Materi Kuliah Intro to Linguistics

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Koesnandar/0923385P1, STKIP PGRI Sidoarjo
Linguistics:
I. Phonology
a. Phonetics
b. Phonemics
II. Morphology
a. Morphs/Morpheme > Morphemics
b. Words (Formation & Construction)
III. Syntax > Sentence
IV. Semantics > meaning(s)
V. Applied Linguistics
a. Error Analysis
b. Discourse
c. Constrastive
d. Sociolinguistics
Linguistics is a science which studies about language.
Phonology (sound) is a branch of linguistics which studies about sound.
Phonetics is a branch of phonology which studies about :
how to produce sound
how to pronounce sound
Phonemics is a branch of phonology which studies about how to use the sounds.
Morphology is a branch of linguistics which studies Morphs/Morphemes and words.
Syntax is a branch of linguistics which studies about sentence.
Semantics is a branch of linguistics which studies about meaning in a language.
Linguistics
1. Definition
a. Linguistics is a science which studies about language
b. language, linguist, native speaker
c. branch of linguistics
d. elements of language
e. characteristics of language
f. language is arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which people in a society can :
communicate
co-operate and
interact (one to each others)
2. Grammar
a. traditional grammar
b. structural grammar of modern grammar
c. transformational grammar
3. Three diagram
4. Ambiguity (ambigius sentence)
5. Syntactic structures
6. Dialects and vernacular
7. Some terms
a. synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics
b. immediate constituentis
c. EFL : TEFL
d. ESL : TESL
e. FLA : SLA
Speech sounds are sounds which are produced by the human vocal organs of speech.
Elements of language:
1. sounds > phonology
2. grammar > rules patterns > morphology & syntax
3. meaning > vocab > semantics
Characteristics of language:
1. sounds (vocab)
Language is sounds basically
The IL-ilterate people : can speak, cant write
2. arbitrary
The native speaker of the language agree to accept them (terms/symbols/meaning)
3. conventional/agreement
There is no reason, but agreement.
4. systematic
with limited (finite) rule can produce unlimited (infinite) number of sentences
ex. S + V + O + Adv
I saw him
He has bought a book
5. a system of systems
rule > sounds
rule > morphemes/words
rule > phrases
rule > clauses
rule > sentences
rule > paragraphs
rule > . (story)
ex. My twin beautiful sisters Elly and Emy work at the same office in the center of the city.
My beautiful and younger sister studies English in the USA.
6. creative/productive
can express, everything
can be used to express many ideas
can say about future
can tell something that doesnt exist yet
can produce unlimited sentences
7. a social phenomenon
8. meaningful
lexical, structural, cultural (overall)
9. habit/recursion
daily use
daily spoken
trained
drilled
10. unique
11 social behaviour (social phenomenom)
language is used by society
12. relative (equally complex)
There are no languages which are better than others.
Each language is good for its own society (native speakers)
GRAMMAR
1. Traditional Grammar / school grammar
2. Structural Grammar / modern grammar
3. Transformational Grammar
4. Transformational Generative Grammar
Traditional Grammar : (base of Latin)
It has weakness:
1. not consistent
e.g. the definition of noun (part of speech) is the name of a person, place, thing, animal.
Adjective is a word that modifies a noun (function)
- The pretty girl (adjective)
- I met the pretty walking alone at night (noun)
2. the sentence analysis does not given one any better idea of sentence structure
- subject is the doer of an action
- object is the receiver of an action
ex. Devi sweeps the floor (the doer)
The floor is swept by Devi (the receiver)
