Rankine Cycle

The Rankine Cycle is fundamental of Thermodynamic underpinning of steam engine. The Rankine Cycle
is a cycle that converts heat into a work. The heat is supplied externally to a closed loop which usually
uses water. This cycle generates about 90% of all electric power used throughout the world. It is named
after William John Macquorn Rankine, a Scottish Polymath and Glasgow Universitys Professor.



The Rankine cycle most related with the description of process by which steam-operated heat engines
most commonly found in power generation plants generate power. The two most common heating
process used in these power plants are nuclear fission and the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal,
natural gas and oil. The Rankine cycle is sometimes referred to as a practical Carnot cycle because, when
an efficient turbine is used, the TS diagram begins to resemble the Carnot cycle. The main difference is
that heat addition (in the boiler) and rejection (in the condenser) are isobaric in the Rankine cycle and
isothermal in the theoretical Carnot cycle.
A pump is used to pressurize the working fluid received from the condenser as a liquid instead of as a gas.
All of the energy in pumping the working fluid through the complete cycle is lost, as is most of the energy
of vaporization of the working fluid in the boiler. The vaporization energy is rejected from the cycle
through the condenser. But pumping the working fluid through the cycle as a liquid requires a very small
fraction of the energy needed to transport it as compared to compressing the working fluid as a gas in a
compressor (as in the Carnot cycle).
The efficiency of a Rankine cycle is usually limited by the working fluid. Without the pressure reaching
super critical levels for the working fluid, the temperature range the cycle can operate over is quite
small,turbine entry temperatures are typically 565C (the creep limit of stainless steel) and condenser
temperatures are around 30C. This gives a theoretical Carnot cycle efficiency of about 63% compared
with an actual efficiency of 42% for a modern coal-fired power station. This low turbine entry
temperature (compared with a gas turbine) is why the Rankine cycle is often used as a bottoming cycle in
combined-cycle gas turbine power stations. One of the principal advantages the Rankine cycle holds over
others is that during the compression stage relatively little work is required to drive the pump, the
working fluid being in its liquid phase at this point

The Four Processes In the Rankine Cycle


Process 1-2: The working fluid is pumped from low to high pressure. As the fluid is a liquid at this stage
the pump requires little input energy.
Process 2-3: The high pressure liquid enters a boiler where it is heated at constant pressure by an external
heat source to become a dry saturated vapor. The input energy required can be easily
calculated using mollier diagram or h-s chart or enthalpy-entropy chart also known as steam
tables.


Process 3-4: The dry saturated vapor expands through a turbine, generating power. This decreases the
temperature and pressure of the vapor, and some condensation may occur. The output in this
process can be easily calculated using the Enthalpy-entropy chart or the steam tables.
Process 4-1: The wet vapor then enters a condenser where it is condensed at a constant pressure to
become a saturated liquid.
Noted : Processes 1-2 and 3-4 would be represented by vertical lines on the T-S diagram and more
closely resemble that of the Carnot cycle. The Rankine cycle shown here prevents the
vapor ending up in the superheat region after the expansion in the turbine which reduces the
energy removed by Rankine cycle 3 the condensers.

Equation of Rankine Cycle







Real Rankine Cycle ( non-ideal)

In a real power plant cycle (the name Rankine cycle used only for the ideal cycle), the compression by the
pump and the expansion in the turbine are not isentropic. In other words, these processes are non-
reversible and entropy is increased during the two processes. This somewhat increases the power
required by the pump and decreases the power generated by the turbine.

Rankine Cycle with Reheat

The purpose of a reheating cycle is to remove the moisture carried by the steam at the final stages of the
expansion process. In this variation, two turbines work in series. The first accepts vapor from the boiler
at high pressure. After the vapor has passed through the first turbine, it re-enters the boiler and is reheated
before passing through a second, lower-pressure, turbine.
There heat temperatures are very close or equal to the inlet temperatures, whereas the optimum reheat
pressure needed is Rankine cycle 5 only one fourth of the original boiler pressure. Among other
advantages, this prevents the vapor from condensing during its expansion and thereby damaging the
turbine blades, and improves the efficiency of the cycle, given that more of the heat flow into the cycle
occurs at higher temperature.



















Diesel Cycle

Diesel cycle is very similar to Otto cycle, most of diesel engines used in many applications such as four
strokes type engine which usually use in diesel engine. Diesel cycle is an application on internal
combustion engines where the explosion happens by the pressure not by the spark ( Otto Cycle ).
Then, Diesel cycle is the thermodynamic cycle which approximates the pressure and volume of
the combustion chamber of the diesel engine who invented by Rudolph Diesel in 1897.

