EUROPA Signalized Intersection Safety in Europe

International Technology Exchange Program International Technology Exchange Program
DECEMBER 2003 DECEMBER 2003

Office of International Programs
FHWA/US DOT (HPIP)
400 Seventh Street, SW
Washington, DC 20590
Tel: 202-366-9636
Fax: 202-366-9626
international@fhwa.dot.gov
www.international.fhwa.dot.gov
Publication No. FHWA-PL-03-020
HPIP/09-03(5M)EW
NOTI CE
The contents of this report reflect the views of the authors, who are responsible for the facts and
accuracy of the data presented herein. The contents do not necessarily reflect the official policy of
the Department of Transportation.
The metric units reported are those used in common practice by the persons interviewed. They
have not been converted to pure SI units because in some cases, the level of precision implied
would have been changed.
The United States Government does not endorse products or manufacturers. Trademarks or
manufacturers names appear herein only because they are considered essential to the
document.
The publication of this document was sponsored by the U.S. Federal Highway Administration
under contract number DTFH61-99-C00005. awarded to American Trade Initiatives, Inc. Any
opinions, options, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed herein are those of the
authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the U.S. Government, the authors parent
institutions, or American Trade Initiatives, Inc.
This report does not constitute a standard, specification, or regulation.

Technical Report Documentation Page
1. Report No.
FHWA-PL-03-020

2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipients Catalog No.

4. Title and Subtitle
Signalized Intersection Safety In Europe
5. Report Date
December 2003
6. Performing Organization Code

7. Author(s) Gene Fong, James Kopf, Philip Clark, Rick Collins, Richard Cunard,
Ken Kobetsky, Nazir Lalani, Fred Ranck, Robert Seyfried, Kevin Slack, James
Sparks, Rudolph Umbs, Stephen Van Winkle
8. Performing Organization Report No.

9. Performing Organization Name and Address
American Trade Initiatives
P.O. Box 8228
Alexandria, VA 22306-8228
10. Work Unit No.(TRAIS)
11. Contract or Grant No.
DTFH61-99-C-0005
12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address
Office of Policy
Federal Highway Administration
U.S. Department of Transportation
13. Type of Report and Period Covered

14. Sponsoring Agency Code

15. Supplementary Notes
FHWA COTR: Hana Maier, Office of International Programs

16. Abstract
More than a third of the intersection-related fatal crashes in the United States occur at signalized intersections. The Federal
Highway Administration, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, and National Cooperative
Highway Research Program sponsored a scanning study of Sweden, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom
to review innovative safety practices in planning, designing, operating, and maintaining signalized intersections.

The delegation observed that highway safety improvements are a priority in the European countries visited, with an
emphasis on reducing fatalities. Programs for intersection safety focus on reducing vehicle speed through innovative
methods, using computerized signal timing optimization programs, and providing road users with consistent information.

The scanning teams recommendations for U.S. implementation include developing a model photo enforcement program
to reduce red-light running, enhancing dilemma-zone detection at high-speed rural intersections, and promoting
roundabouts as alternatives to signalized intersections. The team also recommends controlling vehicle speed through
intersections with such techniques as speed tables, pavement markings, and changeable message signs.

17. Key Words
Signalized intersection, traffic control device, dilemma
zone, actuated signal, roundabout, automated photo
enforcement, speed table, PUFFIN crossing, geometric
design, pedestrian safety

18. Distribution Statement
No restrictions. This document is available to the public from
the
FHWA-HPIP, Room 3325
US Dept. of Transportation
Washington, DC 20590

