy for the use of water can be established by use of
one or a combination of the above means. Integrated approach to the management of water quality puts these
means into practice.
3.5.3 What is integrated urban water quality management?
The fresh water source, waterworks, distribution system for potable water, sewer system, wastewater
treatment plant, sludge treatment and disposal and the recipient water body to which effluents are discharged,
are interrelated components in the water and wastewater management of a municipality or a region. These
components are further linked through their economical, ecological and technological aspects.
An integrated approach to the management of water and wastewater will necessarily result in economic,
ecological and technological benefits. An integrated approach would result in optimum design and operation
of sewer systems and wastewater treatment plants, whilst minimising adverse impacts on receiving waters.
Many advanced simulation methods have been developed and are now applied to increase efficiency of the
entire sewerage system at a lower cost. This approach should be the basis for the satisfactory execution of
integrated river basin management.

Chapter 4. Planning Issues


Figure
4.1 Chapter Content
The process of planning a sustainable urban wastewater system requires the consideration and management of
a number of resources - financial, land, energy, human and environmental.
This chapter first considers the phases through which a wastewater project must pass and gives an estimate of
the typical duration of each phase. The various principal resources which may require consideration are then
described. The objectives set for the wastewater project may well be satisfied in a number of different ways
and therefore this chapter includes an explanation of a number of techniques used to decide between them.
Finally, there is an explanation of the value of public consultation.

Fig. 4.1a Construction of a large wastewater treatment plant

Fig. 4.1b Construction of a large wastewater treatment plant
These topics are addressed under the following headings:
4.2 Wastewater Project Phasing
4.3 Costs and Sources of Finance
4.4 Land and Energy Requirements
4.5 Reuse - Wastewater and Sludge as a Resource
4.6 Environmental Impact and its Assessment
4.7 Human Resources - Project Staffing
4.8 Techniques to Assist Decision-Making
4.9 Public Consultation
4.2 Wastewater Project Phasing
4.2.1 What are the main phases of project implementation?
Project implementation by the conventional route can be divided into a number of phases:
PLANNING
Outlining of the project; planning, production of preliminary designs and cost estimates.
FUNDING
Following initial planning, funding, including any governmental grants, is sought and obtained.
DETAILED DESIGN
Production of detailed designs and cost estimates for the civil, mechanical, electrical and instrumentation
works.
TENDER AND CONTRACT DOCUMENTATION
Production of tender and contract documents consisting of general contract clauses, specifications of materials
and workmanship and bills of quantities.
TENDERING
Advertisement of the construction contract, application of tenders, assessment and comparison of tenders and
negotiations with and selective of a contractor and agreement and signature of a contractor.
CONSTRUCTION
Supervision of the construction and of the commissioning tests and training of permanent operators.
OPERATION
Operation and maintenance of the completed works.
4.2.2 How long will it take to bring a wastewater project into fruition?
The funding phase may be carried out in parallel with the planning and design stages. Depending upon the
complexity of the project being undertaken, i.e. from small extensions to a sewerage system, through to a
major wastewater treatment plant and marine outfall, the time for each phase should lie within the following
time ranges:
Planning: 2 to 6 months
(It should be noted that if it is necessary first to determine a wastewater management strategy for a whole
region, then it is quite possible for a study phase to be incorporated in the Planning Phase which could take
between 6 and 18 months to complete, more if extensive investigations such as marine surveys and
environmental research have to be carried out. The production of an Environmental Impact Statement can also
take between 3 and 12 months to produce depending upon the complexity and sensitivity of the situation.
These elements of planning are generally carried out concurrently.)
Detailed design:
2 to 12 months
Contract documentation: to 6 months
Tendering: 3 to 6 months
Construction: 6 to 30 months
Although routine sewer extension work will normally be somewhat shorter in duration, a minimum period of
at least 15 months will be needed for the completion of all the above phases for projects of any size, and
periods of up to 3 years may be required for larger projects - and even more if a substantial and extensive
study is warranted as noted above.
4.3 Costs and Sources of Finance
4.3.1 What main factors influence wastewater project capital and operating costs?
The capital and operating costs of wastewater collection, treatment and disposal will depend on a number of
factors.
Civil engineering costs form a large proportion of the capital cost of the project, typically more than 90% of
the capital cost for sewer construction and between 60 to 70% of the cost of constructing a treatment plant.
Much of the construction requires excavation, pipes laid underground and tanks set into the ground and
therefore the capital cost of a wastewater scheme is influenced to a significant extent by ground conditions -
the bearing capacity of soils and whether construction is above or below groundwater level. Ground
conditions have a high variability depending on the location. Weaker soils may require the bearing capacity to
be increased through piling and high groundwater levels may require expensive methods to render an
excavation dry by dewatering or freezing.
There is a basic cost which a contractor must incur when setting up on a site. The smaller the project, the
greater the effect of these basic costs on the unit cost, for example the cost per person served.
The greater the wastewater flow to be conveyed by a sewerage system and the larger the pollution load that
must be treated at the plant, the lower will be the unit cost of treatment. Other factors which contribute to the
size of a project include the relative contributions made to the pollution load to be treated, by industrial and
domestic effluents, the quality of effluent that must be achieved and the sludge disposal or reuse route for the
sludges and the treatment that they must be given to render them suitable for the chosen route.
The factors that influence operating costs for wastewater treatment are the same as those that influence their
capital cost. For a sewerage system, operating costs are dependent upon the length of the system, as this
influences maintenance, and the amount of pumping which is dependent upon the average wastewater flow
and the difference in the levels through which it must be pumped. Whether on the system itself, or just at the
treatment plant, it is difficult to avoid pumping wastewater, as most of the wastewater networks are based on
gravity flow. It is the maximum wastewater flow rate which dictates the cost as this, together with the length
of the collection system and the nature of the terrain, influences the amount of pumping involved.

Fig. 4.2 Tunnel boring machine for large diameter sewer construction
4.3.2 I s it possible to provide typical costs for wastewater projects?
The foregoing factors, and their understandable variability from location to location, all combine to make it
extremely difficult to provide firm guidance as to both the capital and operating costs to be expected of a
wastewater project. Therefore, it is essential at this point to stress that each project will need to be individually
assessed in order to determine its capital and operating costs. This should be done at the outset of the project,
during at the planning stage, and then revised at each stage of the projects progress as greater accuracy of
prediction will be possible when the details of the factors influencing cost become known.
This said, typical unit costs can give an indication of the order of magnitude of the costs of system
construction and operation. Unit cost information has therefore been collated from Europe and the US and is
presented in this chapter. However, for the reasons previously explained, this information should be seen as
being indicative only and should not be used for detailed cost estimates.
Additional information on European capital costs, based on data from the UK, France, Italy and Portugal,
reveal that for secondary treatment with population equivalents (p.e.) of works between 10 000 to 30 000 p.e.,
the cost ranges between 70 and 120 ECU/p.e. Facilities greater than 30 000 p.e. range between 60 to 70
ECU/p.e. A review of nine sewage treatment plants across the EU, has illustrated that operational costs can
range from 0.1 to 0.6 ECU per cubic metre (m
3
), of wastewater treated. Assuming that each person contributes
an equivalent of 30 - 90 m
3
/year to the system, based on sewage produced per person of between 80 to 250
litres per day per person, then this cost equates to 10 to 60 ECU/person/year.
4.3.3 What costs should be recovered from users?
The underlying rationale of wastewater pricing should be that of full cost recovery from users of the service.
Unless there are mitigating socio-economic circumstances or legal restrictions, then all elements of capital and
operating costs, including the cost of financing the work, should be recovered from the users of the service,
i.e. households, industry, commerce and other institutions.
In Europe, wastewater tariffs can range from 0,5 ECU/m
3
, for primary treatment in an urban area, to over 3
ECU/m
3
, for tertiary treatment in a rural area. Typically, wastewater tariffs (under full cost recovery) will
range up to 2 ECU/m
3
. Assuming that a household produces 200 m
3
of wastewater each year, and that the
income of that household is 10,000 ECU, a tariff of 1 ECU/m
3
will amount to 2% of the household income. A
detailed discussion of tariff setting for wastewater services is provided in chapter 8.
4.3.4 What sources of capital finance are available?
There are five main sources of capital finance:
grants (from regional or central government sources or the various European Union sources such as the
Structural and Cohesion Funds);
Municipal Bonds;
long and short term loans from governments and development banks such as the European Investment Bank,
the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development and Commercial Banks;
private equity through contractor-financed construction or - more rarely - sale to the public of shares in the
wastewater utility;
users of the service, from either capital charges to new users, or capital reserves established with
contributions from existing users.
Each of the main public and private financing instruments should be compared using the following factors:
the term - the number of years over which the capital is repaid;
the rate - the interest rate at which either the bond is issued or the loan is made;
financing costs - the initial and annual costs which must be added to the bond/loan principal;
delay - the effect of delays in obtaining finance, due to lengthy loan approval and provision procedures, on
both project cost and financing cost;
imposed costs - for example studies such as Environmental Impact Analysis and Cost Benefit Analysis,
described in Sections 4.6 and 4.8 respectively, which may be required by the financier;
ineligibility - that portion of total project costs which cannot be financed through a particular financing
programme;
coverage - the amount by which the users annual repayments must exceed the annual debt service due.
4.4 Land and Energy Requirements
4.4.1 How much land is required for a wastewater treatment plant?
There is a minimum land area required for a wastewater treatment works of approximately 400 to 600 m
2
as
there is a need to provide some space for access and maintenance around the treatment units serving only a
very few properties in a rural area.
However, considering treatment plants serving populations of a few thousand and upwards, a treatment plant
based on conventional activated sludge processes and producing a secondary treatment standard will occupy
from 0,1 to 0.3 m
2
per person served.
In general, the more energy a process uses, the less land area is required, proportionally speaking. The
wastewater processes referred to here are described in greater detail in Chapters 6 and 7 and in Annex A.
Of the conventional, well-tried processes, activated sludge is the most economical in land usage but is a high
consumer of power which is needed in providing air or oxygen for the process and the associated recirculation
by pumping of significant flows of active sludge.
Trickling filters use between 2 and 6 times the land area of activated sludge for the biological treatment units
but consume less power. Power consumption for this process is largely dependent upon the degree of
recirculation pumping which is included and on whether pumping can be minimised or avoided altogether if
there is sufficient fall in the land across the site.
Less intensive treatment processes, such as lagoons without aeration or reed beds, may require between 5 and
20 times the land area needed for a plant using conventional processes.
Restrictions on availability of land may well rule out consideration of the less intensive processes for this
reason alone, particularly where it can be used more productively.
When seeking suitable land for siting a wastewater treatment works, proximity to residential developments
should be taken into account. In order to avoid complaints of noise or odour nuisance, it is normal to allow an
exclusion zone around a treatment works of 100 to 250 metres. This can be reduced if the works, or its noisy
or potentially odorous units, are totally enclosed and air ventilated from them scrubbed. Such measures add
significantly to the cost of constructing and operating a works and are adopted only in exceptionally sensitive
situations.
4.4.2 When would it be appropriate to establish a wastewater treatment facility in conjunction with one or
more neighbouring authorities?
Each of the phases of implementation of a wastewater system require the involvement of skilled professionals
and technicians. It is commonly the case that smaller authorities find it difficult, if not impossible, to justify
the full-time employment of this skilled personnel, particularly as some will only be needed for relatively
short periods.
As an option to the employment of either contracted personnel or consultants, the local authority could
consider joining with neighbouring authorities thereby creating the quantity of users which would justify the
employment of a team which could implement and then jointly operate the project.
Co-operation of this nature could have other advantages in particular circumstances:
it may well be possible to reduce the number of wastewater treatment works to be constructed by
discharging into a common works
apart from the savings in overhead costs, larger treatment units are more economical both to construct and to
operate and joint management can thus reduce costs
in rural areas with many scattered small developments, it will be easier to justify a mobile treatment works
operations and maintenance unit.
4.4.3 Why do some towns and cities adopt unusual locations and layouts for their wastewater treatment
works?
It is true that some authorities have adopted unusual locations and layouts for their treatment works but there
is often a considerable cost penalty associated with such approaches, with respect both to construction and
operation. Exceptional local circumstances have generally led to these unusual approaches and they should not
be adopted unless such circumstances occur.

Fig. 4.3 Underground wastewater treatment plant
Athens and North West Kowloon in Hong Kong due to shortage of space on the mainland have sited their
treatment works on islands just offshore and within a reasonable distance of the cities they serve. Siting the
plants offshore required undersea outfall sewers to carry sewage to the islands and the shipping of sludge to
the mainland for disposal. In Athens, many millions of tonnes of rock were blasted and excavated to create the
flat areas required for the treatment processes and in Hong Kong considerable land area was reclaimed from
the port area.
Several cities in Scandinavia have located their treatment works in rock caverns which avoids the adverse
effects on biological treatment of long periods of extreme cold in winter.
The works to treat the wastewater from the Fylde Coast in North West England, including the coastal resorts
of Blackpool, Lytham St. Annes and Fleetwood, is to be completely housed and the air ventilated from these
buildings is to be scrubbed clean of odours. These expensive measures have been adopted in order to reduce
nuisance to nearby residential development and to avoid harming industrial processes in nearby food factories.
Treatment plants serving a number of towns on the French Riviera have had to be located under promenade
areas, either in the centre of the towns or in close proximity to high class residential or tourist developments.
Complex and expensive design approaches have been used to ensure that the impact of these plants is
acceptable under these sensitive conditions and operational costs are significantly increased.
Multi-storey treatment works have been installed in Japan, due to chronic shortage of land. Not only is
construction more costly but the treatment works are also very inconvenient to operate and to maintain.
In general, it is prudent to keep construction of wastewater treatment works as simple as local circumstances
will permit.
4.4.4 How much energy is required in wastewater treatment?
Energy consumed in treating wastewater is generally one of the major factors contributing to operational
costs.
Energy is consumed in significant amounts when pumping into the plant and satisfying internal process
requirements, in adding air or oxygen to biological treatment units and in pumping and dewatering sludges.
A typical activated sludge plant, producing a secondary process quality effluent and stabilising and dewatering
its sludges, will consume between 40 and 80 Wh per person served each day.
This would be considerably reduced (to perhaps less than half of these values) if a biological filter process
were used without recirculation, due to different process requirements.
A treatment works, which stabilises its sludges using the anaerobic digestion process, produces methane gas
as a byproduct. At the very least this gas can be used to power boilers which provide all the heat needed to
maintain the anaerobic process and to heat buildings in the winter. However, the energy potential of the gas
produced can be much greater than that needed to fulfil these modest requirements and may satisfy the power
requirements of a whole treatment works - as long as the works does not have either excessive pumping or
does not need to produce a nitrified effluent or tertiary process standard effluent. For treatment works serving
populations greater than 50,000 it may be economical to consider the installation of a generation plant
powered by the methane produced on site, in order to reduce power costs.
4.5 Reuse - Wastewater and Sludge as a Resource
4.5.1 What are the main reuse opportunities?
During the treatment of urban wastewater, the liquid portion is effectively separated from the solids (i.e. the
sludge). Both of these residual streams can be processed into beneficial materials, providing that the
undesirable physical, chemical, and biological properties are either reduced to an acceptable level, or
eliminated prior to, or during, wastewater treatment.
Considering the beneficial properties, (wastewater as a source of water and nutrients and sludge as a source of
nutrients and organic matter), the following reuse opportunities can be formed into a list of priorities, ref.
Table 4.1.

Fig. 4.4 Effluent and sludge can be beneficially used by agriculture
Reuse opportunities will depend on local conditions. However, the priorities listed in the table reflect:
the economic importance of agriculture;
the relative contribution of water/nutrients in enhancing the productivity of these sectors;
the specific environmental problems which face coastal regions, which include:
- soil erosion resulting in the formation of desert land;
- seasonal water shortages reflecting the predominance of agricultural water abstractions in those regions;
- salt water intrusion into over exploited coastal aquifers;
The need for additional treatment (thereby increasing the cost) to achieve the required quality levels for
given reuse opportunity.
Table 4.1 Reuse Opportunities for Wastewater and Sludge
Activity
Reuse Opportunity
Wastewater Sludge
Agriculture Crop Irrigation & Soil Improvement Crop Fertilisation & Soil
Improvement
Land Application Aquifer Recharge Land Reclamation
Aquaculture &
Silviculture
Fish Rearing Forest Fertilisation & Soil
Improvement Industrial Products;
Industry Industrial Processing;
Cooling & Process Waters
Construction Material
Fertilisers & Fuels
Urban Usage Public garden irrigation; Street cleaning;
Firefighting
Fertilisers
Recreational Golf Courses Fertilisers
4.5.2 What are the key elements of a successful reuse strategy?
Transport to, and storage at, the reuse site can be an important cost element which may restrict taking
advantage of potential reuse opportunities. Indeed for wastewater reuse, the storage and distribution of
reclaimed water represents the principal cost. The location of the treatment works, bearing in mind possible
reuse sites such as farms, can therefore be a key factor in determining the scale of any reuse opportunity. If
reuse is being considered at a green field site it may, for example, be appropriate to locate the proposed works
away from the natural disposal location and closer to potential reuse sites. The requirements for conveyance,
storage and distribution storage may well be vital cost elements which will ultimately determine the economic
viability of a reuse project.
Reuse needs to be considered as part of an overall strategy which covers an appropriate geographic region. A
market survey to determine the potential demand and the economic benefits of reuse, is a vital first step. Field
contact, following a desk survey, is an important part of the market assessment, as it should provide an insight
into the desirability of reuse in a region, specific quality needs and individual practical constraints, including
the need for additional investment and the required pay back time.
It is probable that the potential users of wastewater effluents or sludges will need to be convinced that these
are a resource from which they can derive benefit, particularly where there is no previous experience in the
region. Reluctance to take effluent or sludge, even where benefit has been proven elsewhere, might be based
on prejudice, ignorance of the benefits, imagined or real risk to their own products and sales potential or
publicised poor or variable experiences in other locations. This area of public relations must be handled
carefully, possibly using local pilot trials to demonstrate the benefits, if adverse publicity and long term
reaction are to be avoided.
Reuse opportunities require well trained managers to exploit them successfully. Generally, small communities
with one or two plants, cannot afford such expertise alone. Reuse will therefore be more practical if small
municipalities in a given region join together, in some form of new institutional structure, to promote and
manage individual reuse projects.
4.5.3 What technology is suitable for reuse projects?
Opting for reuse will affect both the technology selection process and the potential locations of individual
treatment facilities. It will also necessitate the active control and possible restriction of industrial wastewater
discharges into the sewer which could restrict reuse opportunities.
Secondary wastewater treatment and sludge stabilisation should be considered as the minimum requirement
prior to reuse. The need for additional processing will depend on the reuse applications being considered and
the type of reuse site chosen. Two types of treatment are showing a great deal of promise in overcoming the
quality constraints inherent in reuse applications; for wastewater, stabilisation ponds and for sludge, anaerobic
digestion.
4.6 Environmental Impacts
4.6.1 What are the potential environmental impacts of a sewerage and wastewater treatment project?
The siting of a wastewater treatment plant can be an emotive issue, particularly where it is being introduced
for the first time. The general public frequently perceives the construction of a plant in their immediate
locality as an intrusion and property owners may well fear that it will have a negative effect on properly
values. Although these fears may not necessarily be rational or based on fact, it is the preconception which
counts and plans to build a treatment plant can generate stiff resistance, particularly from those whose
property will be in the immediate vicinity. On the other hand, there have also been instances when the public
have made known their resistance to wastewater schemes because they do not think that the plan proposed
will sufficiently protect or improve their local situation.