Diesel Cycle Operations

Intake Stroke :



The intake stroke in a Diesel engine is used to draw in a new volume of charge air into the cylinder.
As the power generated in an dependent on the quantity of fuel burnt during combustion. Then, that in
turn is determined by the volume of air (oxygen) present, most diesel engines use turbocharges to
force air into the cylinder during the induction stroke. From theoretical perspective, each of the stroke
in the cycle complete at Top Dead Centre (TDC).



Compression Stroke :


The compression stroke begins as the inlet valve closes and the piston is driven upwards in the cylinder
bore by the momentum of the crankshaft and flywheel. The purposes of the compression stroke in a diesel
engine is to raise the temperature of the charge air to the point where fuel injected into the cylinder
spontaneously ignites.

Compression Ignition :


Compression ignition takes place when the fuel from the high pressure fuel injector spontaneously ignites
the cylinder. In the theoretical cycle, fuel is injected at TDC, but as there is a finite time for the fuel ignite
( ignition lag ) in practical engines, fuel is injected into the cylinder before the piston reaches TDC to
ensure the maximum power can be achieved.

Power Stroke :

The power stroke begins as the injected fuel spontaneously ignites with the air in the cylinder. As the
rapidly burning mixture attempts to expand within the cylinder walls, it generates a high pressure which
forces the piston down the cylinder bore. The linear motion of the piston is converted into rotary motion
through the crankshaft. The rotational energy is imparted as momentum to the flywheel which not only
provides power for the end use, but also overcomes the work of compression.

Exhaust Stroke :

The exhaust stroke is as critical to the smooth and efficient operation of the engine as that of induction.
As the name suggests, it's the stroke during which the gases formed during combustion are ejected from
the cylinder. This needs to be as complete a process as possible, as any remaining gases displace an
equivalent.
Diesel cycle diagrams :



At the start of the cycle, the cylinder contains a mass M of air at the pressure and volume indicated at
point 1. The piston is at its lowest position. It moves upward and the gas is compressed isentropic ally to
point 2. At this point, heat is added at constant pressure which raises the pressure to point 3. The high
pressure charge now expands isentropic ally, pushing the piston down on its expansion stroke to point 4
where the charge rejects heat at constant volume to the initial state, point 1.


The isothermal heat addition and rejection of the Carnot cycle are replaced by the constant volume
processes which are, theoretically more plausible, although in practice, even these processes are not
practicable.










Equation of Diesel Cycle :



















Otto Cycle

The Otto cycle is very similar to that of the Diesel cycle in that both of these are closed cycles commonly
used to model internal combustion engines. The difference between these two is that the Otto cycle is a
spark-ignition cycle while the Diesel cycle consists of a compression-ignition cycle. A spark-ignition
cycle is designed to use fuels that require a spark to begin combustion. When discussing engines, we must
consider both the mechanical operation of the machine as well as the thermodynamic processes that
enable the machine to produce useful work.

In 1862 a German engineer Nikolaus Augustus Otto began experimenting with different kinds of engines.
His first experiment was conducted on a 4-stroke engine. 10 years later he introduced to the world the
Otto engine. The 4-stroke engine consists of a 4-stroke cycle better known
as the Otto cycle.


Analysis of Otto Cycle

Each movement of the cylinder up or down the cylinder is one stroke of the four stroke combustion cycle
or Otto cycle. A single cycle requires two revolutions of the crankshaft to complete.

The four stroke cycle consists of :

a) Induction of stroke
b) Compression stroke
c) Ignition /power stroke
d) Exhaust stroke




The Otto cycle is very similar to that of the Diesel cycle in that both of these are closed cycles
commonly used to model internal combustion engines. The difference between these two is that the Otto
cycle is a spark-ignition cycle while the Diesel cycle consists of a compression-ignition cycle. A spark-
ignition cycle is designed to use fuels that require a spark to begin combustion. When discussing
engines, we must consider both the mechanical operation of the machine as well as the thermodynamic
processes that enable the machine to produce useful work.

Otto Engine



The Otto engine consists of many parts and each part is essential for the four-stroke cycle to occur. The
main parts of a four-stroke cycle engine are the intake valve, the exhaust valve, the piston, the piston
rings, the combustion chamber, the connection rod, the crankshaft, and the spark plug. These parts play an
important role in the operation of this engine.