international@fhwa.dot.gov
www.international.fhwa.dot.gov
19. Security Classif. (of this report)
Unclassified
20. Security Classif. (of this page)
Unclassified
21. No. of Pages
124
22. Price
Free
Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized
i
Si gnal i zed Int er sect i on Saf et y
i n Eur ope
Pr epar ed by t he Int er nat i onal Scanni ng St udy Team:
and
Am erica n Tra d e Initia tives, Inc.
&
LGB & Associa tes, Inc.
for the
Federal Highw ay Adm inistration
U.S. Departm ent of Transportation
a nd
Am erican Association of State Highw ay and
Transportation Officials
a nd
National Cooperative Highw ay Research Program
(Panel 20- 36)
of the Transportation Research Board
D EC EM B ER 2 0 0 3
Gene Fong
FHWA
Co-Chair
James Kopf
M ississippi DOT
Co-Chair
Philip Clark
New York State DOT
Rick Collins
Texas DOT
Richard Cunard
Transportation Research
Board
Ken Kobetsky
AASHTO
Nazir Lalani
Ventura County, California,
Transportation Department
Fred Ranck
FHWA
Robert Seyfried
Northwestern University
Center for Public Safety
Kevin Slack
CH2M HILL
Report Facilitator
James Sparks
City of Phoenix, Arizona
Rudolph Umbs
FHWA
Stephen Van Winkle
City of Peoria, Illinois
ii
FHWA I NTERNATI ONAL TECHNOLOGY
EXCHANGE PROGRAM
The Federal Hi ghway Admi ni strati ons (FHWA) I nternati onal Technol ogy Exchange
Program accesses and eval uates i nnovati ve forei gn technol ogi es and practi ces that
coul d si gni fi cantl y benefi t U.S. hi ghway transportati on systems. Thi s approach
al l ows for advanced technol ogy to be adapted and put i nto practi ce much more
effi ci entl y wi thout spendi ng scarce research funds to recreate advances al ready
devel oped by other countr i es.
The mai n channel for accessi ng forei gn i nnovati ons i s the I nternati onal Technol ogy
Scanni ng Program. The program i s undertaken joi ntl y wi th the Ameri can
Associ ati on of State Hi ghway and Transportati on Offi ci al s (AASHTO) and i ts
Speci al Commi ttee on I nternati onal Acti vi ty Coordi nati on i n cooperati on wi th the
Tr anspor tati on Resear ch Boar ds Nati onal Cooper ati ve Hi ghway Resear ch
Program Project 20-36 Hi ghway Research and Technol ogy I nternati onal
I nformati on Shari ng, the pri vate sector, and academi a.
FHWA and AASHTO joi ntl y determi ne pri ori ty topi cs for teams of U.S. experts to
study. Teams i n the speci fi c areas bei ng i nvesti gated are formed and sent to
countri es where si gni fi cant advances and i nnovati ons have been made i n
technol ogy, management practi ces, organi zati onal structure, program del i very, and
fi nanci ng. Scan teams usual l y i ncl ude representati ves from FHWA, State
departments of transportati on, l ocal governments, transportati on trade and
research groups, the pri vate sector, and academi a.
After a scan i s compl eted, team members eval uate fi ndi ngs and devel op
compr ehensi ve r epor ts, i ncl udi ng r ecommendati ons for fur ther r esear ch and pi l ot
projects to veri fy the val ue of adapti ng i nnovati ons for U. S. use. Scan reports, as
wel l as the resul ts of pi l ot programs and research, are ci rcul ated throughout the
country to State and l ocal transportati on offi ci al s and the pri vate sector. Si nce
1990, FHWA has organi zed more than 50 i nternati onal scans and di ssemi nated
fi ndi ngs nati onwi de on topi cs such as pavements, bri dge constructi on and
mai ntenance, contracti ng, i ntermodal transport, organi zati onal management,
wi nter road mai ntenance, safety, i ntel l i gent transportati on systems, pl anni ng and
pol i cy.
The I nternati onal Technol ogy Scanni ng Program has resul ted i n si gni fi cant
i mprovements and savi ngs i n road program technol ogi es and practi ces throughout
the Uni ted States. I n some cases, scan studi es have faci l i tated joi nt research and
technol ogy-shar i ng pr ojects wi th i nter nati onal counter par ts, fur ther conser vi ng
resources and advanci ng the state of the art. Scan studi es have al so exposed
tr anspor tati on pr ofessi onal s to r emar kabl e advancements and i nspi r ed
i mpl ementati on of hundreds of i nnovati ons. The resul t: l arge savi ngs of research
dol l ars and ti me, as wel l as si gni fi cant i mprovements i n the nati ons transportati on
system.
For a compl ete l i st of I nternati onal Technol ogy Scanni ng Program topi cs and to order
free copi es of the reports, pl ease see the l i st contai ned i n thi s publ i cati on, as wel l as
Web si te: www.i nternati onal .fhwa.dot.gov or e-mai l : i nternati onal @fhwa.dot.gov
iii
FHW FHW FHW FHW FHWA I NTERNA A I NTERNA A I NTERNA A I NTERNA A I NTERNATI ONAL TECHNOLOGY EXCHANGE REPORTS TI ONAL TECHNOLOGY EXCHANGE REPORTS TI ONAL TECHNOLOGY EXCHANGE REPORTS TI ONAL TECHNOLOGY EXCHANGE REPORTS TI ONAL TECHNOLOGY EXCHANGE REPORTS
International Technology Scanning Program:
Bringing Global Innovations to U.S. Highways
Safety
Si gnal i zed I ntersecti on Safety i n Europe (2003)
Managi ng and Organi zi ng Comprehensi ve Hi ghway Safety i n Europe (2003)
European Road Li ghti ng Technol ogi es (2001)
Commerci al Vehi cl e Safety Technol ogy and Practi ce i n Europe (2000)
I nnovati ve Traffi c Control Technol ogy and Practi ce i n Europe (1999)
Road Safety Audi ts Fi nal Report and Case Studi es (1997)
Speed Management and Enforcement Technol ogy: Europe and Austral i a (1996)
Safety Management Practi ces i n Japan, Austral i a, and New Zeal and (1995)
Pedestri an and Bi cycl e Safety i n Engl and, Germany, and the Netherl ands (1994)
Planning and Environment
European Ri ght-of-Way and Uti l i ti es Best Practi ces (2002)
Wi l dl i fe Habi tat Connecti vi ty Across European Hi ghways (2002)
Sustai nabl e Transportati on Practi ces i n Europe (2001)
Nati onal Travel Surveys (1994)
European I ntermodal Programs: Pl anni ng, Pol i cy, and Technol ogy (1994)
Policy and Inform ation
European Practi ces i n Transportati on Workforce Devel opment (2003)
Emergi ng Model s for Del i veri ng Transportati on Programs and Servi ces (1999)
Acqui ri ng Hi ghway Transportati on I nformati on from Abroad (1994)
I nternati onal Gui de to Hi ghway Transportati on I nformati on (1994)
Op era tions
Frei ght Transportati on: The Lati n Ameri can Market (2003)
I ntel l i gent Transportati on Systems and Wi nter Operati ons i n Japan (2003)
Travel er I nformati on Systems i n Europe (2003)
Meeti ng 21st Century Chal l enges of System Performance Through Better Operati ons (2003)
Frei ght Transportati on: The European Market (2002)
Methods and Procedures to Reduce Motori st Del ays i n European Work Zones (2000)
European Wi nter Servi ce Technol ogy (1998)
European Traffi c Moni tori ng (1997)
Traffi c Management and Travel er I nformati on Systems (1997)
Snowbreak Forest Book Hi ghway Snowstorm Countermeasure Manual (Transl ated
from Japanese) (1996)
Wi nter Mai ntenance Technol ogy and Practi ces Learni ng from Abroad (1995)
Advanced Transportati on Technol ogy (1994)
Infra structure Genera l
Contract Admi ni strati on: Technol ogy and Practi ce i n Europe (2002)
Geometri c Desi gn Practi ces for European Roads (2001)
I nternati onal Contract Admi ni strati on Techni ques for Qual i ty Enhancement (1994)
Infrastructure Pavem ents
Pavement Preservati on Technol ogy i n France, South Afri ca, and Austral i a (2002)
Recycl ed Materi al s I n European Hi ghway Envi ronments (2000)
South Afri can Pavement and Other Hi ghway Technol ogi es and Practi ces (1997)
Hi ghway/Commerci al Vehi cl e I nteracti on (1996)
European Concrete Hi ghways (1992)
European Asphal t Technol ogy (1990)
iv
Infra structure Brid g es
Performance of Concrete Segmental and Cabl e-Stayed Bri dges i n Europe (2001)
Steel Bri dge Fabri cati on Technol ogi es i n Europe and Japan (2001)
European Practi ces for Bri dge Scour and Stream I nstabi l i ty Countermeasures (1999)
Geotechni cal Engi neeri ng Practi ces i n Canada and Europe (1999)
Advanced Composi tes i n Bri dges i n Europe and Japan (1997)
Asi an Bri dge Structures (1997)
Bri dge Mai ntenance Coati ngs (1997)
Northumberl and Strai t Crossi ng Project (1996)
European Bri dge Structures (1995)
Geotechnol ogy Soi l Nai l i ng (1992)
Al l publ i cati ons are avai l abl e on the I nternet at
www.i nternati onal .fhwa.dot.gov
v
cont ent s
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.................................................................................................IX
Introd uction .............................................................................................................................. ix
Area s of Interest ....................................................................................................................... ix
General Findings and Ob serva tions ...................................................................................... ix
Tea m Recom m end a tions ...................................................................................................... xiii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION...................................................................................1
Ba ckg round ............................................................................................................................... 1
Stud y Ob jectives ........................................................................................................................ 1
Scan Approach and Pla nning ................................................................................................. 1
CHAPTER TWO: GENERAL FINDINGS AND OBSERVATIONS......................................... 7
Sw eden ..................................................................................................................................... 7
Germ a ny ................................................................................................................................... 9
The Netherla nd s ...................................................................................................................... 12
United King d om ...................................................................................................................... 15
CHAPTER THREE: DESIGN, OPERATION, AND MAINTENANCE OF TRAFFIC CONTROL
DEVICES.......................................................................................................................18
Sw eden .................................................................................................................................... 18
Germ a ny ................................................................................................................................. 2 0
The Netherla nd s ..................................................................................................................... 2 4
United King d om ..................................................................................................................... 2 8
CHAPTER FOUR: INNOVATIVE TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES........................................ 33
Sw eden ................................................................................................................................... 3 3
Germ a ny ................................................................................................................................. 3 8
The Netherla nd s ..................................................................................................................... 4 2
United King d om ..................................................................................................................... 5 3
CHAPTER FIVE: INNOVATIVE GEOMETRIC DESIGNS.................................................... 59
Sw eden ................................................................................................................................... 5 9
Germ a ny ................................................................................................................................. 5 9
The Netherla nd s ...................................................................................................................... 6 1
United King d om ..................................................................................................................... 6 7
CHAPTER SIX: PROCESSES AND PROCEDURES FOR PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION....... 70
Sw eden ................................................................................................................................... 70
Germ a ny ................................................................................................................................. 70
The Netherla nd s ..................................................................................................................... 70
United King d om ...................................................................................................................... 71
vi
CHAPTER SEVEN: LOW-COST SAFETY IMPROVEMENTS............................................. 73
Sw eden ................................................................................................................................... 73
Germ a ny ................................................................................................................................. 73
The Netherla nd s ..................................................................................................................... 74
