Govt E-1897 Fall 2013

Prof Sergio Imparato

Midterm Essay Answer # 1
Farhana R. Khan

1

Midterm Essay Answer 1:
Trying to understand early American foreign policy from 1789-1861 is an important and interesting
endeavor. Especially to try to grasp the factors (both domestic and international) that determined
foreign policy in the early days, the significance and relative importance of those factors and to see
whether those factors are still at work in shaping American foreign policy even today.
The strain of non-interventionism was strongest in that period of American foreign policy from 1789-
1861 (from Americas beginnings to the outbreak of the Civil War) but it would be erroneous to say that
American foreign policy was completely isolationist during that period. Americas earliest foreign policy
was one of neutrality, as reflected in statements of George Washington and other presidents. The
nascent nation chose to stay out of the battles of the European states, due to Americas commercial
interests and also due to focus efforts on building up America domestically, making use of abundant
natural resources and vast landscape and an inward looking posture. Yet any efforts to disrupt the
European balance of powers would cause intervention on Americas part. This makes pragmatic sense
given Americas age as a nation at that time as well as the early founders bitter experiences with the
European system of government and constant squabbles/bickering among the states. This might also be
another reason why Americans came to see themselves and their policies, including the foreign policy
tradition as unique or exceptional with democracy as the new system of government and values,
culture, principles that were a departure from the European tradition. Detachment from the European
balance of power was one of Americas very founding principles.
The reluctance which is a characteristic tradition in American foreign policy was evident from the outset.
One interpretation of American foreign policy in the early days was that it was isolationist between
1789 and 1861 (the outbreak of the Civil War), American was becoming increasingly isolationist. There
has been a constant tension in America between universalism versus individualism, liberty versus
destiny since the early days. Yet it is hard to say that American foreign policy was completely isolationist
during that period. It is a worthwhile endeavor to try to dissect the factors which shaped American
foreign policy during 1789-1861 both domestic and international factors. Some might argue that
except for westward expansion, the United States essentially had no foreign policy from the
proclamation of the Monroe Doctrine in 1823 until McKinleys war with Spain (1898) (pp 62, Mead).
This school of thought argues that Americas traditional isolation was the result of the weakness of the
United States [in those early days], the power and presence of the British navy and the underdeveloped
state of technology in the nineteenth century (pp 63, Mead). Mead (pp 80) shares an argument about
how the history of American foreign policy can be divided into four eras based on *Americas+ changing
relationship to Great Britain and the emerging global order. Mead identifies (pp 80) that the first era
lasted from 1776 to 1823 this era saw the US win political independence from the British Empire and
America then immediately began to work out the question of its relations with the British economic
system and imperial power. Mead perspicaciously explains (pp 81) how America had to grapple with
questions such as: was the US better off undermining Britain by forming alliances with strong
Continental powers, or was it wiser policy to side with British attempts to maintain a balance of power
in Europe? Thus American policy makers and leaders in that first era of American foreign policy faced
such crucial questions.
Govt E-1897 Fall 2013
Prof Sergio Imparato
Midterm Essay Answer # 1
Farhana R. Khan