Mechanical Operation of Otto Cycle



1. An intake stroke happens at point a. The piston descends with one of the inlet valves open hence
receiving combustible mixture.
2. Both the valves are then closed and the compression on the gas from a to b is adiabatic. Both
the pressure and the temperature increase.
3. The ignition stroke happens at point b. The ignition stroke is actually started by a chemical
reaction or a spark which gives heat hence causing the pressure to increase at a constant volume
till point c. From c to d the process is an adiabatic expansion.
4. The exhaust stroke happens between points d and a. The piston ejects the burnt gas through an
open inlet valve. Note that the path daa is the actual exhaust and intake and is equivalent to
process da. The path dda is the possible additional expansion for work.







Otto Cycle Diagram

Stage 1:
It is the beginning of the INTAKE STROKE of the engine. The pressure is near atmospheric pressure
and the gas volume is at a minimum. Between Stage 1 and Stage 2 the piston is pulled out of the
cylinder with the intake valve open. The pressure remains constant, and the gas volume increases as
fuel/air mixture is drawn into the cylinder through the intake valve.
Stage 2 :
The COMPRESSION STROKE of the engine with the closing of the intake valve. Between Stage 2
and Stage 3, the piston moves back into the cylinder, the gas volume decreases, and the pressure
increases because WORK IS DONE on the gas by the piston.
Stage 3 :
The COMBUSTION of the fuel/air mixture where the combustion occurs very quickly and the
volume remains constant. HEAT is released during combustion which increases both the
TEMPERATURE and the pressure, according to the EQUATION OF STATE.





Stage 4 :
Now, begin the POWER STROKE of the engine. Between Stage 4 and Stage 5, the piston is driven
towards the crankshaft, the volume in increased, and the pressure falls as WORK IS DONE by the gas
on the piston.

Stage 5 :
Now the exhaust valve is opened and the residual heat in the gas is EXCHANGED with the
surroundings. The volume remains constant and the pressure adjusts back to atmospheric conditions.
Stage 6 :
At this point begins the EXHAUST STROKE of the engine during which the piston moves back into
the cylinder, the volume decreases and the pressure remains constant. At the end of the exhaust
stroke, conditions have returned to Stage 1 and the process repeats itself.

During the cycle, WORK is done on the gas by the piston between stages 2 and 3. Work is done by the
gas on the piston between stages 4 and 5. The difference between the work done by the gas and the work
done on the gas is the area enclosed by the cycle curve and is the work produced by the cycle. The work
times the rate of the cycle (cycles per second) is equal to the POWER produced by the engine. The area
enclosed by the cycle on a P-V DIAGRAM is proportional to the work produced by the cycle.

In reality, the ideal cycle does not occur and there are many losses associated with each process. These
losses are normally accounted for by efficiency factors which multiply and modify the ideal result. For a
real cycle, the shape of the p-V diagram is similar to the ideal, but the area (work) is always less than the
ideal value.




Equations of Otto Cycle












References :
1) Wiser, Wendell H. (2000). Energy resources: occurrence, production, conversion, use
(http:/ / books. google. com/books?id=UmMx9ixu90kC& pg=PA190& dq=electrical+
power+ generators+ steam+ percent& hl=en& ei=JppoTpVexNmBB4C72MkM&sa=X&
oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2& ved=0CDgQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&
q=steam& f=false). Birkhuser. p. 190.ISBN 978-0-387-98744-6.

2) Canada, Scott; G. Cohen, R. Cable, D. Brosseau, and H. Price (2004-10-25). "Parabolic
Trough Organic Rankine Cycle Solar Power Plant"
( http:/ / www. nrel. gov/ csp/ troughnet/ pdfs/ 37077. pdf). 2004 DOE Solar Energy
Technologies (Denver, Colorado: US Department of Energy NREL).
Retrieved 2009-03-17.
3) Batton, Bill (2000-06-18). "Organic Rankine Cycle Engines for Solar Power" (http:/ /
www. nrel. gov/ csp/ troughnet/ pdfs/ batton_orc. pdf).
Solar 2000 conference. Barber-Nichols, Inc.. . Retrieved 2009-03-18.









UNIVERSITY KUALA LUMPUR
(MICET)

CLB 20403
THERMODYNAMICS

MINI PROJECT

RANKINE CYCLE
DIESEL CYCLE
OTTO CYCLE

MOHAMMAD SYAFIQ BIN SAMAD 55247113722

GROUP : BBET 2014

LECTURER : MDM. SHARIFAH MARIAM