United King d om ..................................................................................................................... 75
CHAPTER EIGHT: RESEARCH ON SIGNALIZED INTERSECTION SAFETY....................... 77
Sw eden ................................................................................................................................... 77
Germ a ny ................................................................................................................................. 77
The Netherla nd s ..................................................................................................................... 78
United King d om ..................................................................................................................... 78
CHAPTER NINE: RECOMMENDATIONS AND IMPLEMENTATION PLANS..................... 80
Prim a ry Recom m end a tions ................................................................................................... 8 0
Ad d itiona l Recom m end a tions .............................................................................................. 8 2
APPENDIX A: TEAM MEMBERS................................................................................... 84
APPENDIX B: AMPLIFYING QUESTIONS......................................................................91
APPENDIX C: HOST COUNTRY CONTACTS................................................................ 97
ENDNOTES................................................................................................................104
TABLES
1. Sca n Tea m Itinera ry .............................................................................................................. 5
2. Additional Recom m end a tions .......................................................................................... 8 3
FIGURES
1- 1. M a p of Europ e. .............................................................................................................. 2
1- 2 . Sca n tea m m em b ers. ..................................................................................................... 3
1- 3 . Jake Alm borg of Am erican Trade Initiatives. ............................................................... 3
2 - 1. Pedestrian and bicycle traffic at signalized intersection in Stockholm , Sw eden. ..... 8
2 - 2 . Pedestrian and bicycle crossing s in Germ a ny. .......................................................... 10
2 - 3 . Responsibilities of Germ anys accident com m issions. .............................................. 11
2 - 4 . The Netherlands prim ary principles to achieve sustainable safety. ........................ 13
2 - 5 . Vehicle sim ulator to test extended am ber tim ing in the United Kingdom . .............. 17
3 - 1. Sig na lized intersection in Stockholm , Sw ed en. .......................................................... 19
3 - 2 . Signalized intersection layout in Frankfurt, Germ a ny. ............................................... 2 1
3 - 3 . Audible pedestrian signal head in Germ a ny. ........................................................... 2 2
3 - 4 . Distribution of signal cycle lengths used in the Netherlands. ................................. 2 5
3 - 5 . Nearside signals in the Netherla nd s. ........................................................................ 2 6
vii
3 - 6 . Diagram in controller cabinet at a four- leg intersection in the Netherlands. ........ 2 7
3 - 7. Actuated signal layout for intersections w ith approach speeds under 35 m iles per
hour. .............................................................................................................................. 2 9
3 - 8 . Layout of speed discrim ination and extension configuration for speeds over 45
m iles p er hour. ............................................................................................................. 3 0
3 - 9 . M icroprocessor optim ized vehicle actuation (M OVA) traffic m odel. ......................... 3 1
3 - 10 . Features of a fully signalized roundabout in the United Kingdom . ........................ 3 2
4 - 1. Detector layout and relationship for LHOVRA system . ............................................. 3 3
4 - 2 . Sum m ary of before- and- after studies of im plem entation of LHOVRA system . ..... 3 4
4 - 3 . Report sum m arizing conversion to LED lighting in Stockholm , Sw eden. ................ 3 5
4 - 4 . Pedestrian push button equipped w ith acoustic locator tone in Sw eden. ............ 3 7
4 - 5 . Virtually raised crossw alks in Sw ed en. ...................................................................... 3 8
4 - 6 . Traffic signal w ith back plate in Germ a ny. ................................................................. 4 0
4 - 7. Supplem ental signal w arning right- turning m otorists about pedestrians. ............ 4 1
4 - 8 . Pole- m ounted audible signal in Germ a ny. ............................................................... 4 2
4 - 9 . Signal ahead w arning sign in the Netherla nd s. .................................................... 4 3
4 - 10 . Signal poles w ith high- contrast stripes. ..................................................................... 4 4
4 - 11. Large back plate bordered by w hite stripe. ............................................................... 4 5
4 - 12 . Colored pavem ent used to distinguish bike lanes in the Netherlands. ................. 4 5
4 - 13 . Photo enforcem ent cam era for red- light running in the Netherlands. .................. 4 6
4 - 14 . Photo enforcem ent w arning signs in the Netherlands. ........................................... 4 7
4 - 15 . Effectiveness of photo enforcem ent in Utrecht, Netherlands. ................................. 4 7
4 - 16 . Variable m essage signs on approaches to high- speed intersections in the
Netherla nd s. ................................................................................................................. 4 8
4 - 17. Advance w arning signs and speed tables at intersections in the Netherlands. .. 4 9
4 - 18 . Nearside bicycle signals in the Netherla nd s. ............................................................ 5 0
4 - 19 . Supplem ental signing identifying bicycle and pedestrian crossings. ..................... 5 0
4 - 2 0 . Countdow n indicator for bicycle crossing. ................................................................. 5 1
4 - 2 1. Pedestrian countdow n indicator on push button. ................................................... 5 2
4 - 2 2 . Zigzag pavem ent m arkings to w arn m otorists of a pedestrian crossing. ............. 5 4
4 - 2 3 . PUFFIN crossing in the United King d om . ................................................................... 5 5
4 - 2 4 . Schem atic layout of a PUFFIN crossing in the United Kingdom . ............................. 5 5
4 - 2 5 . Schem atic layout for a staggered PUFFIN crossing in the United Kingdom . ......... 5 6
4 - 2 6 . Yellow crosshatched intersection in the United Kingdom . ...................................... 5 7
4 - 2 7. Restricted - turn sig n. ..................................................................................................... 5 8
5 - 1. Ped estria n refug e isla nd in Germ a ny. ....................................................................... 6 0
5 - 2 . Staggered pedestrian crossing in Germ a ny. ............................................................. 6 0
5 - 3 . Dog bone roundabout in the Netherlands. .............................................................. 6 3
viii
5 - 4 . Turbo roundabout configuration in the Netherlands. ............................................. 6 4
5 - 5 . Com parison of conflict points betw een traditional and turbo roundabouts. ....... 6 5
5 - 6 . Delineated bicycle and pedestrian paths at roundabouts in the Netherlands. .... 6 6
5 - 7. Speed table in right- turn la ne. .................................................................................... 6 7
5 - 8 . Schem atic layout of a through- about intersection. .................................................. 6 8
5 - 9 . Schem atic layout of a double through- about intersection. ..................................... 6 8
5 - 10 . Schem atic of a high- capacity intersection. ................................................................ 6 9
6 - 1. M AAP GIS- based softw are to target high- accident locations. ................................. 71
6 - 2 . M AAP stick diagram used to graphically sum m arize accident statistics. ............... 72
ix
execut i ve summar y
INTRODUCTION
About 25 percent of fatal crashes i n the Uni ted States are i ntersecti on rel ated. Of
these, more than one-thi rd occur at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons. Gi ven thi s fact,
i ncreasi ng safety at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons i s a pri ori ty for the Federal Hi ghway
Admi ni strati on (FHWA), the Ameri can Associ ati on of State Hi ghway and
Transportati on Offi ci al s (AASHTO), the I nsti tute of Transportati on Engi neers
(I TE), and many State departments of transportati on (DOTs). I ndeed, FHWA has
i denti fi ed i ntersecti on safety as one of three pri ori ty areas for attenti on, and
AASHTOs Strategi c Hi ghway Safety Pl an i ncl udes i mprovi ng the desi gn and
operati on of hi ghway i ntersecti ons as one of i ts 22 key emphasi s areas.
To thi s endi mprovi ng si gnal i zed i ntersecti on safetyFHWA and AASHTO
sponsored a scanni ng study i n May 2002 to focus on i nnovati ve si gnal i zed
i ntersecti on safety practi ces i n Europe. The scanni ng team vi si ted four countri es:
Sweden, Germany, the Netherl ands, and the Uni ted Ki ngdom. The objecti ve of the
study was to i denti fy safety practi ces and eval uate thei r appl i cabi l i ty to the Uni ted
States. Through meeti ngs wi th representati ves from each country, si te vi si ts, and
fi el d observati ons, the team i denti fi ed programs and strategi es that coul d work i n
the Uni ted States and potenti al barri ers to thei r success. Thi s report presents the
scan teams observati ons, fi ndi ngs, and recommendati ons.
AREAS OF INTEREST
To provi de the European hosts wi th an understandi ng of the scanni ng studys
objecti ves and team members i nterests i n si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons, the team
i denti fi ed si x major areas of i nterest and devel oped questi ons accordi ngl y:
Sel ecti ng, desi gni ng, i nstal l i ng, operati ng, and mai ntai ni ng traffi c control
devi ces
I nnovati ve tr affi c contr ol devi ces
I nnovati ve geometr i c desi gns
Processes and procedures for i denti fyi ng probl ems and eval uati ng and sel ecti ng
counter measur es
Low-cost safety i mpr ovements
Research projects focusi ng on safety
The team sent the questi ons to the host countri es offi ci al s i n advance so they coul d
conduct r esear ch.
GENERAL FINDINGS AND OBSERVATIONS
Sweden
Overal l traffi c safety i n Sweden i s di rected by a nati onal pol i cy cal l ed Vi si on
Zero, whi ch has a goal of 50 percent reducti on i n hi ghway fatal i ti es. The Vi si on
Zero concept i s rooted i n the bel i ef that preventi ng hi ghway fatal i ti es i s the
x
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
responsi bi l i ty of al l agenci es and enti ti es i nvol ved i n transportati on, i ncl udi ng
engi neers, hi ghway offi ci al s, pol i ce, and others.
Safetyparti cul arl y of pedestri ans and bi cycl i stsi s of pri mary i mportance, whi l e
vehi cl e mobi l i ty i s secondary. Traffi c safety efforts focus on el i mi nati ng fatal i ti es
and i rreversi bl e-i njury acci dents and protecti ng vul nerabl e road users i nstead of
just reduci ng overal l acci dent rates. The focus i s on reduci ng crash severi ty, not
frequency. On the basi s of thi s pri nci pl e, the Swedi sh Nati onal Road
Admi ni strati on (SNRA) converted some si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons to roundabouts,
expecti ng that though the frequency of acci dents may i ncrease, the severi ty of
those acci dents may decrease, and sought to reduce i ntersecti on speed, especi al l y
where pedestri ans, bi cycl es, and vehi cl es share the same space.
An i ntersecti on safety techni que of note i s a system cal l ed LHOVRA, i n whi ch a
seri es of detectors l i ne an i ntersecti ons approach. The detectors determi ne vehi cl e
type and speed at vari ous poi nts al ong the approach and adjust the si gnal ti mi ng
by i ncreasi ng the yel l ow change and al l red cl earance i nterval s to mi ni mi ze the
number of vehi cl es caught i n the di l emma zone. I n other words, the strategy l ooks
for an opportuni ty to transi ti on when the di l emma zone i s unoccupi ed. LHOVRA i s
most effecti ve at hi gh-speed rural i ntersecti ons, parti cul arl y where heavy truck
traffi c i s a safety concern. SNRA has compl eted before-and-after studi es at
i ntersecti ons where LHOVRA has been i mpl emented, and the resul ts are
promi si ng. The studi es showed that LHOVRA reduced confl i cts by one thi rd and
cut red-l i ght runni ng from 4 percent of dri vers to 1 percent.
Germany
Hi ghway safety i mprovements are a pri ori ty i n Germany and, as a resul t, the
number of hi ghway fatal i ti es si nce the 1990 reuni fi cati on has decreased
dramati cal l y. Safety pri ori ti es i n Germany are si mi l ar to those i n Sweden. Goal s
i ncl ude the fol l owi ng:
Safety wi th an emphasi s on reduci ng the severi ty rather than the number of
cr ashes
