PART 6

aneous Data and

Page Nos .
MISCELLANEOUS DATA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wire and Sheet Metal Gages
. . . . . . . . . . . . Standard Nomenclature for Flat Rolled Carbon Steel
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Effect of Heat on Structural Steel
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coefficients of Expansion
WEIGHTS. MEASURES AND CONVERSION FACTORS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weights and Specific Gravities
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weights of Building Materials
Weights and Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Engineering Conversion Factors
GEOMETRIC AND TRlGONOMETRlC DATA
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bracing Formulas
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Properties of the Parabola and Ellipse
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Properties of the Circle
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Properties of Geometric Sections
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trigonometric Formulas
DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Decimals of an Inch
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Decimals of a Foot
mation only. The product is commonly specified to
FLAT ROLLED CARBON STEEL
0.2299 to 0.2031
0.2030 to 0.1800
0.1799 to 0.0449
0.0448 to 0.0344
0.0343 to 0.0255 Hot rolled sheet and strip not generally
0.0254 & thinner
produced in these widths and thicknesses
EFFECT OF HEAT ON STRUCTURAL STEEL
Short-time elevated-temperature tensile tests on the constructional steels permitted
by the AISC Specification indicate that the ratios of the elevated-temperature yield
and tensile strengths to their respective room-temperature strength values are-rea-
sonably similar at any particular temperature for the various steels in the 300 to 700"
F. range, except for variations due to strain aging. (The tensile strength ratio may in-
crease to a value greater than unity in the 300 to 700" F. range when strain aging oc-
curs.) Above this range, the ratio of elevated-temperature to room-temperature
strength decreases as the temperature increases.
The composition of the steels is usually such that the carbon steels exhibit strain
aging with attendant reduced notch toughness. The high-strength low-alloy and heat-
treated constructional alloy steels exhibit less-pronounced or little strain aging.
As examples of the decreased ratio levels obtained at elevated temperature, the
yield strength ratios for carbon and high-strength low-alloy steels are approximately
0.77 at 800" F., 0.63 at 1000" F., and 0.37 at 1200" F.
FIRE-RESISTANT CONSTRUCTION
ASTM Specification E119, Standard Methods of Fire Tests of Building Construction
and Materials, outlines the procedures of fire testing of structural elements located
inside a building and exposed to fire within the compartment or room in which they
are located. The temperature criterion used requires that the average of the temper-
ature readings not exceed 3 000" F. for columns and 1100" F. for beams. An individual
temperature reading may not exceed 1100" F. for columns and 1200" F. for beams.
Steel buildings whose condition of exterior exposure and whose combustible
contents under fire hazards will not produce a steel temperature greater than the
foregoing criteria may therefore be considered fire-resistive without the provision of
insulating protection for the steel.
A fire exposure of severity and duration sufficient to raise the temperature of
the steel much above the fire test criteria temperature will seriously impair its tibility
to sustain loads at the unit stresses or plasticity load factors permitted by the AISC
Specification. In such cases, the members upon which the stability of the structure
depends should be insulated by fire-resistive materials or construction capable of
holding the average temperature of the steel to not more than that specified for the
fire test standard.
Under the El19 specification, each tested assembly is subjected to a standard
fire of controlled extent and severity. The fire resistance rating is expressed as the
time, in hours, that the assembly is able to withstand the fire exposure before the first
critical point in its behavior is reached. These tests indicate the minimum period of
time during which structural members, such as columns and beams, are capable of
maintaining their strength and rigidity when subjected to the standard fire. They also
establish the minimum period of time during which floors, roofs, walls or partitions
will prevent fire spread by protecting against the passage of flame, hot gases and ex-
cessive heat.
Tables of fire resistance ratings for various insulating materials and construc-
tions applied to structural elements are published in the AISI booklets Fire Resistant
Steel Frame Construction, Designing Fire Protection for Steel Columns and Designing
Fire Protection for Steel Trusses. Ratings may also be found in publications of the
Underwriters' Laboratories, Hmc.
