CMOS

Also known as a Real Time Clock (RTC), Non-

Volatile RAM (NVRAM) or CMOS RAM, CMOS is short for Complementary Metal-
Oxide Semiconductor. CMOS is an on-board semiconductor chip powered by a
CMOS battery inside computers that stores information such as the system time
and system settings for your computer. A CMOS is similar to the Apple
Macintosh computer's PRAM. To the right is an image of a CMOS battery on a
computers motherboard and the most common CMOS battery you're likely to
encounter with your computer.

To the right is some examples of other types of

batteries that may be used in a computers to power the CMOS memory. As
mentioned above the most common type of battery is the coin cell battery
(lithium battery), usually about the size of a U.S. Nickel.

The standard lifetime of a CMOS battery is around 10 Years. However, this

amount of time can change depending on the use and environment that the
computer resides.

• Information about entering CMOS setup can be found on document

CH000192.
• See our CMOS help page for additional help and support information
 about the CMOS.

Also see: BIOS, MOS, Motherboard definitions, PRAM, Quartz crystal, RTC

BIOS PASS REMOVAL

Removing a Bios - CMOS Password

Unfortunately, access to computers can, at times, be blocked for all of the wrong reasons.
Sometimes this occurs due hardware related issues such as electrical problems or due to
inadvertence, such as someone setting and then forgetting the password. It can happen as
the result of accidental use of a Bios password by a new user. This also often occurs
when an employee who is quitting or has been terminated, sets the Bios password as
some form of retaliation against an employer. Reversing this can be time consuming as
well as very frustrating depending upon the motherboard manufacturer and the make and
model of the motherboard. Relax though, as it is possible to reset or disable the password.

Electrical or static related issues:

At times, and without any obvious reason, static discharges as well as other electrical
problems can cause the PROM on the motherboard to reset the Bios (CMOS) to its
default values and even cause the default Bios password to be set. These are some of the
default Bios passwords used with different Bios's, give them a try first.

• AMI • concat
• Award • AMI_SW (case sensitive)
• bios • AMI!SW/
• setup • AMI?SW/

• cmos • j262
NOTE: With respect to the Award BIOS, the
"AWARD_SW" (use without quotes) and (is is case
sensitive) password should even override a set password! If
not, you may also want try j262 as the password.

Removing Arbitrary or Revenge Passwords:

Many times we have had customers contact us explaining that either an employee or
family member has set a Bios password and then forgot what it was, making access to the
computer impossible. A few times we have seen vindictive employees set Bios passwords
as their way of getting even with their employer. Most times though, this is a well-
meaning effort on the part of an employee to secure employer data, so don't punish the
employee if this is the case. As far as family members are concerned, we have heard just
about every explanation possible ranging from adults trying to regulate computer use by
their children or one adult trying to curb computer use by his or her significant other. We
have even had some reasons that we simply can't publish here. In any event, reversing the
setting of this password is not impossible, it just takes some thought and some work.

If you have tried the passwords listed above and none have worked, then there are a few
more options to try. You can attempt to erase the Bios/CMOS settings and have the Bios
return to its default settings or you can use use a Bios/CMOS password utility (password
crack) to try and erase or reset the password.

Forcing the Bios-CMOS to be Reset to Default Values:

There are two ways to approach forcing the Bios/CMOS to be reset to its default values:
Option #1: Mechanically, by removing all power to the Bios/CMOS thereby forcing it to
reset itself to its stored defaults, which include no password or the default password
employed by the Bios manufacturer, and Option #2: Using a program to either locate and
identify the password and reveal it to you or erasing the password entirely. These are
referred to as password by-pass utilities or cracks. Let's look at Option #1 first, and then
move on to Option #2 if necessary.