Mobi l i ty throughout the network, i ncl udi ng transi t
I ntersecti on and roadway traffi c fl ow and operati ons
Traffi c safety i n Germany i s a coordi nated effort among l ocal and nati onal
organi zati ons. The country has about 500 federal and l ocal acci dent commi ssi ons
(cal l ed KEBU i n Frankfurt) made up of l ocal traffi c authori ti es, ci vi l engi neeri ng
departments at uni versi ti es, pol i ce, and traffi c securi ty wardens. These
commi ssi ons ar e r esponsi bl e for i denti fyi ng hi gh-acci dent l ocati ons, compl eti ng
studi es, i mpl ementi ng sol uti ons, and moni tori ng the sol uti ons for effecti veness.
Li ke other European countri es, Germany pl aces a hi gh pri ori ty on bi cycl e and
pedestri an traffi c safety. I n some cases, pedestri ans and bi cycl i sts are gi ven
pr i or i ty over motor i sts.
Germany has successful l y appl i ed photo enforcement techni ques to sl ow traffi c and
reduce red-l i ght runni ng. German offi ci al s i denti fi ed two key condi ti ons for
xi
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
successful appl i cati on: Fi rst, the publ i c must be aware that photo enforcement
measures are bei ng used. Second, di sobeyi ng the posted speed or runni ng a red
l i ght must carry a substanti al penal ty. German speed-enforcement cameras are
hi ghl y vi si bl e, si gns warn of photo enforcement, and publ i c messages are broadcast
to make motori sts aware that the equi pment i s bei ng used. Germanys fi ne
structure vari es for red-l i ght runni ng i n a photo-enforced i ntersecti on, dependi ng
on how l ate the motori st enters the i ntersecti on. I f the motori st i s onl y one second
l ate, he i s fi ned $175 (consi dered l ow). Progressi vel y l ater ti mes mean
progressi vel y l arger fi nes. Prel i mi nary observati ons and studi es of photo
enforcement suggest a dramati c decrease i n both the number and severi ty of
acci dents.
Other i ntersecti on-safety strategi es i ncl ude usi ng hi ghl y vi si bl e si gnal back pl ates,
changeabl e-message si gns, audi bl e crossi ng si gnal s, and fl ashi ng warni ng l i ghts to
i denti fy hi gh-acci dent l ocati ons.
The Netherlands
Nati onal safety goal s gui de the Netherl ands approach to i ntersecti on safety. The
Nati onal Traffi c and Transport Pl an has set goal s of a 30 percent reducti on i n
fatal i ti es and a 25 percent reducti on i n seri ous i njuri es by 2010. The pl an i s based
on three pri nci pl es: Fi rst, the form of a traffi c system shoul d be desi gned to fol l ow
the i ntended functi on and prevent uni ntended uses. Second, the system shoul d be
homogeneous. And thi rd, the system shoul d be predi ctabl e even to unfami l i ar road
user s.
As i n other European countri es vi si ted, heavy pedestri an and bi cycl e traffi c i s
common at most si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons i n the Netherl ands. The Dutch use speci al
advanced i ndi cators to warn pedestri ans, bi cycl i sts, and motori sts of potenti al
confl i ct si tuati ons. A noteworthy practi ce i n the Netherl ands, unl i ke i n the Uni ted
States, i s to operate si gnal s at a l ocal , vehi cl e-actuated l evel . Thi s l i mi ts the
maxi mum si gnal cycl e l engths and accommodates pedestri ans, bi cycl es, and publ i c
transport. Occasi onal l y, motori zed traffi c congesti on i ssues are treated as
secondary. Si gnal synchroni zati on i s easi l y compromi sed i f demand exi sts for
bi cycl es, pedestri ans, or publ i c transport on other approaches to the si gnal .
The Dutch program for i ntersecti on safety focuses on reduci ng vehi cl e speed and
provi di ng road users wi th cl ear, consi stent i nformati on. Speed i s control l ed by
several methods, i ncl udi ng geometri c desi gn, speed-warni ng si gns, speed tabl es,
and an extensi ve and conspi cuous use of photo enforcement.
The Dutch spend a si zabl e amount of money on traffi c control , much more than the
Uni ted States and the other three countri es vi si ted spend. They have three
Freeway Management Centers i n the Randstad that moni tor freeways i n
Amsterdam, Rotterdam, The Hague, and Utrecht, wi th detectors i n and vari abl e
message si gns over each l ane nearl y every quarter of a mi l e. Nearl y every spot near
compl ex freeway i nterchanges i s vi ewabl e by cameras, and each vari abl e message
si gn can be control l ed remotel y. Two other Freeway Management Centers are
l ocated el sewhere i n the country. The countrywi de Traffi c I nformati on Center and
Freeway I nci dent Management Center i s l ocated i n Utrecht. I n contrast, because of
xii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
the l ocal approach to traffi c control , major ci ti es l i ke Amsterdam and Rotterdam do
not empl oy an urban traffi c management center.
The Dutch promote safety and focus on ski l l ed dri vi ng from the start by setti ng the
fol l owi ng requi rements for obtai ni ng a di vers l i cense:
An average of 30 hours of hands-on trai ni ng, wi th l essons costi ng the equi val ent
of U.S. $30 per hour.
A 50-questi on wri tten exam on i nformati on taken from a 500-page dri vers
manual .
A 35-mi nute dri vi ng test that costs the equi val ent of U.S. $163 to take. The test
has a 70-percent fai l ure rate, and appl i cants must take another 10 l essons
before retaki ng the test.
The Dutch, l i ke the Swedes and Germans, prefer roundabouts to si gnal s. I f an
i ntersecti on i s al ready si gnal i zed, they l ook fi rst at converti ng i t to a roundabout.
To better accommodate pedestri ans and bi cycl i sts, roundabouts are desi gned wi th
a si ngl e l ane around the center i sl and and the approaches are not fl ared. Vehi cl es
approach at 90 degrees to the roundabout so they wi l l sl ow down to 15 mi l es per
hour or l ess, and a center refuge i sl and i s i nstal l ed to al l ow pedestri ans and
bi cycl i sts to cross the roadway i n separate hal ves. I n many cases, roundabouts are
not abl e to deal wi th the heavy traffi c streams.
Enforcement tol erance i s set to 7 ki l ometers per hour for speed l i mi ts bel ow 100
ki l ometers per hour, and 8 ki l ometers per hour at hi gher speeds. I n urban areas
wi th a speed l i mi t of 50 ki l ometers per hour, a tol erance of 14 percent i s used. On
motorways wi th a speed l i mi t of 120 ki l ometers per hour, speedi ng up to 6.7
percent i s tol erated wi th no penal ti es.
United Kingdom
The Uni ted Ki ngdoms nati onal safety pl an, Tomorrows RoadsSafer for
Everyone, cal l s for a 40 percent reducti on i n total roadway fatal i ti es and seri ous
i njuri es, a 50 percent reducti on i n the number of chi l dren ki l l ed or seri ousl y
i njured, and a 10 percent reducti on i n the sl i ght-casual ty rate. As i n the other
countri es vi si ted, the emphasi s i n the Uni ted Ki ngdom i s on reduci ng acci dents
wi th seri ous consequences. Nati onal authori ti es are i mpl ementi ng the pl an i n
partnershi p wi th l ocal authori ti es, pol i ce, heal th servi ces, i ndustry, government
departments, and road users.
The Uni ted Ki ngdom, l i ke the Uni ted States, faces si gni fi cant traffi c congesti on i n
metropol i tan areas. I t faces the chal l enge of mai ntai ni ng a del i cate bal ance among
safety, mobi l i ty, and congesti on i n the desi gn and operati on of si gnal i zed
i ntersecti ons. The Bri ti sh have devel oped and i mpl emented a number of
computeri zed si gnal -ti mi ng-opti mi zati on software packages, such as
mi cr opr ocessor opti mi zed vehi cl e actuati on (MOVA) and opti mi zed si gnal capaci ty
and del ay (OSCADY), to i ncrease i ntersecti on capaci ty, reduce del ay and queui ng,
and i mprove safety.
xiii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Pedestri an safety at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons i s a hi gh pri ori ty. To thi s end, a
number of speci al i zed pedestri an crossi ngs such as PUFFI N (pedestri an user-
fri endl y i ntel l i gent) and TOUCAN (two can cross) have been devel oped. And
technol ogi es such as passi ve i nfrared and mi crowave detecti on opti mi ze both
motor i zed and nonmotor i zed tr affi c oper ati ons at si gnal i zed i nter secti ons.
The Uni ted Ki ngdom uses photo enforcement extensi vel y. At one fi el d si te 25 mi l es
outsi de of London, the scan team was tol d that a motori st coul d encounter 16
cameras whi l e dri vi ng from the si te i nto London, each camera capabl e of i ssui ng a
vi ol ati on. Theoreti cal l y, one speedi ng dri ver coul d recei ve 16 ci tati ons from a si ngl e
tr i p.
The Uni ted Ki ngdom al so has a poi nt system, wi th 12 poi nts i n three years
resul ti ng i n banni ng of a dri ver. Speed camera vi ol ati ons usual l y resul t i n three
poi nts, though excepti onal speed may resul t i n more. Red-l i ght camera vi ol ati ons
resul t i n three poi nts.
The Uni ted Ki ngdom uses a uni form three-second yel l ow cl earance at si gnal s and
di spl ays a starti ng yel l ow of two seconds. The starti ng yel l ow comes on
si mul taneousl y wi th the red at the end of the red to i ndi cate that the ri ght-of-way
i s about to change. Conventi onal wi sdom hol ds that the starti ng yel l ow hel ps
dri vers begi n movi ng promptl y on the green si gnal , maxi mi zi ng juncti on capaci ty.
Because the ti me i s part of the safety i nter-green ti me, omi tti ng a starti ng yel l ow
woul d i ncrease the al l -red ti me. The actual benefi ts of the starti ng yel l ow are bei ng
r esear ched.
Whi l e not di rectl y rel ated to si gnal s, the Uni ted Ki ngdom i s usi ng pai nted offset
crosswal ks i n l i eu of si gnal s to force gaps i n traffi c. The offset crosswal k i s
desi gned to enabl e and force pedestri ans to cross a two-way street one-hal f at a
ti me, reduci ng the requi red gap and deci si on maki ng i n hal f. Si nce under some
condi ti ons si gnal i zati on i ncreases crashes, thi s strategy hol ds substanti al promi se.
TEAM RECOMMENDATIONS
On the basi s of observati ons and fi ndi ngs i n Sweden, Germany, the Netherl ands,
and the Uni ted Ki ngdom, the scan team devel oped fi ve pri mary recommendati ons
and several secondary ones. The pri mary recommendati ons i ncl ude the fol l owi ng:
1. Devel op a model photo enforcement program to reduce red-l i ght runni ng and
contr ol speed at hi gh-acci dent si gnal i zed i nter secti ons.
2. Enhance di l emma-zone detecti on at hi gh-speed rural i ntersecti ons usi ng
MOVA, LHOVRA, and si mi l ar technol ogi es.
3. Control vehi cl e speed through i ntersecti ons usi ng a combi nati on of practi ces
such as speed tabl es, pavement marki ngs, automated photo enforcement, and
changeabl e-message si gns.
4. Promote roundabouts as al ternati ves to si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons where traffi c
vol umes al l ow as a way to manage the severi ty of col l i si ons (taki ng i nto
xiv
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
consi derati on that bi cycl i sts are more vul nerabl e at roundabouts and that
r oundabouts make pr ovi di ng contr ol l ed pedestr i an cr ossi ngs mor e di ffi cul t).
5. Devel op gui del i nes for i mpr ovi ng pedestr i an safety at si gnal i zed i nter secti ons
usi ng strategi es such as PUFFI N and TOUCAN crossi ngs, countdown
i ndi cators, and audi bl e pedestri an si gnal s.
Several scan team members al so i denti fi ed practi ces and programs that rel ate to
thei r respecti ve areas of experti se. These practi ces form the basi s of the teams
secondary recommendati ons, i ncl udi ng i ntroduci ng wi der pavement marki ngs,
requi ri ng a standard i nterval for al l amber si gnal s, and usi ng countdown i ndi cators
for pedestri ans and bi cycl i sts.
1
chapt er one
I NTRODUCTI ON
BACKGROUND
About 25 percent of fatal crashes i n the Uni ted States are i ntersecti on rel ated, and
more than one-thi rd of these fatal crashes occur at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons. I n U.S.
ci ti es, about a thi rd of fatal crashes are rel ated to i ntersecti ons, whi l e about 14
percent occur at si gnal s. Thi s i s because a l arge proporti on of fatal crashes i n ci ti es
i nvol ve pedestri ans. Accordi ngl y, safety at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons i s a top pri ori ty
for the Federal Hi ghway Admi ni strati on (FHWA), the Ameri can Associ ati on of
State Hi ghway and Transportati on Offi ci al s (AASHTO), the I nsti tute of
Transportati on Engi neers (I TE), and a number of State departments of
transportati on (DOTs). I n fact, one of the 22 emphasi s areas of the AASHTO
Strategi c Hi ghway Safety Pl an i s i mprovi ng the desi gn and operati on of hi ghway
i ntersecti ons. Thi s emphasi s area i ncl udes four speci fi c strategi es. I mpl ementati on
of the pl an cal l s for an effort to determi ne the most promi si ng countermeasures,
i ncl udi ng experi mental or i nnovati ve countermeasures. Si mi l arl y, FHWA has
i denti fi ed i ntersecti on safety as one of three pri ori ty areas. Thi s pri ori ty i s
refl ected i n FHWA safety pol i ci es, programs, and research. And I TE has devel oped
a Safety Acti on Pl an that i ncl udes an aspect ti tl ed I ntersecti on Crashes. I TE has
i denti fi ed 10 strategi es that cal l for, among other thi ngs, promoti on of best
practi ces and new technol ogi es for i mprovi ng i ntersecti on safety.
To thi s endi mprovi ng i ntersecti on safetyFHWA and AASHTO sponsored a
European scanni ng study to focus on i nnovati ve safety practi ces i n pl anni ng,