Fig. 4.5 Protection of habitats can form part of a study of environmental impacts
The impact on the local and remote environment must be considered when planning the project. The
environment will be affected by a wastewater project both during its construction and during its operation.
The basic concept of a wastewater project itself makes a very fundamental impact on the environment - it is,
after all, prompted by an unacceptable deterioration in the environment. When planning the project, it is
important to identify the environmental objectives which are intended to be achieved from the outset, e.g.
improvements to water quality at a shoreline used for bathing; the protection of local wetlands or a particular
aquatic species; aesthetically improving river banks used for recreation.
During construction, the impact is generally of a temporary nature, although permanent damage can be done if
care is not taken with some of the aspects. It may not always be possible to find alternative approaches which
eliminate or mitigate the impact of construction and every reasonable effort should be made to minimise its
effect through the careful specification of construction methods which may be used, e.g. by limiting hours of
working to avoid noise impact at night on residents of an area.
The greatest impact during construction generally arises from the construction of the sewer network as this, by
its very nature, must pass close by every property. The following activities may give rise to an undesirable
impact during the construction of the network:
an increase in traffic movement, particularly where construction will require transport of significant amounts
of excavated material, giving rise to delays to local traffic and higher levels of air pollution;
the nature of the increased traffic, e.g. heavier loads and larger vehicles than would normally be experienced
in the area, which may damage roads or, through vibration, damage property;
open trench sewer and mains pumping main construction, which can lead to road closures or traffic flow
restrictions or to the damage of properties along the route, if sufficient precautionary measures are not taken;
construction equipment and processes which have high noise and vibration levels, e.g. pneumatic drills and
the installation of sheet piling to trenches;
tunnelling, used in the construction of sewers where open trench techniques are not practical, can undermine
development at surface level and, if carried out at night may be heard and felt in residential properties above
and near the work.
In constructing a treatment works, increased traffic may cause problems but the impact is often less than for
sewer construction as the plant is generally located in a sparsely populated area some distance from housing.
Once the project has been completed, sewer systems should not create any form of nuisance, if well-designed.
However, there is clearly a risk of odour nuisance if care has not been taken in their design or construction and
this is particularly so in warm climates where precautionary steps should be taken to avoid stagnancy and
resultant air pollution.
Assuming that the treatment plant and its associated effluent disposal facilities, have been competently
designed to protect or improve the receiving environment, the main impact during operation is associated with
the treatment plant. The main impact arises from:
odours - generally caused by poor design or a malfunctioning of the processes
noise - not generally a problem, but on occasion motors, turbines and compressors can produce excessive
noise which can be harmful to operatives on a plant, particularly when the equipment is sited inside buildings
gaseous emissions - principally hydrogen sulphide, which can affect particular industrial activities if located
close by
aerosols - produced by surface aerators in some activated sludge processes.
All of these types of impacts can either be reduced to acceptable levels through good design practice, or, if
necessary, totally eliminated.
In order to ensure that the proposed scheme will meet the expectations of the public and, as far as possible,
allay any fears that it might generate, public authorities would be well advised to undertake an Environmental
Impact Assessment, even though the project may be significantly smaller than the 150 000 population
equivalent proposed by the EU Directive.
4.6.2 What is an Environmental I mpact Assessment?
The objective of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is to ensure that the environmental effects of a
proposed project are fully considered before the planning application is determined. EIA is therefore an
attempt to foresee problems before they occur. It is a process by which information about the environmental
effects of a project is collated by the project developer. This is taken into account by the planning authority
and other interested bodies when forming judgement on whether the project should proceed.
Each EIA is different as it evaluates the impacts and interactions of a project in a particular situation and the
affected population, environment and ecology may not just be local but also remote from the location of the
project. It is often difficult to anticipate the extent of the effects of the project and, for this reason, it has
become standard practice for all but the simplest of situations to first undertake a Scoping Study. This
researches all the possible effects of a project and determines the scope of the work to be undertaken during
the EIA.
The EC Directive on Environmental Impact Assessment (85/337/EEC), which requires public authorities to
take into account only information on a projects environmental impact when considering whether to grant
development consent or not, is currently being revised. The list of projects for which an EIA may be
mandatory in the future, includes wastewater treatment plants with a capacity exceeding 150 000 population
equivalents (p.e.). Plants smaller than 150 000 p.e. may require an EIA; this requirement being determined by
the Member State in question.
As a result of intense interest in the subject over the last decade or so, hundreds of EIA procedural and
methodological guidelines, both general and specific, have been prepared and published.
4.6.3 What is an Environmental Impact Statement?
An Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) summarises the results of the work carried out during the
Environmental Impact Assessment. It is the product of the EIA and may be needed before funding will be
granted.
An important element of an EIA, and its related EIS, is to identify areas of significant impact and to suggest
the means by which the adverse effects of the project might be mitigated when implementing the project.
4.6.4 Do all environmental impacts have to be evaluated for every project? I f not, how can those that are
relevant be identified?
Each wastewater project is unique in respect to its environmental characteristics.
It is essential to identify from the outset of the planning process, what kinds of environmental impact are
involved and what issues do they raise with respect to the objectives of the project. In order to do this, every
Environmental Impact Assessment should begin with a Scoping Study. As its name suggests, the scope Of the
impact on the environment and the issues entailed are identified. This phase should include some form of
public consultation in order to bring to light, at as early a stage as possible, their concerns and possible
objections.
4.7 Human Resources - Project Staffing
4.7.1 How large a staff is required to operate a wastewater system?
The number of employees required to operate and manage a wastewater system is generally expressed in
terms of the number of persons that are served by each employee. In Europe, average wastewater employment
ratios range from 1500 to 3500 persons served per employee (typically 2000 to 2500 persons served per
employee). For larger works (over 100 000 persons) employment ratios range from 1000 to 2500. The concept
of the employment ratio can be used to compare the number of staff required for different tasks.
4.7.2 What skills are required to operate a wastewater system?
The number of persons employed in operating and maintaining a wastewater system will clearly depend upon
the size of the network, the number of pumping stations and numbers and capacity of the wastewater
treatment works. However, assuming that the wastewater system consists of a sewer network, with at least one
pumping station and a wastewater treatment works which includes screening, grit removal, sedimentation and
biological processes as well as sludge stabilisation and dewatering, personnel with the following skills will be
needed:
A sewage works manager, probably either a chemist, chemical engineer, mechanic or a mechanical or
sanitary engineer experienced in the operation of physical, biological and chemical wastewater treatment
processes and overall management skills related to planning, work scheduling, budgeting and cost control and
with a knowledge of safe working practices, emergency procedures and first aid.

Fig. 4.6a A range of skills are required to operate wastewater projects

Fig. 4.6b A range of skills are required to operate wastewater projects

Fig. 4.6c A range of skills are required to operate wastewater projects

Fig. 4.6d A range of skills are required to operate wastewater projects
A sewer system manager, probably either a civil or mechanical engineer, experienced in the operation and
maintenance of sewer networks, pumping stations, storm sewage overflows, manholes and any related
telemetry and control systems and overall management skills similar to those required of the sewage works
manager.
If the sewage works manager is not a chemist, a chemist will be needed with experience in the sampling and
analysis of sewage and effluents for its physical, chemical, bio-chemical and microbiological characteristics
and constituents. Otherwise, the facility should have access to the external personnel.
One or more skilled mechanics, familiar with the maintenance of all types of pumps, motors, valves and
bearings and the types of plant and equipment found on the treatment works - mechanically-scraped screens,
compressors, flow measurement equipment, sedimentation tank scrapers, surface aerators, archimedean screw
pumps, boilers, power generators, dewatering equipment (centrifuges, belt presses and plate presses), sludge
dryers and incinerators - in addition they should have experience in working with and in the handling, storage
and transmission of, toxic, hazardous, inflammable and potentially explosive gases.

Fig. 4.7 An example of the decision making process
Abbreviations:


CEA: Cost Effectiveness Analysis
BOD: Biological Oxygen Demand
SS: Suspended Solids
N&P: Nitrogen and Phosphorus
MCA: Multi-Criteria Analysis
CBA: Cost Benefit Analysis
IRR: Internal Rate og Return
EIS: Environmental Impact Statement
EIA: Environmental Impact Assessment


One or more skilled electricians, familiar with the installation and maintenance of low, medium and high
voltage cabling to control panels and the equipment described above, control panels, monitoring and control
equipment, telemetry and computer installations. He should also have experience in working with electrical
power in toxic, hazardous, inflammable and potentially explosive atmospheres.
One or more appropriately experienced sewer maintenance foreman.
General labouring staff.
4.8 Techniques to Assist Decision-Making
4.8.1 What Decision Support Frameworks are Available?
Making rationale decisions on the nature of the wastewater system involves weighing up the advantages and
disadvantages of different options. There is a range of decision support frameworks which may be used to
define, list, measure and compare the pros and cons of a specific set of solutions. The most widely advocated
frameworks are:
Cost-Benefit Analysis
Cost-Effectiveness Analysis
Multi-Criteria Analysis
Environmental Impact Assessment.
These decision support frameworks are complementary and each may be used in the process of identifying the
ideal wastewater management solution. A decision tree, applying these decision support frameworks, is
summarised in Figure 4.7. It is beyond the scope of this handbook to provide detailed guidance on the
application of these frameworks. The objective of the following sections is therefore to introduce the main
terms and to provide references for further reading.
4.8.2 What is Cost-Benefit Analysis?
In cost - benefit analysis, as many as possible of the costs and benefits of each solution are identified and
expressed in terms of the monetary value which society places on them. It is not necessary, however, for all
the benefits and costs to be in monetary terms. A discount rate is applied to the costs and benefits which occur
at different points in time. Many countries have officially standardised agreed discount rates which should be
used where available. A European Commission review of discount rates used to appraise major infrastructure
projects, suggests that real economic discount rates range from between 3% and 10%, with most official rates
falling above 5%.
The most important quantifiable economic benefits of wastewater management projects are:
effects on local commerce- e.g.: tourism and improved commercial fisheries;
improved recreation potential; and in some cases;
reduced water supply costs;
improved urban flood control;
Other economic benefits may include: improved industrial wastewater management, wastewater and sludge
reuse in agriculture, streamflow augmentation, possibly allowing small scale hydropower and improved
navigation, and the use of underemployed labour resources in the construction and operation of the facility.
There is also the improvement in receiving water quality, which can yield health and environmental benefits.
These benefits may be valued in monetary terms by applying various valuation techniques. However, it is
suggested that, unless the difference between different solutions is marginal, then these benefits should not be
valued but presented as appropriate environmental or health indicators. The net social benefit, or cost, is
defined as the net benefits minus the net costs and is equivalent to the Net Present Value.
Care has to be taken not to double-count, nor to count as a benefit to society a simple transfer from one
member of the community to another. Such transfers will be relevant when one is considering the distribution
incidence of costs and terminology benefits.
A Cost-Benefit Analysis may be required to estimate the internal rate of return. Both Net Present Value and
the internal rate of return illustrate the balance between the economic costs and benefits. Indeed, some funding
agencies require a cost-benefit analysis to support a project request for funding.
The bibliography appendix includes a limited number of reference manuals and other published material of
particular interest being used for applied work in the field of wastewater management.
4.8.3 What is Cost Effectiveness Analysis?
In wastewater management, the key objectives relating to pollution control, i.e. the benefits derived from
achieving a certain quality of effluent, e.g. the reduction of biochemical or chemical oxygen demands,
suspended solids, nitrogen or phosphorus, or bacterial levels at the shore in a marine situation, have already
been set by the European Union in their Directives, as outlined in Chapter 3.
Cost Effectiveness Analysis is an important procedure for assuring the rational use of limited financial
resources in achieving the environmental standards established within these Directives. Cost Effectiveness
Analysis can be applied to select those options which achieve the environmental standards at the least cost.
The main financial means used to determine cost effectiveness is Net Present Value.
4.8.4 What is Net Present Value?
The comparative costs of alternative urban wastewater solutions can be determined by estimating the Net
Present Value of each solution. The procedure requires an estimate of the cash flows over the duration of the
project. These cash flows are then discounted back to the start of the project. In its simplest form, five
parameters are required to estimate the Net Present Value of a project:
initial capital cost;
annual operating, maintenance and capital replacement costs, assuming that these are constant;
the annual revenue stream generated by the project;
project length;
the cost of capital.
Normally the cash outflows (costs) will be greater than the cash inflows (revenues) and the actual Net Present
Value of a given urban wastewater solution will be negative. The most cost effective solution will be the one
with the highest value, i.e. the least negative value. However, other factors may favour the selection of a more
costly solution.
4.8.5 What is Multi-Criteria Analysis?
In some situations there are a range of other supplementary objectives, in addition to compliance with
environmental standards, which need to be incorporated into the decision making process. Often these
objectives are difficult to express as either costs, in money terms, or specific benefits, in emission limits for
specific pollutants.
In Multi-Criteria Analysis, each option is scored on its success in reaching these supplementary objectives.
These scores are then brought together into a single weighted measure. Even though it may not be the most
cost effective solution, the solution which meets one or more of the following supplementary objectives may
be preferred:
low capital costs;
low operating costs;
minimum of skilled staff;
least land requirements;
lowest energy use;
potential for wastewater or sludge reuse;
minimum environmental impacts;
low nuisance potential.
These supplementary objectives are discussed in more detail elsewhere in the Guide.
Multi-Criteria analysis recognises that decision makers often have to deal with multiple objectives and it is a
method of assisting them to a solution when this is the case. If importance weights can be attributed to the
various criteria under consideration, Multi-Criteria Analysis provides a framework to integrate a diverse range
of objectives, where each may be expressed in its own units of measurement.
4.9 Public Consultation
4.9.1 How important is public consultation with respect to a wastewater project?
Installation of a wastewater project -particularly for the first time in an area -can be an emotive issue for the
general public.
The construction and operation of a sewerage system and a wastewater and sludge treatment works is a
significant investment for any municipal organisation and citizens may be concerned over the cost to them. In
almost all parts of Europe the cost is affordable but in order to justify the expenditure, the benefits to the
community should be brought to the attention of the people.
Construction of sewers, particularly in open excavation, will cause disruption to pedestrian and vehicular
traffic during construction and occasional restrictions to access of roads and buildings. Adequate notice should
be given of these works. The construction of tunnels beneath buildings should be preceded by a
comprehensive structural survey of the buildings and public structures along the route, and agreed on by the
owners of the properties, if claims for eventual damage are to be assessed and dealt with fairly.
However, the most emotive issues relate to the wastewater treatment plant, i.e.:
the visual impact and fear of unacceptable odours, traffic and noise from the plant, once completed and in
operation;
the chosen method of effluent disposal or beneficial use;
the chosen method of sludge disposal or beneficial use.
These topics are dealt with in later chapters but it should be appreciated that sufficient study of these aspects
should be carried out with respect to the options available in order for the municipal organisation to be able to
be in a position to defend and justify the choices made. If any of these topics are likely to be sensitive, it is
worthwhile carefully planning a comprehensive and effective public information campaign and consultation
process.
4.9.2 How is Public Support gained?
Even the best technological solution may be the subject of public opposition. Public support for any given
project can never be guaranteed. However the following guidelines should be kept in mind in the planning
process:

Fig. 4.8 Open day
The need for the proposed facility should be clearly understood. Ideally there should already be an open
dialogue with the community on environmental issues.
Involve the key people in the local community in the project and possibly establish a local liaison
committee.
Produce and spread information about the project at the earliest possible stage.
Be open and frank about both the development and the proposed operation of the planned facility and make
it clear to the public that they will be allowed to visit the facility when it has been completed.
Encourage a dialogue with the local community and compromise where appropriate.
Planning gain, where the project developer provides some benefit (e.g. roads, public facilities) in return for
siting the facility in their area can also generate controversy, particularly if the public perception is that it has
resulted in loss of local amenity.
Chapter 5. Wastewater Networks


Figure
5.1 Chapter Content

Fig. 5.1 Small diameter sewer under construction
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a historical background to the establishment of sewer systems in
urban areas as well as to present and discuss some important factors involved in the planning of a wastewater
system.
This chapter has been divided into the following two sections:
5.2 Sewer systems
5.3 Priorities to be considered before Constructing a Sewage Network
A list of questions commonly asked by those embarking upon the planning of an urban wastewater project has
been compiled.
5.2 Sewer systems
5.2.1 What constitutes a sewer system?
The sewer system is a network of pipes which conveys sewage, industrial effluent and sometimes rainwater to
the treatment works.

Fig. 5.2 Maintenance of an old brick-lined combined sewer
There are three types of sewer system -combined, separate and partially separate:
Combined system - a single network which carries sewage, industrial effluent and rainwater.
Separate system - two completely separate networks, one for the sewage and industrial effluent, the foul
sewer, and the other for the rainwater, the surface water drain. The wastewater is conveyed to a treatment
works and rainwater is discharged to watercourses, normally without treatment.
Partially separate system - this consists of two separate networks, as for the separate system, but rainwater
from roofs and properties is drained off into the foul sewer and rainwater from the roads into the surface water
sewer.
If the natural fall of the ground in the urban area permits, the sewage will flow by gravity to the works.
However, where there is insufficient fall, pumping stations may be constructed on the system to pump it
directly to the works or to periodically lift the sewage into a gravity sewer at a higher level.
Until recently, most sewer systems were of the combined type. Nowadays, new developments are provided
with separate systems.
5.2.2 Why are sewage and rainwater now dealt with in separate networks?
At times of storm, rainwater flowing off paved areas can be from 10 to 100 times the average daily flow of
sewage, depending upon the size of the rainwater catchment.
Rainwater can be carried in pipes laid with flatter gradients as it contains less solid material than sewage and
therefore the larger pipes needed can be laid at a lower depth at a lower cost. In addition, two disadvantages of
a combined system can be avoided using a separate system. These disadvantages are:
Due to the large volumes of rainwater entering a combined sewer during a storm, it is too costly to convey
all the flow for treatment. At convenient points along the combined sewer, some of the mixed flow of sewage
and rainwater is overflowed from the sewer directly into nearby watercourses, normally without any treatment
other than screening, and this leads to periodic pollution of watercourses within the urban area.
Treatment processes at the municipal works function best when the wastewater flow to them is kept to what
would be normal on a dry day. Rainwater considerably increases flow rates through the treatment units and
the effluent produced is not ideal.
5.2.3 Can rainwater in a separate system be discharged without treatment?
This is a question without a simple answer! It is now recognised that rainwater draining from roads can be
highly polluted - with oil, grease, lead from exhausts and the general accumulations of dust and refuse. In
particular, following a period of dry weather, the first flush of water draining from roads during a storm can
be highly polluted. The cost of providing treatment for such large quantities of water, which occur only
periodically, is difficult to justify.
In general, tanks are provided on the stormwater drainage system to store the polluted first flush. Only if
their capacity is exceeded is the stormwater overflowed to the watercourse after having been screened. The
stored polluted water is drained or pumped to the foul sewer system and passed on to the treatment works.
5.2.4 I n a combined system, how much rainwater is conveyed to treatment in a storm?
There are a number of different formulae for arriving at how much sewage and rainwater should be conveyed
to a sewage treatment works whilst the surplus is overflowed to a watercourse. However, as a rule, the range
is between 2 and 6 times the average daily rate of flow of sewage in dry weather.