3. normative / prescriptive (not descriptive)
- how language must be used
not how language is actually used
shall > 1st person
will > 2nd, 3rd person
Structural Grammar
Structural: is a term in linguistics referring to the analysis of language.
Linguistics features can be described in terms of structural and system (rules).
Structure :
Surface structure > Performance
Deep structure > Competence
Transformational Grammar
1. Surface structure
e.g. Mother went to Surabaya
Mother bought pizza
2. Deep structure
e.g. Pizza was bought by mother
Transformational Generative Grammar
- active passive
- relative pronouns
- clause(s)
I give my mother flowers
My mother is given flowers by me
Flowers are given to my mother by me
AMBIGUOUS SENTENCE
Is a sentence which have more than one meaning.
Ship sails today :
The ship (N/S) sails (V) today. (statement)
Ship (V) the sails (N) today. (order)
John likes kissing girls :
John likes / kissing girls (the doer of kissing is the girls)
John likes kissing / girls (the doer of kissing is John)
Love blossoms in spring :
Love (V) the blossoms (N) in spring
The love (N) blossoms (V) in spring
STRUCTURE OF MODIFICATION
has two complements : Head and Modifier
Bus station
(N) (N)
M > H
M=Modifier
H=Head
Beautiful girl
(Adj) (N)
M -> H
Walked Quickly
(V) (Adv)
H < M
STRUCTURE OF PREDICATION
has two complements : Subject and Predicate
I went
(S) (V)
M > H
STRUCTURE OF COMPLEMENTATION
has two complements : P.V Aux and O/ complement
buy flowers
(V)
STRUCTURE OF COORDINATION
the condition of the element:
balanced > N-N, V-V, Adj-Adj, Adv-Adv
conjuction > but, and, or, with
White or black
(N) (N)
Small but strong
(Adj) (Adj)
DIALECT
Is the variety of language spokenby numbers of single homogeneous speech community.
A language is a collection of dialects spoken by the members of different speech communities.
Vernacular is a language, (specific) language spoken by a ethnic group.
Kinds of Dialects:
1. Regional Dialect is the dialect spoken in speech communities occupying different parts of general
territory of a language.
2. Class (social) Dialect is the dialect spoken by different social groups within the some region.
3. Prestige Dialect is the dialect admired and emulated by the speakers of others dialect(s).
4. Standart Dialect is the dialect generally admitted by the majority of speakers to be superior to all
the other dialect in its language.
Synchronic linguistics:
a term used in other fields such as anthropology, means dealing with the state of affairs at a given
points of time.
Diachronic linguistics:
is used in other sciences, mean dealing with changes that occur in time.
TREE DIAGRAM
T. Rules : Transformational Rules
PS. Rules : Phrase Structure Rules
S (Sentence) > NP + VP
NP > Det(ermine) + N
VP > Verb + NP
Aux + Verb
Aux + Adjective
PP > Preposition Phrase
Adj. P > Adjective Phrase
Adv. P > Determiner + NP (Noun Phrase)
Adv. P > Adv. time
place
manner
The girl will write a letter.
| | | | | |
Det N Aux Main-V Det N
|____| |______| |____|
| | |
| V NP
| |___________|
| |
NP VP
|________________|
|
S
I met a beautiful girl in the campus
| | | | | | | |
| | | Adj N | D N
| | | |_________| | |_________|
| | | | | |
| | D NP Prepo NP
| | |____________| |__________|
| | | |
| | NP PP
| | |________________________|
| | |
N V NP
| |______________________|
| |
NP VP
|________________|
|
S
The house which was old fell down
| | | |
| | The house was old | |
| | | | | | | |
| | D N be Adj | |
| | |______| |_____| | |
| | | | | |
D N NP3 VP | |
|________| |____________| | |
| | | |
NP2 S2 V Adv
|__________________| |_______|
| |
NP1 VP1
|______________________________|
|
S1
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Hand Out
Bahasa Inggris
Introduction to Linguistics