desi gni ng, operati ng, and mai ntai ni ng si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons and juncti ons.
Duri ng the May 10-25, 2002, study, the scanni ng team vi si ted Sweden, Germany, the
Netherl ands, and the Uni ted Ki ngdom.
STUDY OBJECTIVES
The pri mary objecti ve of the study was to i denti fy and eval uate promi si ng and
readi l y i mpl ementabl e i ntersecti on safety sol uti ons and programs to use i n the
Uni ted States. The team met wi th representati ves of the four countri es to di scuss
i ntersecti on safety strategi es and programs that, i f i mpl emented i n the Uni ted
States, woul d i mprove safety at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons. Through di scussi ons and
si te vi si ts, the team al so i denti fi ed potenti al barri ers to or speci al needs of
i mpl ementati on i n the Uni ted States. The team al so observed safety i mprovements
and gathered i nformati on about si te-speci fi c studi es and exampl es of si gnal i zed
i nter secti on safety i mpr ovements.
SCAN APPROACH AND PLANNING
FHWA and AASHTO i denti fi ed the need to address safety i ssues rel ated to
si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons i n the Uni ted States and joi ntl y sponsored a team of
experts to i denti fy readi l y i mpl ementabl e best practi ces used i n Europe. The team
conducted a l i terature search and prepared a desk scan report to i denti fy
countri es addressi ng i ntersecti on safety wi th i nnovati ve techni ques. Based on the
desk scan resul ts, the team vi si ted four countri es. The scan started i n Stockhol m,
2
CHAPTER ONE
Sweden, and conti nued to Germany, the Netherl ands, and the Uni ted Ki ngdom
(Fi gure 1-1).
Scan Team
The scanni ng teams 13 members i ncl uded representati ves from FHWA, AASHTO,
State DOTs, muni ci pal transportati on agenci es, uni versi ti es, and the pri vate and
nonprofi t sectors. Co-chai rs Gene K. Fong, di rector of FHWAs Fi el d Servi cesEast,
and James H. Kopf, chi ef engi neer and deputy executi ve di rector of the Mi ssi ssi ppi
DOT, l ed the team. Other members were Phi l i p Cl ark, deputy chi ef engi neer and
di rector of desi gn for the New York State DOT; Ri ck Col l i ns, di rector of the Texas
DOT Traffi c Engi neeri ng Secti on; Ri chard A. Cunard, engi neer of traffi c operati ons
for the Transportati on Research Board (TRB); Ken F. Kobetsky, program di rector
for engi neeri ng for AASHTO; Nazi r Lal ani , pri nci pal engi neer for the Ventura
County, Cal i forni a, Transportati on Department and past i nternati onal presi dent of
I TE; Fred N. Ranck, safety and geometri cs engi neer for FHWAs Mi dwestern
Resource Center; Robert K. Seyfri ed, di rector of the Transportati on Engi neeri ng
Di vi si on of the Northwestern Uni versi ty Center for Publ i c Safety; James W. Sparks,
traffi c engi neer for the Ci ty of Phoeni x, Ari zona; Rudol ph M. Umbs, chi ef hi ghway
safety engi neer i n FHWAs Offi ce of Safety Desi gn; Steve N. Van Wi nkl e, di rector of
Figure 1- 1. Map of
Eu r o p e.
3
INTRODUCTION
publ i c works for the Ci ty of Peori a, I l l i noi s; and Kevi n L. Sl ack, seni or
transportati on engi neer and vi ce presi dent at CH2M HI LL, who served as the
teams report faci l i tator (Fi gure 1-2).
Figure 1- 2. Scan team
memb ers (left to
right) Jim Sparks,
Rudy Umbs, Gene
Fong, Nazir Lalani,
Ken Kobetsky, Fred
Ra nck, Bob Seyfried ,
Richa rd Cuna rd , Rick
Collins, Kevin Sla ck,
Jim Kopf, Steve Van
Winkle, and Phil
Cl a r k.
Figure 1- 3. Jake Almborg of
Am erica n Tra d e Initia tives,
Inc. organized the study and
log istics w ith the host
co u n tr i es.
4
CHAPTER ONE
Amplifying Questions
To provi de the European hosts wi th an understandi ng of the scanni ng studys
objecti ves and i nterests, the team devel oped questi ons that focused on si x major
areas of i nterest, l i sted bel ow. The compl ete set of questi ons i s i n Appendi x B.
The scanni ng team was di vi ded i nto si x subgroups accordi ng to the areas of
i nterest l i sted bel ow. Each subgroup was responsi bl e for documenti ng observati ons
and fi ndi ngs i n i ts respecti ve area of i nterest:
Sel ecti on, desi gn, i nstal l ati on, operati on, and mai ntenance of traffi c control
devi ces at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons (Steve Van Wi nkl e, team l eader)
I nnovati ve traffi c control devi ces at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons (Ri ck Col l i ns, team
l eader )
I nnovati ve geometri c desi gns for si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons (Phi l Cl ark, team
l eader )
Processes and procedures for i denti fyi ng safety probl ems at si gnal i zed
i ntersecti ons and eval uati ng and sel ecti ng countermeasures (Fred Ranck, team
l eader )
Low-cost safety i mprovements for si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons (Bob Seyfri ed, team
l eader )
Research projects focusi ng on safety i ssues (Ri ch Cunard, team l eader)
Team Itinerary
Fi gure 1-4 summari zes the scan teams i ti nerary from May 12 to 25, 2002. Duri ng
the scanni ng study, the team met wi th si gnal i zed i ntersecti on safety experts
representi ng nati onal and l ocal transportati on agenci es, research organi zati ons,
si gnal manufacturers, and uni versi ti es i n the host countri es. A l i st of
representati ves from the host countri es i s i n Appendi x C. Meeti ngs wi th the host
agenci es were a combi nati on of workshops and si te vi si ts to observe i ntersecti on
operati ons i n the fi el d.
I n addi ti on to attendi ng host-country meeti ngs and si te vi si ts, the team met
several ti mes duri ng the scanni ng study. At i ts fi rst meeti ng, the team confi rmed
assi gnments and revi ewed the study objecti ves, ampl i fyi ng questi ons, and host
agency agendas. The team met agai n hal fway through the tri p to di scuss fi ndi ngs
and observati ons from Sweden and Germany, the fi rst two countri es vi si ted. The
team met on the l ast day of the study to summari ze fi ndi ngs, devel op prel i mi nary
recommendati ons, and establ i sh the i mpl ementati on team.
Report Organization
Thi s report summari zes the scan teams observati ons, fi ndi ngs, and
recommendati ons. Duri ng the study, the team had the opportuni ty to i nteract wi th
many experi enced offi ci al s who provi ded val uabl e i nsi ght on si gnal i zed
i ntersecti on safety from the perspecti ve of thei r respecti ve organi zati ons. I n
5
INTRODUCTION
addi ti on, the team observed fi rsthand vari ous i nnovati ve practi ces and
technol ogi es i n the fi el d.
Location Group Purpose Date
Stockholm, Sw eden Scan team organizational meeting May 12
Stockholm, Sw eden
Stockholm, Sw eden
May 13
May 14
May 15
May 16
May 17
May 18
May 19
May 20
May 21
May 22
May 23
May 24
May 25
Sw edish National Road Administration (SNRA) and
Peek Tra ffic
SNRA, City of Stockholm Tra ffic Ser vice Dep a rtment,
site visits
M unich, Germ a ny
Fra nkfurt a m M a in,
Germ a ny
Berg isch Ga ld b a lt,
Germ a ny
The Hague,
Netherla nd s
The Hague,
Netherla nd s
Utr ech t,
Netherla nd s
Delft, Netherla nd s
Rotterd a m ,
Netherla nd s
Lond on, United
Kingdom
Cr ow thor ne,
United Kingdom
Lond on, United
Kingdom
Siem ens Tra ffic Control Fa cilities
Site visits
Fed era l Hig hw a y Resea rch Institute (BAST)
Team meetingreview meetings in Sw eden and
Germ a ny
Team meetingreview meetings in Sw eden and
Germany, prepare for Netherlands and United
Kingdom visits
Dutch M inistr y of Tra nsp orts Tra nsp ort Resea rch
Center (AVV), site visits
AVV, M inistry of Justice, Province Zuid - Holla nd ,
consulta nts p resenta tions
Presenta tions a nd site visits
Department of Transport and Transport for London
Tra nsp ort Resea rch La b ora tor y a nd site visits
Final team meeting and preliminary
recom m end a tions
TABLE 1. Scan Team Itinerar y
6
CHAPTER ONE
The report i s organi zed around the si x areas of i nterest descri bed above. The next
seven chapters summari ze the general fi ndi ngs and observati ons by country for
each major area of i nterest. The fi nal chapter summari zes the teams pri mary and
addi ti onal recommendati ons. The pri mary recommendati ons focus on
i mpl ementabl e strategi es to address safety at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons. I n addi ti on,
a number of scan team members i denti fi ed practi ces and programs that rel ate to
thei r r especti ve ar eas of exper ti se.
7
chapt er t wo
GENERAL FI NDI NGS AND OBSERVATI ONS
I n i denti fyi ng i mpl ementabl e safety sol uti ons, i t i s i mportant to understand and
acknowl edge the cul tural di fferences between the countri es vi si ted and the Uni ted
States. I n many cases, speci fi c sol uti ons and practi ces succeed i n Europe because of
approaches to publ i c safety, l egal i ssues, publ i c fundi ng, publ i c educati on, respect
for authori ty, etc. The team i denti fi ed practi ces that were i nnovati ve and uni que,
but that woul d have l i mi ted appl i cati on i n the Uni ted States because of basi c
cul tural di fferences. A good exampl e i s traffi c si gnal synchroni zati on. I n the Uni ted
States, si gnal synchroni zati on i s i mportant not just for si gnal safety and effi ci ency
reasons, but al so for ai r qual i ty and fuel conservati on concerns. European countri es
do not have envi ronmental l y decl ared nonattai nment areas where si gnal
synchroni zati on i s requi red. For that reason, European traffi c engi neers have
substanti al l y more fl exi bi l i ty than U.S. traffi c engi neers to use unusual si gnal
phasi ng and fl exi bl e si gnal cycl es.
The fol l owi ng summari zes the general , overarchi ng bel i efs and practi ces that shape
i ntersecti on safety sol uti ons and programs i n the countri es the team vi si ted.
SWEDEN
Traffi c safety i n Sweden i s di rected by a nati onal pol i cy cal l ed Vi si on Zero. An
i nteri m goal of Vi si on Zero, begun i n 1996, i s to reduce hi ghway fatal i ti es by 50
percent by 2007. Previ ousl y, pri mary responsi bi l i ty for avoi di ng traffi c acci dents
was pl aced on the i ndi vi dual road user. The Vi si on Zero concept i s rooted i n the
bel i ef that hi ghway fatal i ti es are unacceptabl e and are the responsi bi l i ty of al l
agenci es and enti ti es i nvol ved i n transporti ng peopl e and goods, i ncl udi ng
engi neers, pl anners, l ocal and nati onal hi ghway agenci es, automobi l e
manufacturers, pol i cy makers, pol i ce agenci es, etc. Vi si on Zero i s bei ng real i zed i n a
vari ety of ways i n agenci es throughout Sweden.
Most traffi c si gnal s i n Sweden are l ocated i n the Stockhol m regi on of the Swedi sh
Nati onal Road Admi ni strati on (SNRA). As i n much of the Uni ted States, traffi c i n
thi s regi on i s i ncreasi ng at a much faster pace than the popul ati on, and SNRA i s
not abl e to expand the transportati on network swi ftl y enough to meet the demand.
Traffi c probl ems are aggravated by the fact that so much water di vi des l and areas
(i .e., the expense of bri dgi ng roadways apparentl y l i mi ts the number of avai l abl e
corri dors to move traffi c to much fewer than are avai l abl e i n U. S. ci ti es). The resul t
i s an i ncrease i n congesti on and associ ated dri ver behavi or, such as aggressi ve
dri vi ng and red-l i ght runni ng. The fi rst pri ori ty remai ns safety, parti cul arl y for
vul nerabl e road users (pedestri ans and bi cycl i sts). When faced wi th the mobi l i ty-
versus-safety i ssue, safety i s paramount. Turni ng ri ght on red, for exampl e, i s
pr ohi bi ted i n Sweden.
Traffi c safety efforts focus on el i mi nati ng fatal i ti es and i rreversi bl e i njury
acci dents and protecti ng vul nerabl e road users rather than reduci ng overal l
acci dent rates. The pri mary focus i s on crash severi ty, not frequency. Thi s i s an
8
CHAPTER TWO
i mportant consi derati on, parti cul arl y at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons wi th heavy
pedestri an and bi cycl e traffi c (see Fi gure 2-1). On the basi s of thi s pri nci pl e, SNRA
has converted si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons to roundabouts, recogni zi ng that the
frequency of total acci dents may i ncrease, but the severi ty of those acci dents may
be greatl y reduced. Fol l owi ng the same pri nci pl e, the overal l approach to
i ntersecti on safety i s to reduce speed, especi al l y where pedestri ans, bi cycl es, and
vehi cl es share the same space.
The fol l owi ng are stati sti cs on si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons i n Sweden:
Sweden has about 3,000 si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons, wi th SNRA responsi bl e for
about 600 i ntersecti ons and ci ti es and l ocal juri sdi cti ons responsi bl e for the
r est.
About two-thi rds of pol i ce-reported acci dents (fatal i ti es, i njuri es, and damage-
onl y acci dents) at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons are rel ated to ei ther red-l i ght
runni ng or rear-end crashes. Protected l eft-turn phasi ng i s used extensi vel y i n
Sweden and i s requi red for al l i ntersecti ons wi th approach speeds equal to or
greater than 70 ki l ometers per hour.
Safety i mprovements are funded at the nati onal l evel through appropri ati ons
from Parl i ament and the Mi ni stry. SNRA then works wi th l ocal agenci es to
i mpl ement safety i mprovements on a systemati c and project-speci fi c basi s.
Tort l i abi l i ty i s not a pri mary concern i n Sweden.
Figure 2- 1.