A new rational fire-protection design procedure for exposed columns and beams
at building exteriors has been developed by the American Iron and Steel Institute,
and is described in APSI publication no. FS3, Fire-safe Structural Steel - A Design
Guide. The Design Guide provides a step by step procedure which enables building
designers to estimate the maximum steel temperature that would occur during a fire
at any location on a structural member located outside a building. The design proce-
dure is accepted by some building codes and is under study for adoption by others.
To judge the effect of a fire on structural steel, it is necessary to consider what
happens in such an exposure. Peculiarities of this exposure are: (1) temperature at-
tained by the steel can only be estimated, (2) time of exposure at any given tempera-
ture is unknown, (3) heating is uneven, (4) cooling rates vary and can only be esti-
mated and (5) the steel is usually under load, and is sometimes restrained from
normal expansion.
Carbon and high-strength low-alloy steels that show no evidence of gross dam-
age from exposure to high temperatures, or from sudden cooling from high tempera-
tures, can usually be straightened as necessary and be reused without reduction of
working stress. Quenched and tempered alloy steels should not be heated to temper-
atures within 50" F, of the tempering temperature used in heat treatment. Thus, for
the quenched and tempered constructional alloy steels approved by they AISC Spec-
ification, i.e., ASTM A514, for which the tempering temperature is 1150" F., the
maximum steel temperature should be 1100" F.
Steel that has been exposed to very high temperatures can be identified by very
heavy scale, pitting, and surface erosion. Such temperatures may not only cause a
loss of cross section, but may also result in metallurgical changes. Normally these
conditions will be accompanied by such severe deformation that the cost and diffi-
culty of straightening such members, as compared to replacement, dictates that they
be discarded.
Steel members that have suffered rapid cooling will usually be so severely dis-
torted that straightening for reuse will seldom be considered practicable.
In some cases, there may be some deformation in members whose normal ther-
mal expansion is inhibited or prevented by the nature of the construction. Such
members may usually be straightened and reused.
Connections require special attention to make sure that the stresses induced by
a fire, and by subsequent cooling after the fire, have not sheared or loosened bolts
or rivets, or cracked welds.
COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION
The average coefficient of expansion for structural steel between 70" F. and 100" F.
is 0.0000065 for each degree. For temperatures of 100" F. to 1200" F. the coefficient
is given by the approximate formula:
E = (6.1 + 0.0019t) x
in which E is the coefficient of expansion for each degree Fahrenheit and t is the tem-
perature in degrees Fahrenheit.
The modulus of elasticity of structural steel is approximately 29,000 ksi at 70" F.
It decreases linearly to about 25,000 ksi at 900" F., and then begins to drop at an in-
creasing rate at higher temperatures.
EFFECT OF HEAT DUE TO WELDING
~ ~ ~ l i c a t i o n of heat by welding produces residual stresses, which are generally ac-
companied by distortion of various amounts. Both the stresses and distortions are
minimized by controlled welding procedures and fabrication methods. In normal
structural practice, it has not been found necessary or desirable to use heat treat-
ment (stress-relieving) as a means of reducing residual stresses. Procedures normally
followed include: (1) proper positioning of the components of joints before welding,
(2) selection of welding sequences determined by experience, (3) deposition of a
minimum volume of weld metal with a minimum number of passes for the design
condition and (4) preheating as determined by experience (usually above the speci-
fied minimums).
USE OF HEAT TO STRAIGHTEN, CAMBER, OR CURVE MEMBERS
With modern fabrication techniques, a controlled application of heat can be effec-
tively used to either straighten or to intentionally curve structural members. By this
process, the member is rapidly heated in selected areas; the heated areas tend to ex-
pand, but are restrained by adjacent cooler areas. This action causes a permanent
plastic deformation or "upset" of the heated areas and, thus, a change of shape is de-
veloped in the cooled member.
"Heat straightening" is used in both normal shop fabrication operations and in
the field to remove relatively severe accidental bends in members. Conversely, "heat
cambering" and "heat curving" of either rolled beams or welded girders are exam-
ples of the use of heat to effect a desired curvature.