2

Firstly, the point in time and age of America as an independent nation during that period of 1789-1861
was a factor shaping Americas foreign policy as well as the circumstances that led to the creation of the
US. In the backdrop of the American War of Revolution, America emerged on the map as a new nation
with a unique and interesting set of values and principles that were different from those of Europe,
particularly Great Britain, from which America broke away to emerge as a separate entity. It made
pragmatic sense for America as a new nation to focus most efforts on nation building and to maintain a
position of neutrality and non-interventionism yet also threatening to take action if any European states
made any efforts to attack or colonize America. America relied largely on the balance of power in
Europe to maintain geopolitical and global stability. The unique circumstances that led to Americas
birth the injustices suffered at the hands of the British - and Americas bitter experiences with Britain
both before and during the American Revolution- might have helped to give rise to an American sense of
exceptionalism in its culture, values and even foreign policy. America had a different and even unique
set of principles and system of government from the European states from which America wanted to
break away. America wanted to break away from the warring states of Europe and might have felt
threatened by some European states such as France and Great Britain in the early days and this sense of
skepticism and isolation might have helped shape American foreign policy during that period. For
example: the relative size of Great Britains navy might have helped to induce the US to build up a
bigger navy in an effort to build up more sea power and to help maintain the European balance of
power and respond adequately to external threats, should there be any. America probably felt
constantly threatened by Great Britain, especially due to the power of the British navy and relied on the
European balance of powers to maintain security and stability, while at the same time, focusing on
efforts internally to build up American economic prosperity and wealth and military capabilities and
naval power and technology.
Americas foreign policy stance of neutrality with strong undercurrents of isolation and non-
interventionism might have been aided by the fact that America was a nascent nation that was also
physically separated from most other states and especially physically distant from the squabbling states
of Europe. This brings to light the role of geography as an important factor shaping Americas foreign
policy during that period (1789-1861). Americas location, geographical separation from most major
countries (almost the rest of the world), vastness and abundance of natural resources gives credence to
the geographic determinism argument as factors shaping American foreign policy during 1789-1861.
However it might be somewhat farcical to say, as Whitcomb does, that America is an isolated country.
Because Americas early entanglements with foreign nations such as the 1812 War against Britain, early
wars against Mexico and Spain provided evidence that America was clearly not completely isolated from
the rest of the world and that engagements and interventions even wars were sometimes necessary,
even in those early days since America was founded.
The argument that a countrys foreign policy is largely influenced by domestic factors such as the
domestic socioeconomic conditions and preferences holds relevance when thinking about American
foreign policy during 1789-1861 especially given that America was a democracy right from inception.
Domestic priorities such as nation building took over and Americas focus was mostly internal. Which
makes most sense for a nascent nation as America was, during an early period in its history such as the
years during 1789-1861. Internal politics, leanings of statesmen, public opinion and preferences in
Govt E-1897 Fall 2013
Prof Sergio Imparato
Midterm Essay Answer # 1
Farhana R. Khan

3

America at that time as a nascent democracy were somewhat reflected in foreign policy stances
undertaken during 1789-1861.Americans placed value on hard work a culture of democracy and
meritocracy grew up. Yet America engaged even militarily in those early days, as seen in the wars
against Britain, Mexico and Spain, when faced with threats to important issues such as Americas honor
at sea, territory, trade and the fear of colonization by other countries especially European ones.
Expansion into vast new land within America was seen as "Manifest Destiny by some into new lands that
would be occupied by farmers and planters and America also worked to build up naval and military
capabilities. For example: Americas war against Spain in 1898 proved the opening of a fifty-year window
during which the US's reach would expand throughout the world. In the international self-help system
of states, a traditional realist would argue, America would want to ensure security and prevent
colonization even though most of its efforts were focused internally on nation building and military and
naval expansion.
In addition to the factors elucidated above, domestic factors such as early political
stances/maneuvers/ideas of great leaders and statesmen determined how the foreign policy was
formulated during that period. Historical documents such as speeches by leading statesmen of that time
and formal political declarations/statements offer an insight into the political acumen of early American
leaders as well as their political stances and thoughts as espoused in public. For example: Washingtons
Farewell Address of 1796 (Source: Yale Law School online documents) was a key document that is worth
careful dissection. Washington states very pragmatically, The great rule of conduct for us in regard to
foreign nations is in extending our commercial relations, to have with them as little political connection
as possible. So far as we have already formed engagements, let them be fulfilled with perfect good faith.
Here let us stop. Europe has a set of primary interests which to us have none; or a very remote relation.
Hence she must be engaged in frequent controversies, the causes of which are essentially foreign to our
concerns. Hence, therefore, it must be unwise in us to implicate ourselves by artificial ties in the
ordinary vicissitudes of her politics, or the ordinary combinations, of her friendships or enmities.
Washington continues in his famous Farewell Address: Our detached and distant situation invites and
enables is to pursue a different course. If we remain one people under an efficient government, the
period is not far off when we may defy material injury from external annoyance; when we may take
such an attitude as will cause the neutrality we may at any time resolve upon to be scrupulously
respected; when belligerent nation, under the impossibility of making acquisitions upon us, will not
lightly hazard the giving us provocation; when we may choose peace or war, as our interest, guided by
justice, shall counsel. Washington further continues: Why quit our own to stand upon foreign land?
Why, by interweaving our destiny with that of any part of Europe, entangle our peace and prosperity in
the toils of European ambition, rivalship, interest, humor or caprice?
This is a key document in which Washington expresses the preference of the American public as well as
politicians to steer clear from the business of the European states which were constantly squabbling
among themselves, unless threatened explicitly. Another key paragraph in Washingtons Farewell
Address provides stronger evidence in support of such a stance in American foreign policy in those early
days: It is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world; so
far, I mean, as we are now at liberty to do it; for let me not be understood as capable of patronizing
fidelity to existing engagements. I hold the maxim..that honesty is the best policy..But in my
Govt E-1897 Fall 2013
Prof Sergio Imparato
Midterm Essay Answer # 1
Farhana R. Khan