Fig. 5.3 Large capacity pumping station for combined sewer system

Fig. 5.4 Small capacity pumping station
Tanks are often provided on combined systems at points of overflow to the watercourse in order to attempt to
store the polluted first flush. In addition, a number of different types of structure, combine sewer overflows,
have been devised to attempt to retain sewage solids in the foul sewer during overflow.
5.2.5 I s the pumping of sewage always necessary?
As well-designed gravity systems are easier and cheaper to operate and maintain, it is generally beneficial to
avoid pumping if possible.
However, if the ground in the area has insufficient fall, sewers may gradually become deeper than is
acceptable and pumping may become inevitable. Pumping may also be necessary, if sewers cannot be
constructed very deeply where groundwater has to be avoided.
There are no general rules about when to use pumping and when to avoid it, and engineers designing the
sewer system should make the choice based on technical factors and an economic comparison of system
construction and operation costs.
5.2.6 I s it always necessary to disrupt traffic by constructing sewers using open excavation?
Under normal conditions, it is generally cheaper to construct sewers and pumping mains using open
excavation techniques. This is generally so to a depth of between 5 and 7 metres in urban situations, and to
about 10 metres in open or rural areas. For this reason, open excavation for installing sewers is by far the most
common form of construction.
When sewers have to be constructed at depths greater than this, either because ground conditions are difficult,
or because it would be beneficial to avoid the disruption of traffic or other activities, it is possible to construct
sewers using one of a number of tunnelling methods or techniques which literally push pipes through the
ground. Until recently, it was difficult to use tunnelling methods for sewers smaller than 1.5 metres in
diameter but tunnelling methods have now been designed which can be used for tunnels of less than one metre
in diameter.

Fig. 5.5 Maintenance of a sewer under a road
5.2.7 Sewer construction is expensive, why not tanker sewage to a treatment works?
In all but rural situations, the tankering of sewage from houses would be more costly than the construction of
a sewer system and virtually impractical in most urban situations.
In Europe, each person produces between 80 and 250 litres of wastewater every day and therefore a family of
four people would produce between 0.25 to 1.0 cubic metres of wastewater daily. If tankering were used, the
wastewater would need to be stored and as it would soon begin to decompose, the tanks would need to be
emptied frequently. A road tanker carries only between 5 and 10 cubic metres of waste. It can be readily
understood that, in an urban situation, what with the problems and cost associated with storage as well as with
the process of emptying the tanks, access and traffic, tankering is not a practical solution.
5.3 Priorities to be considered before Constructing a Sewage Network
The construction of a sewer network to serve all the properties in a particular area takes a long time to
complete - how can priorities between areas be fairly determined?
Construction of a comprehensive network of sewers is a costly undertaking which can take a long time to
complete, particularly where an urban development has not previously been served by a sewer system. It is
frequently necessary to phase the construction of a new system over many years. This means that some parts
of a development will have to wait for the benefits that a sewer system brings and this can generate the
inevitable criticism of the local government by those who are obliged to wait. To be in a position to counter
eventual criticism, a rational basis for allocating priorities for sewer construction must be developed. The
following factors are commonly used as the basis of a decreasing order of priority for sewer construction:
I. Areas where the lack of a sewer system is creating unsanitary living conditions or unacceptable odour
levels, e.g. areas with a high population density and where the ground has a low permeability.
II. Areas with a high groundwater level requiring the use of cess-pools and where the frequent emptying of
these tanks may be impractical or costly.
III. Areas where the quality of the groundwater i.e, either that used for the water supply or which eventually
feeds the watercourses in the area, is reduced to an unacceptable level by septic tank effluents.
IV. Commercial centres and the more densely populated areas of town.
Further priorities can be chosen on the basis of an economic analysis of the cost of construction and operation
of septic tanks in different areas which will depend upon the relative permeability of the ground. The more
impermeable the ground, the greater the extent of the field drains needed to disperse the effluent into the
ground.

Chapter 6. Wastewater and Sludge Treatment and Disposal


Figure
6.1 General introduction and chapter content
This chapter explains the main issues involved in the treatment of wastewater and sludges, and briefly
considers such matters as the reusing and disposal of sludge, the centralisation of sewage and sludge
treatment, the monitoring of processes, and the selection and training of operators.
The selection of the appropriate wastewater and sludge treatment method depends primarily on the intended
method of disposal or reuse of the treated wastewater and sludge. It is important to stress that first an effluent
and sludge disposal or reuse strategy should be selected and that appropriate treatment processes should then
be selected that meet the objectives of this strategy. The choice of method of disposal or beneficial reuse of
both effluents and sludges is frequently and incorrectly given too low a priority when planning small to
medium-sized wastewater projects, causing environmental and economic problems on completion of the
project. Thus, the importance in the selection of the disposal and reuse strategy for treated waste at first, and
then, the selection of the treatment method is emphasised.
This chapter has been divided into the following sections:
6.2 Effluent Disposal and Reuse
6.3 Wastewater Treatment Processes
6.4 Wastewater Treatment Issues
6.5 Sludge Disposal and Reuse
6.6 Sludge Treatment and Disposal Procedures
6.7 Sludge Treatment and Disposal Issues
6.8 General Issues
6.2 Effluent disposal and reuse
The extent to which a wastewater has to be treated is determined by the standard of effluent quality that must
be produced before it is discharged to a watercourse, lake or coastal water. These standards are determined, in
turn, within the framework of the EC Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive.
6.2.1 Acceptable disposal and use of effluents
The Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive sets minimum standards in order to protect the local receiving
water environment. Local needs may require even higher standards. Deciding on the acceptable discharges of
an effluent into a receiving water, involves taking into account the local topographical and hydrological
circumstances as well as e.g. the best discharge point, mixing in the water body etc.

Fig. 6.1 Birds-eye view of a large wastewater treatment plant

Fig. 6.2 Diagrammatic view of wastewater treatment works
It is important to think in terms of effluent disposal as a means of water resource recovery so that the effluent
adds to the water available for the environment and further use. So, environmental water uses are very
important incentives in determining the treatment provided. In some areas with scant resources, this may even
mean direct re-use of the effluent for agricultural, industrial and even potable purposes.
The Directive puts the onus of the work on either the discharger or the regulator to conduct environmental
studies to determine water body sensitivity or the need for extended treatment. Where the need for less
treatment has to be proven, the onus usually falls on the discharger.
6.2.2 Acceptable disposal and use of sludge
Amongst the by-products of waste water treatment is sludge, an organically rich material. This must be
disposed of in the environment in a safe way which still avoids unnecessary expenditure. The preferred
method is agricultural use as fertiliser, known increasingly as biosolids. Other methods may be necessary in
local situations, such as incineration, but the ash usually still has to be disposed of to landfill.
6.2.3 Acceptable disposal of other wastewater treatment by-products
Grit and screenings are usually disposed of into a landfill or on waste ground, either directly or after
incineration. No significant beneficial use has yet been found.
6.2.4 What Treatment Efficiency and Treatment Concept is needed for the Proposed Wastewater Treatment
Plant?
The required treatment efficiency is calculated from the incoming load to the wastewater treatment plant and
the acceptable load to the receiving waters from the plant. Based on the incoming flows and pollution loads,
an appropriate process can be identified and signed. The most appropriated approach will be chosen following
a technical and economic evaluation and a comparison of alternatives.
6.3 Wastewater Treatment Processes
The removal of gross matter, grit and other polluting material, including predominantly organic substances
suspended or dissolved in the wastewater, involves the use of treatment processes designed to remove or
eliminate each of these types of contaminant (see Figure 6.2).
6.3.1 Classification of Wastewater Treatment Processes
There are two main ways of classifying wastewater treatment processes in current use respectively based upon
the sequential order of treatment, i.e. preliminary; primary; secondary; tertiary; advanced;
the main process mechanism, i.e. physical; biological; chemical.
The former, based on sequential treatment stage, dates from the earlier period of wastewater treatment
development when primary meant a sedimentation process, secondary a biological process and tertiary
was an effluent polishing stage, in which a higher quality of effluent would be achieved through nitration or
some other physical process. The classification remains in common use but has lost some of its relevance as
both chemical and biological processes are now used in the secondary stage of treatment and all three process
mechanisms are used in the tertiary stage.
Both process classifications are now in common use and Table 6.1 therefore attempts to show the inter-
relationship between the two. The table also shows which processes are used to achieve the three classes of
treated effluent recognised in the Urban Waste Water Directive - less sensitive waters, sensitive waters and the
category in between which covers the majority of receiving waters. The table also shows which principal
wastewater contaminants are removed by each of the processes.
Annex A describes wastewater treatment processes according to their place in the treatment sequence, not
their principal process mechanism, and the sludge treatment according to the stage of treatment.
As far as has been possible, simplicity of presentation has been combined with technical accuracy. However,
in showing how individual processes can be referred to in both classifications, simplification may have
introduced certain minor inaccuracies which will not satisfy technical purists. This publication is a guide
principally for the non-technical and should not be read as a technically precise textbook.
Table 6.1. Classification of wastewater treatment processes.
CLASSIFICATION
BY TREATMENT
PROCESS
SEQUENCE
PURPOSE OF
SEWAGE
TREATMENT
SEQUENCE
SEWAGE
TREATMENT
PROCESS
PRINCIPAL
CONTAMINANTS
TREATED
CLASSIFICATION
BY TYPE OF
TREATMENT
Preliminary To protect downstream
treatment processes
Screening and
Comminution
Timber, stones; rags;
paper.
Physical
Grit Removal Sand and grit from roads Physical
Primary To produce effluents
suitable for discharge
to less sensitive
waters or to reduce
pollution load to
Secondary processes
Primary
Sedimentation
Settleable, suspended
solids
Physical
Chemically-
assisted
sedimentation
Settleable, suspended
solids; biodegradable
organics; phosporus;
heavy metals
Physical-chemical
Septic tanks Settleable, suspensed
solids; biodegradable
organics;
Physical-biological
Secondary To produce effluents
suitable for discharge
to most waters or to
reduce pollution load
prior to further
treatment
Suspended growth
(Activated sludge)
Organic material Biological
Attached growth
(Bio film)
Organic material Biological
Anaerobic Organic material Biological
Processes shown as
removing nitrogen and
phosporus can achieve
the same purpose as
Tertiary processes (see
next section of this
table)
Biological
nutrient removal
Organic material,
nitrogen, phosphorous
Biological
Coagulation-
flocculation
Suspended matter,
phosphorous
Physical-Chemical
Physical, Biological
Combine
processes
Organic material,
Suspended matter,
phosphorous, nitrogen
Chemical
Tertiary To produce effluents
suitable for discharge
to sensitive waters,
for discharge to
bathing waters
Filtration Suspended solids Physical
(disinfection) on
preparation for some
reuse options.
Disinfection Pathogenic
bacteria/viruses
Chemical
Other processes
- gas stripping Nitrogen Physical
- breakpoint
chlorination
Pathogenic
bacteria/viruses
Chemical/Physical
Advanced Removal of specific
contaminants normally
where effluent reuse
options require water
of high quality
Other processes
- Ion exchange Nitrogen;
inorganics/metals
Chemical
- Membrane
processes
Inorganic solids Physical
- Adsorption
process
Refractory organics Physical
6.4 Wastewater treatment issues
6.4.1 Variations in Flow Between Day & Night and Climate
Even during periods of dry weather, there are substantial variations in wastewater flow rate and pollution load
conveyed to a treatment works through the day. The flow during the morning and afternoon may be several
times that recorded in the later evening or at night. During rainy periods, floods and snow melting periods the
incoming amount of wastewater may be significantly increased, and may be several times higher than the
usual dry weather load. In most cases it is much more practical to store some of the wastewater during periods
of peak flow. This practice is known as balancing. Balancing is also used for the wastewater overflow from
sludge treatment processes.
6.4.2 Measures to Moderate Impact of High Flows
Wastewater treatment works also have to be designed to maintain an acceptable quality of final effluent
during periods when rainfall enters the sewerage system discharging to the works. Modern sewerage systems
are usually designed to limit the quantities of rainwater and other surface waters that reach the works, but
older systems often allow the entry of substantial volumes of rainwater etc. thus diluting the sewage flowing
to the treatment works, frequently to a volume of 10 times as much as the basic sewage flow.
Works, therefore, incorporate facilities for diverting and storing, on a temporary basis, part of the flow
arriving during and after periods of significant rainfall. The dilute wastewater, known as stormwater, is held
back in tanks until the incoming flow has subsided, when it is pumped back for normal treatment. A typical
arrangement permits the diversion of any flow in excess of 3 times dry weather flow into storm tanks.
6.4.3 Environmental Control - Suppression of Odour & Noise
Wastewater and sludge contain compounds that tend to give rise to unpleasant odours, specially through the
evolution of hydrogen sulphide gas and other sulphur compounds. A range of measures often have to be taken
to suppress these odours, including the provision of roofs on tanks and towers containing materials (e.g. peat,
activated carbon) that can absorb substances with unpleasant odours before they are emitted to the
atmosphere. There is an increasing demand for wastewater treatment works to be operated in a manner that
causes a minimal level of interference with the environment. Noise from works operations, including that
caused by the movement of vehicles, must also be kept within agreed limits.
Treatment works are not usually considered noisy in their operation. However, they are not considered
desirable neighbours and therefore they generate complaints which are not always truly justifiable. These
social phenomena should be sensitively handled and taken into consideration in the planning and design
stages.
6.4.4 Wastewater Treatment from Small Communities
The treatment of wastewater from small communities is usually performed using one or more of a small range
of techniques, and is often provided in the form of a package plant that has been prefabricated and then
installed on site.
The simplest approach is the provision of a Septic Tank, of which there are several designs, in which most of
the wastewater solids are settled and the effluent discharged to a watercourse etc. if it meets the required
quality standard or given further treatment. The solids have to be removed from the septic tank on a regular
basis (e.g. 1,2 or 4 times per year).
Further treatment can be by one of the following means (more details in Annex A):
1. A small Biological Filter, sometimes filled with plastic media
2. A Rotating Biological Contactor
3. A Sequencing Batch Reactor, which is a small activated sludge plant usually operated automatically, on a
fill and draw basis
Alternatively, the septic tank settlement process can be omitted and all the wastewater passed directly to
an Extended Aeration Plant.
6.4.5 Decision on Centralisation of Wastewater Treatment
When plans are being made to introduce or update wastewater treatment for a large urban area or for a number
of towns and cities in a precisely defined region, a decision has to be taken as to whether treatment should be
centralised at one site or situated at several sites. Factors that must be taken into account in such decisions
include:
the topography of the area involved, including the location of watercourses or coastal sites suitable for the
discharge of the treated effluents;
the desirability of keeping pumping costs to a minimum by arranging for wastewater to flow to treatment
sites under gravity;
lower unit costs of constructing and operating larger treatment works;
the importance of taking into account public opinion, which can often be hostile to living close to
wastewater treatment facilities;
protection of amenity;
constraints arising from planning legislation, and the structure of local Government;
medium and long term plans for the area, including new housing and industrial expansion; availability of
major roads and policy on the avoidance or relief of traffic congestion.
Large works usually have facilities for receiving tanker loads of wastewater/sludge, known as septage, from
the emptying of septic tanks mentioned in 6.4.4 above.
In general, fewer and larger treatment works provide the basis for more cost-effective construction and
operation but local circumstances may impose the need for more than one works and installations serving only
small populations.
6.5 Sludge disposal and Reuse
6.5.1 Treatment and Disposal of By-products
These by-products have to be disposed of in a manner that is acceptable and economic. Public health must not
be adversely affected and the impact on the environment must be acceptable. To ensure this, it is usually
necessary to treat the sludge, the dissolved and suspended solids of which are predominantly of organic matter
(70-80%). As in the case of wastewater treatment, the disposal outlet or outlets should determine the methods
used for sludge handling and treatment. More than one outlet (i.e. agricultural land and reclaimed land) may
be used to receive all the sludge generated at a given wastewater treatment works. Other by-products include
screenings and grit from preliminary treatment processes.
6.5.2 Sludge Utilisation, Disposal and Reusing
A wide range of types of sludge are produced at wastewater treatment works.

Fig. 6.3 Sludge stabilisation plant
Sludges can be in the following forms:
Moisture Content Solids Content
- Liquid 90-98% 2-10%
- Thick, viscous slurry 80-90% 10-20%
- Cake 65-80% 20-35%
- Air Dried 30-50% 50-70%
- Thermally Dried <10% > 90%
Although each or the above types or sludge can be disposed of treated or untreated, modern practice generally
requires that some degree of treatment be practised.
The ultimate product of the sludge treatment process may also be an ash or clinker (i.e. from an incinerator
process). Sludge can also be converted into compost using straw and other materials. The main outlets for
sludge are shown below.
6.5.3 Main Outlets for sludge:
Sludge disposal and utilisation have to be carefully controlled because sludges can give rise to the following
problems:
Contamination, e.g. with heavy metals
Infection of animals and humans with parasites such as tape worms contained in the incoming wastewater.
Contamination of watercourses and ground water.
Unpleasant odours in the vicinity of their area of use.
The main sludge disposal options are:
Agricultural Land, including pasture for grazing and arable land
Non-agricultural land, including forestry, horticulture, amenity areas (playing fields, golf courses, public
gardens and spaces), landscaping including construction of road
Landfill
Sea disposal (prohibited after 1998).
Certain esoteric uses of sludge have been developed in recent years including its conversion to oil and its
incorporation in a vitrified form in tiles and jewellery.
Sludge has for a long time been seen as a resource rather than merely as a byproduct for disposal, owing to the
fact that it contains valuable nutrients that promote the growth of crops. The nutrients include nitrogen,
phosporus, potassium and other minerals. The presence of organic matter and moisture is also of potential
value. In combination these ingredients make the application of biosolids to land highly beneficial, and its use
on agricultural land is the most common outlet in a number of countries. Biosolids can be applied to the
surface of the land as a liquid, dewatered cake or dried material, or injected as a liquid into soils. The nutrients
are also valuable where biosolids are applied to non-agricultural land. Although biosolids are regarded as a
resource, where its treatment, transport to the site of use and application to land represent an operational cost,
only a modest proportion of which can be recovered through a financial charge to the end user (e.g. farmer)
for the supply of biosolids. Frequently, no such charge is feasible. In most instances biosolids of domestic
origin are very unlikely to cause any problems. Greater care has to be exercised with biosolids of industrial
origin.
Where biosolids are to be used in agriculture, experience has shown that a clear and open practice brings the
benefits of greater public confidence. Good marketing techniques are needed constantly. Managers must
remember that however good the scheme and product may be, there is an natural aversion to anything to do
with faeces arising from the basic personal hygiene training of childhood - so constant marketing of the
benefits of biosolids is essential. The greatest objections to biosolids are often related to nuisance, e.g. smell,
and great care should be taken on this issue.
6.5.4 Choice Utilisation Method/Disposal Outlet
The choice of disposal route is affected by a number of factors including:
the physical characteristics of the sludge i.e. whether it is treated/untreated, liquid, cake, dried etc.;
the degree of contamination of the sludge, especially its content of potentially toxic elements (e.g. cadmium,
mercury, chromium, zinc, copper, nickel) and other toxic substances that pass unaltered through the treatment
processes;
the availability of agricultural land and other disposal outlets possibility for composting;
the demand or likely demand for sludge, which may depend on its effective marketing;
the infrastructure (e.g. the availability of a good road network) and ready access to disposal outlets;
economics.
Special techniques involving the use of sophisticated computer programmes are available to help determine
the ideal strategy for the use of sludge or improving existing strategies and the use of outlets currently
available.
When biosolids are supplied for use on agricultural land, careful monitoring of soil must be performed and the
nutrient requirements of crops determined before a decision is taken on the quantity of sludge to be applied
over a given area of land. The farmers views on the latter must be sought and, when necessary, advice given
on fertiliser requirements.
6.6 Sludge treatment and disposal procedures
The removal of settleable matter during primary treatment and the use of microorganisms for secondary
treatment gives rise to substantial quantities of sludges. Occasionally these can be accommodated on the site
where they are generated but almost always there is inadequate space or they give rise to a nuisance in the
vicinity owing to the odour emitted or insects associated with their storage, and they must be removed from
the site. To minimise the cost of this and render them suitable for utilisation or disposal, the sludges have to be
dewatered and often subjected to other treatment processes. At small wastewater treatment works they may be
simply transported away for processing at a larger works, or applied to nearby farm land either as a liquid or
after drying in the open air. A wide range of sludge handling and treatment processes have been developed
over the last century, a selection of which are nowadays often used in combination with one another at
specific sites. The phasing out of the use of the sea as a disposal outlet for sludge by the end of the century
will lead, over the coming decade, to the more extensive use of sludge treatment processes to render sludge
suitable for utilisation through terrestrial outlets including agricultural land, land reclamation and horticulture.

