IB Chemistry HL Revision Notes

Topic 4: Bonding

4.1: Ionic Bond

4.1.1
o Ionic bond results from e- transfer from metal to non-metal to achieve full (s
table)
outer e- orbitals (inert gas configuration).
o Oppositely charged ions attracted together by electrostatic forces.
o Always form giant ionic lattice no separate molecules, strong bonds throughout
.
o Monoatomic ions: Na+Cl-, Al3+Br- .
o Polyatomic ions/radicals: Ca2+CO32-, Mg2+(NO3-)2 charge evenly spread.
4.1.2
o Metals lose e- to form +ve ions.
o G1: 1+ ions, G2: 2+ ions, G3: 3+ ions.
4.1.3
o Non-metals gain e- to form -ve ions.
o G6: 2- ions, G7: 1- ions.
4.1.4
o Transition metals can form more than one ion, e.g.: Fe2+ (FeCl2), Fe3+ (FeCl3)
.
4.1.5
o Electronegativity: Ability of atom to attract e- density within covalent bond.
o Atoms with large differences in e-vity form ionic bonds (separation of charge
dipole moment).
o Metals in bottom left of P.T. are least e-ve, top right non-metals are most e-ve
.
o Larger difference in e-vity more ionic (difference>1.5 mainly ionic).
o Difference = 1.5 intermediate between ionic and covalent.
4.1.6
o Deduce formulae/names of ionic compounds from G1-3 metal & G6-7 non-metal
o Charges must balance out to form neutral molecule.

4.2: Covalent Bond

4.2.1
o Covalent bond results from e- sharing to achieve full (stable) outer e- orbita
ls
(inert gas configuration) e- pair attracted by both nuclei therefor directional
bond.
4.2.3
o Single covalent bonds, e.g.: C-C in C2H6 and C-O in -COOH.
o Double covalent bonds: Stronger and shorter than single bonds, e.g.: C=C in C2
H4
and C=O in -COOH.
o Triple covalent bonds: Strongest and shortest, e.g.: C C in C2H2.
4 .2.4
o Compare e-vity values or 2+ elements based on position in P.T. (see 4.1.5).

4.2.5
o Bond polarity depends on difference between e-vity of atoms involved.
o Similar e-vity values perfectly covalent no separation of charge, e.g.: N2
(same element), CH4 (C(2), H(2.2)).
o Covalent bonds with different e-vities (larger charge separation) are polar (+/-)
,
e.g.: H2O (H(2.2), O(3.5) difference of 1.2 therefor very polar), C-Cl bond (C(2
.5),
Cl(3) difference of 0.5 therefor slightly polar).
o Some covalent molecules contain polar bonds, but are arranged symmetrically th
erefor cancel out therefor molecule is non-polar overall, e.g.: CCl4 (C-Cl bond
is polar but CCl4 is symmetrical therefor overall non-polar).

4.3: Intermolecular Forces

4.3.1
o Forces between polar covalent molecules. Weaker than covalent bonds.
o Hydrogen bonding
Strongest intermolecular force.
Occurs when a highly e-ve element with non-bonded (lone) e- pair(s) (e.g.: F, N,
O) bonds with a hydrogen atom.
Polarisation of bond attracts e- density away from H atom therefor remaining pro
ton (+)
experiences large force of attraction towards non-bonded e- (-).
o Dipole-dipole forces
Much weaker than H-bonds.
Occurs between atoms of differing e-vity (polar bond) one atom + / -, resulting in
attractive force between them.
o Van der Waals forces
Weakest of intermolecular forces.
Temporary, minute, instantaneous fluctuations in e- distribution of atom.
When non-polar particles are close together, e- spinning in orbitals cause tempo
rary dipole into neighbouring atom weak attraction experienced between molecules
/atoms.
4.3.2
o Intermolecular forces have no effect on chemical properties, but affect physic
al properties (m./b.pt., solubility, density etc.).
o Hydrogen bonds: strongest force therefor highest b.pts. Greater difference in
e-vity
stronger forces therefor higher b.pts.
o Dipole-dipole forces increase in m/b.pt. to lesser extent than H-bond. Greater
difference in e-vity stronger forces therefor higher b.pts.
o Van der Waals forces: weakest force therefor lowest b.pts.. Larger molarmass (
larger atom) stronger forces (greater e- interactions) therefor higher b.pts.. e
.g.: m.pts. of halogens/organic molecules (e.g.: alkanes) increase with mass.