Ped estria n a nd
b icycle tra ffic a t
sig na lized
intersection in
Stockholm ,
Sw ed en.
9
SNRA has the responsi bi l i ty to organi ze muni ci pal i ti es, pol i ce, and other
organi zati ons to i mprove roadway safety.
Traffi c si gnal s are vi ewed l ess as safety i mprovements than as capaci ty devi ces.
Though tort l i abi l i ty i s not a pri mary i ssue i n Sweden, the country i s begi nni ng to
see an i ncrease i n the number of traffi c-rel ated l awsui ts. Tort l i abi l i tys l i mi ted
effect (real or percei ved) al l ows SNRA and l ocal transportati on agenci es the
opportuni ty and fl exi bi l i ty to test i nnovati ve i deas and sol uti ons wi th l i mi ted
r estr i cti ons and r i sks.
GERMANY
Hi ghway safety i mprovements are a pri ori ty i n Germany and, as a resul t, the
country has experi enced a l arge reducti on i n hi ghway fatal i ti es si nce reuni fi cati on
i n 1990. The team observed the fol l owi ng safety pri ori ti es i n Germany, whi ch are
si mi l ar to Swedi sh approaches but di ffer by pl aci ng a hi gh pri ori ty on effi ci ency
and overal l traffi c-fl ow qual i ty:
Safety of motori zed and nonmotori zed vehi cul ar traffi c wi th an emphasi s on
reduci ng the consequences of crashes rather than the overal l number
Mobi l i ty throughout the network, i ncl udi ng transi t
I nter secti on/r oadway tr affi c fl ow and oper ati ons
I n Germany, traffi c si gnal s are general l y the responsi bi l i ty of l ocal street traffi c
authori ti es, whose duti es typi cal l y i ncl ude pl anni ng, l ocati ng, constructi ng, si gni ng,
and marki ng si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons.
German l aw requi res traffi c engi neers to fol l ow standards and codes i n desi gni ng
and operati ng traffi c si gnal s, i ncl udi ng ri gorous si gnal ti mi ng and cl earance
cal cul ati ons for al l modes of traffi c. Fai l ure to fol l ow these standards can resul t i n
cri mi nal and ci vi l l i abi l i ty on the part of the owni ng agency or engi neer of record.
German l aw, however, l i mi ts tort l i abi l i ty rel ated to i nnovati ve traffi c control
devi ces by maki ng i t i l l egal for one to enter an i ntersecti on unti l i t i s cl ear. To
avoi d tort l i abi l i ty i ssues wi th i nnovati ve control devi ces, operators of si gnal
systems must meet extensi ve cl earance cal cul ati ons and other requi red safety
cr i ter i a (per for mance cr i ter i a).
Li ke other European countri es, Germany pl aces a hi gh pri ori ty on bi cycl e and
pedestri an traffi c safety and protecti on of vul nerabl e road users. I n some cases,
pedestri ans and bi cycl i sts are gi ven pri ori ty over motori zed vehi cl e traffi c.
Extensi ve i ntersecti on pavement marki ngs are used to i denti fy bi cycl e and
pedestri an crossi ngs wi thi n i ntersecti ons (Fi gure 2-2).
10
CHAPTER TWO
Frankfurt, Germany, has 764 si gnal s, al l of whi ch operate on 10-vol t power wi th
hal ogen si gnal l ocati ons. Experi ence has shown a gai n i n energy savi ngs equi val ent
to usi ng l i ght-emi tti ng di ode (LED) technol ogy, and 10-vol t power i s safer for
empl oyees to oper ate.
German offi ci al s do a substanti al amount of si mul ati on, both to opti mi ze si gnal
ti mi ng and to demonstrate to the publ i c how si gnal s work. Offi ci al s made a poi nt of
sayi ng they do not al l ow appl e pi e si mul ati on to sel l a project and that the
si mul ati on i s vi tal to accuratel y portray real traffi c fl ow. They i ndi cated the
si mul ati on process i s consi dered a contract wi th thei r consti tuents.
Germany i nstal l s red-l i ght enforcement cameras wi thout warni ng si gns.
Addi ti onal l y, extra camera l ocati ons and wi ri ng at al ternate l ocati ons are i nstal l ed
so that the cameras can be rotated among l ocati ons. Penal ti es for vi ol ati ng the red-
l i ght l aw are severe and are graduated based on how extensi vel y the motori st
vi ol ated the l aw (i .e., how many seconds i nto the red he entered the i ntersecti on).
Traffi c safety i n Germany i s cl earl y a coordi nated effort among l ocal and nati onal
organi zati ons. The German government has assembl ed about 500 acci dent
commi ssi ons at the federal and l ocal l evel s (the commi ssi on i n Frankfurt i s cal l ed
KEBU). These commi ssi ons combi ne engi neeri ng, l aw enforcement, and other
authori ti es, i ncl udi ng l ocal traffi c authori ti es, ci vi l engi neeri ng departments at
uni versi ti es, and traffi c securi ty wardens (si mi l ar to the U.S. Nati onal Safety
Counci l ). Dependi ng on the nature of the safety probl ems, other organi zati ons such
as cycl i st groups or publ i c transi t authori ti es parti ci pate i n the commi ssi ons. These
commi ssi ons ar e r esponsi bl e for i denti fyi ng hi gh-acci dent l ocati ons, compl eti ng
engi neeri ng studi es, i mpl ementi ng sol uti ons, and moni tori ng the sol uti ons for
Figure 2- 2.
Ped estria n a nd
b icycle crossing s
in Germany.
11
effecti veness (Fi gure 2-3). I n addi ti on, the commi ssi ons provi de general traffi c
safety trai ni ng to school chi l dren and the general publ i c.
Fig ure 2- 3. Resp onsib ilities of Germa nys
a ccid ent com m issions.
12
CHAPTER TWO
The performance of these commi ssi ons vari es throughout the country. Devel opi ng a
successful commi ssi on can be a l engthy process and i s hi ghl y dependent on havi ng
a qual i fi ed person or group i n a l eadershi p posi ti on. To address these i ssues, the
Germans have devel oped a three-day trai ni ng course for l ocal commi ssi ons.
German experi ence has shown that the most effecti ve commi ssi ons are those wi th
the hi ghest degree of trai ni ng and techni cal knowl edge.
Fundi ng for the safety commi ssi ons and the i mprovements they recommend comes
from general federal transportati on fundi ng sources. The l evel of pri ori ty and the
amount of money di rected to safety i mprovements i s l eft up to the commi ssi ons
and l ocal authori ti es (projects and fundi ng are not earmarked sol el y for safety
pr i or i ti es).
Though Germany uses roundabouts for speed control , offi ci al s sai d a si gni fi cant
di sadvantage of roundabouts i s that they take control away from engi neers. The
geometri c desi gn and yi el d to the roundabout rul e prevai l , and i t i s not possi bl e to
gi ve pri ori ty to buses or bi cycl es.
THE NETHERLANDS
The Mi ni stry of Transport, Publ i c Works, and Water Management (RWS) i s the
nati onal road authori ty i n the Netherl ands. RWS provi des some fundi ng for
i ntersecti on safety i mprovement, but deci si ons on how to best di rect funds to meet
speci fi c needs are determi ned l argel y by l ocal agenci es.
The Netherl ands has about 5,300 si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons. Ei ghty-one percent are
l ocated i n urban areas and 19 percent i n nonurban areas. Seventy-seven percent of
the si gnal s are actuated. I n 2001, 1,085 traffi c fatal i ti es were reported, about 11
percent at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons. I n that year, 18,510 peopl e were hospi tal i zed as
a resul t of traffi c acci dents.
1
The number of fatal i ti es i n 1972 was 3,250, and si nce
then both fatal i ti es and hospi tal i zati ons have been decreasi ng an average of 4
percent a year.
The Netherl ands has nati onal safety goal s gui di ng i ts approach to i ntersecti on
safety. The Nati onal Traffi c and Transport Pl an has set goal s of a 30 percent
reducti on i n fatal i ti es and a 25 percent reducti on i n seri ous i njuri es by 2010. The
program i s based on devel opi ng sustai nabl e safety sol uti ons and i s bui l t on three
pri mary pri nci pl es (Fi gure 2-4). Fi rst, the form of the system shoul d be desi gned to
fol l ow the i ntended functi on and prevent uni ntended uses. Second, the system
shoul d be homogeneous. The Dutch bel i eve that a hi ghl y homogeneous system
i mproves safety, and they try to prevent major vari ati ons i n vehi cl e speed,
di recti on, and mass on thei r hi gher-speed faci l i ti es. Fi nal l y, the system shoul d be
predi ctabl e even to users unfami l i ar wi th the road.
13
I n December 2001, the Mi ni stry of Transports Transport Research Centre (AVV)
publ i shed the second edi ti on of i ts report Sustai nabl e Safety: A Preventabl e Road
Safety Strategy for the Future. Thi s report i s avai l abl e i n Engl i sh and presents the
pri nci pl es of sustai nabl e safety, phase i mpl ementati on pl ans, and speci fi c
i mpl ementati on measur es.
2
The Dutch have devel oped regi onal traffi c enforcement task forces that target fi ve
safety areas: speedi ng, red-l i ght runni ng, dri vi ng under the i nfl uence, safety bel t
use, and moped hel met use. Al l 26 pol i ce regi ons have task forces that work wi th
nati onal enforcement offi cers who rotate around the country. The general speed-
l i mi t tol erance l evel i s 10 percent wi th both cameras and pol i ce offi cers.
Enforcement l ocati ons are determi ned by revi ewi ng acci dent and vi ol ati on
stati sti cs. The revenue generated by these task forces goes to the nati onal
governments treasury department, and the money i s rei nvested i n sustai ni ng the
pr ogr ams.
The Dutch spend consi derabl e effort and resources on engagi ng the publ i c i n
devel opi ng and mai ntai ni ng a safe and sustai nabl e transportati on system. A
nongovernmental associ ati on known as 3VO i s at the forefront of publ i c awareness
efforts and campai gns. The associ ati ons mi ssi on i s to provi de never-fadi ng
attenti on to traffi c safety, start at the l owest l evel (i nteract wi th ci vi l i ans), share
knowl edge wi th others, and work wi th as many al l i es as possi bl e. The associ ati on
Principles of Sustainable Safety
function
form use
function: use of the road as intended by the road authority
form: the p hysica l design and layout of the infrastructure
use: a ctua l use of the infra structure a nd b eha viour of the roa d user
Figure 2- 4. The Netherlands primar y principles to achieve sustainable safety.
14
CHAPTER TWO
recentl y changed i ts approach from poi nti ng the fi nger at probl em areas to
di ssemi nati ng safety messages wi th an emphasi s on sol uti ons and i nteracti on.
Li ke other European countri es vi si ted, heavy pedestri an and bi cycl e traffi c i s
common at most si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons i n the Netherl ands. The Dutch have
devel oped and depl oyed speci al si gnal i ndi cators to warn pedestri ans, bi cycl i sts,
and motori sts of potenti al confl i ct si tuati ons. A noteworthy practi ce i n the
Netherl ands i s to l i mi t maxi mum si gnal cycl e l engths to better accommodate
pedestri ans, bi cycl es, and publ i c transport vehi cl es. Under certai n pol i ti cal
condi ti ons, motori zed traffi c congesti on i ssues are treated as secondary. Thi s
approach i s i n contrast to typi cal practi ce i n the Uni ted States, where i ntersecti ons
are ti med, phased, and operated to mi ni mi ze del ay to motori sts.
The Dutch promote safety and focus on ski l l ed dri vi ng from the start by requi ri ng
the fol l owi ng for obtai ni ng a dri vers l i cense:
An average of 30 hours of hands-on trai ni ng, wi th l essons costi ng U.S. $30 an
hour.
A 50-questi on wri tten exam on i nformati on taken from a 500-page dri vers
manual .
A 35-mi nute dri vi ng test at a cost of U.S. $163. The fai l ure rate i s 70 percent, and
an addi ti onal 10 l essons are requi red before retaki ng the test.
The Dutch program for i ntersecti on safety focuses on reduci ng speed and
provi di ng road users wi th cl ear, consi stent i nformati on. Speed i s control l ed by
several methods, i ncl udi ng geometri c desi gn, speed-warni ng si gns, speed tabl es,
and an extensi ve use of the l atest technol ogy, i ncl udi ng conspi cuous automated
photo enfor cement.
I f traffi c vol umes al l ow, the Dutch make extensi ve use of roundabouts that are
conservati ve i n desi gn (one-l ane roundabouts wi th sharp entrance angl es to assure
vehi cl e speed r educti on ar e pr efer r ed).
To measure speeds, the Dutch have made substanti al i nvestments i n detecti on.
Thei r l i mi ted-access freeways (equi val ent to the U.S. I nterstate system) have
speed/vol ume detecti on i n each l ane every quarter mi l e. One si gnal i zed
i ntersecti on the team vi si ted had as many as 78 detectors to sense vehi cl e speed
and traffi c vol ume and revi se si gnal ti mi ng.
The Dutch extensi vel y use oversi zed si gnal i ndi cati ons and back pl ates for
conspi cui ty (much more so than any of the other countri es vi si ted). Thei r l argest
si gnal i ndi cati ons are equi val ent to 12-i nch heads used i n the Uni ted States, but
the back pl ates are substanti al l y l arger than any i n the Uni ted States. The back
pl ates are oval , wi th the border pai nted whi te for contrast.
A si gni fi cant porti on of the i ntersecti on safety program i n the Netherl ands focuses
on pedestri ans and bi cycl i sts, who suffer severe consequences when i nvol ved i n
acci dents at si gnal i zed i nter secti ons.
15
Tort l i abi l i ty i s not a major concern i n the Netherl ands, but the ri si ng number of
ci vi l l awsui ts cr eates concer n.
UNITED KINGDOM
I nsti tuti onal structure i n the Uni ted Ki ngdom i s si mi l ar to that i n the Uni ted
States. The central government sets overal l pol i cy and l egi sl ates countrywi de
standards to achi eve uni formi ty. The central government al so al l ocates fundi ng and