Fig. 6.4 - Sludge dewatering
A list of sludge handling and treatment stages and disposal/reuse routes is set out in Figure 6.5.

Fig. 6.5 Principal sludge treatment and disposal routes
All wash waters and liquors produced in the course of cleaning (e.g. sand filter backwashing) and dewatering
(e.g. dewatering of sludges) must be returned to the works inlet; in no circumstances may they be discharged
into a nearby watercourse owing to the fact that they contain high concentrates of polluting materials.
6.6.1 Classification of Sludge Treatment Processes
In a similar way to the Wastewater Treatment Process classification, Table 6.2 classifies sludge treatment
processes according to the sludge treatment stage for which they are used.
Table 6.2. Classification of sludge treatment stages.
SLUDGE
TREATMENT
STAGE
PRINCIPAL PURPOSE
OF SLUDGE
TREATMENT STAGE
SLUDGE
TREATMENT
PROCESS
SPECIFIC
PURPOSE OF
TREATMENT
PROCESS
CLASSIFICATION
BY TYPE OF
TREATMENT
Thickening To thicken sludge to
reduce volumetric
capacity of subsequent
treatment and improve
performance of
stabilisation processes
Gravity
thickening
Physical
Elutriation Improves gravity
thickening
Physical
Flotation Physical
Centrifuging Physical
Stabilisation To reduce organic solids
content of sludge and thus
reduce unpleasant odours
when sludge disposed of
or recycled; to reduce
pathogens; to render
sludge more readily
dewatered
Anaerobic
digestion
(unheated)
Biological
Anaerobic
digestion
(heated)
Biological
Secondary
digestion
(unheated)
Biological
Aerobic
digestion
Biological
Chemical
stabilisation
Chemical
Pasteurisation Destroy pathogens Physical
Composting Agricultural reuse Biological/
Physical
Dewatering To reduce volume of
sludge to be disposed of;
to render sludge easier to
transport and
mechanically handle; to
reduce fuel used in drying
or incineration processes
Drying beds Sludge solids
more than 45%
Physical
Belt presses Sludge solids - 1
to 25%
Chemical/
Physical
Centrifuges Sludge solids - 1
to 25%
Chemical
/Physical
Plate presses Sludge solids - 2
to 40%
Chemical/
Physical
Vacuum filters Sludge solids - 1
to 20%
Chemical/
Physical
Drying/Incineration To considerably reduce
volume prior to disposal
Thermal drying Sludge solids
lower than 20%
Physical
Incineration Produces
inorganic ash
Physical
Disposal Safe disposal if reuse not
possible
Sanitary landfill Physical
Reuse/
Recycling
Alternatives to disposal of
sludge by obtaining some
beneficial use from sludge
Agriculture Improves soil and
productivity

Vitrification Inert end product Physical
Oil from sludge Product with fuel
value
Physical
Gasification Product with fuel
value
Physical
6.7 Sludge treatment and disposal issues
It is a widespread practice to provide centralised facilities for sludge treatment at medium and large works,
and to transfer sludge produced at small sites to such sludge treatment centres by road tanker.
Where large volumes of industrial wastewater are generated, the option of treating them separately from
domestic wastewater may be considered as this may lead to more effective treatment. This requires the
provision of separate sewerage systems and treatment facilities for the two different types of wastewater.
Other things being equal, a proliferation of treatment plants within a given area should be avoided, since the
centralisation of facilities tends to be considerably more economical.
A proliferation of treatment works can be avoided by the use of road tankers to convey non toxic industrial
wastewater to treatment centres; septic tank and cesspool wastewater is similarly transferred to the works for
treatment.
6.8 General issues
6.8.1 Extensions to Treatment Works and Modular Construction
As mentioned in Section 6.4.5, decisions on whether or not to centralise treatments should take account of any
building plans for new housing and industrial expansion in the area. The additional flow arising from such
developments may also require the extension of treatment facilities at a given works by the provision of more
primary, secondary, tertiary and sludge treatment plants. A simple way of extending wastewater treatment
works is to construct them as preconstructed modular units. As additional flows arise in an area from the
expansion of population and industry, so more treatment modules are purchased and installed.
The question of whether to adopt the modular approach to the construction of works using such
preconstructed units has to be answered after thought has been given to the relative costs of constructing the
modules, which in some countries may have to be imported from abroad at considerable expense and strain to
the balance of payments, as compared with the more conventional method of designing an extension to the
existing works. The latter may often be achieved using local materials and labour.
6.8.2 Power Supply for Works Operation
Most wastewater and sludge treatment processes need a supply of electricity to operate pumps, valves,
aeration equipment, control and monitoring systems. At small works, power is imported from the local
electricity supply or grid, except in those circumstances where the wastewater gravitates through the works
and sludge is transported off site without treatment on a regular basis.
Larger works often utilise a sludge digestion processes that produces gas, the major component of which
(methane) can be used to generate electricity on site and/or produce heat to maintain the operation of the
digesters. In practice it is possible by this means to supply all or most of the power to operate modern works,
and export some power to the local electricity utility. However, large works usually have the means to take
some electricity from the local supply, although in some cases they may have standby generators, which
normally produce power by consuming oil.

Fig. 6.6 Monitoring wastewater treatment operation
6.8.3 Monitoring and Analysis, Process Failure and Emergencies etc.
All treatment processes must be monitored to determine whether or not they are operating efficiently.
Monitoring entails a number of activities notably:
Visual inspection of each treatment process and associated plant (e.g. pumps).
The EU Directive requires the monitoring of composite samples (flow-proportional or time-based) or
continuous sampling. The use of automatic sampling machines is desirable for composite sampling and
essential for continuous sampling.
The use of automatic monitors at key locations to determine the parameters needed to operate processes
efficiently and safely, including suspended solids, ammonia-nitrogen, nitrate, dissolved oxygen and methane.
Automatic monitors, ideally connected to a control room where staff are present 24h/hours a day, 365 days/a
year, can provide warning of:
- Failure of treatment processes due to the arrival at the works of contaminants discharged accidentally or
intentionally into the sewerage system or brought into the works by tanker.
- Failure of key processes and plant due to malfunction, criminal activity including vandalism, and
occasionally terrorism.

Fig. 6.7 Training session
In certain treatment plants, during unmanned periods operators can monitor the plant performance on the
computer terminals in their homes, using modern communication technology. In case of emergency, the
personnel could be gathered using systems like paging systems.
Key operational data, such as that concerning the operation of pumps and data from automatic monitors, may
be transmitted back to the control room from remote works by telemetry.
Biological treatment processes used in secondary and sludge treatment are particularly vulnerable to inhibition
by certain chemical substances, which may be manufactured or used at industrial sites and spilt or accidentally
discharged into the sewers, or deliberately discharged from factories or dumped in illegal flytipping activities.
Inhibition of secondary treatment processes often results in failure to maintain the required standard of
effluent quality and, with anaerobic sludge digestion processes, in loss of gas production and generation of
sludge with a quality (odour) that is too poor for it to be supplied to its normal disposal outlet (e.g. agricultural
land).
Such accidental or deliberate discharges of toxic substances can also result in contaminated sludges that are
harmful to crop growth and to the food chain, if they are applied to agricultural land.
If such inhibition scenarios occur, a better control of industrial effluents has to be installed. This requires
special chemical analytical equipment and skilled personnel. Modern methods have been devised to detect and
locate the discharge of hazardous substances.
6.8.4 Sample Analysis and Laboratory Facilities
When samples are taken at a wastewater treatment works, they must be analysed for a range of parameters
appropriate to the process involved. This requires the provision of facilities for performing analytical work.
These can be at a laboratory on site. However, it is increasingly common for samples to be transported to a
central laboratory serving several or many works. The use of an independent consultant analytical laboratory
having the necessary expertise and equipment is also a possibility.
Often an arrangement is made for certain simple analytical procedures to be performed on site by operators or
technicians, sometimes involving the use of analytical kits, but more complex procedures (e.g. that involving
toxic metals) must be performed by the central laboratory. When a remote or central laboratory is employed,
careful organisation of sample collection and delivery is essential, together with the arrangement of an
effective means of notifying key managers and operators of the results.
All samples must be clearly labelled to identify the location, time and date at which they were taken, and the
people performing the analyses must be carefully informed of the parameters that they are required to
determine.
6.8.5 Selection and Training of Managers and Operators
Modern wastewater and sludge treatment plants are often technically complex and sophisticated equipment is
installed that requires the availability of highly trained personnel to operate them efficiently. The scope for the
use of unskilled staff is increasingly limited owing to the degree of mechanisation and automation that is
involved. Managers and operators must have a theoretical knowledge of the technology involved and practical
experience of wastewater treatment and other similar process industries. The support of maintenance staff
(electricians, fitters and plumbers) is also necessary, together with drivers licensed to handle heavy goods
vehicles.

Fig. 6.8 Safety measures
A European Water Pollution Control Association (EWPCA) task force has formulated an European
Vocational Qualification scheme for wastewater treatment plant operators, which designates six levels. Level
one is reserved for the personnel who are new to the job, have no technical background, and require
continuous close supervision. The highest level, level six is reserved for the managers and it requires
academic qualifications.
Training of all managers and staff is necessary in:
the basic principles of the wastewater and sludge treatment technology involved;
essential monitoring and maintenance procedures;
fault finding;
communication skills and team work:
safety precautions and procedures, and actions to be taken in the event of accidents and emergencies.

Chapter 7. Wastewater and Sludge Treatment and Disposal Details


Figure
In this chapter a short presentation is given for a number of unit operations, processes and treatment systems
to remove the major contaminants found in wastewater. The chapter has been divided into the following
sections based on the sequential classification described in Section 6.3.1:
7.1 Preliminary treatment
7.2 Primary sedimentation
7.3 Secondary, Tertiary and Advanced treatment
7.4 Sludge treatment
7.1 Preliminary treatment
The objective of preliminary treatment is to protect downstream treatment processes by removing large
floating and suspended solids, including sanitary materials, rags, branches, plastic and metal objects plus
others debris, which enter treatment works within the wastewater, together with grit and sand. Two stages are
required for this.
- Firstly, the gross solids are removed by means of screens and other devices; arrangements then have to be
made to dispose of the material involved.
- Secondly, the grit and sand are removed by setting, as the particles of grit and sand settle under gravity much
more rapidly than the other settleable components of the wastewater.
There are, however, some locations where the only form of treatment afforded to a wastewater is a form of
preliminary process to remove gross objects and debris, and examples can be found at many coastal sites.
7.1.1 Screening and Comminution
There are two types of screens: bar screens and rotating screens. The bar screens consist of sets of parallel
bars either curved or straight separated by a width of 10 - 40 mm. In newer plants, 3mm or 6mm screens are
installed, which secures plant equipment like pumps, etc. Debris collects on the screens and has to be removed
by mechanical rakes or similar devices on a regular basis, otherwise the channel will become obstructed
causing an overflow into tanks for storage of stormwater or other undesirable effects (e.g. flooding of ground).
At small works the debris is removed from the screens by hand using rakes; at larger works it is removed
mechanically.

Fig. 7.1 Archimedean screws pumping wastewater from the sewer system into the wastewater treatment plant

Fig. 7.2 Mechanically-raked, fine spacing screens
There are two types of rotating screens: With Cup Screens, wastewater flows through a cylindrical screen,
consisting of a fine mesh, from the inside outwards. The screenings are removed and fall into the hopper
through the flushing actions of water jets, which spray effluent downwards from above the top of the screen.
With Drum Screens, wastewater flows from the outside inwards, through a cylindrical screen revolving on a
horizontal axis, and then flows away in an axial direction. Screenings accumulate on the drum as it rotates but
tend to be washed off its surface on the downstream side, by a downward cascade of wastewater dropping off
the ascending side of the drum.
Comminutors is a mechanism consisting of a drum, which rotates on a vertical axis, and through which all the
wastewater must pass from the outside inwards. Screenings are held back on the outer surface of the drum and
shredded into small pieces by means of a cutting plate until broken down into small pieces, that are carried
through apertures in the drum.
Complete removal of screenings and separate disposal has gained popularity over their maceration into small
pieces prior to return to the incoming works flow upstream of the screens.
7.1.2 Grit removal
A range of devices is available for removal of the grit and sand, such as special channels or separators, making
the majority of the grit to settle, while the settleable solids are retained in suspension.

Fig. 7.3 Covered skip storage of grit
Grit sometimes has to be buried on site or taken to a landfill or incinerated for disposal. However, clean grit
has been used for making paths and other surfaces on wastewater treatment sites.
7.2 Primary treatment
The goal of primary sedimentation is to produce effluents suitable for discharge to less sensitive waters or to
reduce the pollution load to Secondary processes. This may be achieved mainly by primary sedimentation or
by chemically assisted sedimentation.
7.2.7 Primary sedimentation
In primary sedimentation (or settlement), suspended matter settles under gravity to the bottom of the tank over
a period of a few hours.
Three main types of tank are employed, rectangular (or horizontal flow), circular (or radial flow) and
upward flow.
The sludge which settles down, has to be removed and pumped away for further treatment or disposal.
Larger tanks are provided with scraping mechanisms to assist with this process.
The settlement process usually removes between 50 and 70% of the suspended solids in the wastewater. The
process is aided by flocculation and coagulation of the solids during settlement. Associated with the solids
removed, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is reduced by between 20 and 35%.
Horizontal-flow tanks tend to be installed at larger works as they make more efficient use of the land area
available than circular types.
Chemicals, notably lime, are sometimes added to wastewater to promote flocculation and coagulation and
thereby increase the proportion of solids removed.
Tanks at larger works are provided with skimming devices for removing scum and other floating material.

Fig. 7.4 Circular, primary sedimentation tank
7.2.2 Lamella Plate Separators
Wastewater is allowed to flow down through a system of inclined plates in a tank. The pattern of flow
promotes flocculation of solids particles which coalesce and settle to the bottom of the tank. The main
advantage of this system is that it is space saving.
The separators may reduce the volume demand by 60 - 90%, compared to conventional sedimentation tanks.
However, they may markedly increase the capital cost of settlement tanks, and their use tends to be confined
to sites where they are fitted to tanks that were previously under performing or where space is at a premium
(e.g. coastal sites or new sites in urban areas). The plate separators can suffer from bio-fouling which inhibits
their effectiveness, particularly with activated sludge.
7.2.3 Septic Tanks
Septic tanks are continuous-flow horizontal settlement tanks for treatment of wastewater from small
communities, in which sludge is retained for many weeks and so anaerobic digestion of the sludge takes place.
Each tank should have two compartments, and if the population served is over 60, there should be two tanks
operating in parallel.

Fig. 7.5 Effluent weir from rectangular, primary sedimentation tank

Fig. 7.6 Lamella plates
7.3 Secondary, Tertiary and Advanced Treatment
As was mentioned in the previous chapter, although the classification of treatment processes as secondary,
tertiary and advanced remains in common use, it has lost some of its relevance. Below is a description of
processes which belong to all three groups, presented without a classification. Please refer to Table 6.1 for an
example of classification.