Option #1: Mechanically Removing the Password

Most motherboards manufactured over the last decade or more use a battery to sustain the
dynamic Bios/CMOS settings for the motherboards PROM chip. These dynamic settings
are those manually set by either the computers manufacturer or you, the user. There are
two ways to erase these dynamic settings, by either resetting a jumper on the
motherboard itself (referred to as a "clear CMOS" jumper), or by physically remove the
power from the computer (disconnecting the power plug) and then removing a battery
(used to maintain power to the PROM chip that contains the Bios/CMOS information)
from the motherboard.

Motherboard Jumpers:

Some, but not all, motherboard manufacturers provide a set of three jumpers on their
motherboards that provide you with the ability to clear the Bios/CMOS settings, thereby
allowing them to be reset. For the most part this is used when the Bios/CMOS data
becomes scrambled and you need to clear the Bios/CMOS in order to return the computer
to a functional state. This same procedure, however, can be used to clear passwords from
the Bios/CMOS setup. Typically a jumper will be found across pins #1 and #2 as the
default position, and by shutting the computer down, unplugging the power cord and then
moving the jumper so that it is across pins #2 and #3 will clear the Bios/CMOS settings.

Here's an example of a Supermicro PIIISEA motherboard.

As you can see from the picture, we have added two small red arrows. The arrow to the
left denotes the location of the "Clear CMOS" jumpers, while the red arrow to the right
denotes the location of the CMOS battery.

Here are the procedures if the jumpers are present on the motherboard:

• Locate, if possible, the instruction booklet for your motherboard. If you cannot
locate the booklet, then user the motherboard references on this site to locate the
manufacturer and see if a manual is available there. You may also want to closely
examine the motherboard itself.
• Shut down your computer and disconnect the power plug.
• Now identify where the jumpers are located, then check the present pin location
and the location of the jumper on those pins to determine their default location.
As an example, the default location on the above motherboard is to have the
jumper across pins #1 and #2. Write it down!
• Next, move the jumpers from the their default location (Example: from across
pins #1 and #2 as above) and then place the jumper across pins #2 and #3.
• Leave the jumper in place for 20 to 30 seconds and then return it to its default
location.
• Now plug the power cord back in and restart the computer.
 • When the computer begins it's startup (boot) process, tap the DEL, F10 or F1 key,
(whichever is appropriate for your computer) to get into the Bios/CMOS setup. If
you need more detailed information as to how to get to the Bios/CMOS setup,
follow this link. Bios Basics
• Once into the Bios/CMOS setup, look for a section or area to set the Bios/CMOS
to its default settings. This will return the motherboard to either its basic or
optimum settings depending upon the motherboard manufacturers settings. You
will then need to verify certain settings, such a CPU and memory as well as hard
drive type and size recognition. If you need more information regarding these
settings, follow either of these links: For an AMI Bios or for an Award Bios.
• After making any final adjustments, save your settings and restart the computer.
The Bios password should be gone and the Bios set to its optimum settings.

If the "Clear CMOS" jumpers are not present or not available:

The procedures for clearing a Bios/CMOS without jumpers is essentially the same as
those given above when they are present, it just takes a little more effort.

• Shut down the computer and disconnect the power plug.

• Locate, if possible, the instruction booklet for your motherboard. If you cannot
locate the booklet, then user the motherboard references on this site to locate the
manufacturer and see if a manual is available there. You may also want to closely
examine the motherboard itself.
• Now identify where the battery is located on the motherboard. It will be
approximately 1/2 inch in diameter.
• Normally these batteries are held into place with one or more small clips over the
face of the battery. Carefully lift the battery out of its socket and set it aside.
Note: Some batteries are actually soldered to the motherboard, so take that into
consideration and be careful.
• Leave the battery our of the computer for about 20 to 30 minutes and then return
it to its socket.
• Now plug the power cord back in and restart the computer.
• When the computer begins it's startup (boot) process, tap the DEL, F10 or F1 key,
(whichever is appropriate for your computer) to get into the Bios/CMOS setup. If
you need more detailed information as to how to get to the Bios/CMOS setup,
follow this link. Bios Basics
• Once into the Bios/CMOS setup, look for a section or area to set the Bios/CMOS
to its default settings. This will return the motherboard to either its basic or
optimum settings depending upon the motherboard manufacturers settings. You
will then need to verify certain settings, such a CPU and memory as well as hard
drive type and size recognition. If you need more information regarding these
settings, follow either of these links: For an AMI Bios or for an Award Bios.
 • After making any final adjustments, save your settings and restart the computer.
The Bios password should be gone and the Bios set to its optimum settings.