4.4: Metallic Bonding

4.4.1
o Metallic bond: lattice of +ve metal ions in a sea of delocalised valence e-.
o e- bind ions together, but allow them to slide over each other therefor metals
are malleable and ductile.
o Delocalised valence e- can move freely therefor metals are good conductors of
electricity + heat.
o Bigger atoms less dense/compact therefor weaker/softer metals.

4.5.1

4.5: Physical Properties

o Melting/boiling points
Covalent macromolecules (giant molecules) have highest m./b.pts..
Metallic/ionic giant structures also have high m/b.pts..
Simple covalent molecules have lowest m./b.pts. (VDW < D:D < H-Bond), e.g.: prop
ane, ethanal and ethanol similar mass, but propane lowest b.pt. (VDW), ethanal h
igher (D:D) and ethanol highest (H-bond).
Impurities lower m.pts. interfere/weaken attractive forces between particles.
o Volatility
Volatile liquids evaporate at low temperatures.
Stronger forces between particles in liquid less volatile.
H-bonded liquids not very volatile, D:D bonded liquids (e.g.: alkanes) very vola
tile
strong smelling.
o Solubility
Like substances dissolve like (w.r.t. polar/non-polar substances).
Water polar solvent therefor dissolves polar compounds (e.g.: NaCl).
Alkanes non polar solvents therefor dissolve non-polar compounds (e.g.: I2 in C
6H14). Alcohols are good solvents contain polar OH groups and non-polar alkane gr
oup therefor can dissolve any polar + non-polar compounds.
Increase length of alkane group alcohol becomes more non-polar therefor less sol
uble in water.
o Conductivity
Conductors (of electricity) must contain free moving electrons/charged ions. Met
als (and graphite) contain delocalised e- therefor good conductors. Molten/diss
olved ionic compounds contain free moving ions therefor conduct. Substances with
fixed e- do not conduct, e.g.: diamond.

14.1 (4.2): Shapes of molecules and Ions

o Valence shell electron repulsion theory (VSPER) e- will arrange themselves aro
und central atom as far apart from each other as possible.
o Electrons can be in a bonded pair, non-bonded pair or multiple bonds they are
all known as (negative) charge centres. Multiple bonds count as one charge centr
e.
o Distortion of bond angles can result from greater repulsion by non-bonded pair
(s), while bonding electrons repel by the least.
o To work out shape, calculate no. of pairs of e- around central atom, then dete
rmine
which are bonding and non-bonded.
Charge centres Shape
2
3

Name of shape
Linear

Tetrahedral

Trigonal bipyramidal
Octahedral

Examples

180

CO2, BeCl2

120

Trigonal planar

Bond angle

BF3, SO3

109.5

CCl4, CH4

90,120,180
90,180

4.2.7
o Four -ve charge centres:
Bonding pairs 4 bonding
3 bonding,1 non-bonded
on-bonded
Name
Tetrahedral Trigonal pyramid
Bond Angle
109.5
107
Examples
NH4+,BF4NH3

PCl5
SF6

2 bonding,2 n
Bent/v-shaped
105
H2O

4.2.8
o Two -ve charge centres:
eg:
BeCl2 CO2
C2H2
HCN
o Three -ve charge centres:
Bonding pairs
Name
Bond Angle
Examples

3 bonding
2 bonding,1 non-bonded
Trigonal planar
Bent/v-shaped
120
115
BF3,C2H4,CO3^2SO2, NO2^-

14.1.1
o Five -ve charge centres:
Bonding pairs
Name
Examples

5 bonding
4 bonding,1 non-bonded
Trigonal bipyramidal Distorted tetrahedral
PF5
SCl4

o Six -ve charge centres:

Bonding pairs
Name
Examples

6 bonding
Octahedral
SF6

4 bonding,2 non-bonded
Square planar
XeF4

4.2.9
o The shape of a molecule affects its polarity.
o E.g.: CO2: C-O bond is polar, but it has 2 -ve charge centres and is linear in
shape
therefor overall non-polar (polar bonds cancel out). Same applies to tetrahedral
CCl4.
o In H2O, the molecule is based on a tetrahedral structure with non-bonded e- t
herefor
polar bonds cannot cancel out therefor H2O molecule very polar.