Fakultas Sastra Jurusan Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris
Universitas Al-Ghifari













Language and Linguistics

Language and Linguistics:
1. Definition Linguistics is a science which studies about language
Ilmu murni dalam Linguistik:
I. Phonology
a. Phonetics
b. Phonemics
II. Morphology
a. Morphs/Morpheme > Morphemics
b. Words (Formation & Construction)
III. Syntax > Sentence
IV. Semantics > meaning(s)

2. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
Ronald Wardhaugh (1972:3)

Stated that based on the definition the key term in the above definition is system. Each
language contains two systems: a system of sounds and a system of meaning.
Beside system, it is also said that language is arbitrary. It means that we cannot predict
exactly which specific features we will find in a particular language if we are unfamiliar with that
language or with a related language.
The term vocal refers to the fact that the primary medium of language is sound, and it is
sound for all languages, no matter how well developed are the writing systems.
The term symbol refers to the fact that there is no connection between the sounds that
people use and the objects to which those sounds refer.
Human language is related to the term communication. It means that language is used for
communication. Kiat Boey Lim (1975:1) also agrees that language is used for communication, and it is
made up of sounds. He also add another feature of human language: productive or creative: refers to
the ability of native speakers to understand and produce any number of sentences (even though those
which they have never heard before) in their mother tongue.
The other way to communicate is using gesture. The role of gesture is less obvious. Among the
deaf, of course, it may replace speech as the principle form of communication; but for most people it is
an important supplement to speech. The term gesture includes all human communication that involves
waving of the hands, facial signals, grunts, and other vocalizations that do not make up words. The
gesture is frequently called body language. Gesture could be various manipulations of the environment
that have communicative intent such as smoke signals. Gesture was basic to the development of human
communication and that it is still much used.

Language appears because of ??????
1. Social pressure theory (Adam Smith-1900)
2. Language appears because every items is sounded
3. Language appears because of heart pressure
4. Every human has feeling (Marks Muller)

Speech sounds are sounds which are produced by the human vocal organs of speech.
Elements of language:
1. sounds > phonology
2. Grammar > rules patterns > morphology & syntax
3. Meaning > vocabulary > semantics





Characteristics of language:
1. sounds (vocal)
Language is sounds basically
2. arbitrary
The native speaker of the language agree to accept them (terms/symbols/meaning)

3. conventional/agreement
There is no reason, but agreement.

4. systematic
with limited (finite) rule can produce unlimited (infinite) number of sentences
ex. S + V + O + Adv
I saw him
He has bought a book

5. a system of systems
rule > sounds
rule > morphemes/words
rule > phrases
rule > clauses
rule > sentences
rule > paragraphs
rule > . (story)
ex. My twin beautiful sisters Elly and Emy work at the same office in the center of the city.
My beautiful and younger sister studies English in the USA.

6. creative/productive
can express, everything
can be used to express many ideas
can say about future
can tell something that doesnt exist yet
can produce unlimited sentences

7. a social phenomenon

8. meaningful
lexical, structural, cultural (overall)

9. habit/recursion
daily use
daily spoken
trained
drilled

10. Unique

11 social behaviour (social phenomenom)
language is used by society

12. relative (equally complex)
There are no languages which are better than others.
Each language is good for its own society (native speakers)







School of Linguistics

School of linguistics

A. Tradisional

Words are from Onomatopoetics: Tiruan Bunyi Alam
Word:
1. Root Creation
Direct sound Symbolism
Call and Cry: Bahasa berasal dari teriakan
Cratylus: /r/, /l/, /g/, /a/, /i, /o/, /n/, /m/ (Plato)

2. Root Modification
Clipping and Shortening
Philosophy basic is to shortening (menyederhanakan)
a. Aphesis : loosing front syllable
Example : defend fend
brandwine wine
history story
example sample

b. Apocope : loosing front-end syllable, and middle syllable
Example : magister master (mid)
market tengah (mid)
Influenza flu (front-end)

c. Syncope : loosing end syllable
Example : Photograph Photo

Blendings/ Blend
Philosophy basic is to two the opposite meaning and creates new meaning (between both)
Example:
1. Smoke (asap tipis) + Fog (asap tebal) = Smog (asap tidak tebal dan tidak tipis)
2. Breakfast (sarapan) + Lunch (makan siang) = Brunch (makan diantara sarapan dan makan siang)

Acronym
Philosophy basic is to menyingkat kata
Example:
1. movies (movement pictures)
2. OK (All Correct: pronunciation)

3. Two Grammatical Process
1. Combine two words creates one meaning called by compound
2. Derivational:
Example: geography, geology (geo has not meaning)












B. Structural

Appears in 19
th
century by Ferdinand de Saussure (Swiss).
According to Saussure the truth is not always be the truth, it depends on the agreement of each
communities

Language is as system of symbol.
Symbol consists of:
1. Signified / langue (kata/ucapan)
2. Signifier / Parole (konsep)
3. Structural Approach

This approach is closely related to the grammar-focused teaching. The Structuralists believed that
language is formed from the smallest units of its sound system. Leonard Bloomfield in his
book Language, published in 1933, he stated about structuralism. This model of grammar is still
influential and worthy of detailed comment. Structuralists began with the premise that each language
was unique and must be described in terms of its own individual patterning. Structuralism was text-
based and only interested in language that had actually occurred.