Option 2: What to do if changing jumpers or removing batteries doesn't work:

On some motherboards there are no jumpers to be moved and the battery may be soldered
into place and cannot be removed. There may also be those occasions where moving
jumpers or removing batteries just won't work. This is often the case on early
motherboards.

In these instances, there are three additional options to be considered.

Option #1:

You can physically remove the Bios/CMOS PROM chip from the motherboard and send
it either to the motherboard manufacturer or a Bios developer for replacement of flashing.
You can also send the entire motherboard to a facility experienced in these operations.

Option #2:

If the motherboard has a flash updateable Bios/CMOS PROM chip, then you can
download a fresh Bios update and re-flash the PROM to eliminate the password.

Option #3:

As mentioned earlier, there are programs (utilities) and (cracks) that can be used to try
and either identify the password or remove it forcibly from the PROM chip. Utilities to
recover passwords are extremely expensive and are usually only sold to manufacturers
and others involved in hardware and software development.

Smaller utilities and those referred to as Bios crack programs are readily available. These,
however, are used at your own risk. Please read and understand our disclaimer before
downloading any of these types of utilities. By downloading any of these utilities you are
agreeing to the terms of our disclaimers.

AMI Password Viewer with Source Code Award Flash Utility in zip format
AMI 1 Zip (Early Password Viewer - 1994
Award Zip - Early password viewer
version)
Award1 Zip - Later password
AMI 2 Zip (Password Viewer - 1995 and later)
viewer
Award 2 Zip - Latest password
Remove Password Tool
viewer
Notice: Any or all of the above files should only be used by those professionals
completely familiar with motherboard and Bios/CMOS issues and recovery. We make no
warranty of any type as to any of these files, including their usability for a particular
purpose. Using these files is at your own risk!
CMOS
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see CMOS (disambiguation).

CMOS inverter (NOT logic gate)

Complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) (pronounced /ˈsiːmɒs/) is a

technology for constructing integrated circuits. CMOS technology is used in
microprocessors, microcontrollers, static RAM, and other digital logic circuits. CMOS
technology is also used for a wide variety of analog circuits such as image sensors, data
converters, and highly integrated transceivers for many types of communication. Frank
Wanlass successfully patented CMOS in 1967 (US Patent 3,356,858).

CMOS is also sometimes referred to as complementary-symmetry metal–oxide–

semiconductor (or COS-MOS). The words "complementary-symmetry" refer to the fact
that the typical digital design style with CMOS uses complementary and symmetrical
pairs of p-type and n-type metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs)
for logic functions.

Two important characteristics of CMOS devices are high noise immunity and low static
power consumption. Significant power is only drawn while the transistors in the CMOS
device are switching between on and off states. Consequently, CMOS devices do not
produce as much waste heat as other forms of logic, for example transistor-transistor
logic (TTL) or NMOS logic, which uses all n-channel devices without p-channel devices.
CMOS also allows a high density of logic functions on a chip. It was primarily this
reason why CMOS won the race in the eighties and became the most used technology to
be implemented in VLSI chips.