14.2: Hybridisation
14.2.1
o Sigma Bond ()
Formed upon the hybridisation of atomic orbitals to form bonding orbitals.
The end to end overlapping of two atomic orbitals to form a -bond (covalent).
-bond are symmetrical (overlap) along the axis joining the two nuclei.
o Pi Bond ()
Formed upon the formation of a double/triple covalent bond (impossible for
two/three -bond to form).
In a double bond, one -bond forms, and the remaining non-bonded electrons in nonhybridised p-orbitals form a -bond.
The e parallel p-orbitals overlap sideways on above and below the -bond.
Thi above and below overlapping causes shorter length and restricted ability to
rotate in a double bond.
In a triple covalent bond, there are 1 -and 2 -bond formed by 2p orbitals on each
of the atoms overlapping.

14.2.2
o Covalent bonding overlapping of orbitals to share e-, but shared orbitals are
in different orbitals (s/p), have different angles, are different in shape and a
lready contain paired e-.
o This problem is overcome by forming a bonding orbital

o Hybridisation is the combination of atomic orbitals to form new bonding orbita

ls.
o Each orbital contains one e-, and they are in the correct orientation to overl
ap with the neighbouring orbitals. They are identical in size, shape, energy etc
.
o Combination of types, shapes and energies of the s/p orbitals involved.
o Non-bonded pairs of e- in the outer orbitals of an atom are also put into hybr
idised bonding orbitals to keep them far apart from the bonding e-.
o sp3 hybridisation (4 -ve charge centres):
To overlap with 4 neighbouring orbitals, an atom combines its outer s with three
p-orbitals to form four hybridised bonding orbitals. e.g.: CH4 (Carbon: 1s2 2s
2 2p1 2p1 2p0)
o sp2 hybridisation (3 -ve charge centres):
To overlap with 3 neighbouring orbitals, an atom combines its outer s orbital wi
th
2 p-orbitals to form three hybridised bonding orbitals. e.g.: BF3 (Boron: 1s2 2
s2 2p1)
o sp hybridisation (2 -ve charge centres):
To overlap with two neighbouring orbitals, an atom combines its outer s-orbital
with one p-orbital to form two hybridised bonding orbitals.
e.g.: BeCl2 (Beryllium: 1s2 2s2)
14.2.3
o The hybridisation of bonding orbitals determines a molecules shape.
o sp hybridised molecules linear.
C2H2
N2
o sp2 hybridised molecules trigonal.
C2H4
CH2O
o sp3 hybridised molecules tetrahedral.
CH4
NH3
H2O

14.3: Delocalisation of Electrons

14.3.1
o Also referred to as resonance structures. Energetically more favourable.
o Occurs when there are several adjacent p-orbitals in a covalent molecule, each
containing an unpaired e-. These orbitals can overlap above/below -bond .
o e- involved are delocalised (spread) over the involved atoms.
o If the molecules are ions, the charge is evenly spread (e.g.: NO3-)
o The nature of these bonds is in between a single and double bond therefor thei
r length +
strength is in between single/double bond.
o This delocalised structure is very stable.
o e.g.: NO3-, NO2-, CO32-, O3, -COOCH3CO2- C6H6

14.4: Structures of Allotropes of Carbon

14.4.1
o Allotrope element existing in different forms with more than one structure.
o Diamond
All carbon atoms sp3 hybridised therefor all bonds equally strong.
Contains tetrahedral structures in a covalent macromolecule therefor extremely s
trong. All e- are bonded and not delocalised therefor does not conduct.
o Graphite
All carbon atoms sp2 hybridised, giving 3 strong -bond .
Remaining e- in p-orbital can overlap with other p-orbitals to form weak bond.
Strong bonds within layers of hexagons weak bonds in between layers therefor
graphite is a lubricant layers can be scraped off.
Delocalised p-electrons can move between layers therefor good conductor.
o Buckminsterfullerene (C60)

All carbon atoms sp2 hybridised, in a spherical molecule with atoms in a hexago
nal and pentagonal arrangement.
3 strong -bond strong and lightweight.
Van der Waals forces between individual C60 molecules. Delocalised p-electrons c
an conduct (not as well as graphite).