Structuralism focuses on the level of language that examines how words combine into larger
units. We shall study only three of these units the phrase, the clause and the sentence.
There are five commonly occurring types of phrase in English:
noun phrases: e.g. the little dog, a young woman, etc.; adjective phrases: e.g.
Extremely old, etc.; verb phrases: e.g. might be closed, etc.; adverb phrases: e.g. very hard, every
morning, etc.; preposition phrases: e.g. on foot, by plane, etc. They also study bigger units of words,
clauses and sentences. In the implications, teachers attempt to ask students analyze the combining
words.
For example:


C. Transformation

In the 1950s the school of linguistics thought known as transformational-generative grammar (TG)
received wide acclaim through the works of NoamChomsky. Chomsky postulated a syntactic base of
language (called deep structure), which consists of a series of phrase-structure rewrite rules, i.e., a
series of (possibly universal) rules that generates the underlying phrase-structure of a sentence, and a
series of rules (called transformations) that act upon the phrase-structure to form more complex
sentences. The end result of a transformational-generative grammar is a surface structure that, after the
addition of words and pronunciations, is identical to an actual sentence of a language. All languages
have the same deep structure, but they differ from each other in surface structure because of the
application of different rules for transformations, pronunciation, and word insertion. Another important
distinction made in transformational-generative grammar is the difference between language
competence (the subconscious control of a linguistic system) and language performance (the speaker's
actual use of language). Although the first work done in transformational-generative grammar was
syntactic, later studies have applied the theory to the phonological and semantic components of
language.






A TG model has four main characteristics:
It must attempt to make explicit and generate an infinite set of sentences.
For example, that we have the rules:
S NP + VP (sentence can be rewritten as noun phrase + verb phrase).
Since the model attempts to describe the ideal speaker-hearers linguistic knowledge and intuitions, it
must be explicit.
The model must have three components: a phonological component, a syntactic component and a
semantic component so that it parallels the speakers ability to associate noise and meaning.
It must be able to assign a structure to all sentences which would be accepted by a native speaker and
reject all sentences which would be rejected by a native speaker.

The example of transformation is as follow.




Other rule of transformation:
Statement is changed to negative and interrogative, question tag
Example:
1. I go to school I dont go to school
2. It is hot, isnt it?


























Language in Communication

Language in Communication

A general introduction to linguistics and the study of language, intended particularly for
beginning student and readers with no previous knowledge or training in the subject. There is first a
general account of the nature of language and of the aims, methods and basic principles of linguistics
theory.
Sir John Lyons is a fellow of British academy and an honorary member of linguistics society of
America. He then introduces in turn each the main sub fields of linguistics, the sounds of language,
grammar, semantics, language change, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, language and culture. One of
his many publications is Language and Linguistics, an Introduction (1995)
Throughout the book, he emphasizes particularly those aspects of the discipline that seem
fundamental and most likely to remain important. He stresses throughout the culture at least as much
as biological context of human language to communicate each others, and show how the linguists
concern connects productively with those of the traditional humanities the social science.

Communication terminologies:
1. Signal
2. Sender
3. Receiver
4. Transmission

Step of communication:
Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics
There is communication if there is meaning (semantics)

According to John Lyon
1. A signal called communicative if the sender wants the receiver aware of what he/she receives.
2. A signal called informative if the sender doesnt need the receiver aware of what he/she receives.


























Dichotomy in Language

Dichotomy in Language

1. Fisis Versus Nomos (Naturalis Vs Konversi)
Physis has two principal meanings. It can refer to the cosmic order as a whole, or to the
prime constituent(s) of that order: in these contexts it can often be translated as 'reality'. It can also
refer to the intrinsic characteristics of a thing, especially a living thing, or to the thing's growth
towards these characteristics. This dynamic aspect of physis can seem to give it a prescriptive as well
as a descriptive force: it is good that things grow towards their mature state and achieving it
constitutes their flourishing.
Nomos (plural: nomoi) can signify both the unwritten customs and the written laws of a
society, and sometimes also an unwritten universal law of divine origin. Even when it refers to a
custom, its force is always prescriptive: it indicates not merely a practice, but what the majority
accepts as the right practice. However, increasing travel and historical researches heightened
awareness of how particularnomoi differ between cultures and over time, and the consequent sense
of their transience prompted growing speculation about their authority.
2. Anomaly Versus Analogy (Teratur Vs tidak Teratur)