Fig. 7.7 Activated sludge tank - diffused air

Fig. 7.8 Activated sludge tank - mechanical aeration

Fig. 7.9 Oxidation ditch

Fig. 7.10 Secondary sedimentation tanks

Fig. 7.11 Screw pump recycling of settled active sludge
7.3.1 Biological treatment - suspended growth process
7.3.1.1 Activated Sludge Process:
In this process, of which there are a wide number of variations, wastewater that has normally been subjected
to primary sedimentation, is mixed with a mass of micro-organisms, mainly bacteria, known as activated
sludge. These absorb and feed on the polluting matter that is suspended or dissolved in the wastewater. The
treatment is performed in a tank normally of 2-4 m in depth to which oxygen is supplied to drive the aerobic
metabolism of the micro-organisms. Like human beings and animals, the latter need oxygen to respire and
grow using as their source of food, the carbonaceous and other nutrients in the wastewater. The sludge is then
separated from the treated effluent in a secondary sedimentation or settlement tank. The settled sludge is
recycled to the start of the process but a proportion has to be withdrawn, an operation known as excess sludge
removal, otherwise the sedimentation tank would, in due course, fill up with sludge and become incapable of
separating the latter from the treated effluent. The surplus sludge represents the growth of biomass and must
be removed to keep a steady concentration of biomass in the aeration tank.
There are a number of variations in the first part of the process in which aeration is performed, which are
outlined below. These include different methods of aeration and arrangements for mixing the wastewater and
sludge to give, for example, different degrees of treatment.
Air can be forced into the liquor in the tank by means of a compressor down a system of pipes. Usually
ceramic or plastic diffusers are laid out in the base of the tank to provide an even distribution of air and ensure
efficient mixing of wastewater and sludge. Alternatively, air can be entrained in the tank contents using a
mechanical system to agitate the activated sludge. Pure oxygen is used at some works instead of air.
Several different types of activated sludge plant have been developed.
Completely mixed and plug flow systems.
High Rate and Extended Aeration systems. The former type gives only partial treatment, whereas the latter
gives a greater degree of treatment than conventional systems, by the provision of additional aeration capacity.
Extended aeration systems usually omit primary treatment and produce a more stable sludge than
conventional processes.
Tapered Aeration systems, where the supply of air is concentrated in the first half of the plug flow tank and
progressively reduced along its length from inlet to outlet.
Step Aeration in which wastewater is fed into a plug flow tank at several locations along its length, rather
than altogether at its inlet.
Contact Stabilisation, where wastewater and sludge are mixed in an aeration tank with a short retention time
and then passed into a settlement tank. The sludge then settled out is transferred to another aeration tank with
a longer retention time, before being recycled to the start of the process. This re-aeration tank will operate at
high mixed liquor concentrations without the problems of high solids loading on to the clarifier.
Oxidation/Pasveer Ditches, when the wastewater is added to an oval ditch containing the sludge, and then
mixed and aerated by means of rotor partially immersed in the liquor, which is driven round the ditch. Ditches
are an example of extended aeration and are commonly used for treating wastewater from villages and small
towns.
Carrousel systems are essentially more complex ditches, where aerators are installed on vertical shafts, and
their level of immersion can be altered to change the degree of aeration.
Deep Shaft systems, where the wastewater and sludge are pumped down a shaft that has been bored into the
ground, before returning to the surface up a concentric tube. The pressure of the head of liquor improves the
rate of oxygen transfer at the bottom of the shaft.
Sequencing Batch Reactors (SBR) are fill and draw activated sludge systems originally developed for the
use of small communities, where the availability of an operator would be minimal. The name reflects the
sequence of steps, usually performed automatically, in the operation of the plant: (1) fill, (2) aerate, (3) settle,
(4) draw-off supernatant and (5) idle, when sludge surpassing is performed.
SBRs can also be used for nitrogen and phosphorus removal and may also be bio-film reactors.
Secondary sedimentation or settlement of activated sludge from the effluent is usually performed in circular
tanks. These can be flat bottomed, have gently sloping bottoms or be conically shaped, and a variety of
mechanisms is employed to remove the sludge that has settled towards the bottom so that it can be recycled.
An important distinction between different activated sludge systems is whether the system leave the ammonia
in the wastewater untreated, this is known as a non-nitrifying plant, or oxidises some or all of the ammonia to
nitrate, type known respectively as partially or fully nitrifying plants.
Whether or not a given effluent should be nitrified or not (i.e. free of ammonia) is determined by the effluent
standard required for the works, set by the organisation responsible for imposing standards.
7.3.1.2 Lagoons
These are usually small artificial lakes or basins with a depth of 0.8 to 2.5 m, sometimes referred to as ponds
(a term which also has a more precise technical usage for complete treatment systems often favoured in hot
climates). They provide further settlement of solids but in warmer weather some biological treatment can take
place, and micro-organisms including faecal bacteria can be destroyed by the action of UV rays in sunlight.
Sometimes effluents are allowed to flow through a series of lagoons before discharge. Owing to the presence
of plant nutrients in effluents, prolific growth of algal blooms can occur on some lagoons in warmer weather,
contributing solids to the final effluent discharged.
7.3.1.3 Land Treatment Areas
These are also known as Land Irrigation Areas and Grass Plots. A secondary effluent is applied to the top end
of an area of land with the uniform slope between 1 in 60 and 1 in 100. The site used should be divided into at
least two though preferably more areas. Even distribution of the effluent is often assisted by the provision of
purpose-built feed channels. Solids are retained by vegetation (mainly grass), but often containing some
weeds, giving removals of up to 60 - 80%, together with reductions in the concentrations in the effluent of
nitrogen, phosphorus and bacteria.
Reed Beds: These are also referred to by the term Rootzone-Flow Wetlands because of the type of vegetation
that plays a major role in the treatment process. The latter takes place through the breakdown of organic
matter in the presence of air, by bacteria growing symbiotically with the reeds and in the soil. Reed beds
consist of shallow, gravel-filled tanks or areas, planted with reeds, lined with an impermeable membrane.
Reed beds are primarily designed to remove solids and dissolved organic matter in the wastewater, but some
removal of ammonia can be achieved in mature systems.
7.3.1.4 Pond and Stabilisation Systems
These systems may be classified as aerobic, maturation, facultative and anaerobic according to the type of
micro biological process involved. All are carried out in large shallow basins excavated in the earth, with
operating depths from 0.5 - 1.5 m, except for anaerobic systems which can be much deeper. Sometimes
mechanical surface aerators are employed to provide treatment, although not in anaerobic ponds; in warmer
climates, combinations of anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds are used for the full treatment of
wastewater.
Facultative Ponds. Here the stabilisation of wastewater is brought about by a combination of aerobic,
anaerobic and facultative bacteria. Also known as Aerobic-Anaerobic Stabilisation Ponds, they are fed with
raw wastewater usually subjected to preliminary treatment. The process is best suited to the purification of
wastewater from small towns in warmer climates. This concept could also be used for nitrogen removal
process, as described later.
Maturation Ponds have some similarity to tertiary treatment lagoons, but are particularly suited to use in the
tropics as the final treatment stage following treatment of wastewater in anaerobic and facultative ponds. The
process reduces solids, organic matter in solution, faecal micro-organisms and ammonia. The action of UV
light from the sun is a major cause of the destruction pathogens.
Anaerobic Ponds are used for the treatment of organic wastewaters of high strength containing high
concentrations of solids. Solids in the wastewater settle to the bottom of the pond, and partially clarified
effluent that has been purified up to 85% is discharged for further treatment. The polluting matter is converted
to methane, carbon dioxide, organic acids and a mass of micro-organisms.
Aerated Ponds or Lagoons: These are usually small artificial lakes or basins with a depth of 0.8 to 2.5 m,
sometimes referred to as ponds (a term which also has a more precise technical usage for complete treatment
systems often favoured in hot climates). They provide further settlement of solids but in warmer weather some
biological treatment can take place, and micro-organisms including faecal bacteria can be destroyed by the
action of UV rays in sunlight. Sometimes effluents are allowed to flow through a series of lagoons before
discharge.

Fig. 7.12 An example of classification of biofilm processes
7.3.1.5 Wetland systems
There are several types of Wetland Systems, and the three major ones are described below.
In the Overland-Flow Wetlands, aerobic breakdown of organic matter takes place through the growth of
bacteria, which thrive in the soil and plant environment, by horizontal plug-flow, across a bed consisting of
appropriate plant matter between 50m
2
- 1 ha.
In Vertical-Flow Wetlands a minimum of 2m of head is required and the same mechanism is exploited as with
the previous type. They resemble a biological filter that has been planted with reeds etc., but has its surface
irrigated by controlled flooding rather than a distributor.

Fig. 7.13a Circular trickling filter with rotary distribution feed

Fig. 7.13b Rectangular trickling filter with travelling distribution feed

Reed Beds or Rootzone-Flow Wetlands consist of shallow gravel-filled tanks or areas, planted with the
common reed Phragmites australis, lined with an impermeable membrane and having stone gabions at the
inlet and outlet end. The flow passes through the system under the action of gravity, since the outlet is at a
lower level than the inlet. The beds are usually planted with pot-grown reeds. Several months are needed for
them to become established and weed control during their operation is important. Reed beds are primarily
designed to remove solids and dissolved organic matter in the wastewater, but some removal of ammonia can
be achieved in mature systems. This technique is also used for the treatment of storm water.
7.3.2 Biological treatment - attached growth (biofilm) process
In this process, micro-organisms grow on the surface of a granular material or on a solid material. In the
municipal wastewater, sand, rock, wood or plastic material are used as a surface for micro-organisms
(biofilm) growth. See the process mechanisms described later under Trickling filters for further information.
The process has a number of varieties which could be classified in different ways. Figure 7.12 illustrates one
example of classification of these processes.
7.3.2.1 Trickling filters
These are also known as biological filters, bacteria beds or percolating filters. This is one of the oldest forms
of biological treatment but the name biological filter is a misnomer. The process does not filter the
wastewater, it brings it into contact with a film of micro-organisms growing on the surface of small pieces of
stone or plastic material contained in a bed with various depths. The micro-organisms in the film attached to
the media feed on the wastewater solids which are either adsorbed onto the film or absorbed into it.

Fig. 7.14 Rotating biological contactor
Trickling filters can be circular or rectangular in design, and occasionally other shapes are used. The
wastewater is applied to the surface on the top of the bed by means of a distributor, which, in the case of
circular niters, is driven either by the jet action of the wastewater spurting out on to the bed, or by other means
such as an electric motor or a turbine driven by the wastewater flow. Rectangular filters use either motors or
turbines.
The outer layers of the biological film continually break away from the filter medium forming humus sludge
(biofilm sludge) that has to be separated from the effluent in a humus settlement tank. After separation from
the effluent, the humus sludge is normally pumped to a point upstream of the primary tanks, where it is co-
settled with primary sludge from the incoming wastewater. Humus sludge is easier to settle than activated
sludge, and humus tanks, in common with primary tanks, can be of a horizontal flow, radial flow or upward
flow design.
Two modifications of traditional trickling filters are described below:
High Rate Filtration, sometimes using plastic media rather than stones to support the biological film, is
common practice when a lower quality effluent is sufficient to satisfy the required effluent standard and is
sometimes used to provide preliminary treatment of wastewaters. The technique involves the application of
wastewater to the filter at a substantially higher loading than with conventional filters. Odour problems are
frequently observed, thus odour removal should be incorporated.
Alternating Double Filtration has been used at some sites to combat the excessive growth of biological film
on filters, which can result in blockage of the filter surface. Two filters and their humus tanks are used in
series, but valves are turned every few days to change the order in which they receive the wastewater.
Double filtration: a similar process to alternating double filtration but without alternating the lead filters.
The lead filter will always have larger media than the following filter to prevent blocking. This allows very
efficient use of the bed volume.
7.3.2.2 Rotating Biological Contactors (RBC)
In Rotating Biological Contactors, the biological film is grown on an assembly of discs on a common drive
shaft, which is partially immersed in the wastewater. Rotation brings the biomass alternately in contact with
the wastewater and the oxygen in the air. Such plants are commonly installed to serve small communities.
Removal of the humus sludge can be carried out either by a drum filter or using a humus tank.
7.3.2.3 Submerged Biological Reactors
In contrast to the trickling filters and RBCs, the later treatment processes are based on the completely
submerged reactors. These can be classified into three groups as fixed, gloating and moving bed reactors, as
described below.
7.3.2.4 Fixed Bed Reactors
In these reactors the material where the micro-organism growth takes place is completely fixed in a volume so
they cannot move during the usual process. These reactors can have two configurations as either with
a packed bed or with a granular bed. The latter is also functioning as a filter for the removal of suspended
solids. In packed bed reactors, one can use stones, plastics, corrugated sheets etc. as the material for the micro-
organism growth surface. When micro-organisms are grown on granular materials (effective size = less than 5
mm) rather than on larger materials used in trickling filters, it gives a much larger surface of a biofilm for a
similar reactor volume. This gives the possibility to operate reactors at high BOD loadings compared to
trickling filters, and also gives the possibility of suspended matter removal using conventional filtration
mechanisms.
7.3.2.5 Floating Bed Reactors
When the carriers for micro-organisms are constructed in plastic-like material which has a density lower than
water, these carriers tend to float.
7.3.2.6 Mobile Bed Reactors
In these reactors the carriers, either granular or larger material containing biofilm, continuously move in the
whole volume. The movement is achieved by high air and/or water velocity or by mechanical stirring. Three
types of mobile beds are known as turbulent, stirred and fluidised bed, classified according to the driving force
(air, mechanical or water) causing the carrier movement. When plastic carriers are used as biofilm carriers,
these reactors are called Moving Bed Reactors, but belong either to the turbulent or stirred bed type reactors,
depending on the driving force causing the movement.
Turbulent Bed Reactors: The core of this process is the biofilm carrier elements which are made from a plastic
material and are kept suspended in the water by air from diffusers in aerobic reactors or by air-lifts. The
special design of the plastic material and the continuous movement within the water mass, increases the
efficiency of the process. Turbulent bed biofilm processes are usually very compact, and are thus particularly
suitable for use in urban areas and for capacity upgrading, without expanding the existing activated sludge
plant size.
Stirred Bed Reactors: This process is very similar to the turbulent bed reactors described, but the movement of
carriers is achieved mechanically by mixers. This process is especially suitable for anoxic and anaerobic
conditions where air cannot be used to keep the carriers in movement.

Fig. 7.15 Mobile bed reactor and media
Fluidised Bed Reactors: These are similar to the turbulent or stirred bed reactors, except that the biofilm is
grown on granular material (0.2-2 mm) and kept suspended (fluidised) in the whole reactor volume, ensuring
an efficient contact of wastewater with the biofilm. The fluidisation is achieved by dissolving oxygen or air in
the recirculated effluent.
7.3.2.7 Combined systems
One can submerge a fixed or a floating structure with a biofilm in an activated sludge reactor. In this
combination, the biomass contained in the biofilm is not required to pass through the clarifier. Therefore,
theoretically, the capacity of a biological reactor could be increased by this process combination. However,
these process combinations are not common in Europe at present.
7.3.3 Anaerobic treatment
These processes are almost exclusively used for high strength wastewater and for denitrification processes.
Many of the process combinations described under the attached and suspended growth processes above could
be modified for anaerobic conditions and are used for denitrification processes. See chapter 7.3.5 for further
details on denitrification.
Upward Flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket System (UABS): is one of the major processes which have been
developed for treating high strength wastewaters. It requires pre and post treatment stages before and after the
main part of the process.
Pre-treatment consists of an acidification stage at 30 - 35 C. The wastewater is then pumped to the bottom of
an anaerobic (in the absence of air) reactor containing a bed of sludge about 2 m in depth. There the
carbonaceous matter is converted, in the absence of oxygen, in two successive biological processes to carbon
dioxide and methane. Finally a post treatment stage is necessary to remove hydrogen sulphide formed during
the anaerobic process, which is absorbed in a peat bed filter. The overall process can remove up to 90% of the
carbonaceous matter from the wastewater.
Anaerobic processes can also be conducted in biofilm configurations, although this is not very common.
7.3.4 Biological Nutrient Removal
Nitrogen and phosphorus compounds are always present in wastewater and they can cause algal growth in
watercourses, lakes and estuaries downstream of their point of discharge. Regulatory authorities are, therefore,
making increasing demands for the control of total nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in final effluents.
A range of processes have been developed and are being installed at works to ensure compliance with the
more stringent standards being imposed.
7.3.4.1 Biological Nitrogen Removal
Nitrogen in wastewater is mostly found in the form of ammonia, and to lesser degrees in nitrite and nitrate
forms depending on the length and the state of the sewer system. The biological removal of nitrogen from
wastewater occurs through the nitrification (oxidation) of ammonia to nitrate forms and
then denitrification (reduction) of nitrate to nitrogen gaseous form, which could be released to the atmosphere.
Both activated sludge systems and biofilm processes could be used in the nitrification and denitrification
processes. Activated sludge systems are more common and have low operating costs, while the biofilm
processes are more compact but usually have higher operational costs.
The biological nitrogen removal processes can be classified according to the relation between nitrification and
denitrification stages in the process combination. The major configurations are pre-denitrification and post-
denitrification, and in some cases these main processes can even be combined.

Fig. 7.16 Anaerobic denitrification zone
In Pre-Denitrification, the organic matter in the influent sewage is utilised as the carbon source or the energy
source for the micro-organisms. The nitrate that is produced in the subsequent aerobic zone is recirculated to
the anaerobic denitrification zone. The advantage of this method is that it uses the easily available BOD in the
wastewater to be treated. Both activated sludge and biofilm processes are utilised in this form, while the
activated sludge is more common.
In Post-Denitrification, the wastewater first goes through an aerobic reactor where both organic matter and
nitrogen compounds are oxidised. The effluent from this reactor is rich in nitrate and low in BOD and enters
to an anoxic denitrification zone. The micro-organisms in this stage can convert nitrates to nitrogen gas
provided sufficient organic matter is available as the energy source. Thus, in this process, it is necessary to
add an external carbon source like acetates, alcohols, starches or industrial effluents rich in these substances or
an internal carbon source like hydrolysed sludge. The process can run on both activated sludge systems and on
biofilm systems, but the latter is gaining popularity because it makes use of compact reactors.
Simultaneous denitrification creates both aerobic and anoxic conditions in the same reactor. Surface aerators
create aerobic conditions close to their operating points, and when the wastewater flows away from the
aerators oxygen is utilised by microorganisms and an anoxic condition occurs. The wastewater can then
proceed through the next aerobic stage created by the next aerator and subsequently an anoxic stage. The
process is used in recirculatory systems with very long retention times.
7.3.4.2 Biological Phosphorus Removal
There are a number of versions of Biological Phosphate Removal, but all depend on the generation of
anaerobic conditions, with the complete absence of oxygen and nitrate, in which fermentation products
notably short chain fatty acids are present. The growth of certain strains of bacteria is promoted, which take
up and store fatty acids within their cells. This process uses energy that is obtained by the hydrolysis of
polyphosphates stored in the bacterial cells, releasing phosphate into the surrounding water. The mixture of
wastewater and micro-organisms is then transferred to aerobic conditions where the phosphates are absorbed
back into the bacterial cells by a so called Luxury uptake. By continuously removing a portion of the
bacteria from the system, the overall effect is to remove phosphate from the process. For the process to
operate successfully, nitrate formed during the oxidation of ammonia has to be excluded from the anaerobic
zone.

Fig. 7.17 Flocculation chambers - with gate-agitators and baffle walls
Among the main variants of biological phosphate removal, the following may be found:
The Phoredox process
The Phostrip process
7.3.4.3 Biological Phosphorus and Nitrogen Removal - combine process
In several situations, it is feasible to combine the nitrogen and phosphorus removal processes. Each of the
combined phosphorus and nitrogen removal processes involve a combination of anaerobic, anoxic and aerobic
zones.
The major process configurations can be identified as following:
The three-stage Phoredox process
The University of Cape Town (UCT) process
The Modified UCT process
The five stage Bardenpho process
The biodenipho process
The oxidation ditch process
Sequencing Batch Reactors mentioned above (under Activated Sludge Treatment) can also be used to achieve
the necessary anoxic, aerobic and anaerobic conditions for combined nitrogen and phosphorus removal.
7.3.5 Chemical coagulation - flocculation
Chemical coagulation is used for the removal of particles and phosphorus. In practice, one adds a chemical
(also called a coagulant) prior to the sludge separation stage. The coagulants commonly used in municipal
wastewater treatment are inorganic salts which have the ability to react with dissolved phosphorus to produce
settleable flocks. Additionally, a considerable amount of organic matter, phosphorous and other pollutants
present in the participate form are efficiently removed by coagulation. The coagulants have the ability to make
larger agglomerates from these small particles and thereby are able to enhance the sludge separation under
gravity forces. The total process could result in up to 95% of particle (suspended solids) and total-phosphates
removal and up to 70% of organic matter removal, depending on the raw water quality.