4

opinion, it is unnecessary and would be unwise to extend themwe may safely trust to temporary
alliances for extraordinary emergencies. Hence, Washington expresses unequivocally the sentiment,
which was shared by many of the American public and statesmen of that time, that it would be unwise
to extend foreign engagements and entanglements unless in the case of emergencies in which case,
temporary alliances could be formed.
Similarly, John Quincy Adamss speech also offers insights into how the political leanings and strategy of
statesmen during that period helped shape Americas foreign policy during 1789-861. Quincy Adams,
speaking of America, states: but she does not go abroad, in search of monsters to destroy. The speech
continues: .She well knows that by once enlisting under other banners than her own, were they
even the banners of foreign independence, she would involve herself beyond the power of extrication,
in all the wars of interest and intrigue, of individual avarice, envy, and ambition, which assume the
colors and usurp the standard of freedom. The fundamental maxims of her policy would insensibly
change from liberty to force.... She might become the dictatress of the world. She would be no longer
the ruler of her own spirit.... [America's] glory is not dominion, but liberty. Her march is the march of the
mind. She has a spear and a shield: but the motto upon her shield is, Freedom, Independence, Peace.
This has been her Declaration: this has been, as far as her necessary intercourse with the rest of
mankind would permit, her practice (Source: https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/jqadams.html).
The Monroe Doctrine of 1823 is another important historical piece which helps us understand how
domestic politics and preferences and political strategy/acumen of early American leaders of that period
helped shape American foreign policy. The Monroe Doctrine was drafted by Secretary of State John
Quincy Adams in collaboration with others. He asserted the Americas should be free from additional
European colonization and free from European interference in sovereign countries' affairs. It became a
long standing idea/notion that is invoked even today in American foreign policy. It stated that efforts by
European nations to colonize or intervene in states in North or South America would be viewed as acts
of aggression and would be met with intervention on the part of the US. This was an important strategic
stance on the part of the US. This unequivocally stated the United States' intention to stay neutral in
wars between European powers and their colonies but to consider any new colonies or interference
with independent countries in the Americas as hostile acts towards the United States. No new colonies
were ever formed within or in the near vicinity of the US by the European states. However when
attempting to dissect the Monroe Doctrine, as Mead writes, the Monroe Doctrine can be seen as both
somewhat isolationist yet also anti-isolationist (pp 81, Mead). Mead states that it (Monroe Doctrine)
amounted to the recognition that America relied safely on the balance of power in Europe. For
example: Mead cites the examples of how the strategic principles of Monroes Doctrine have been
implemented to this day : American intervention during the world wars as well as the Cold War were not
a departure from the Doctrine Mead argues that those were examples of Monroes thinking as
manifested in the Doctrine (pp 81, Mead). Lippman wrote that the Monroe Doctrine was not
isolationist: it was a tacit argument between the United States and Great Britain to maintain the balance
of power (pp 62, Mead). Walter Russell Mead argues that a second era in American foreign policy lasted
from 1823 through 1914 (pp 82, Mead). Mead argues that during this period, the United States existed
in a British-centered global order. And apparently America concentrated on getting the best deal for
itself within the British system, while staying on guard against the danger that Britain might be tempted
Govt E-1897 Fall 2013
Prof Sergio Imparato
Midterm Essay Answer # 1
Farhana R. Khan