The debate over the language of analogy and anomaly has been ongoing since the days of
ancient Greece, and still there are followers. Supporting each opinion is based on the fact the reality of
language that are both accurate and with an equally strong argument. This debate seems like a railway
line that has no end of the meeting, each based on different poles.
Even if the debate analogy and this anomaly has developed since so long time but in fact the
reality of this language is still relevant and current issues with the times. Issues analogy and anomaly is
indeed related issues concerning the development of language. While language is still evolving, it issues
an analogy and anomaly still always be attached to them.
One form of the development of Indonesian language is the form of absorption into Indonesian
words derived from foreign languages influencers. The absorption of foreign words into the Indonesian
language gave birth to linguistic problems that can be highlighted from the perspective of analogy and
anomaly language.

Terminology Analogy and Anomalies
Analogies and anomalies as a terminology have been known since the time of Plato and
Aristotle. The emergence of the terminology is because of the popular theory of analogy and anomaly at
the time which each has supporters.
Group supporters say that the nature of this analogy has regularity; humans also have regularity,
as well as with language. Analogy groups say that language is regular. As evidence in English the plural of
boy to be boys, tables into tables, flower into flowers.
Regularity of language brings consequences to the formulation of a grammar. The analogy was adopted
by Plato and Aristotle. The principle of this analogy is actually a transformation of logic and
mathematical regularity in the language (Kaelan, 1998: 36).
Instead of anomalies argues that language is located in the form of irregular (irregular).As evidence
them point out the plural of English child to be children, man became men in the daily reality of why
there synonymy and homonymy. In this sense that language is intrinsically natural. The opinion of the
anomaly is still used as one feature of language that language is essentially orbiter (Porera, 1986:46).






Analogy is the regularity of language, a unit of language can be said if analogical conformity or
not to deviate with the conventions that have been enacted.
Anomaly is a deviation or lack of language disorder. A unit can be said anomalies if the unit does not
conform or deviate with the conventions in force.
Summary can be prepared in simple language that the analogy is regularity, while the anomaly is
the lack of language disorder or distortion of language.
In addition to this definition in the dictionary of linguistic terminology essay Kridalaksana analogies
interpreted with different meanings, namely: "The process or result of the formation of language
because of the influence of other patterns in the language
the difference this meaning is reasonable, because the dictionary intended meaning is linguistic meaning
associated with linguistic. Whose the meaning of analogy is earlier is related to the philosophical
meaning of language.
Therefore, as a basis for further descriptions is used then the meaning is the meaning of a
philosophical rather than a linguistic meaning: namely, that analogy is the regularities of language, and
the anomaly is a deviation or lack of language disorder.

3. Langue Versus Parole (konsep Vs ujaran)

A term introduced in de Saussures Cours de linguistique gnrale to distinguish between
language (langue) as an abstract system of signs and rules, and the spoken word (parole) as the concrete
realization of language as it is used. Langueis characterized as a static system of symbols with broad
(social) value, due to the invariant and functional nature of its elements. Instances of parole are based
on this system of langue and vary according to register, age, dialect, among other factors. The goal of
structuralist linguistics is to research the systematic regularities of langueusing data
from parole (corpus), while parole itself can be researched in various disciplines,
like phonetics, psychology, and physiology.

4. Deep Structure Versus Surface Structure (Konsep dari dalam Vs ucapan)
In 1957, Noam Chomsky published Syntactic Structures, in which he developed the idea that
each sentence in a language has two levels of representation a deep structure and a surface
structure. The deep structure represented the core semantic relations of a sentence, and was mapped
on to the surface structure (which followed the phonological form of the sentence very closely)
viatransformations. Chomsky believed there are considerable similarities between languages' deep
structures, and that these structures reveal properties, common to all languages that surface
structures conceal. However, this may not have been the central motivation for introducing deep
structure. Transformations had been proposed prior to the development of deep structure as a
means of increasing the mathematical and descriptive power of context-free grammars. Similarly,
deep structure was devised largely for technical reasons relating to early semantic theory.
Though transformations continue to be important in Chomsky's current theories, he has now
abandoned the original notion of Deep Structure and Surface Structure. Initially, two additional
levels of representation were introduced (LF Logical Form, and PF Phonetic Form), and then in
the 1990s Chomsky sketched out a new program of research known as Minimalism, in which Deep
Structure and Surface Structure no longer featured and PF and LF remained as the only levels of
representation.
To complicate the understanding of the development of Noam Chomsky's theories, the
precise meanings of Deep Structure and Surface Structure have changed over time by the 1970s,
the two were normally referred to simply as D-Structure and S-Structure by Chomsky an linguists. In
particular, the idea that the meaning of a sentence was determined by its Deep Structure (taken to its
logical conclusions by the generative semanticists during the same period) was dropped for good by
Chomsky an linguists when LF took over this role (previously, Chomsky and Ray Jack had begun to
argue that meaning was determined by both Deep and Surface Structure).