The phrase "metal–oxide–semiconductor" is a reference to the physical structure of

certain field-effect transistors, having a metal gate electrode placed on top of an oxide
insulator, which in turn is on top of a semiconductor material. Aluminum was once used
but now the material is polysilicon. Other metal gates have made a comeback with the
advent of high-k dielectric materials in the CMOS process, as announced by IBM and
Intel for the 45 nanometer node and beyon.[1]

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Technical details
• 2 Composition
o 2.1 Output is inversion of input
o 2.2 Duality
o 2.3 Logic
o 2.4 Example: NAND gate in physical layout
• 3 Power: switching and leakage
• 4 Analog CMOS
• 5 Temperature range
• 6 See also
• 7 References
• 8 Further reading

• 9 External links

[edit] Technical details

"CMOS" refers to both a particular style of digital circuitry design, and the family of
processes used to implement that circuitry on integrated circuits (chips). CMOS circuitry
dissipates less power when static, and is denser than other implementations having the
same functionality. Since this advantage has increased and grown more important,
CMOS processes and variants have come to dominate, thus the vast majority of modern
integrated circuit manufacturing is on CMOS processes.[citation needed]

CMOS circuits use a combination of p-type and n-type metal–oxide–semiconductor field-

effect transistors (MOSFETs) to implement logic gates and other digital circuits found in
computers, telecommunications equipment, and signal processing equipment. Although
CMOS logic can be implemented with discrete devices (for instance, in an introductory
circuits class), typical commercial CMOS products are integrated circuits composed of
millions (or hundreds of millions) of transistors of both types on a rectangular piece of
silicon of between 0.1 and 4 square centimeters.[citation needed] These devices are commonly
called "chips", although within the industry they are also referred to as "die" (singular) or
"dice", "dies", or "die" (plural).

[edit] Composition

The main principle behind CMOS circuits that allows them to implement logic gates is
the use of p-type and n-type metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors to create
paths to the output from either the voltage source or ground. When a path to output is
created from the voltage source, the circuit is said to be pulled up. The other circuit state
occurs when a path to output is created from ground and the output pulled down to the
ground potential.

[edit] Output is inversion of input

Static CMOS Inverter

CMOS circuits are constructed so that all PMOS transistors must have either an input
from the voltage source or from another PMOS transistor. Similarly, all NMOS
transistors must have either an input from ground or from another NMOS transistor. The
composition of a PMOS transistor creates low resistance between its source and drain
contacts when a low gate voltage is applied and high resistance when a high gate voltage
is applied. On the other hand, the composition of an NMOS transistor creates high
resistance between source and drain when a low gate voltage is applied and low
resistance when a high gate voltage is applied.

The image on the right shows what happens when an input is connected to both a PMOS
transistor and an NMOS transistor. When the voltage of input A is low, the NMOS
transistor's channel is in a high resistance state. This limits the current that can flow from
Q to ground. The PMOS transistor's channel is in a low resistance state and much more
current can flow from the supply to the output. Because the resistance between the supply
voltage and Q is low, the voltage drop between the supply voltage and Q due to a current
drawn from Q is small. The output therefore registers a high voltage.

On the other hand, when the voltage of input A is high, the PMOS transistor is in an off
(high resistance) state so it would limit the current flowing from the positive supply to the
output, while the NMOS transistor is in an on (low resistance) state, allowing the output
to drain to ground. Because the resistance between Q and ground is low, the voltage drop
due to a current drawn into Q placing Q above ground is small. This low drop results in
the output registering a low voltage.

In short, the outputs of the PMOS and NMOS transistors are complementary such that
when the input is low, the output is high, and when the input is high, the output is low.
Because of this opposite behavior of input and output, the CMOS circuits' output is the
inversion of the input.

[edit] Duality

An important characteristic of a CMOS circuit is the duality that exists between its
PMOS transistors and NMOS transistors. A CMOS circuit is created to allow a path
always to exist from the output to either the power source or ground. To accomplish this,
the set of all paths to the voltage source must be the complement of the set of all paths to
ground. This can be easily accomplished by defining one in terms of the NOT of the
other. Due to the De Morgan's laws based logic, the PMOS transistors in parallel have
corresponding NMOS transistors in series while the PMOS transistors in series have
corresponding NMOS transistors in parallel.