Fig. 7.18 Filtration plant
Alum, ferric- and ferrous chlorides has been used as coagulants for many decades. However, during the last
decade many other varieties of coagulants began to appear, with advantages for specific wastewater types and
treatment requirements. Pre-polymerised aluminium salts, in combination with silica, calcium and organic
polymers are some of these varieties.
An efficient coagulation unit consists of a good feeding system ensuring a rapid mixing of coagulants with
wastewater followed by a slower mixing chamber called flocculation to aid the particle agglomeration. It is
also possible to enhance the latter with the addition of flocculants (flocculation-aid), which are usually organic
polymers. These may be used alone or in combination with other chemicals.
The coagulation process can be divided into 3 sub-groups depending on the process combinations used:
Direct precipitation/Pre-precipitation: In the primary treatment, coagulation is usually found after
mechanical straining and the grit trap. This process combination is known as direct precipitation. When direct
precipitation is followed by a biological treatment stage it is called pre-precipitation. This has been introduced
in many treatment plants to reduce the loading on the biological stage.
Post-precipitation: This is a commonly used method for substantial phosphorus reduction. Phosphorus is
separated from biologically treated water in a separate post-treatment stage.
Simultaneous precipitation: Simultaneous precipitation is the name of a phosphorus reduction process in
which phosphorus is chemically precipitated during biological treatment in an activated sludge process. The
biological stage also serves as a flocculation tank, with both biological and chemical sludge being separated in
a subsequent stage.
7.3.6 Filtration
Filters are designed to remove suspended solids from effluents. A bed of sand acts as a barrier to the solids
and purified effluent passes through. Three main types of sand filter are in use, slow sand filters, rapid gravity
filters and upward-flow filters.
In Slow Sand Filters, the effluent passes down through a bed, from 0.15 to 0.5 m deep overlying a layer of
pea-gravel, under the force of gravity. The bed has to be cleaned periodically after being taken out of
operation and draining out, by skimming off the surface layer, where the solids removed accumulate.
Eventually the depth of the sand in the bed must be reinstated by the addition of new or washed sand to
replace that which has been lost.
In Rapid Gravity Filters, the effluent also passes down through the bed under the force of gravity from a
substantial head of water above its upper surface. The depth of the sand is usually around 1.5 m and cleaning
to remove the solids accumulated on the surface layer by vise of an air scour plus backwashing with filtered
effluent must be carried out at least once per day.
In Upward Flow Filters, the effluent is forced upwards through a bed of sand of up to 2 m in depth, thus
removing solids. The filters have to be cleaned regularly by a combination of air scours and flushing with
water at a high rate.
In Moving-Bed Filters, which can be of either an upward or downward flow design, sand is continually
removed from the filter and cleaned in a washing device before being returned to the bed. These plants have
the advantage of low capital cost in the ease of installation, but operating costs tend to be high owing to their
height (and hence large head loss) and the need for a continuous air supply.
In Multi-Media Filters layers of materials such as activated carbon are incorporated into the bed in addition to
sand layers, to improve filter performance.
7.3.7 Disinfection
The requirements of the EC Directive on the quality of bathing and shellfish waters have provided an impetus
for improving the micro-biological quality of water, and there has been increasingly widespread use of
disinfection techniques to reduce the concentrations of pathogens in effluents. Their concentrations are
substantially reduced during primary and secondary treatment, typically from approx. 10
7
to 10
5
micro-
organisms per 100 ml; however, substantial further reductions are necessary to meet the mandatory standards
in the Directives and the guideline level for Blue Flag beaches.

Fig. 7.19 Ozonation plant

Fig. 7.20 Ultra violet
The main disinfection techniques used are chlorination, ozonation, treatment with peracetic acid or lime,
enhanced settlement, membrane filtration and ultra violet irradiation. Some of the processes (e.g. lime and
enhanced settlement) are only suitable for the disinfection of effluent from primary treatment processes. The
use of chemicals is increasingly unpopular, due to the environmental concerns.
Chlorination can be carried out either using chlorine gas or hypochlorite solutions, both of which are powerful
oxidising agents. Both forms especially the gas are highly toxic and have been used for several decades in the
purification of potable water. Chlorine dioxide is also sometimes used and achieves good results.
Ozonation involves the generation of ozone gas on site by passing an electrical discharge through dry air or
oxygen. It is a powerful oxidising agent and its use in the disinfection of drinking water is common.
Peracetic Acid (PAA) Treatment can be used to disinfect secondary effluents. The agent is usually marketed
as a solution of peracetic acid, hydrogen peroxide and acetic acid in equilibrium and the disinfection process
typically requires a peracetic concentration of 6 mg/l and a contact period of at least 5 minutes in a treatment
tank. PAA increases the level of organic compounds (detectable as BOD) in effluents and may, therefore,
make the effluent incompatible with the required discharge standard. For this reason together with its
relatively high cost, its use is fairly limited.
Membrane Filtration Techniques purify effluents by passing them through a membrane with fine pores which
prevents some or all, of the micro-organisms from passing through. Three techniques may be classified under
this heading and their capabilities are summarised below.
Ultra-Violet (UV) Irradiation is produced by mercury discharge lamps and is capable of destroying the
bacteria and viruses in wastewater. The lamps are usually employed in a form that can be immersed in a
channel through which the effluent passes, the UV dose being controlled by the number of lamps employed
and the time for which the effluent is in contact with the lamps. Deposits tend to build up on the surface of the
lamps thus reducing the intensity of radiation produced. To overcome this, some systems have self-cleansing
mechanisms but manual cleaning is also necessary at regular intervals.
Technique Membrane Pore Size Summary of Performance
Microfiltration 0.1 - 1 m Removes bacteria and viruses
Ultrafiltration 0.001 - 1 m Removes bacteria and viruses
Reverse Osmosis < 0.001 m Removes bacteria and viruses plus ions like chloride
7.3.8 Other processes
A number of physical-chemical methods are available for the removal of nitrogen, odour and heavy metal
from wastewater. Some of these methods are usually expensive compared to biological processes (nitrogen
removal), while some of the methods do not have comparable feasible biological methods (heavy metal
removal). As the use of these methods is fairly rare in common municipal wastewater treatment, only a brief
introduction is given.
7.3.8.1 Gas stripping
This is the closest alternative to biological nitrogen removal. When the pH of wastewater is increased to over
11, the dissolved ammonia converts to the gaseous form. By deaeration of this wastewater one can remove the
ammonia from the wastewater. The deaeration is achieved by blowing air, or by allowing the effluent to flow
down a trickling tower. The gaseous ammonia should be recovered using an adsorption process. The process
is usually more expensive than the conventional biological methods.
7.3.8.2 Breakpoint chlorination
This process is used for disinfection and for the removal of ammonia from wastewater. In this process, the
ammonia ion in the wastewater converts into gaseous nitrogen and subsequently goes into the atmosphere.
However, organically combined nitrogen cannot be oxidised by this process. The process involves high
operating costs and has the risk of formation of toxic chloro-organic compounds.
7.3.8.3 I on exchange
This process is used in the removal of heavy metals, various toxic organic substances and also can be used for
the removal of inorganic ions like ammonia. In this process, the effluent passes through a bed of ion exchange
resin, where the original ions in the resin are exchanged with the ions to be removed. The resulting treated
wastewater could be completely free from the undesired ion, while the resin which will be rich in the removed
ion is regenerated. The disposal of the concentrated regeneration solution can be a problem, and is one of the
major drawback.
7.3.8.4 Membrane processes
Several combinations of membrane processes involve the application of pressure to the wastewater so that a
part of the water is permeated through a membrane. These processes may include several alternatives like
reverse-osmosis, ultrafiltration and micro-filtration, classified according to the pore size in the membrane and
the pressure applied. The type of pollutants which are removed by this process depends on the pore size of the
membrane. These processes are usually expensive and used only in special situations. See also section 7.3.7
on disinfection.
7.3.8.5 Adsorption processes
Adsorption is a process whereby the organic molecules causing odour, colour, mutagenicity and toxicity could
be efficiently removed. During this process the pollutant is accumulated at the interface between two phases,
as wastewater and a solid adsorbing material, such as activated carbon. The activated carbon is used in
granular (GAC) form or in the powder (PAC) form, and the technology for regeneration is available. This
process is used in special situations, but is common in odour removal procedures.
7.3.9 Related matters
7.3.9.1 Odour Control
A variety of systems are employed to suppress odours at wastewater treatment works. These include:
The fittings of roofs, tops and lids to tanks.
The use of systems to spray chemicals into the atmosphere that mask odours, but these are rarely successful.
The fitting of towers containing materials including peat, activated carbon, and solutions of acid and alkali
to absorb substances, especially sulphur compounds, that create odours.
Biofilm absorption processes using plastic media.
7.3.9.2 Balancing of incoming flow
Sedimentation tanks are also used for the short term (6-12 h) storage of peak flows arriving during the later
morning and afternoon at treatment works, due to increased household and industrial discharges of wastewater
during the day time.
The wastewater accumulated in the tank is returned to the main flow passing through the works during the
later evening and night time, when the rate of flow into the works is at a minimum. Balancing thus makes
more efficient use of treatment capacity, avoiding the construction of additional further treatment facilities.
7.3.9.3 The storage and treatment of storm water
Following periods of elevated flow into a works, part of the flow (often that in excess of 3 times the dry
weather flow) is diverted into a storm tank, and returned to the main flow through the works when rainfall has
ceased and incoming flow rate returned to more normal levels.
The correct location of the overflow into storm tanks is immediately downstream of the preliminary treatment
processes.
Storm tanks are usually rectangular in surface area and have an outlet connected to a storm overflow,
permitting the overflow of dilute wastewater from which a substantial proportion of the solids has been
removed, to go into a nearby watercourse etc. if the tank becomes completely full.

Fig. 7.21 Gravity thickening of sludge
A storm tank is designed on the same basic principles as a primary settlement tank.
7.4 Sludge Treatment
Sludge treatment and disposal or reuse is described under the following headings, representative of the
treatment stages:
7.4.1 Thickening
7.4.2 Stabilisation
7.4.3 Dewatering
7.4.4 Drying/Incineration
7.4.5 Reuse/Recycling
7.4.6 Final Disposal
7.4.1 Thickening
Gravity thickening: The removal of water from liquid sludge is most simply performed by allowing the sludge
to settle in a tank. This latter may be operated on a batch basis where liquor is drawn off the tank after a
period of up to several hours when the sludge has settled, and before the thickened sludge is pumped away.
Alternatively, the tank may be operated on a continuous basis, with continuous feeding of sludge and drawing
off continuously of both the supernatant liquor and the thickened sludge. Many tanks are fitted with a device
for gently stirring the sludge to promote flocculation and coagulation which assists settlement thus
accelerating thickening. Sometimes chemicals such as polymers, iron and aluminium salts are added to the
sludge before thickening as this also promotes coagulation etc.
Elutriation: Thickening, as first described, can also be promoted by careful addition of a volume of water to a
thickening tank, followed by gentle stirring for a few hours. The added water promotes coagulation,
flocculation and the settlement of the sludge particles and paradoxically the end result of elutriation is that a
greater volume of liquor can be drawn off than the volume of water added at the beginning.
Dissolved Air Flotation: In this process air is dissolved in liquid sludge and held at a pressure greater than
atmospheric before the sludge is passed into a tank. The dissolved air is released immediately in the form of
fine bubbles, which become attached to the particles of sludge, lifting them up to the surface of the liquor,
forming a thick surface layer which can be skimmed off. The process is sometimes used for thickening surplus
activated sludge.
Centrifuges are used to thicken and dewater sludges in what is an accelerated version of the settlement
process. In the commonest design, the solid-bowl scroll type, sludge is introduced continuously often with
polymer added to assist the process, the centrifuge being mounted horizontally and tapered at the end. The
rotating bowl causes sludge to settle out on its periphery and the internal scroll, which rotates at a slightly
different speed, moves the sludge to the tapered end from which dewatered sludge, with 78 - 82% moisture
typically, is discharged. The liquor removed, known as centrate, is discharged from the other end of the
centrifuge.
7.4.2 Stabilisation
Anaerobic Digestion (unheated): Here the same process occurs as in primary Mesophilic Anaerobic Digestion
except that it takes place at ambient temperatures. Because of this, the process is particularly suited to the
more southern European countries bordering the Mediterranean but it is also used in more northerly locations.
Because of the lower operating temperatures, several months retention in the digestion vessel is needed to
attain a reasonable degree of treatment.

Fig. 7.22 Anaerobic sludge digestion tanks and bio-gas storage
Anaerobic Digestion (heated): This is the most common method of treating sludge at medium and large-sized
works. Untreated sludge, that has often been dewatered in a consolidation tank, is fed on a regular basis, to at
least once per day, or continuously to a digestion vessel in which it is converted by micro-organisms in the
absence of air to methane (65%) plus carbon dioxide (35%) gas. The sludge is normally heated to the range 25
- 38C by bringing it into contact with hot water in a heat exchanger to maintain a rapid rate of digestion. The
digestion period is normally about 14 days.
Secondary Digestion (unheated): This is mainly a process in which the settlement of sludge takes place on
storage, allowing Dewatering by removal of supernatant liquor. It usually takes place in a circular vessel with
vertical sides, prior to either further Dewatering using a press or centrifuge or removal from site in a road
tanker. The digestion period is usually 14 days.
Sludge Lagoons: This is essentially the same as secondary digestion except that storage is usually for much
longer periods (over 6 months) and untreated sludge can also be stored. Earth is excavated from an area of
ground to create a basin 0.75 - 1.25 m deep. The sludge tends to settle, thus allowing removal of supernatant
liquor, which is returned to the works inlet. Lagoons may be located on farms as well as on works.
Aerobic Digestion (at Atmospheric Pressure): In this process, untreated sludge is aerated or oxygenated in a
tank. Biological treatment takes place with the application of considerable heat and the sludge is rendered
relatively odourless by the process, largely destroying the pathogens present.
Aerobic Digestion at High Pressures: This process may be performed in a deep shaft within the ground or in a
pressure vessel, oxygen being supplied either directly from the atmosphere or from a source of liquid oxygen.
Chemical stabilisation: There are two main types of lime treatment process: Untreated Liquid Sludge can be
treated with lime before storage in a lagoon or tank. The high alkalinity of the lime brings about some degree
of treatment, notably reduction in odour and pathogen levels. Untreated Sludge cake can be mixed with lime
alone, or with combinations of lime and other materials. The treatment processes reduce the odour of the
sludge and its suitability for landfill may be increased by raising its load-bearing strength. The treated cake
can have other benefits, for example as the use as an earth supplement like kiln dust. Lime treated sludges are
often attractive to farmers as soil conditioners especially to those who have acidic soils.
Pasteurisation: Named after the great French bacteriologist Pasteur, in this process which is more commonly
used in the food industry, sludge is heated to a temperature of 70-80C for approximately 30 minutes to
destroy a large proportion of the micro-organisms, especially the pathogens, present. The product is then often
subjected to anaerobic digestion (see below).
Composting: In this process the organic substrates encountered in sludge are decomposed and digested by
aerobic thermophilic biological processes. During the composting process, the temperature of the sludge rises
to around 70C. This results in the destruction of pathogens and a reduction in the moisture content in sludge.
The aeration intensifies the process, but the media must be permeable to air. Often this is achieved by mixing
with a swelling agent. Usually, after composting processes and before its use in agriculture, it is necessary to
stabilise the sludge by periodically turning the mass for 2-3 months. The final product is a humus-like,
sanitised, organic soil improvement agent which could be used for both small and large scale agricultural uses.

Fig. 7.23 Belt press
7.4.3 Dewatering
Drying Beds: Raw or digested sludge can be dried in the open air or on drying beds, which consist of a layer
of sand above slag or gravel, beneath which is a system of underdrains to collect the liquor draining off. There
are also vacuum-assisted drying beds, where suction is applied to the bed to draw off water and accelerate
drying. The period depends on the climate, but is usually about a month.
Mechanical Dewatering-Pressure Systems: A range of equipment exists to apply pressure to sludges to
remove water, but two main types of plant are used, plate presses and continuous belt presses. They can be
employed to dewater either untreated or digested sludges, the former being easier to dewater. Prior to
pressing, sludge is normally conditioned with polymer or other chemicals (e.g. iron or aluminium salts or
lime). After pressing the untreated sludge cakes usually have a moisture content in the range of 60 - 75% and
digested sludges of 65 - 80%. Centrifuges can also be used to dewater sludges. See the detailed information
under thickening.
Mechanical Dewatering under Vacuum: Two main types of device exist to dewater sludge under vacuum,
which has been conditioned using chemicals. Disc Filters, which consist of a disc made of a membrane to one
side of which sludge is fed, allowing water to be drawn through the membrane. The sludge emerges from the
process as a cake (70 - 85% water).

Fig. 7.24 Centrifuges

Fig. 7.25 Rotary disc dryer
Drum Filters, which consist of a drum rotating on a horizontal axis in the form of a membrane. Water is
removed from the sludge producing a cake, which is cleared from the external surface of the drum.

Fig. 7.26 General view of a sludge incineration plant

Fig. 7.27 Multiple hearth incineration
7.4.4 Drying/I ncineration
Thermal Drying: This process may be performed on raw or digested sludge cake either prior to disposal to
land or as a preliminary to incineration. The objective of drying is thus to markedly reduce the sludge volume
and weight, so that it can be placed in containers for convenient transport and spreading on land or so that its
value as a fuel may be greatly enhanced by the removal of water.
Incineration and Co-Incineration: This process involves the combustion of dewatered sludge (or dewatered
and dried sludge) at a temperature in the range of 800 - 900C. The sludge is converted to a mixture of ash
and clinker, which is discharged from a furnace when combustion is complete, allowed to cool and stored
before removal to a landfill site. Incinerators have to be provided with elaborate systems to clean the flue
gases given off during the combustion process, prior to their emission to the atmosphere via a chimney or
stack. Among the alternatives, the fluidised bed is the preferred technology.
7.4.5 Reuse/Recycling
Agriculture: The utilisation of sewage sludge for agricultural purposes is a well established practice that
provides farmers with a valuable organic manure. This practice is a cheap, convenient and environmentally
acceptable alternative for many municipalities. For farmers, this sludge is a valuable fertiliser, which is often
spread free of charge by the treatment plant owners. Thus the use of farmland for the spreading of sewage
sludge is often mutual benefit both to the municipality and to the farmer. However, the content of toxic matter
in the sludge, like heavy metals, synthetic organic matter and pathogens, may restrict the use of sewage sludge
in agriculture.
Vitrification: This is a high temperature combustion process, performed in furnaces operating at 1200 -
1400C, in which dewatered and dried sludge is burnt to form an ash, which then melts. The resulting liquid
slag is quenched in water or air-cooled to form a vitreous material. The process has high capital and
operational costs, but has been used in Japan with some success.
Oil from Sludge: This is one of the newest techniques of sludge treatment and has yet to be employed
anywhere in the world on a substantial scale. The process converts sludges to oil and gas, plus water and a
char.
Gasification: This process converts sludge into gas by heating it in a vessel so that chemical cracking
processes take place similar to those involved in the earlier stages of the conversion of oil feedstocks to
petrochemicals.
7.4.6 Final Disposal
Final disposal of sewage sludge and solids that are not suitable for any reuse alternatives, should be disposed
in a landfill. Sea disposal is prohibited by the Directive, as was mentioned earlier. A sanitary landfill can be
used for the disposal of sludge, grease, grit and other solids. Stabilisation of these materials may be needed
depending on the local requirements. Dewatering is generally required to reduce transport costs and to reduce
leakage problems. Sanitary landfills are most suitable for the disposal of sewage sludge, if they are also used
for the disposal of solid waste in the area. A properly maintained sanitary landfill has compacted sludge
disposed of and covered up with a 30 cm layer of clean soil to minimise nuisance such as odour and flies.
Sometimes, composted sludge or chemically treated sludge is used as the covering soil in landfills.