5. Syntagmatic Versus Paradigmatic (Kaitan kesamping Vs Kaitan Kebawah)
Basic linguistic relationships which describe the complex structure of a language system.
Paradigmatic relationships between linguistic elements can be established by use of
the substitution test at the vertical level. Thus the initial consonants in beer, deer, peer form a
paradigmatic class, as well as words such astoday and tomorrow in the sentence: She will arrive
today/tomorrow. Syntagmatic relationships are defined by the ability of elements to be combined
horizontally (linearly), e.g. the relationship between She will arrive and today. De Saussure (1916)
called paradigmatic relationships associative relationships, because they represent the relationship
between individual elements in specific environments with such elements in the memory which can
potentially replace them. Paradigmatic relationships are based on the criteria of selection and
distribution of linguistic elements, and are, for example, the basis for establishing the phoneme
inventory of a language through the construction of minimal pairs, the replacement of sounds in
an otherwise constant environment that leads to a difference in meaning. Elements which are related
to each other paradigmatically can potentially occur in the same context but are mutually exclusive
in an actual concrete context because they stand in opposition to one another. The distinction
between paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationships is relevant to all levels of description;
Example:
Paradigmatic Syntagmatic
J a r i
L a r i
M a r i
S a r i

6. Synchronic Versus Diachronic
(Mempelajari bahasa dalam satu decade Vs. Mempelajari bahasa dari masa ke masa)

Synchrony (Mempelajari bahasa dalam satu decade)
Saussure proposed that language as a system of signs is studied as a complete system at any given
point in time. Like chess, the important part of language is how pieces move and the positions of all
pieces relative to one another. The shape of each piece is only important in that its potential can be
recognized.
A synchronic relationship is one where two similar things exist at the same time. Modern American
English and British English have a synchronic relationship.

Diachronic (Mempelajari bahasa dari masa ke masa)
Diachronic is the change in the meaning of words over time.
For example in the way that 'magic' meant 'good' in youth culture for a period during the 1980s (and, to
a lesser extent, beyond).
It is thus the study of language in terms of how it visibly changes in usage. It is based in the
dictionary meaning of words.
A diachronic relationship is where related things exist separated by time. 12th century English and
21st century English have a diachronic relationship.

7. Prescription Versus Description (Tradisonal Vs Modern)
In linguistics, prescription denotes normative practices on such aspects of language use
as spelling, grammar, pronunciation, and syntax. It includes judgments on what usages
are socially proper and politically correct. Its aims may be to establish a standard language, to teach
what is perceived within a particular society to be correct forms of language, or to advise on effective
communication. If usage preferences are conservative, prescription might (appear to) be resistant
tolanguage change; if the usage preferences are radical, prescription may produceneologisms.

Prescriptive approaches to language are often contrasted with descriptive linguistics, which
observes and records how language is practiced. The basis of linguistic research is text (corpus)
analysis and field studies; yet descriptionincludes each researchers observations of his and her
(own) language usage. Despite apparent opposition, prescription and description (how
language should beused, and how language is used) exist in a complementary dynamic tension of
mutual linguistic support.
The main aims of linguistic prescription are to define standardized language forms either
generally (what is Standard English?) or for specific purposes (whatstyle and register is appropriate
in, for example, a legal brief?) and to formulate these in such a way as to make them easily taught or
learned. Prescription can apply to most aspects of language: spelling, grammar, semantics,
pronunciation and register. Most people would subscribe to the consensus that in all of these areas it
is meaningful to describe some kinds of aberrations as incorrect or at least as inappropriate in
particular contexts. Prescription aims to draw workable guidelines for language users seeking advice
in such matters.












