[edit] Logic

NAND gate in CMOS logic

More complex logic functions such as those involving AND and OR gates require
manipulating the paths between gates to represent the logic. When a path consists of two
transistors in series, then both transistors must have low resistance to the corresponding
supply voltage, modeling an AND. When a path consists of two transistors in parallel,
then either one or both of the transistors must have low resistance to connect the supply
voltage to the output, modeling an OR.

Shown on the right is a circuit diagram of a NAND gate in CMOS logic. If both of the A
and B inputs are high, then both the NMOS transistors (bottom half of the diagram) will
conduct, neither of the PMOS transistors (top half) will conduct, and a conductive path
will be established between the output and Vss (ground), bringing the output low. If either
of the A or B inputs is low, one of the NMOS transistors will not conduct, one of the
PMOS transistors will, and a conductive path will be established between the output and
Vdd (voltage source), bringing the output high.

An advantage of CMOS over NMOS is that both low-to-high and high-to-low output
transitions are fast since the pull-up transistors have low resistance when switched on,
unlike the load resistors in NMOS logic. In addition, the output signal swings the full
voltage between the low and high rails. This strong, more nearly symmetric response also
makes CMOS more resistant to noise.

See Logical effort for a method of calculating delay in a CMOS circuit.

[edit] Example: NAND gate in physical layout

The physical layout of a NAND circuit

This example shows a NAND logic device drawn as a physical representation as it would
be manufactured. The physical layout perspective is a "bird's eye view" of a stack of
layers. The circuit is constructed on a P-type substrate. The polysilicon, diffusion, and n-
well are referred to as "base layers" and are actually inserted into trenches of the P-type
substrate. The contacts penetrate an insulating layer between the base layers and the first
layer of metal (metal1) making a connection.

The inputs to the NAND (illustrated in green coloring) are in polysilicon. The CMOS
transistors (devices) are formed by the intersection of the polysilicon and diffusion: N
diffusion for the N device; P diffusion for the P device (illustrated in salmon and yellow
coloring respectively). The output ("out") is connected together in metal (illustrated in
cyan coloring). Connections between metal and polysilicon or diffusion are made through
contacts (illustrated as black squares). The physical layout example matches the NAND
logic circuit given in the previous example.

The N device is manufactured on a P-type substrate. The P device is manufactured in an

N-type well (n-well). A P-type substrate "tap" is connected to VSS and an N-type n-well
tap is connected to VDD to prevent latchup.

Cross section of two transistor in a CMOS gate, in an N-well CMOS process

[edit] Power: switching and leakage

CMOS logic dissipates less power than NMOS logic circuits because CMOS dissipates
power only when switching ("dynamic power"). On a typical ASIC in a modern 90
nanometer process, switching the output might take 120 picoseconds, and happen once
every ten nanoseconds. NMOS logic dissipates power whenever the output is low ("static
power"), because there is a current path from Vdd to Vss through the load resistor and the
n-type network.

CMOS circuits dissipate power by charging the various load capacitances (mostly gate
and wire capacitance, but also drain and some source capacitances) whenever they are
switched. The charge moved is the capacitance multiplied by the voltage change.
Multiply by the switching frequency on the load capacitances to get the current used, and
multiply by voltage again to get the characteristic switching power dissipated by a CMOS
device: P = CV2f.

An additional form of power consumption became significant in the 1990s as wires on

chip became narrower and the long wires became more resistive. CMOS gates at the end
of those resistive wires see slow input transitions. During the middle of these transitions,
both the NMOS and PMOS networks are partially conductive, and current flows directly
from Vdd to Vss. The power thus used is called crowbar power. Careful design which
avoids weakly driven long skinny wires has ameliorated this effect, and crowbar power is
nearly always substantially smaller than switching power.