provi des advi ce and gui dance to l ocal agenci es through the traffi c management
department. Local governments i mpl ement nati onal pol i ci es and make l ocal traffi c
regul ati on orders (e.g., access control measures) to best meet thei r goal s and needs.
Engl and has 149 l ocal hi ghway authori ti es wi th a broad range of objecti ves,
i ncl udi ng reduci ng congesti on, promoti ng modal shi ft, and i mprovi ng road safety,
ai r qual i ty, and the qual i ty of l ocal space.
A number of mechani sms are i n pl ace to hel p accompl i sh those objecti ves:
Whi te paper s
A 10-year pl an
Nati onal ai r qual i ty strategy
Local transport pl ans
Legi sl ati on
Commi tments to sel ect commi ttees and commi ssi ons
The Uni ted Ki ngdoms nati onal safety pl an, Tomorrows RoadsSafer for
Everyone, cal l s for a 40 percent reducti on i n total roadway fatal i ti es and seri ous
i njuri es, a 50 percent reducti on i n the number of chi l dren ki l l ed or seri ousl y
i njured, and a 10 percent reducti on i n the sl i ght-casual ty rate. As wi th the other
countri es vi si ted, the emphasi s i s on acci dents wi th seri ous consequences. The pl an
i s bei ng i mpl emented i n partnershi p wi th l ocal authori ti es, pol i ce, heal th servi ces,
commerce and i ndustry, other government departments, and road users.
The Hi ghways Agency i s responsi bl e for the 10,000 ki l ometers of the nati onal
system. The Uni ted Ki ngdom has about 350,000 ki l ometers of l ocal roads. The
Hi ghways Agency i s responsi bl e for more than 1,700 si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons (pl us
860 si gnal i zed pedestri an crossi ngs), whi l e l ocal agenci es are responsi bl e for more
than 12,000 si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons (pl us 13,800 pedestri an crossi ngs).
The Uni ted Ki ngdom, l i ke the Uni ted States, faces si gni fi cant traffi c congesti on i n
metropol i tan areas. I t faces the chal l enge of mai ntai ni ng a del i cate bal ance among
safety, mobi l i ty, and congesti on i n the desi gn and operati on of si gnal i zed
i nter secti ons. The Br i ti sh have devel oped and i mpl emented sever al computer i zed
si gnal -ti mi ng opti mi zati on software packages, such as mi croprocessor opti mi zed
vehi cl e actuati on (MOVA) and opti mi zed si gnal capaci ty and del ay (OSCADY), to
i ncrease i ntersecti on capaci ty, reduce del ay and queui ng, and i mprove safety.
16
CHAPTER TWO
Pedestri an safety and the effect of pedestri an traffi c on motori zed traffi c are al so
hi gh pri ori ti es i n the Uni ted Ki ngdom. A number of speci al i zed pedestri an
crossi ngs have been devel oped, i ncl udi ng the PUFFI N (pedestri an user-fri endl y
i ntel l i gent) and TOUCAN (two can cross) crossi ngs, to i mprove pedestri an and
bi cycl i st safety and operati ons at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons. Leadi ng-edge
technol ogi es (i ncl udi ng passi ve i nfrared and mi crowave detecti on) opti mi ze both
motori zed and nonmotori zed traffi c operati ons at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons. The
PUFFI N crossi ng has pedestri an detecti on and can forego the pedestri an phase i f
detecti on shows the pedestri an has changed hi s mi nd or crossed the street on the
dont wal k si gn, and can extend the wal k ti me i f a pedestri an l i ngers i n the
str eet.
I t has been demonstrated i n the Uni ted States that care i s needed i n marki ng
crosswal ks because they may actual l y encourage pedestri ans to rel ax thei r guard
whi l e crossi ng, so crossi ng technol ogy favori ng pedestri ans mi ght have downsi des.
Duri ng a bri efi ng on traffi c i n hi ghl y congested parts of London, offi ci al s reported
that up to 29 percent of the crashes at si gnal s i nvol ve pedestri ans.
Transport for London (TFL) i s responsi bl e for traffi c management i n the greater
London area. I t owns and operates about 4,500 traffi c si gnal s and 600 enforcement
cameras. Over the past two years, TFL has devel oped a Road Safety Uni t, whi ch
emphasi zes enforcement and educati on. As wi th the safety commi ssi ons and task
forces i n the other countri es vi si ted, the uni t i s made up of representati ves from
mul ti pl e agenci es. The team vi si ted the London Traffi c Control Centre and was
surpri sed to hear that al though traffi c engi neers are accountabl e for al l si gnal
ti mi ng, i f the centre detects the need for changes on the basi s of the extensi ve
camera system, offi ci al s must cal l Scotl and Yard to make the changes. (Traffi c
management and pol i ce-rel ated functi ons, however, are becomi ng more i ntegrated).
Li ke other countri es vi si ted, tort l i abi l i ty has not been an i ssue i n the Uni ted
Ki ngdom, but l awsui ts are becomi ng more preval ent and transportati on offi ci al s
must fol l ow standards and ri gi d engi neeri ng practi ces to avoi d ci vi l l i abi l i ty.
Typi cal l y, l ocal agenci es work wi th the Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) to
research and test new i deas before they are i mpl emented. TRL has devel oped a
sophi sti cated vehi cl e si mul ator (Fi gure 2-5) that al l ows engi neers to test si gnal
operati ons and desi gn pl ans i n a l aboratory setti ng before ful l -scal e
i mpl ementati on, reduci ng ri sk and l i mi ti ng l i abi l i ty associ ated wi th new i deas.
Several l awsui ts rel ated to the use of red-l i ght cameras have been unsuccessful .
17
Fi gure 2-5.
Vehi cl e
si mul ator
to test
extended
amber
ti mi ng i n
the Uni ted
Ki ngdom.
18
chapt er t hr ee
DESI GN, OPERATI ON, AND MAI NTENANCE OF
TRAFFI C CONTROL DEVI CES
Traffi c si gnal cycl e aspects di ffer from country to country i n Europe. Germany and
the Uni ted Ki ngdom use a start-up yel l ow i nterval before the begi nni ng of a
green i ndi cati on. Thi s short i nterval di spl ays the yel l ow and red i ndi cati ons at the
same ti me to l et the motori st know the green phase i s comi ng. Sweden al so uses a
start-up yel l ow before the begi nni ng of a green i ndi cati on and a return to green
duri ng yel l ow as one of the opti ons of the LHOVRA techni que. Because thi s i s a
si gni fi cant di fference from U.S. practi ce, some European practi ces on phase change
i nterval s cannot be di rectl y transferred to the Uni ted States.
SWEDEN
Traffi c si gnal s are i nstal l ed on a case-by-case basi s after engi neeri ng studi es usi ng
a thr ee-to-fi ve-year anal ysi s per i od.
Desi gn and operati on of traffi c si gnal s i n Sweden are based on a code of statutes.
Adherence to these codes i s an absol ute requi rement. They address vehi cul ar,
pedestri an, and other types of si gnal s; where si gnal s shoul d be pl aced; number of
si gnal s per approach; safety ti mi ng of the si gnal s; and phasi ng of the si gnal s.
Si gnal i zed i ntersecti on desi gn speci fi cati ons are defi ned i n three pri mary
documents:
Code of Road
Code of Road Desi gn
Code of Constructi on Speci fi cati ons for Traffi c Si gnal s
One desi gn approach to i mprove i ntersecti on safety i n Sweden i s to requi re
speci fi c geometri c and operati onal i ntersecti on features based sol el y on desi gn
speed. The phi l osophy i s to mi ni mi ze confl i cts (vehi cl e-vehi cl e and vehi cl e-
pedestri an) as approach speeds i ncrease. For exampl e, the codes di ctate that
si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons wi th posted speeds of 70 ki l ometers per hour (about 43
mi l es per hour) or more must have protected l eft-turn l anes wi th protected
phasi ng. Left turns are prohi bi ted from roadways wi th speed l i mi ts i n excess of 70
ki l ometer s per hour.
When hi gh-acci dent l ocati ons have been i denti fi ed, progressi ve sol uti ons are
devel oped on the basi s of engi neeri ng studi es that eval uate safety among vehi cl es,
pedestri ans, and bi cycl i sts; mobi l i ty (del ay); and traffi c demand. I n some cases,
where acci dent severi ty i s hi gh, Sweden has removed traffi c si gnal s and repl aced
them wi th roundabouts, recogni zi ng that overal l acci dent rates may i ncrease and
l i ne-of-si ght may be degraded, but the rate of severe (fatal and i njuri ous) acci dents
wi l l decrease. Repl aci ng si gnal s wi th roundabouts seems to be moti vated by
pol i ti cal and pol i ce pressure. I n urban areas, unsi gnal i zed roundabouts can have a
19
DESIGN, OPERATION, AND MAINTENANCE
negati ve systemwi de effect because i t i s di ffi cul t to control and manage pl atooni ng
and tr affi c pr ogr essi on.
I n some cases, the Swedes have i nstal l ed traffi c si gnal s at roundabouts, but
si gnal i zi ng roundabouts i s not a preferred approach and i s done on a l i mi ted basi s
to i mprove pedestri an and bi cycl i st safety (Fi gure 3-1).
Sweden cl earl y pl aces i ntersecti on safety above operati onal consi derati ons and
capaci ty. The fol l owi ng are exampl es:
The maxi mum si gnal cycl e l ength used i n Sweden i s 100 seconds. Thi s practi ce
i s dri ven not by capaci ty, but by pedestri an and bi cycl i st safety. Rel ati vel y short
si gnal cycl e l engths reduce the l i kel i hood a bi cycl i st or a pedestri an wi l l cross
agai nst the red si gnal , parti cul arl y duri ng the l ong wi nter months.
Sweden does not al l ow ri ght turns on red. Thi s l i mi ts capaci ty but i mproves
pedestri an and bi cycl i st safety.
I n general , red cl earance i nterval s are not used because they i ncrease del ay for
pedestr i ans and bi cycl i sts.
Most traffi c si gnal s i n Sweden are treated as i sol ated i ntersecti ons wi thout
i nterconnecti ons. Master si gnal systems are used, but the pri mary focus i s
moni tori ng si gnal ti mi ng to make capaci ty adjustments.
Fig ure 3- 1. Sig na lized intersection in Stockholm, Sw ed en.
20
CHAPTER THREE
GERMANY
I n Germany, the desi gn and constructi on of si gnal s and gui del i nes on thei r
pl acement are found i n federal standards, l aws, and regul ati ons. These gui del i nes
(i ncl udi ng detai l ed ti mi ng cal cul ati ons at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons) must be
fol l owed and correctl y appl i ed, or the owni ng agency or responsi bl e engi neer may
face cri mi nal or ci vi l l i abi l i ty.
The fol l owi ng i s a l i st of standards used to pl an, desi gn, and operate traffi c si gnal s
i n Germany:
HAVsi gn i nstal l ati on
R-FGUpedestr i an desi gn
RMSpavement mar ki ngs
Ri sl atraffi c si gnal s (ti mi ng and control l er programmi ng)
DI N VDE 0832techni cal speci fi cati ons for safety rel ated to el ectroni cs and
mai ntenance i nter val s
BO-Straubspeci al aspects of trol l ey traffi c si gnal s
EAHVgeometr i c standar ds for i nter secti on desi gn
These standards set ri gorous cl earance and si gnal -ti mi ng cal cul ati ons that must be
compl eted and documented for al l modes of traffi c at each si gnal i zed i ntersecti on.
Fi gure 3-2 shows an i ntersecti on i n Frankfurt and summari zes the resul ts of the
ti mi ng cal cul ati ons. The di fferent col ors represent the phase change i nterval s
eval uated. Pedestri an crossi ng paths are shown i n yel l ow, motori zed vehi cl e paths
are shown i n red and green, and the trol l ey path i s shown i n bl ue. Yel l ow change
and red cl earance i nterval s are vari ed, dependi ng on the approach speed and the
confl i ct cal cul ati ons for al l traffi c modes. Frankfurt has an extensi ve trol l ey system
that al so must be consi dered i n phase change cal cul ati ons. I f an acci dent occurs
and the si gnal ti mi ng i s i n questi on, the courts refer to these ti mi ng tabl es to hel p
assess dri ver l i abi l i ty and to determi ne i f a vi ol ati on occurred.
3
21
Pedestri an-crossi ng i ndi cati ons i n Germany are pl aced on the near si de of the
crossi ng and are suppl emented by a pl ease wai t i ndi cati on on the far si de to
i ndi cate that the pedestri an button has been acti vated. The nearsi de i ndi cati on i s
ei ther red or green (Fi gure 3-3). Duri ng the red phase, the pl ease wai t i ndi cati on
on the far si de of the crossi ng i s l i t. Thi s combi nati on of crossi ng si gnal s appears to
be l ess confusi ng to pedestri ans than the use of farsi de si gnal s wi th a fl ashi ng
green man, and resul ts i n fewer pedestri ans crossi ng duri ng the red phase.
Figure 3- 2.
Sig na lized
i n ter secti o n
layout in
Fr a n kfu r t,
Germ a ny.
22
CHAPTER THREE
Li ke Sweden, Germany uses shorter cycl e l engths at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons
pri mari l y to accommodate heavy bi cycl e and pedestri an traffi c. The maxi mum cycl e
l ength used i s 120 seconds. Frankfurt routi nel y uses 90-second cycl e l engths for i ts
coordi nated traffi c si gnal s. The use of short cycl e l engths i s al so dri ven by the
desi re to mi ni mi ze wai t ti mes for pedestri ans and bi cycl i sts.
Frankfurt has successful l y restri cted i ntersecti on operati ons at a number of si tes
to address safety concerns and confl i cts wi th l eft-turni ng traffi c, whether they are
vehi cl e-vehi cl e or pedestr i an/bi cycl e-vehi cl e. I n cer tai n ci r cumstances, Fr ankfur t
traffi c engi neers have prohi bi ted l eft turns and i nstead i nstal l ed speci al si gns
di recti ng motori sts to make a seri es of ri ght turns. Offi ci al s stressed that thi s i s
not a tradi ti onal treatment and that the si te condi ti ons and traffi c demand must be
sui tabl e for thi s techni que to succeed.