Phonetic and Phonology

Phonetics
Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that comprises the study of the sounds of human speech. It is
concerned with the physical properties of speech sounds (phones): their physiological production,
acoustic properties, auditory perception, and neurophysiologic status.
Phonetics is a branch of phonology which studies about:
how to produce sound
how to pronounce sound
Organ of Speech
An overview of the vocal tract showing structures that is important in speech sound production
and speech articulation
Robert Mannell
The sounds of English
Vowels
A vowel is a specific type of sound, characterized by a lack of full obstruction to the air flow. Vowels
can be contrasted with consonants, where there is such an obstruction. As air comes out when you
are speaking a consonant, there is a buildup of pressure as the air flow is constricted. When speaking
a vowel, there is no built up pressure, the sound is simply shaped by the position of the tongue.



Front vowels | Central vowels | Back vowels
English has twelve vowel sounds. In the table above they are divided into seven short and
five long vowels. An alternative way of organizing them is according to where (in the mouth) they are
produced. This method allows us to describe them as front, central and back. We can qualify them
further by how high the tongue and lower jaw are when we make these vowel sounds, and by whether
our lips are rounded or spread, and finally by whether they are short or long. This scheme shows the
following arrangement:
Front vowels
/i:/ - cream, seen (long high front spread vowel)
// - bit, silly (short high front spread vowel)
// - bet, head (short mid front spread vowel); this may also be shown by the symbol /e/
// - cat, dad (short low front spread vowel); this may also be shown by /a/
Central vowels

/:/- burn, firm (long mid central spread vowel); this may also be shown by the symbol /:/.
// - about, clever (short mid central spread vowel); this is sometimes known as schwa, or the
neutral vowel sound - it never occurs in a stressed position.
// - cut, nut (short low front spread vowel); this vowel is quite uncommon among speakers in the
Midlands and further north in Britain.
Back vowels
/u:/ - boob, glue (long high back rounded vowel)
// - put, soot (short high back rounded vowel); also shown by /u/
/:/ - corn, faun (long mid back rounded vowel) also shown by /o:/
//- dog, rotten (short low back rounded vowel) also shown by /o/
/:/ - hard, far (long low back spread vowel)
We can also arrange the vowels in a table or even depict them against a cross-section of the human
mouth. Here is an example of a simple table:
Front Central Back
High i: u:
Mid : :
Low :
Diphthongs
Diphthongs are types of vowels where two vowel sounds are connected in a continuous, gliding
motion. They are often referred to as gliding vowels. Mostlanguages have a number of diphthongs,
although that number varies widely, from only one or two to fifteen or more.




Diphthong
centring closing
ending in ending in i ending in
sound word phonetic sound word phonetic sound word phonetic
i near /ni(r)/ ei page /peid/ home /hm/
e hair /he(r)/ ai five /faiv/ a now /na/
pure /pj(r)/ i join /di/


Triphthong

In phonetics, a triphthong is a monosyllabic vowel combination involving a quick but smooth movement
of the articulator from one vowel quality to another that passes over a third. While "pure" vowels,
or monophthongs, are said to have one target articulator position, diphthongs have two, and
triphthongs three.

No sound word Phonetic
1 ei player /plei(r)/
2 ai fire /fai(r)/
3 i loyal /li(r)/
4 mower /m(r)/
5 a hour / a(r)/


Chart of English Consonant Phonemes

Place of Articulation
Manner of
Articulation
Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Palato-
Alveolar
Palatal Velar Glotal
Plosive p b t d k g
Fricative f v s z h
Affricative t d
Nasal m n
Lateral l
Approximant w r j
Note : voiced (bergetar saat diucapkan: b, d, g, v, , z, , d)
Voiceless (tidak bergetar saat diucapkan )




















Phonology
The other hand, phonology is concerned with abstract, grammatical characterization of systems
of sounds.
Definition: Phonology is the study of how sounds are organized and used in natural languages.
Phonology is just one of several aspects of language. It is related to other aspects such as phonetics,
morphology, syntax, and pragmatics.
Here is an illustration that shows the place of phonology in an interacting hierarchy of levels in
linguistics:

Comparison: Phonology and phonetics
Phonetics Phonology
Is the basis for phonological
analysis?
Is the basis for further work in
morphology, syntax, discourse,
and orthography design?
Analyzes the production of all
human speech sounds,
Analyzes the sound patterns of


regardless of language. a particular language by
determining which
phonetic sounds are
significant, and
Explaining how these
sounds are interpreted by the
native speaker.
Phonemes

Phonemes include all significant differences of sound, including features of voicing, place and manner of
articulation, accents, and secondary features of nasalization and labialization. Whereas phonetics refers
to the study of the production, perception, and physical nature of speech sounds.