Chapter 8. Revenue and User Charges


Figure
8.1 Chapter Content
An adequate charging system should ensure that sufficient funds are available to enable the efficient operation
of wastewater systems, including asset maintenance and replacement.
This section introduces the concept of user charges as a means of recovering the cost of funding the
wastewater services from those who benefit from them.
Other than in exceptional circumstances, the full cost of providing a wastewater service, including charges for
loans and depreciation, should be charged back to the users of the service.
Although charging according to use or benefit derived seems simple, there are a number of complex issues
involved. These are discussed as we consider the three phases in developing user charges:
8.2 Phase I: identify the net costs to be recovered from customers
8.3 Phase II: allocate these costs to different customer classes
8.4 Phase III: design a tariff structure to recover the costs from each customer class
8.5 Summary
8.2 Phase I - Identifying Total Costs
In determining the total costs to be recovered, or annual revenue requirement, the approach may vary,
depending on ownership, regulatory requirement, local policies and local circumstances. Generally, however,
revenue should be sufficient to maintain current service levels, to meet new demands and to plan for future
needs.
Publicly owned systems tend to determine revenue requirement using either a cash basis or a utility basis.
Using a cash basis, revenue is set to provide the annual cash flow to meet all operating and capital
requirements including the servicing of debt.
A utility approach sets revenue requirement sufficient to cover operating and maintenance expenditure,
depreciation and a return on assets.
Whichever approach is used, the basic revenue requirement should be reduced by any miscellaneous income
that results from charges other than main wastewater charges.
In summary the steps are:
Gross revenue required: xxx
Deduct miscellaneous charges: x
Net revenue required from
main wastewater charges: xx
8.3 Phase II - Allocating Costs to Customer Classes
This phase is concerned with allocating costs to different customer classes in a way that corresponds with the
service provided to these classes. It consists of three basic steps:
analyse costs by activity;
allocate activity costs to cost drivers;
reallocate cost driver totals to customer classes.
8.3.1 Activity analysis
Analysing costs by activity and recognising those which remain fixed over the short to medium term and those
which are variable provides a number of advantages:
It provides a useful insight into the way costs are incurred. This may have implications for cost allocation
and subsequent tariff structures.
The impact on revenue levels based on fixed or unavoidable costs can be determined.
Minimum revenue levels based on fixed or unavoidable costs can be determined.
Contractual conditions (perhaps with large developments) which involve a fixed component can be
determined.
The evaluation process provides new information for budgeting and accounting for the future.

Fig. 8.3
8.3.2 Cost drivers
The cost driver for a particular cost or group of costs is that characteristic that is predominant in determining
the size and cost of the activity under consideration. Some examples of activities and cost drivers are given
below.
Activity Cost driver
Customer billing customers Number of customers
Reception and conveyance of effluent Effluent volume; pollution load; polluter pays
Wastewater treatment Wastewater volume; pollution load (BOD + SS)
Sludge disposal Level of suspended solids
8.3.3 Allocation to customer classes
The next step is to reallocate the costs for each driver to the different customer classes. The details of
reallocation will vary depending on the cost driver, but will normally be supported by statistical evidence. For
example, the level of customer billing costs is driven by customer numbers. Knowledge of customer numbers
in each class allows a simple reallocation.
8.4 Phase III - Designing a Tariff Structure
There are three basic approaches to be considered as the basis for setting tariffs:
user charge: i.e. charge according to use of service;
flat rate charge: i.e. charge each user the same amount;
ad valorem tax: i.e. charge according to ability to pay.
Each of these can be assessed against a number of objectives in order to determine the most suitable charging
basis in given circumstances. The objectives relate to economical efficiency, social efficiency and
administrative efficiency.
The user charges approach scores high in terms of economical efficiency, by relating levels of charge to levels
of service use. However no account is taken of the ability of the customers to pay and this approach is judged
poor in terms of social efficiency. Because it requires the service use by each customer to be measured
regularly, subsequent to billing, it is also regarded as administratively inefficient.
Similar arguments can be made to show that the flat rate charge approach is administratively efficient, but not
economically or socially feasible, whereas, ad valorem taxes have their strength in social efficiency, but are
not economically and administratively feasible.
8.4.1 User charges
User charges are often comprised of both a fixed and a volume or load/emission related element. The higher
the fixed element, the greater the income certainty to the utility. The higher the volumetric charge, the greater
the control that can be exercised by the customer over total charge by regulating service use.
Customers use of wastewater services is commonly estimated by reference to measured clean water services
received, after deducting an estimated amount for water that is not discharged into the sewer. This deduction
is often standard for domestic customers, but assessed individually for larger commercial and industrial
customers. For some customers, who discharge large wastewater volumes, it may be appropriate to install
specific waste meters.
8.4.2 Ad valorem taxes
Ad valorem taxes are often related to property values. The somewhat imprecise logic suggests that the higher
the value of the property, the greater the ability to pay and therefore the higher the charge. These taxes have
developed as a traditional means of supporting local government services, including environmental and
wastewater services. The relationship between service use and property values is, however, somewhat weak
and ad valorem taxes often include large fixed charges in order to moderate the range of charges resulting
from different property values.
8.4.3 I ndustrial wastewater tariffs
Domestic effluent, whether discharged from domestic properties or non domestic properties (i.e. offices), is
essentially homogeneous in any particular location e.g. the strength and complexity of the waste does not vary
greatly. It is reasonable, therefore to charge for this effluent on the basis of volume.
Trade and industrial effluent, the strength of which can differ significantly from average domestic discharges,
may warrant a charging system that is based on both the volume and character of the wastewater. Such a
system may be applied to customers individually, necessitating a regular sampling regime or assessment, or
effluent characteristics may be agreed on for a certain type of trader, i.e. car washes, and a standard strength
applied.
The range of characteristics on which charges can be based varies. The most common charging systems are
based on volume, treatment costs for the removal of BOD and suspended solids. Less commonly, charges may
relate to the levels of phosphorus, nitrogen, COD and other pollutants.
The basic characteristic based charging system can be further refined in a number of ways, i.e. basing volume
rates on standard strengths and charging for specific pollutant loads only above a certain threshold level.
The most common formula for deriving a charge for an industrial effluent is:

C
T
= Total cost per m
3
industrial effluent
C
Q

= Cost per m
3
of providing + operating sewer system pumping sediment and effluent disposal
BOD
i
= Biochemical oxygen demand of the industrial effluent (mg/l)
BOD
S
= Biochemical oxygen demand of the combined sewage (mg/l)
C
B
= Cost per m
3
of providing and operating biological treatment
SS
i
= Suspended solids of the industrial effluent (mg/l)
SS
S
= Suspended solids of the combined sewage (mg/l)
C
S
= Cost per m
3
of providing and operating sludge treatment
BOD may be replaced by COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) or TOC (Total Organic Carbon)
The characteristics of the industrial effluent and of the combined sewage are obtained from sampling and
analysis programmes. The costs are derived from the actual costs of financing the construction of the sewage
system and wastewater treatment works as well as operating and maintaining them.
8.5 Summary
To sum up, the design of a wastewater charging system, based on a full recovery of costs, should follow a
logical set of steps. These start by identifying the costs of service provision that must eventually be recovered
from customers. When these costs have been grouped according to activity, they can be allocated by use of
cost drivers to customer classes, once the total revenue requirement from each customer class has been
determined. Consideration needs to be given to the type of tariff structure appropriate to the service, given the
often conflicting objectives of economical, social and administrative efficiency.

Chapter 9. Implementation


Figure
9.1 Chapter Content
This chapter has been divided into the following sections:
9.2 Options for implementation and the conventional project roles
9.3 Alternatives to conventional project implementation
9.2 Options for Implementation and the Conventional Project Roles
9.2.1 What are the options for implementing waste-water projects?
In Chapter 4, the stages of implementing a wastewater project were described, these were:
Planning
Funding
Detailed design and contract documentation
Tendering
Construction and construction supervision
Operation and maintenance
Until quite recently, public authorities have undertaken the work of virtually all stages of implementation
apart from construction. This may be termed the conventional division of project implementation roles.

Fig. 9.2
In recent years, for reasons that will be explained later, public authorities have sought to hand over more
stages of implementation to the private sector whilst maintaining a supervisory role. The various ways in
which the private sector has become involved in implementation has been termed private sector
participation.
It is essential not to confuse private sector participation with privatisation. The latter entails sale of the actual
wastewater system infrastructure to the private sector and is not practised in many parts of the world. In all
forms of private sector participation, other than full privatisation, ownership of the physical infrastructure
remains with the public sector or, where the private sector funds the construction, reverts to public ownership
after an agreed period.
In deciding between whether to take the conventional approach or to consider the involvement of the private
sector, public authorities must first decide whether or not they are able to devote sufficient resources, not only
to providing wastewater infrastructure, but to the subsequent stages of operation and maintenance. If an
authority has not sufficient resources, consideration should be given to jointly developing a wastewater
management resource with neighbouring authorities, possibly through the creation of a Joint Sewerage Board.
If neither of these options is possible, then private sector participation in part or all of the stages should be
considered.
9.2.2 What are the respective conventional project roles played by the public and private sectors in the
implementation of wastewater projects?
The respective roles of the public sector and the private sector in a conventional approach to project
implementation are:
The public sector is responsible for planning, designing, funding, organising, tendering and supervising the
construction of the works.
The private sector bids for and, if successful, constructs the works, having successfully commissioned them
to the public sectors satisfaction.
The public sector is responsible for operating and maintaining the completed works.

Fig. 9.3
Many of the technical activities which are the responsibility of the public sector under this conventional
arrangement -planning, design, tendering, organising, and construction supervision - are undertaken on its
behalf by consulting engineers. Employment of consultants is undertaken, when the public sector organisation
lacks the technical staff to undertake the work. The public sector may wish to pass all of the project activities
to the consultants or only those parts for which it lacks the capability or experience. Depending upon the size
and complexity of the work to be undertaken by the consultants, the public sector may employ an individual
consultant or a professional firm with staff covering all the necessary technical and contractual disciplines.
9.2.3 How can information be obtained concerning which consultants are appropriately qualified and how
can their Terms of Engagement be determined?
In most European countries, professional and trade organisations exist which represent consultants and, should
assistance be needed in the selection and normal contractual arrangements for consultants, these organisations
can be approached for advice.
If no such organisation exists in the country concerned, a pan-European organisation representing such
organisations is based in Brussels, EFCA (Ref.). This organisation also publishes guidelines on the
employment of consulting engineers and will advise on their selection.
9.3 Alternatives to Conventional Project Implementation
9.3.1 What alternatives are there to conventional project implementation?
The conventional approach, described above, remains the most common adopted by public authorities with
respect to project implementation.
However, increasingly in recent years, responsibility for the various phases of project implementation
previously borne by the public sector has been progressively taken over by the private sector. The private
sector - in this case including civil engineering contractors, process plant contractors, private utility operators,
alone or in collaboration with each other, - are increasingly becoming involved in the design and short to long
term operation and maintenance of wastewater works. In addition, by raising finance on the commercial
markets, it may be able to fund the building of the works and become the owner in the short or long term. In
this newer approach, the public sector will generally remain responsible for the overall planning and
supervision of the private sector to ensure that it produces the project in conformity with its objectives and
with local and state regulations relating to the work. Where the private sector takes on the responsibilities and
risks of operation and possibly ownership, the public sector acts as a regulator of their operations with respect
to the maintenance of the required levels of service, tariffs levied on users of the service and the compliance
with quality requirements.
9.3.2 Why is there a move to increase private sector participation?
The principal reasons for this progressive shift of responsibility to the private sector are:
a lack of technical resources in the public sector organisation at the planning and design phases and a
preference for dealing with only one organisation - a contractor - rather than with both consultants and a
contractor;
difficulties in obtaining governmental support in funding wastewater projects, as governments attempt to cut
public sector borrowing. This is resolved by requiring the contractor to raise finance;
conventional project implementation can be a lengthy procedure and, given the right circumstances, the
programme can be shortened using the short cut techniques employed by contractors;
lack of technical staff to operate and maintain the completed works.
Transfer of responsibility for activities to the private sector places a greater responsibility on the public sector
with respect to the monitoring, supervision and regulation of the contractor. It is therefore quite probable that
the public sector will still require the professional assistance of consultants to assist them in this role. The
objectives of the project and the duties and performance expected of the contractor, should be put down in
writing and made clear to prospective contractors when tendering for the project.
9.3.3 What benefits can private companies bring to wastewater project implementation?
The benefits which private companies bring to the wastewater sector are in part related to the characteristics
by which they survive in a competitive environment and in part to the benefits derived from the competition
that their presence stimulates. They bring to the sector:
modern managerial systems and practices;
employee remuneration structures and incentives which stimulate greater productivity;
ability to raise finance on the commercial markets.
Private companies are more used than the public sector to raising capital for their operations and
developments on the commercial markets.
However, there is little doubt that the greatest benefits that an experienced private sector water utility operator
or contractor can bring to a water and wastewater service are related to the modern managerial and operational
systems and practices that they have developed in order to reduce their costs to a minimum. These systems
have reduced operating costs significantly in recent years but, in the main, they have had at the same time to
be capable of providing a high quality service, according to the regulatory regime within which they are
practised.
It is interesting to note that it has been the necessity of compliance with the requirements of strict regulations
that has frequently stimulated the development of these sophisticated approaches to operations.
What systems have been introduced which could benefit the wastewater service sector? Some examples of
what is now being done are as follows:
Recording of all infrastructure assets on digitised maps - networks and all ancillaries such as valves,
customer connections, pumping stations, reservoirs, treatment works, etc. - and linking this to a computerised
GIS (Geographical Information System)
Entering all operational data associated with these elements of infrastructure into information packages in
order to enable the GIS system to be integrated and inter-active with all areas of operations of the utility,
rendering them capable of more effective and efficient management, i.e.
asset management
billing and revenue collection
management reporting
financial planning
technical operations.
Efficient management of capital works investment programmes
Centralised systems for record drawings and maintenance manuals placed online for access to all areas of
operations
Telemetry systems for centralised monitoring and management of critical installations too remote for regular
visits
One-stop, customer interfacing for all operations
The development of these systems requires considerable effort and investment and it takes the competitive
environment of a free market involvement to spur on the management of companies to produce them.
Each of the systems contributes towards efficiency and the long term reduction of costs, the corollary being
that a system without them would cost significantly more than is necessary.
9.3.4 Are there any risks involved in, or disadvantages to introducing the private sector?
There are three main areas of risk and three main disadvantages to inviting the private sector to participate in
the provision of water and wastewater services in the form of mixed equity companies, concessions or leasing
contracts.
The risks to the public sector are that:
the services provided by the private contractor may not be of as high a standard as they have contracted to
deliver;
the contractor may wish to charge higher rates for the service than those agreed upon;
the contractor may have to cease trading.
In all of these cases, risk can be minimised and reduced to acceptable levels through strong regulation and
competently produced pre-qualification, bidding and contract documentation.
The disadvantages are as follows:
Once the private sector has taken over an area of operations large enough to provide a commercially
interesting concession or leasing contract, it is difficult to revert back to public sector operation - should that
ever be needed.
There is little that can be done to avoid this. However, the risks would be limited were the option of a mixed
equity company to be chosen in which the public sector played an active role in both management and
operations.
If one company wins too many concessions and is seen to be dominating the market, it can limit the
competitivity of the market to an undesirable extent and lead to a backlash against the whole concept of
participation of the private sector.
Inevitably, the introduction of private companies means that they must draw off from the sector, in profits
and shareholder dividends some of the revenue that would otherwise, in the public sector, be left in for
investment.
If this were considered to be a real issue, mixed equity companies would provide an option for limiting the
profit and dividend drain, as it would retain within the public sector that proportion of the value due to it
through its shareholding.
9.3.5 What are the options for private sector participation in wastewater projects?
If the public sector decides to pass responsibility for some of the project implementation activities over to the
private sector there are a number of options open to it. These are generally grouped under the following
headings:
Concessions, including the various forms and combinations of BOT/BOOT (Build Operate Transfer to the
public sector/Build, Own, Operate and Transfer)
Leasing
Mixed Equity Companies
Management Contracts
Service Contracts
Short descriptions of what is involved in each of these private sector participation (PSP) options follow
together with their respective advantages and disadvantages to the public sectors and are contained in Annex
C.

Annex A: EU Directives
(i) Water for drinking
80/777/EEC on the approximation of the laws of the member states relating to the exploitation and
marketing of natural mineral waters.
80/778/EEC relating to the quality of water intended for human consumption.
(ii) Wastewater
91/271/EEC concerning urban waste water treatment.
(iii) Quality for various uses
75/440/EEC concerning the quality required of surface water intended for the abstraction of drinking water
in member states.
76/160/EEC concerning the quality of bathing water.
78/659/EEC on the quality of freshwaters needing protection or improvement in order to support fish life.
79/869/EEC concerning the methods of measurement and frequencies of samples and analysis of surface
water intended for the abstraction for drinking in the member states (reference methods for
75/440/EEC).
79/923/EEC on the quality required of shellfish waters.
91/676/EEC concerning the protection of fresh, coastal and marine waters against pollution caused by
nitrates from diffuse sources.
(iv) Discharge of dangerous substances
76/464/EEC on pollution caused by certain dangerous substances discharged into the aquatic environment of
the Community.
This Directive has given rise to several Daughter Directives.
82/176/EEC on limit values and quality objectives for mercury discharges by the chlor-alkali electrolysis
industry.
83/513/EEC on limit values and quality objectives for cadmium discharges.
84/156/EEC on limit values and quality objectives for mercury discharges by sectors other than by chlor-
alkali electrolysis industry.
84/491/EEC on limit values and quality objectives for discharges of hexachlorocyclohexane, in particular
lindane.
86/280/EEC on limit values and quality objectives for discharges of certain dangerous substances included in
List I in the Annex to Directive 76/464/EEC (covers DDT, PCP and CTC).
88/347/EEC amending Annex II to Directive 86/280/EEC relating to aldrin, dieldrin, endrin, isodrin (the
Drins), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), hexachlorobutadiene (HCBD), and chloroform.
90/415/EEC amending Annex II to Directive 86/280/EEC on limit values and quality objectives for
discharges of certain dangerous substances included in list I of the Annex to Directive
76/464/EEC.
80/68/EEC on protection of groundwater against pollution caused by certain dangerous substances.
(v) Controls over industry
78/176/EEC on waste from the titanium dioxide industry.
82/883/EEC on procedures for surveillance and monitoring of the environments affected by wastes from the
titanium dioxide industry (reference methods for 78/176/EEC).
83/29/EEC amending Directive 78/176/EEC
87/217/EEC on prevention and reduction of environmental pollution by asbestos.
91/112/EEC on procedures for harmonising the programmes for the reduction and eventual elimination of
pollution caused by waste from the titanium oxide industry.
(vi) Controls over products
73/404/EEC on the approximation of the laws of the member states relating to detergents.
73/405/EEC on the approximation of the laws of the member states relating to methods of testing the
biodegradability of anionic surfactants.
82/242/EEC amending Directive 73/404/EEC
82/243/EEC amending Directive 73/405/EEC
86/94/EEC amending Directive 73/404/EEC
(vii) Sewage sludge disposal
86/278/EEC on the protection of the environment, and in particular of the soil, when sewage is used in
agriculture.
(viii) Information exchange
77/795/EEC establishing a common procedure for the exchange of information on the quality of surface
freshwater in the Community.
83/189/EEC+ on laying down a procedure for the provision of information in the field of technical standards
and regulations.
86/85/EEC establishing a Community information system for the control and reduction of pollution caused
by the spillage of hydrocarbons and other harmful substances at sea.
86/574/EEC amending 77/795/EEC.
88/346/EEC amending 86/85/EEC to include major inland waters.
91/692/EEC on standardising and rationalising reports on the implementation of certain directives relating to
the environment.
92/446/EEC+ concerning questionnaires relating to directives in the water sector.
(ix) Public procurement of works and supplies, and products and assessment
89/106/EEC on the approximation of laws, regulations and administrative provisions of the Member States
relating to construction products.
90/531/EEC on the procurement procedures of entities operating in the water, energy, transport and
telecommunications sectors.
90/683/EEC concerning the modules for the various phases of the conformity assessment procedures which
are intended to be used in the technical harmonisation directives.
92/13/EEC co-ordinating the laws and administrative provisions relating to the application of Community
rules on the procurement procedures of entities of Community rules on the procurement
procedures of entities operating in the water, energy, transport and telecommunications sector.
93/38/EEC on procurement procedures of entities operating in the water, energy, transport and
telecommunications sector.
(x) Other
79/409/EEC on special protection areas for birds.
82/501/EEC on the major accident hazards of certain industrial activities.
87/217/EEC amending Directive 82/501/EEC.
88/610/EEC amending Directive 82/501/EEC.
85/337/EEC on the assessment of effects of certain public and private projects on the environment.
85/374/EEC on the approximation of the laws, regulations and administrative provisions of the member
states concerning liability for defective products.
90/313/EEC on freedom of access to information on the environment
92/43/EEC on special areas of conservation for habitats.
+ A Decision rather than a Directive.