5

by its strength to crush or divide it.The United States believed that over time American power and
influence within the British system would grow and looked forward to the day when it would surpass
Great Briatin as what today is called a global superpower (pp 82, Mead). Mead calls it an uneasy
balance between the two countries in that period.
The impact of some international factors such as international politics of that time period (1789-1861),
the existing world order and actions by states such as Great Britain, France and Mexico could be better
understood in light of the American political stance towards foreign nations and foreign policy
(neutrality, strong overtones of isolationism and non-interventionism unless threatened, commercial
entanglements due to foreign trade) as expressed in Washingtons Farewell Address, John Quincy
Adams statement and key American political doctrines of that period such as the Monroe Doctrine. For
example: when the French Revolution led to war in 1793 between Britain (America's leading trading
partner), and France (the old ally, with a treaty still in effect), Washington decided on a policy of
neutrality. However when Britain started threatening Americas honor at sea by absorbing American
soldiers into the British Navy and hurt Americas trade/commercial interests by imposing trade
restrictions on American during Great Britains war with France and threatened American interests by
supporting Indians against American expansion within the country, America declared war against Britain
in 1812. The US tried to export food and raw materials to France and Great Britain when the latter two
were engaged in war in the early 1800s but when Britain interfered in US trade and even tried to
impress American sailors into the British navy. America responded by declaring this war. The US made
key victories against the US during this 32 month conflict but the war had eventually reached a
stalemate and led to peace negotiations that ended with the adoption of the Treaty of Ghent. Another
Treaty was formulated in 1818 to resolve boundary disputes between the US and Great Britain.
Another example of stepping away from Americas espoused policy of detachment from the European
states occurred when America purchased Louisiana in 1803 removed the presence of the French.
Another example of how international factors caused a departure from Americas usual position of
detachment, neutrality and isolationism in that period of 1789-861 was when revolutionary France
became engulfed in war with the rest of Europe and foreign policy unexpectedly took center stage in
America starting in 1793. France claimed that its 1778 alliance with the US meant that the latter was
bound to come to their aid. However, the Washington administration expressed a policy of neutrality
which was widely supported, but proponents of the Jeffersonian school of foreign policy strongly
favored France and deeply distrusted the British, who they saw as enemies of Republicanism. However
Hamilton and the business community favored Britain, which was by far America's largest trading
partner. The Jay Treaty was adopted in 1794, which opened up 10 years of prosperous trade in exchange
for which Britain would remove troops from the Canadian border.
The different foreign policy traditions that gained prominence in the history of American foreign policy
could be seen as another important domestic factor shaping foreign policy as those were deeply rooted
paradigms which represented economic, social and class interests (pp 87, Mead) the Hamiltonian and
Jacksonian schools seem to correspond best to that period of American foreign policy (1789-1861) but
Jeffersonianism also seems highly relevant and applicable. The Hamiltonian tradition of foreign policy as
traditional realists, argued that commercial interests should be the most important considerations in
Govt E-1897 Fall 2013
Prof Sergio Imparato
Midterm Essay Answer # 1
Farhana R. Khan

6

foreign policy matters the idea that America should become the strongest economic order in the world
and help to build a global order of trade. A second paradigm of foreign policy, Jacksonianism argued that
Americans should not bother with other states unless bothered however if threatened or bothered,
America should respond in an incomparable way. On the other hand, Jeffersonian school of thought in
foreign policy represented a form of passive liberalism the idea that America should stay as a City on
a Hill and act as a model yet should not export its values abroad entanglement might ruin the
perfection of American democracy. Thus, Jeffersonianism expressed strong overtones of American
detachment and exceptionionalism (Mead). Hamiltonians generally supported cooperation with Britain
(due to commercial interests) and strongly backed the idea that the United States should take up the
British burden after the British Empire fell (pp 87, Mead). The early Jeffersonians might have supported
detachment from Great Britain because that school tended to look for the least costly and dangerous
methods of defending American independence (pp 88, Mead). The Jeffersonian school tended to see
the preservation of American democracy in a dangerous world as the most pressing and vital interest of
the American people (pp 87, Mead).These paradigms have influenced American foreign policy and were
drawn on, in response to historical, social and economic changes both within America and abroad,
during that period (1789-1861) as well as later, of course.
It can be argued that American foreign policy during 1789-1861were affected by factors such as
Americas military and navy capability in those days, especially in comparison to the European states and
existing powers such as Great Britain in those days. Americas navy was not that big in the very early
days, when compared to that of Great Britain. A US naval officer who proved to be a key American
strategist in that early period, Thomas Mahan coined the concept of sea power the idea that nations
with greater naval power will have the greatest worldwide impact (Mahan 1890, The Influence of Sea
Power Upon History 1160-1783). Such concepts wielded lots of influence on American military strategy
in those days and helped to build up the US Navy because naval capabilities of a nascent and
burgeoning America would equal military power which could be used to ward off and fight threats to
American national interests, territory and existence especially those put up by European states and
neighboring entities such as Canada and Mexico. America participated in the worldwide naval arms race
that occurred in the 1890s.
The American military and navy continued to grow and plan strategically and contingency plans were
developed (some of which were spearheaded by Mahan), in case war broke out again between the US
and Great Britain. The US expanded very quickly during this period (1789-1861) from an agrarian
country to an industrial country and many nation building projects were undertaken such as the building
of railroads, banks, public school systems, telegraph networks. The US focused mostly on internal
matters after the War of 1812 other than building up its military capabilities (army and navy) moving
further out west, only seeking to expand further in the continent this could be seen as a result of the
Manifest Destiny sentiment in American foreign policy the idea that America wanted to expand
further and acquire new territory grew up in that time period too and influenced American foreign
policy. Manifest Destiny was also used by some to justify the US war against Mexico and acquisition of
new territory such as Texas and California. America again declared war in 1846 this time against
Mexico after annexing Texas. The American army defeated the Mexicans and got hold of New Mexico
and California too; that war ended in 1848. The Civil War began in 1861 and America fought within its
Govt E-1897 Fall 2013
Prof Sergio Imparato
Midterm Essay Answer # 1
Farhana R. Khan