As with many other fabrication operations, the use of heat to straighten or
curve will cause residual stresses in the member as a result of plastic deformations.
These stresses are similar to those that develop in rolled structural shapes as they
cool from the rolling temperature; in this case, the stresses arise because all parts of
the shape do not cool at the same rate. In like manner, welded members develop re-
sidual stresses from the localized heat of welding.
In general, the residual stresses from heating operations do not affect the ulti-
mate strength of structural members. Any reduction in column strength due to resid-
ual stresses is incorporated in the present design provisions.
The mechanical properties of steels are largely unaffected by heating opera-
tions, provided that the maximum temperature does not exceed 1100" F. for
quenched and tempered alloy steels, and 1300" F. for other steels. The temperature
should be carefully checked by temperature-indicating crayons or other suitable
means during the heating process.
COEFFICIENTS OF EXPANSION
The coefficient of linear expansion (E) is the change in length, per unit of length, for
a change of one degree of temperature. The coefficient of surface expansion is ap-
proximately two times the linear coefficient, and the coefficient of volume expan-
sion, for solids, is approximately three times the linear coefficient.
A bar, free to move, will increase in length with an increase in temperature and
will decrease in length with a decrease in temperature. The change in length will be
~ t l , where E is the coefficient of linear expansion, t the change in temperature, and
I the length. If the ends of a bar are fixed, a change in temperature t will cause a
change in the unit stress of E E ~ , and in the total stress of AEet, where A is the cross
sectional area of the bar and E the modulus of elasticity.
6 - 6
The following table gives the coefficient of linear expansion for 100, or 100
times the value indicated above.
Example: A piece of medium steel is exactly 40 ft long at 60' F. Find the length
at 90' F., assuming the ends free to move.
.00065 x 30 x 40 = .0078 f t
Change of length = ~ t l =
100
The length at 90' F. is 40.0078 ft.
Example: A piece of medium steel is exactly 40 ft long and the ends are fixed.
If the temperature increases 30" F., what is the resulting change in the unit stress?
29,000,000 x .00065 x 30
Change in unit stress = EE t =
100
= 5655 lbs. per sq. in.
VARIOUS BUILDING
EARTH, ETC., EXCAVATED
Acoustical fiber tile
Wood Studs 2 x 4
Concrete-Plain 1 in. 12-16 in. O.C.
Gypsum Board 'h in.
Ceramic or Quarry Tile
Linoleum in. Hollow Concrete Block
Hardwood % in.
Softwood 3/4 in.
3-ply ready roofing
3-ply felt and gravel
5-ply felt and gravel
Glass Block 4 in.
Plane angle Radian rad
Kilogram kg Solid angle Steradian sr
Second s
DERIVED UNITS (WITH SPECIAL NAMES)
Symbol Formula
Pressure, stress
DERIVED UNITS (WITHOUT SPECIAL NAMES)
Cubic metre
Metre per second
Metre per second squared
Kilogram per cubic metre
SI PREFIXES
Prefix Symbol
1.0 = .08333 = .02778 = .0050505 = .00012626 = .00001578
12.0 = 1.0 = .33333 = .0606061 = .00151515 = .00018939
36.0 = 3.0 = 1.0 = ,1818182 = .00454545 = .00056818
198.0 = 16.5
7920.0 = 660.0
63360.0 =5280.0
SQUARE AND LAND MEASURE
Acres Sq. M
1 .O = ,006944 = ,000772
144.0 = 1.0
AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHTS
1.0 = ,03657 = ,002286 = .000143 = .00000007
27.34375 = 1 .O = .0625 = .003906 = .00000195
437.5 = 16.0 = 1.0 = .0625 = .00003125
7000.0 = 256.0
14000000.0 =512000.0
DRY MEASURE
Pints Quarts Pecks Cubic Feet Bushels
1.0 = .5 = ,0625 = .01945 = .01563
2.0 = 1.0 = .I25 = .03891 = ,03125
16.0 = 8.0
64.0 =32.0
LIQUID MEASURE
Gills Pints Quarts U.S. Gallons Cubic Feet
1.0 = .25 = ,125 = ,03125 = ,00418
4.0 =1.0 = .5 = .I25 = .01671
8.0 = 2.0 = 1.0 = ,250 = ,03342
32.0 = 8.0 = 4.0 = 1 .O
7.48052 = 1 .O
Mile (US. Statute)
Square millimetre
Quart (US. liquid)
Cubic millimetre
Quart (US. liquid)
Ounce (avoirdupois)
Pound (avoirdupois)
Pound (avoirdupois) Ib av
Newton-metre Pound-force-inch
Newton-metre Pound-force-foot
lnch of Mercury (32 F)
lnch of mercury (32 F)
Horsepower (550 ft. Ibfls)
'British thermal unit
a = T H + ( T + e + p )
b = T h + ( T + e + p )
c = 4(1/2 T + 1/2 e)' + a2
log e = k + log T
log f = k + log a
log g = k + log b
log m = k + log c
log n = k + log d
log p = k + log e
The above method can be used for any
number of panels.