Both NMOS and PMOS transistors have a gate–source threshold voltage, below which
the current (called subthreshold current) through the device drops exponentially.
Historically, CMOS designs operated at supply voltages much larger than their threshold
voltages (Vdd might have been 5 V, and Vth for both NMOS and PMOS might have been
700 mV). A special type of the CMOS transistor with near zero threshold voltage is the
native transistor.

To speed up designs, manufacturers have switched to constructions that have lower

voltage thresholds;[citation needed] but because of this a modern NMOS transistor with a Vth of
200 mV has a significant subthreshold leakage current. Designs (e.g. desktop processors)
which include vast numbers of circuits which are not actively switching still consume
power because of this leakage current. Leakage power is a significant portion of the total
power consumed by such designs. Further technology advances that use even thinner gate
dielectrics have an additional leakage component because of current tunnelling through
the extremely thin gate dielectric. Using high-k dielectrics instead of silicon dioxide that
is the conventional gate dielectric allows similar device performance, but with a thicker
gate insulator, thus avoiding this current. Leakage power reduction using new material
and system design is critical to sustaining scaling of CMOS. A good overview of leakage
and reduction methods are explained in the book Leakage in Nanometer CMOS
Technologies ISBN 0-387-25737-3.

[edit] Analog CMOS

Besides digital applications, CMOS technology is also used in analog applications. For
example, there are CMOS operational amplifier ICs available in the market. CMOS
technology is also widely used for RF applications all the way to microwave frequencies.
Indeed, CMOS technology is used for mixed-signal (analog+digital) applications.

[edit] Temperature range

Conventional CMOS devices work over a range of −55 °C to +125 °C. There were
theoretical indications as early as August 2008 that silicon CMOS will work down to 40
kelvin, or -243 °C.[2] Functioning temperatures near 40 kelvin have since been achieved
using overclocked AMD Phenom II processors with a combination of liquid nitrogen and
liquid helium cooling. [3]

[edit] See also

• MOSFET
• HCMOS
• Gate equivalent (GE)
• Electric and Magic are open-source software often used to lay out CMOS circuits.

[edit] References

1. ^ Intel 45nm Hi-k Silicon Technology

2. ^ Edwards C, "Temperature control", Engineering & Technology Magazine 26 July - 8 August
2008, IET
3. ^ Patrick Moorhead (January 15th, 2009). "Breaking Records with Dragons and Helium in the Las Vegas Desert".
blogs.amd.com/patmoorhead. http://blogs.amd.com/patmoorhead/2009/01/15/breaking-records-with-dragons-and-helium-in-the-las-
vegas-desert/. Retrieved 2009-09-18.
[edit] Further reading

• Baker, R. Jacob (2008). CMOS: Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation, Revised
Second Edition. Wiley-IEEE. ISBN 978-0-470-22941-5. http://CMOSedu.com/
• Veendrick, Harry J. M. (2008). Nanometer CMOS ICs, from Basics to ASICs.
New York: Springer. pp. 770. ISBN 978-1-4020-8332-7.
• Weste, Neil H. E., Harris, David M. (2005). CMOS VLSI Design: A Circuits and
Systems Perspective, Third Edition. Boston: Pearson/Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-
321-26977-2. http://CMOSvlsi.com/
• Mead, Carver A. and Conway, Lynn (1980). Introduction to VLSI systems.
Boston: Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-04358-0.

[edit] External links

• CMOS gate description and interactive illustrations

• LASI is a "general purpose" IC layout CAD tool. It is a free download and can be
used as a layout tool for CMOS circuits.
• CMOS logic at play-hookey.com

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMOS"

Categories: Electronic design | Digital electronics | Logic families | Integrated circuits
Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced
statements from October 2007 | Articles with unsourced statements from December 2008

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THERMISTOR

This article needs additional citations for verification.

Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged
and removed. (May 2009)
NTC thermistor, bead type, insulated wires

A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies with temperature. The word is
a portmanteau of thermal and resistor. Thermistors are widely used as inrush current
limiters, temperature sensors, self-resetting overcurrent protectors, and self-regulating
heating elements.

Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTD) in that the material used
in a thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTDs use pure metals. The
temperature response is also different; RTDs are useful over larger temperature ranges,
while thermistors typically achieve a higher precision within a limited temperature range
[usually -90C to 130C].

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Basic operation
• 2 Steinhart-Hart equation
• 3 B parameter equation
• 4 Conduction model
• 5 Self-heating effects
• 6 Applications
• 7 History
• 8 References
• 9 See also

• 10 External links

[edit] Basic operation

Thermistor symbol

Assuming, as a first-order approximate that the relationship between resistance and

temperature is linear, then:

ΔR = kΔT
where

ΔR = change in resistance
ΔT = change in temperature
k = first-order temperature coefficient of resistance
Thermistors can be classified into two types depending on the sign of k. If k is positive,
the resistance increases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a positive
temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor, or posistor. If k is negative, the resistance
decreases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a negative temperature
coefficient (NTC) thermistor. Resistors that are not thermistors are designed to have a k
as close to zero as possible, so that their resistance remains nearly constant over a wide
temperature range.

Instead of the temperature coefficient k, sometimes the temperature coefficient of

resistance α (alpha) or αT is used. It is defined as[1]

For example, for the common PT100 sensor, α = 0.00385 or 0.385 %/°C. This αT
coefficient should not be confused with the α parameter below.

[edit] Steinhart-Hart equation

In practice, the linear approximation (above) works only over a small temperature range.
For accurate temperature measurements, the resistance/temperature curve of the device
must be described in more detail. The Steinhart-Hart equation is a widely used third-order
approximation:

where a, b and c are called the Steinhart-Hart parameters, and must be specified for each
device. T is the temperature in kelvins and R is the resistance in ohms. To give resistance
as a function of temperature, the above can be rearranged into:

where

and

The error in the Steinhart-Hart equation is generally less than 0.02°C in the measurement
of temperature. As an example, typical values for a thermistor with a resistance of 3000
Ω at room temperature (25°C = 298.15 K) are:

[edit] B parameter equation

NTC thermistors can also be characterised with the B parameter equation, which is
essentially the Steinhart Hart equation with c=0, and B = 1/b.

where the temperatures are in kelvin and R0 is the resistance at temperature T0 (usually
25 °C=298.15 K). Solving for R yields:

or, alternatively,

where . This can be solved for the temperature:

The B-parameter equation can also be written as . This can be used to convert the
function of resistance vs. temperature of a thermistor into a linear function of lnR vs. 1 /
T. The average slope of this function will then yield an estimate of the value of the B
parameter.

[edit] Conduction model

Many NTC thermistors are made from a pressed disc or cast chip of a semiconductor
such as a sintered metal oxide. They work because raising the temperature of a
semiconductor increases the number of electrons able to move about and carry charge - it
promotes them into the conduction band. The more charge carriers that are available, the
more current a material can conduct. This is described in the formula:

I = electric current (ampere)

n = density of charge carriers (count/m³)
A = cross-sectional area of the material (m²)
v = velocity of charge carriers (m/s)
e = charge of an electron ( coulomb)
The current is measured using an ammeter. Over large changes in temperature,
calibration is necessary. Over small changes in temperature, if the right semiconductor is
used, the resistance of the material is linearly proportional to the temperature. There are
many different semiconducting thermistors with a range from about 0.01 kelvin to 2,000
kelvins (-273.14°C to 1,700°C).