7

borders using military technology and plenty of soldiers and caused lots of death and destruction in the
country.

Hence, to conclude: U.S. foreign policy reflected a regional focus instead of a global one, from its
inception except for entanglements such as the 1812 War against Britain (which was waged when
American interests were threatened), the war against Mexico declared in 1846 (to acquire new territory
that was contested by Mexico) and efforts to expand American territory and interests abroad, all of
which made practical sense for a new nation. There was a strong inclination towards non-
interventionism; however America did focus on building up military and navy capabilities and waged war
against Great Britain, Mexico and Spain when America felt that important things such as honor at sea
and foreign trade interests (with Great Britain), territory (the case of California and Texas as far as
Mexico was concerned) were threatened and came up with spectacular and triumphant military draws
(several single battle victories against Great Britain in the War of 1812) or triumphant victories (against
Mexico in the 1846-48 war) in those wars. Several important domestic and international factors that
helped shape American foreign policy during that early period (1789-1861) have been identified in the
course of this essay above; however it is difficult to identify which of those were most important I
would like to conclude that an amalgam of those factors worked in tandem to produce the foreign policy
that we saw in American history during 1789-1861 (from inception to the outbreak of the Civil War).
American foreign policy during 1789-1861 and the factors that determined it, helped to set the
ground/milieu for more important foreign policy measures in the years to come, such as entanglement
in the Spanish American War of 1898 and the subsequent victory which was crucial, along with other
factors and issues, to seal Americas position in the world as a Great Power in the coming years and
decades. Americas war against Spain in 1898 proved the opening of a fifty-year window during which
the US's reach would expand throughout the world. However, Americas rise from a weak confederacy
to a world power was rapid (pp 57, Mead).
[Word count = 4116 in the body of the answer excluding references]
Sources:
Mead, Walter Russell: Special Providence: American Foreign Policy and How It Changed the
World, Routledge Great Britain 2002
Whitcomb, Roger: The American Approach to Foreign Affairs: An Uncertain Tradition, Ch. 1,
pp. 7-32. Praeger, 1998.
Zakaria, Fareed: From Wealth to Power: The Unusual Origins of Americas World Role, pp. 154-
180, Princeton University Press, 1998
Morgenthau, Hans: The Mainsprings of American Foreign Policy: The National Interest VS.
Moral Abstractions, The American Political Science Review, No. 4, Vol. XLIV, December 1950
Washingtons Farewell Address, 1796 obtained at:
http://avalon.law.yale.edu/18th_century/washing.asp
John Quincy Adamss Warning Against the Search for Monsters to Destroy, 1821 obtained
at: https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/jqadams.htm
Govt E-1897 Fall 2013
Prof Sergio Imparato
Midterm Essay Answer # 1
Farhana R. Khan

8