In the formulas for "a" and "b" the sum in
parenthesis, which in the case shown in
(T + e + p), is always composed of all
the horizontal distances
Circumference = 6.2831 8 r = 3.1 41 59 d
Diameter = 0.31831 circumference
Radius r = -
Chord c = 2 d m = 2 r sin 5
y = b - r + d F T ?
x = d r 2 - ( r + y - b ) 2
Diameter of circle of equal periphery as square = 1.27324 side of square
Side of square of equal periphery as circle = 0.78540 diameter of circle
r = radius of circle y = angle ncp in degrees
Area of Sector ncpo = % (length of arc nop x r)
= 0.0087266 x r 2 x y
r = radius of circle x = chord b = rise
Area of Segment nop = area of Sector ncpo - area of triangle ncp
(Length of arc nop x r) - x (r - b)
Area of Segment nsp = area of circle - area of segment nop
Axis of moments through center
Axis of moments on base A = d2
Axis of moments on diagonal
A = bd
through center of gravity
b sin a + d cos a
bd (b%in2a + d2 cos2a)
bd (b2 sin2a + d2 cos2a)
6 (b sin a + d cos a)
HOLLOW RECTANGLE A = bd - bldl
Axis of moments through center
EQUAL RECTANGLES A = b (d - dl )
Axis of moments through
center of gravity
UNEQUAL RECTANGLES A = bt + bl t l
Axis of moments through
l/' bt2 + bltl (d - % tl )
center of gravity
center of gravity
TRIANGLE
Axis of moments on base
HALF CIRCLE
= 1.570796 R2
= ,575587 R
= ,190687 R3
= .264336 R
PARABOLA
HALF PARABOLA
COMPLEMENT OF HALF
PARABOLA
PARABOLIC FILLET IN
RIGHT ANGLE
I, = l2 = -
*HALF ELLIPSE
*QUARTER ELLIPSE
*ELLIPTIC COMPLEMENT
1
A = - nab
2
4a
m = -
37r
1, = a3b (T - L)
8 9n
1
I2 = - nab3
8
1
l3 = - 7ra3b
8
EGULAR POLYGON
n = Number of sides
Axis of moments
through center
a = 22/R2 - RI2
K = Product of Inertia about X-X
IZ = Ix sin20 + ly cos20 + K sin20
BEAMS AND CHANNELS
Transverse force oblique
through center of gravity
I, = Ix sin2+ + ly cos2+
I , = Ix cos2++ I, sin2+
where Mj is bending moment due to force F.
= sln2 A+ cos2 A = sln A cosec A
= cos A sec A = tan A cot A
cos A tan A = VGGG = B
sln A 1
Cos~ne A
= - = - =
tan A sec A
sin A cot A = - A = A
sln A 1
Tangent A = - = - = s ~ n A sec A
cos A cot A
cos A 1
Cotangent A = - = - = cos A cosec A
sln A tan A
Secant A =
az = cL b"
b2 = CZ - a2
c2 = a2 + b2
a + b + c a2 = b2 + c2 - 2 bc cos A
b2 = a2 + c2 - 2 ac cos B
sin B = -