Most PTC thermistors are of the "switching" type, which means that their resistance rises
suddenly at a certain critical temperature. The devices are made of a doped
polycrystalline ceramic containing barium titanate (BaTiO3) and other compounds. The
dielectric constant of this ferroelectric material varies with temperature. Below the Curie
point temperature, the high dielectric constant prevents the formation of potential barriers
between the crystal grains, leading to a low resistance. In this region the device has a
small negative temperature coefficient. At the Curie point temperature, the dielectric
constant drops sufficiently to allow the formation of potential barriers at the grain
boundaries, and the resistance increases sharply. At even higher temperatures, the
material reverts to NTC behaviour. The equations used for modeling this behaviour were
derived by W. Heywang and G. H. Jonker in the 1960s.

Another type of PTC thermistor is the polymer PTC, which is sold under brand names
such as "Polyswitch" "Semifuse", and "Multifuse". This consists of a slice of plastic with
carbon grains embedded in it. When the plastic is cool, the carbon grains are all in contact
with each other, forming a conductive path through the device. When the plastic heats up,
it expands, forcing the carbon grains apart, and causing the resistance of the device to rise
rapidly. Like the BaTiO3 thermistor, this device has a highly nonlinear
resistance/temperature response and is used for switching, not for proportional
temperature measurement.

Yet another type of thermistor is a Silistor, a thermally sensitive silicon resistor. Silistors
are similarly constructed and operate on the same principles as other thermistors, but
employ silicon as the semiconductive component material.

[edit] Self-heating effects

When a current flows through a thermistor, it will generate heat which will raise the
temperature of the thermistor above that of its environment. If the thermistor is being
used to measure the temperature of the environment, this electrical heating may introduce
a significant error if a correction is not made. Alternatively, this effect itself can be
exploited. It can, for example, make a sensitive air-flow device employed in a sailplane
rate-of-climb instrument, the electronic variometer, or serve as a timer for a relay as was
formerly done in telephone exchanges.

The electrical power input to the thermistor is just:

where I is current and V is the voltage drop across the thermistor. This power is converted
to heat, and this heat energy is transferred to the surrounding environment. The rate of
transfer is well described by Newton's law of cooling:

where T(R) is the temperature of the thermistor as a function of its resistance R, T0 is the
temperature of the surroundings, and K is the dissipation constant, usually expressed in
units of milliwatts per °C. At equilibrium, the two rates must be equal.

The current and voltage across the thermistor will depend on the particular circuit
configuration. As a simple example, if the voltage across the thermistor is held fixed,
then by Ohm's Law we have I = V / R and the equilibrium equation can be solved for
the ambient temperature as a function of the measured resistance of the thermistor:

The dissipation constant is a measure of the thermal connection of the thermistor to its
surroundings. It is generally given for the thermistor in still air, and in well-stirred oil.
Typical values for a small glass bead thermistor are 1.5 mW/°C in still air and 6.0
mW/°C in stirred oil. If the temperature of the environment is known beforehand, then a
thermistor may be used to measure the value of the dissipation constant. For example, the
thermistor may be used as a flow rate sensor, since the dissipation constant increases with
the rate of flow of a fluid past the thermistor.

[edit] Applications

• NTC thermistors are used as resistance thermometers in low-temperature

measurements of the order of 10 K.
 • NTC thermistors can be used as inrush-current limiting devices in power supply
circuits. They present a higher resistance initially which prevents large currents
from flowing at turn-on, and then heat up and become much lower resistance to
allow higher current flow during normal operation. These thermistors are usually
much larger than measuring type thermistors, and are purposely designed for this
application.
• NTC thermistors are regularly used in automotive applications. For example, they
monitor things like coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside the engine
and provide data to the ECU and, indirectly, to the dashboard.
• Thermistors are also commonly used in modern digital thermostats and to monitor
the temperature of battery packs while charging.

[edit] History

The first NTC thermistor was discovered in 1833 by Michael Faraday, who reported on
the semiconducting behavior of silver sulfide. Faraday noticed that the resistance of silver
sulfide decreased dramatically as temperature increased. Because early thermistors were
difficult to produce and applications for the technology were limited, commercial
production of thermistors did not begin until the 1930s.[2]

[edit] References