Annex B: Glossary of Terms
Activated sludge - is the sludge that results when primary effluent is mixed with bacteria-laden sludge and
then agitated and aerated to promote biological treatment.
Advanced Waste Treatment - wastewater treatment beyond the secondary or biological stage that includes
the removal of nutrients such as phosphorus and nitrogen and a high percentage of suspended solids.
Aerobic - life or processes that require, or are not destroyed by, the presence of free elemental oxygen.
Anaerobic - life or processes that require, or are not destroyed by, the absence of free elemental oxygen.
Bacteria - unicellular microscopic organisms that perform a variety of biological treatment processes,
including biological oxidation, sludge digestion, nitrification, and denitrification.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) - a measure of the amount of oxygen consumed in the biological
processes that break down organic matter in water. The greater the BOD, the greater the degree of pollution.
Normally measured at 20 C over a period of 5 days.
Biosolids - sometimes known as sludge, the primarily organic solid product, produced by wastewater
treatment processes, that can be beneficially recycled.
Combined Sewer - a sewer system that carries both sanitary sewage and stormwater runoff.
Denitrification - the reduction of nitrate nitrogen to nitrogen gas.
Effluent - wastewater, treated or untreated, that flows from its source of production - domestic households,
industry, trade and commercial premises and public institutions - or out of a treatment plant, sewer, or
industrial outfall.
Eutrophication - A process of increasing enrichment of a body of water, through an increase in concentration
of nutrient material, e.g. nitrogen and phosphorus, which alters the ecological condition of the water,
stimulates algal growth and leads to progressive deterioration.
Infiltration - entry of water, generally groundwater, into a sewer system through such sources as defective
pipes, pipe joints, connections, or manhole walls.
Inflow - entry of water into a sewer system from sources other than infiltration, such as basement drains,
storm drains, and street washing.
Influent - water, wastewater or other liquid flowing into a reservoir, basin, treatment plant, or treatment
process.
Land Application - the treatment or disposal of wastewater or sludge by spreading it on land under controlled
conditions.
Micro-organisms - microscopic organisms, either plant or animal, invisible or barely visible to naked eye.
Examples are algae, bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses.
National Pollution Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) - the permit process established; under section
402 of the Clean Water Act to define the allowable quality and quality of discharges to receiving streams.
Nitrification - the oxidation of ammonia nitrogen to nitrate nitrogen in wastewater by biological or chemical
reactions.
Nutrients - any substance that is assimilated by organisms and promotes growth; generally applied to nitrogen
and phosphorus in wastewater, but also applied to other essential and trace elements.
Operations and Maintenance (O&M) - the organised procedure for causing a piece of equipment or a
treatment plant to perform its intended functions and for keeping the equipment or plant in such a condition
that it is able to continually and reliably perform its intended function.
Permit - a legal document issued by a government agency. In wastewater treatment, a discharge permit
requires that the plant operator achieve specific water quality standards and discharge limits by a certain date,
and also establishes monitoring and reporting requirements.
Pre-treatment - the treatment, usually partial treatment, of industrial wastewater at its source before
discharge to municipal collection systems.
Primary Treatment - the first stage in wastewater treatment. Screens and sedimentation tanks are used to
remove most material that floats or will settle. Primary treatment results in the removal of a substantial
amount of suspended matter but little or no dissolved or colloidal matter.
Receiving Water (Recipient) - a river, lake, ocean, or other watercourse into which wastewater or treated
effluent is discharged.
Sanitary Sewer - a sewerage system that carries only household and commercial wastewater.
Secondary Treatment - generally, a level of treatment that produces removal efficiencies of 85 percent for
BOD and suspended solids. Sometimes used interchangeably with the concept of biological wastewater
treatment, where wastewater is mixed with air or oxygen and sludge to encourage the growth of bacteria that
eat organic pollutants.
Sewer - A conduit for conveying wastewater from its source to the treatment works, by gravity or pumping,
constructed using pipes, in-situ culverts or tunnels.
Sludge - or bio-solids, the accumulated solids separated from liquids, such as wastewater.
Suspended Solids (SS) - solid pollutants that either float on the surface of, or are suspended in, wastewater.
Trickling Filter - or Biological Filter, a treatment unit filled with natural or synthetic material used to support
bacterial growth and provide secondary treatment of wastewater.
User Charges - charges made to users of water and wastewater systems for services supplied.
Wastewater - the spent or used water from a community or industry that contains dissolved or suspended
matter.

Annex C: Implementation Options
Private Sector Participation (PSP) in Public Sector
C1. Mixed Equity Companies
Characteristics
A Joint Stock Company is set up between the public sector and the private sector, probably an experienced
utility company, project management company or financial institution or a combination of these. The
company objective will be to provide a water and wastewater service to the geographic area for which the
public sector entity is already responsible. The private sector will normally require a majority shareholding.
Public sector contributions to equity do not have to include their existing water and waste-water infrastructure
but should include the guarantee of access to and use of these facilities. Account might also be taken of the
experienced staff that they contribute and access to grants or low interest loans.
Advantages Disadvantages
The relationship between the public and
the private sectors is based on
commercial principles.
There may be a possible conflict of interests in the regulation of
die sector.
Complete separation from governmental
influence can be built into the relationship.
The private sector will almost certainly demand a majority share in
ownership of the joint company.
There is freedom from public service
regulations, conditions of service and
financial constraints.
This system facilitates the introduction of
modern, managerial business systems and
practices.
In the unlikely situation that the private sector accepts a minority
share it will require cast-iron guarantees that it will have
management control, non-interference by government and a well-
defined, transparent and fair regulatory system.
It also permits access to commercial
market methods of raising finance. Capital
is funding only partially considered as
public borrowing.
Commensurate with the public sector sharing in profitability, it
must also share any risk involved with its private sector partner.
Allows public sector - and thus the general
public- to share in the profitability of a
more efficient and cost-effective water
service provider.
It may be a difficult and lengthy process for the parties to dissolve
their relationship and, in the process, to avoid a deterioration in the
water service being provided.
The public sector partner cannot be certain of the long term
existence of a private sector partner who is exposed to normal
commercial risks.
C2. Leasing (Affermage)
Characteristics
Leasing involves a private contractor paying the public owner for exclusive rights to operate facilities (without
responsibility for major investments), and bearing full commercial risks. A lease contract accords an exclusive
right (sometimes called a franchise or license) to the stream of revenues from providing a service. Leasing has
been used for decades in urban water supply and sewerage in France and Spain (where the arrangement is
known as affermage), and has also been used in solid waste collection and disposal.
Under a leasing arrangement, the public sector contracts a company to take responsibility for all of the
operations involved in providing a water and wastewater service to a defined area and provides the contractor
with all of the water and wastewater infrastructure needed to provide the service for the duration of the
contract. The public sector makes a charge in instalments to the contractor throughout the duration of the
contract for its general expenses and the use of the water and wastewater infrastructure which it has provided.
Investment required for new infrastructure throughout the duration of the lease is financed by the public sector
and a portion of the charge levied on the contractor is to cover this. At the end of the lease, the contractor is
required to return the infrastructure to the public sector in good repair taking into account of reasonable
deterioration due to wear and tear. If the lessee performs well, and the public sector wishes to divest itself of
responsibility for funding new investment, the lease may be converted to a concession.
The contractor usually collects the tariff revenue directly and returns an agreed portion to the public authority
as a rental or license fee. The profit for the contractor is the difference between the gross revenues collected,
and the sum of operating costs and this fee. Any savings from efficiency improvements are therefore retained
by the contractor. The lease contract should specify the maintenance required to protect the condition of the
facilities during the lease period; the performance indicators to be used for judging the quality of service;
procedures for enforcement, penalties for non-performance, and the means of dispute resolution.
Advantages Disadvantages
A leasing contract can be of much shorter
duration, i.e. 7 to 10 years, than a concession,
which is normally for more than 20 years, as the
contractor makes no investment in capital works
which must be recovered.
New works must be funded, and their construction
supervised, by the public sector which takes any risk
associated with its development.
The public sector maintains a strategic control of
its infrastructure and has control over the pace of
its development.
All funding forms part of public sector borrowing.
The public sector retains ownership of all fixed
assets.
The private sector finances working capital and
accepts the commercial risk involved in the water
and wastewater operations.
As the contractor has responsibility for
managing, operating and maintaining the service,
a leasing contract has all the advantages of a
concession contract with respect to the
introduction of modern managerial systems and
operational practices.
A detailed inventory of assets leased to the contractor
should be made, together with their condition and any
rehabilitation considered part of the contractors
obligations. The contractor should be required to provide a
guarantee against compliance with maintenance and
rehabilitation commitments.
C3. Concessions
Characteristics
In promoting a concession, the public sector has the intention awarding a franchise for the provision of water
and wastewater services within a specified area to the private sector. The concession will not only include
responsibility for all operational and maintenance functions but also for the planning, designing, funding and
construction of new works required under the contract. The public sector contracts to provide the
concessionaire with use of existing infrastructure, which remains in public ownership. At the end of the
contract, the concessionaire must return the infrastructure transferred to it and the works which it has
constructed in good repair, taking into account reasonable wear and tear. Due to the need to recover
investment in new works, a concession in the water sector is awarded for a minimum of 20 years and, more
normally for 25 to 30 years.
The assets revert to the public owner upon completion of the concession. The contractors compensation is
based on tariffs, which are also determined according to agreement set out in the concession contract. The
tariff revenue should be sufficient to cover the operational expenses as well as debt service and depreciation
on the concessions investments. Concessions, like leases, require appropriate disincentives for contractors not
to run down the assets towards the end of the contract period, although this would be less of a concern if the
incumbent intended to compete for contract renewal.
A concession contract incorporates all the features of a lease, but with the contractor having the additional
responsibility for financing certain specified extensions or replacements to fixed assets.
It is possible for a concession to relate to the provision of specific works such as major water or wastewater
treatment plants, pumping stations or networks, in which case they may be termed one of the many variations
of BOOT - build, own, operate and transfer.
Advantages Disadvantages
A major part of the maximum responsibility for the provision
of the water and wastewater service and for meeting
regulatory requirements is transferred to the private sector -
planning and constructing new works, operating, maintaining
A very strong regulatory system must be
established on which the content of concession
tender documents, contracts and negotiations
with prospective concessionaires should be
based.
And renovating the infrastructure, billing and revenue
collection, financing capital works and all operations and
negotiations with the Regulatory Agency.
A detailed inventory of assets provided to the
concessionaire should be made, together with
their condition and any renovation considered
to be part of the contractors obligations.
There is maximum incentive for the concessionaire to provide
an efficient, cost- effective service. This system encourages
Investments commensurate with technical/commercial needs.
The concessionaire should be required to
provide a guarantee for compliance with
maintenance and rehabilitation commitments.
The ownership of water and wastewater assets remains with
the public sector.
If the concessionaire is a foreign entity, there
could be a minimum of transfer of management
expertise to local personnel if contractual
provision is not made for this.
The financing of capital works is not considered part of
public sector borrowings.
In circumstances where payment is on a basis
of volume of water purchased, potential
concessionaires may require a minimum take-
or-pay clause.
There is no risk to the public sector as long as the
concessionaire fulfils his obligations.

C4. Management Contracts
Characteristics
Management contracts are made let when it is intended to improve the performance of an entity, whether
public or private, by improving managerial capability, systems and practices. The contract may cover all or
only specific areas of the organisations operations. This is achieved by transferring the managerial
responsibility of the organisation to the contracting company. In general, the objective will be to raise the
level of capability of managers within the organisation in order that, at a given point in time, managerial
responsibility may be progressively transferred back to them.
Management contracting extends the responsibility of the private sector beyond individual service functions to
encompass a broad scope of operations and maintenance, usually for a period of 3-5 years. In cases where the
contractor receives a set fee for services rendered, the arrangement is essentially no different from technical
assistance. In the concept of management contracting addressed here, the contractor obtains at least some of
his compensation, from the success of the companys performance, and therefore shares some of the
commercial risk of the enterprise.
Greater efficiency gains can be obtained from management contracting when significant autonomy is granted
and the compensation can be based at least in part on performance. The contracts should also incorporate
some incentives for training of the internal agency staff, although this has proven difficult because of the
short-term nature of management contracting. Given these problematic aspects, management contracts can be
very useful as interim arrangements that allow private firms and public agencies to gain experience with
partnerships prior to engaging in a more comprehensive contract such as leasing or concessions (described
below), or while reforms of the regulatory framework for the sector are being developed.
Advantages Disadvantages
Attention is focused entirely on raising the level of
management skills in the subject organisation.
The subject organisation must be willing to subjugate
itself to the direction of the management contractor.
A management contract is normally short term in
duration, a maximum of 5 years. It raises
managerial performance - and with it general staff
performance - to a level which can ensure that
managers and staff have a role in the future
provision of a water and wastewater service,
whatever form this takes, public or private.
The owner of the subject organisation must prepare
clear objectives for the management, set precise
indicators, targets and a programme by which the
performance of both the company and the management
contractor, may be measured and ensure that sufficient
powers are delegated to the contractor to permit him to
fulfil his responsibilities.
The management contract can relate to all of the
operations or be focused on those that are
performing poorly and which have a major effect on
overall performance.
Planning and financing of investments and of working
capital, as well as ultimate responsibility for the
performance of the organisation in respect to regulatory
requirements, remains with the public sector.
The performance of the management contractor can
be measured against the company performance
indicators and payment, incentives and penalties
based on the degree of achievement of these.

Ownership of the assets remains with the public
sector as do all strategic and major investment
decisions.

C5. Service Contracts/Out-Sourcing
Characteristics
Service contracts, or out-sourcing, is the most commonly used form of private sector participation with respect
to the water and wastewater service sector. The public or private service company sub-contracts a portion of
its activities to a private company to undertake.
With this approach the public provider (government department or public enterprise) sets the performance
criteria for the activity, evaluates bidders, supervises the contractor(s), and pays an agreed fee for the services,
which may be based on a lump-sum, unit costs, or other basis.
To achieve greater efficiency gains from contracting-out, contracts should be awarded through competitive
tendering; private bids may even be compared against those of the public agency. Some countries retain a
force account capacity to compete with the private contractors, or to provide a residual means of performing
essential functions should the contractor fail, for example due to a labour dispute. However, since public
agencies normally have poor cost accounting which renders it difficult to compare their service costs to those
of an outside contractor, it is important that competition for contracts between the force account and private
contractors be based on a full and comparable assessment of costs.
Almost all core and non-core activities of a water and wastewater service utility, whether it is publicly or
privately owned, are suited to out-sourcing through service contracts. It is a key management decision as to
how many of the activities should actually be out-source. Indeed, each organisation should check whether it
has specialised staff who could themselves compete for service contracts from other entities to the commercial
benefit of their own organisation.
The service contracts are generally of short duration i.e. from 1 to 5 years.
Advantages Disadvantages
The service contracts are beneficial when a readily
identifiable package of work can be specified and
performance criteria set. This can then be allocated
through competitive bidding and executed at a lower
cost than would otherwise have been possible, had the
work been carried out to the staff of the organisation.
The organisation letting the contract retains:
- full responsibility for the performance of the company
with respect to regulatory requirements
- the responsibility for providing investment and working
capital

- liability for any commercial risks involved.
Service contracts are useful where external companies
have specialist staff and equipment to undertake
particular activities for which investment by the
organisation would not be economically feasible.
A clear specification for the work to be done must be
prepared and performance criteria defined.
C6. Privatisation
Characteristics
The term privatisation is often misused in the context of the provision of water and wastewater services, being
used to describe any form of participation of the private sector. However, in order to avoid confusion with
other forms of private sector participation, privatisation should be strictly used only when the assets of the
company are sold to the private sector either through a private sale or a public offer of shares.
The water industry of England and Wales was privatised through a flotation, i.e. shares in the 10 companies,
all of which are responsible for provision of a full water and wastewater service, were offered for sale to the
general public and institutional investors in December 1989, following which they were quoted on the London
Stock Exchange where shares in the companies have been freely traded ever since.
On balance, privatisation of the water industry of England and Wales has been beneficial. The credit for this is
due in great part to the effectiveness of the Office of the Water Regulator, OFWAT, which regulates prices
and levels of services and monitors compliance. It is unlikely that the Government would have been able to
increase capital investment in the sector, and hence the Public Sector Borrowing Requirement, to the level
which compliance with EU Directives has required. The privatised companies have been able to do this
through increases in charges which would have rendered a Government unpopular, had they the will to do it.
The efficiency of operation of the privatised companies has been raised considerably by the introduction and
development of modern, industrial management practices and systems. The technical and financial
performance of the companies is totally transparent, through the public reporting procedures demanded by
OFWAT.
There have been a number of negative effects. It is difficult to place a high enough value on water and
wastewater infrastructure assets which fully compensates the taxpayers who over the years have paid for them
and remain attractive to investors. The perception of the majority of the public is that the shares were sold at
too low a price originally. The water companies have been pressured into ventures outside their core business
by needing to appear an attractive investment. They have generally not been as successful outside their core
business as they have within it. Outside of any control, the public perception of the remuneration packages of
senior personnel has been viewed as excessive, particularly as management of virtual monopolies cannot be
compared with that of risk-taking industry subject to the vagaries of market forces.
Most countries would like to achieve the improvements in efficiency and the level of investment that has been
achieved through privatisation in England and Wales but without sale of the assets. In order to do this, a
number have either adopted, or are considering, the granting of long term concessions as described in Section
C3.
The European Water Pollution Control Association e.V.

European Environment Agency