Definition Phonemes

1. Trask (1996: 264) says: phoneme is the smallest unit which can make a difference in meaning.
2. Hayman (1975: 59) defines the phoneme as a minimal unit of sound capable of distinguishing words of
different meanings. Thus, both /t/ and /d/ are phonemes in English because they are able to make a
meaning difference, as in the word ten and den.
3. Gleason (1955: 261) defines the phoneme as "a class of sounds which: (1) they are phonetically similar
and (2) show certain characteristic patterns of distribution in the language or dialect under
consideration.

An essential property of a phoneme is that it functions contrastively. We know that there are two
phonemes /f/ and /v/ in English because they are the only basis of the contrast in meaning between the
forms fat and vat, or fine and vine. This contrastive property is the basic operational test for determining
the phonemes which exist in a language.
If we substitute one sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning, then the two sounds
represent different phonemes. For example: /p/ can be characterized as [-voice, +bilabial, +stop] and /k/
as [-voice, +velar, +stop]. Since these two sounds share some features, they are sometimes described as
members of a natural class of sounds.
The prediction would be that sounds which have features in common would behave phonologically in
some similar ways. A sound which does not share those features would be expected to behave
differently. For example, /v/ has the features [+voice, +labiodentals, +fricative] and so cannot be in the
same natural class as /p/ and /k/.
Although other factors will be involved, this feature-analysis could lead us to suspect that there may be
a good phonological reason why words beginning with /pl-/ and /kl-/ are common in English, but words
beginning /vl-/ are not.

Suprasegmentals
In written English we use punctuation to signal some things like emphasis, and
the speed with which we want our readers to move at certain points. In spoken English we use
sounds in ways that do not apply to individual segments but to stretches of spoken discourse from
words to phrases, clauses and sentences. Such effects are described as non-
segmental or suprasegmental - or, using the adjective in a plural nominal (noun) form,
simply suprasegmentals.
Among these effects are such things as stress, intonation, tempo andrhythm - which
collectively are known as prosodic features. Other effects arise from altering the quality of the voice,
making it breathy or husky and changing what is sometimes called the timbre - and these
are paralinguistic features. Both of these kinds of effect may signal meaning. But they do not do so
consistently from one language to another, and this can cause confusion to students learning a
second language.
Prosodic features
Stress or loudness - increasing volume is a simple way of giving emphasis, and this is a crude measure of
stress. But it is usually combined with other things like changes in tone and tempo. We use stress to
convey some kinds of meaning (semantic and pragmatic) such as urgency or anger or for such things as
imperatives.
Intonation - you may be familiar in a loose sense with the notion of tone of voice. We use varying levels
of pitch in sequences (contours or tunes) to convey particular meanings. Falling and rising intonation in
English may signal a difference between statement and question. Younger speakers of English may use
rising (question) intonation without intending to make the utterance a question.
Tempo - we speak more or less quickly for many different reasons and purposes. Occasionally it may be
that we are adapting our speech to the time we have in which to utter it (as, for example, in a horse-
racing commentary). But mostly tempo reflects some kinds of meaning or attitude - so we give a truthful
answer to a question, but do so rapidly to convey our distraction or irritation.
Rhythm - patterns of stress, tempo and pitch together create a rhythm. Some kinds of formal and
repetitive rhythm are familiar from music, rap, poetry and even chants of soccer fans. But all speech has
rhythm - it is just that in spontaneous utterances we are less likely to hear regular or repeating patterns.

Allophone
An allophone is a phonetic variant of a phoneme in a particular language.
A predictable phonetic variant of a phoneme.
For example, the aspirated t of top, the unaspirated t of stop, and the tt(pronounced as a flap)
of batter are allophones of the English phoneme /t/.