The l ocati on of pedestri an crossi ngs, parti cul arl y mi dbl ock crossi ngs, can pose
speci al safety concerns. Frankfurt uses the resul ts of si gnal -ti mi ng cal cul ati ons and
progressi on anal yses to i denti fy the opti mum l ocati on for mi dbl ock pedestri an
crossi ngs. Doi ng so hel ps pl ace pedestri an crossi ngs i n l ocati ons that mi ni mi ze the
di srupti on to traffi c progressi on and maxi mi ze the amount of green ti me avai l abl e
for pedestri ans and bi cycl i sts to cross a street. Surpri si ngl y, the Germans bel i eve
that pedestri an crossi ngs must be si gnal i zed i f a roadway has more than two l anes
to be crossed. Pedestri an crossi ngs at i ntersecti ons that cross more than two l anes
must have a protected pedestri an-onl y phase.
Figure 3- 3.
Aud ib le
p ed estria n
signal head
in Germany.
23
As i n the Uni ted States, Germany has safety probl ems at hi gh-speed rural
i ntersecti ons. To address the i ssue, the Germans do not pl ace traffi c si gnal s at
i ntersecti ons wi th approach speed l i mi ts greater than 70 ki l ometers per hour. On
faci l i ti es wi th hi gher speed l i mi ts, ei ther the crossi ngs are grade separated or the
speed l i mi t i s l owered before i ntersecti ons. Loweri ng the speed l i mi t requi res
effecti ve enforcement, and i n many cases photo enforcement techni ques have been
used to successful l y control approach speeds. Photo enforcement techni ques are
di scussed i n more detai l i n Chapter 4, whi ch addresses i nnovati ve traffi c control
devi ces.
I ntersecti on mai ntenance i s an i mportant safety i ssue i n Germany. Frankfurt has a
formal mai ntenance procedure. A detai l ed matri x tabl e l i sti ng i tems such as
rel ampi ng, housi ng cl eani ng, etc., i s devel oped. I n addi ti on, the mai ntenance
frequency i s establ i shed and l ogged for each si gnal or system. For exampl e, the ci ty
recentl y converted some si gnal s to a 10-vol t hal ogen system. Offi ci al s concl uded
that i t provi des the same energy savi ngs as 20-watt bul bs at hal f the pri ce of
LEDs.
4
Germany uses preempti on systems for buses, trol l eys, and emergency vehi cl es.
Preempti on techni ques rel y on several technol ogi es, i ncl udi ng swi tches i n trol l ey
rai l s, coi l devi ces tri ggered by trams and buses, l oop detectors i n bus l anes, and
mi crowave detectors and radi o si gnal s for buses. Wi th the excepti on of emergency
vehi cl es, si gnal preempti on i s consi dered a transi t i mprovement, not a safety
i mpr ovement.
The Germans are compl eti ng a safety audi t process i ntended for use i n pl anni ng,
desi gni ng, constructi ng, and operati ng si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons. The audi t process
can be appl i ed to exi sti ng hi gh-acci dent i ntersecti ons to hel p i denti fy appropri ate
countermeasures, but the real focus of the program i s addressi ng safety i ssues i n
the desi gn phase. They have devel oped a trai ni ng program and courses for
professi onal s to become certi fi ed as road safety audi tors. The program i s schedul ed
to begi n by the end of 2002.
Roundabouts typi cal l y are not si gnal i zed i n Germany. Si gnal i zi ng roundabouts i s
consi dered a l ast resort and i s consi dered onl y i n speci al ci rcumstances to i mprove
tr affi c fl ow, accommodate speci al pedestr i an condi ti ons, accommodate the tr ol l ey
system, etc.
I n Germany, ri ght turns on red are permi tted onl y i f the fol l owi ng cri teri a are met:
Motori zed traffi c has cl ear l i nes of si ght to al l bi cycl e or pedestri an crossi ngs.
Si gnal s are present to control pedestri an crossi ngs.
Confl i cti ng pedestri ans do not cross more than two l anes.
No bi cycl e traffi c i s present.
No more than two seri ous acci dents have occurred at the i ntersecti on i n the
past three years.
24
CHAPTER THREE
THE NETHERLANDS
I n the Netherl ands, sel ecti on, desi gn, i nstal l ati on, operati on, and mai ntenance of
traffi c control devi ces for si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons are outl i ned i n a number of
publ i cati ons devel oped under the sponsorshi p of CROW (I nformati on and
Technol ogy Centre for Transport and I nfrastructure). CROW i s a nati onal ,
i ndependent, nonprofi t partnershi p among the nati onal government, provi nces,
l ocal authori ti es, contractors, consul tants, publ i c transport compani es, and
research and educati on groups.
CROWs nati onal standards are descri bed i n a number of handbooks addressi ng
si gnal i zed i ntersecti on desi gn and operati on and sustai nabl e safety:
5
Recommendati ons for Traffi c Provi si ons i n Bui l t-up AreasASVV
Handbook on Road Desi gn
Handbook on Roundabouts
Handbook on Traffi c Control Systems
Handbook on Marki ng and Si gnposti ng
The ASVV i ncl udes several chapters on si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons, i ncl udi ng cri teri a
for i nstal l i ng and removi ng si gnal s at i ntersecti ons, desi gn processes for control
systems, and desi gn suggesti ons for si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons. The gui del i nes
suggest that sol vi ng traffi c fl ow and road safety probl ems wi th traffi c control
systems shoul d be consi dered onl y as a l ast resort and that l i mi ted reconstructi on
i s often a better sol uti on. The ASVV provi des gui dance on removi ng a traffi c si gnal
i f traffi c condi ti ons change, maki ng the si gnal undesi rabl e by vol ume and ti me-l oss
cr i ter i a.
Crossi ng agai nst the red si gnal i s the pri mary cause of seri ous pedestri an and
bi cycl i st acci dents at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons. The Dutch, l i ke the Germans and
Swedes, use short cycl e l engths to mi ni mi ze pedestri an and bi cycl i st wai t ti mes
and decrease the l i kel i hood of thei r crossi ng duri ng the red phase. Si xty percent of
Dutch si gnal s use a 90-second-maxi mum cycl e, and 90 percent are shorter than 180
seconds (Fi gure 3-4). When actuated si gnal s are used, the real maxi mum cycl e ti me
i s consi derabl y l ess.
25
Seventy-seven percent of the i ntersecti ons i n the Netherl ands are vehi cl e actuated,
and about 30 percent of al l si gnal s are operated on a coordi nated network. I f traffi c
si gnal s are l ess than 400 meters apart, the goal i s to coordi nate thei r operati on, a
practi ce that, whi l e provi di ng safety benefi ts, appears to be dri ven more by
capaci ty and traffi c fl ow.
The use of permi tted and protected phasi ng i s not mandated i n desi gn standards
and gui del i nes. A survey of traffi c juri sdi cti ons, muni ci pal i ti es, and provi nces found
that about 30 percent never al l ow secondary confl i cts (permi tted phasi ng) between
motori st and nonmotori st traffi c. About 65 percent of survey respondents i ndi cated
they woul d al l ow secondary confl i cts, dependi ng on the si tuati on. The gui del i nes
(not mandated) are desi gned to provi de protected phasi ng onl y for faci l i ti es wi th
speed l i mi ts greater than 50 ki l ometers per hour.
A l i mi ted number of traffi c si gnal s i n the Netherl ands are set to dwel l i n the al l -
red mode when traffi c i s not present at an i ntersecti on. Thi s practi ce means that
approachi ng traffi c sees a red si gnal and sl ows down. The practi ce i s consi stent
wi th the overal l safety practi ce and phi l osophy of reduci ng speed i n potenti al
confl i ct areas. I n one i nstance, the Dutch i nstal l ed speed detecti on l i nked wi th a
changeabl e message si gn that tel l s dri vers that they must sl ow down to recei ve
the green l i ght. I f they do not, the si gnal hol ds the red l i ght.
I n rural areas, where al l owabl e speeds are as hi gh as 80 ki l ometers per hour, the
Dutch use l oop detectors before i ntersecti ons to adjust si gnal ti mi ngs wi th the goal
of mi ni mi zi ng the number of ti mes motori sts are caught i n the di l emma zone. Thi s
appl i cati on i s equi val ent to some features of the LHOVRA techni que used i n
Sweden at i sol ated (nonsynchroni zed) si gnal s at hi gh-speed rural i ntersecti ons.
Figure 3- 4.
Distrib ution of
signal cycle
leng ths used
in the
Netherla nd s.
26
CHAPTER THREE
LED si gnal s are used i n the Netherl ands, and a speci al code of practi ce addresses
l amp moni tori ng and gradual fai l ure. The Dutch have found that LED l i ghts have a
si gni fi cant posi ti ve i mpact on si gnal vi si bi l i ty.
Si gnal control pl ans, whi ch are dri ven by the goal to provi de si mpl e,
understandabl e operati ons, i ncl ude the fol l owi ng techni ques:
Use short cycl e l engths.
Avoi d unnecessary wai ti ng for motori zed and nonmotori zed traffi c.
Provi de adequate green ti mes, based on speed and traffi c condi ti ons, for traffi c
to cl ear the i ntersecti on.
Modi fy green ti mes on the basi s of traffi c demands.
Meeti ng these requi rements necessi tates actuated traffi c control systems wi th an
extensi ve network of l oop detectors and powerful si gnal control l ers capabl e of
two-way (i .e., upl oadi ng and downl oadi ng) communi cati on (Fi gure 3-6). Several
four-way i ntersecti ons the team vi si ted requi red more than 60 l oop detectors.
Legal l y, al l si gnal heads i n the Netherl ands are pl aced before confl i ct poi nts (i .e.,
few farsi de si gnal s exi st). Thi s way, users have a better understandi ng of the
i ntersecti on and the cross-street traffi c cannot see the i ndi cati on of the confl i cti ng
si gnal (Fi gure 3-5). Thi s practi ce requi res addi ti onal cl earance ti mes, as the stop
l i ne has to be si tuated farther from the i ntersecti on, but offi ci al s bel i eve safety
consi derati ons outwei gh capaci ty i ssues. Thi s effect i s mi ni mi zed by the l ocati on of
a bi cycl e l ane i n front of the stop l i ne and by the cl earance ti me needed for
pedestri an and bi cycl e phases.
Fig ures 3- 5.
Nea rsid e
signals in the
Netherla nd s.
27
Figure 3- 6.
Diagram in
contr ol l er
cabinet at a
four- leg
intersection in
th e
Netherla nd s.
28
CHAPTER THREE
Because publ i c transport has been a pri ori ty i n the Netherl ands si nce the earl y
1970s, the green phase for publ i c transport i s hastened or extended over
nonpri ori ti zed control . About 50 percent of transportati on authori ti es al l ow
extensi ve pri ori ty for publ i c transport. I n onl y 21 percent of cases i s pri ori ty to
publ i c transport not gi ven at al l . The amount of pri ori ty gi ven i s hardl y rel ated to
the punctual i ty of the speci fi c tram or bus. I n most cases, the techni que appl i ed
rel i es on l ocal sel ecti ve detecti on, l i ke vehi cl e taggi ng, but new techni ques based
on radi o and gl obal posi ti oni ng systems (GPS) are emergi ng.
6
UNITED KINGDOM
The U.K. Hi ghways Agency, under agreement wi th the Department of Transport,
pr ovi des desi gn gui dance for si gnal -contr ol l ed i nter secti ons i n two pr i mar y
documents: Desi gn Standards for Si gnal Control l ed Juncti ons (document TD50/
99) and Layout of Large Si gnal Control l ed Juncti ons (document TD89/02). These
documents outl i ne the desi gn pri nci pl es and practi ces for at-grade i ntersecti ons
and roundabouts, i ncl udi ng vi si bi l i ty requi rements, l ane wi dths, nonmotori zed-user
provi si ons, and si gnal equi pment provi si ons.
Most U.K. traffi c si gnal s are actuated or l i nked. Vehi cl e-actuati on equi pment rel i es
on buri ed i nducti ve l oops or aboveground detectors, such as mi crowave and vi deo.
Standard vehi cl e-actuated si gnal s i ncl ude three l oops (pl aced at 12, 24, and 39
meters) per approach and work wel l at speeds up to about 50 ki l ometers per hour
(35 mi l es per hour) (Fi gure 3-7).
29
Figure 3- 7.
Actua ted
signal layout
fo r
i n ter secti o n s
w ith
a p p roa ch
sp eed s
under 35
miles per
hour.
At i ntersecti ons wi th speeds above 50 ki l ometers per hour, speci al control l er
equi pment and addi ti onal l oop detectors are used to cater to dri vers i n the
di l emma zone.
Through speed di scri mi nati on and extensi on (SDE), speci al consi derati on i s gi ven
to desi gni ng si gnal ti mi ng that avoi ds transi ti oni ng the si gnal when traffi c i s i n the
30
CHAPTER THREE
di l emma zone (the area i n whi ch 10 to 90 percent of dri vers stop when the si gnal
changes to amber) and mi ni mi zi ng red-l i ght runni ng, parti cul arl y at hi gher-speed
rural l ocati ons (Fi gure 3-8). The goal i s to measure the occupancy of the di l emma
zone. I f i t i s occupi ed when the si de street cal l s, the si de street i s not gi ven a green
si gnal unti l the vehi cl es have cl eared the i ntersecti on. The system ti mes out at a
maxi mum green ti me, but onl y i f i t has al ready fai l ed to termi nate earl y because
the di l emma zone conti nues to be occupi ed.
Figure 3- 8. Layout of speed discrimination and extension configuration for speeds over 45
miles per hour.
31
Amber ti me i n the Uni ted Ki ngdom i s three seconds pl us or mi nus a quarter of a
second. Research studi es i ndi cate that i ncreasi ng the amber ti me woul d i ncrease
the number of acci dents. Si mi l ar research l ooked at provi di ng a warni ng that the
green phase i s endi ng (green i ndi cator fl ash for two seconds before yel l ow). Thi s
practi ce al so was found to have a negati ve i mpact on i ntersecti on safety.
Li nked traffi c systems i n the Uni ted Ki ngdom typi cal l y rel y on the TRANSYT
si gnal coordi nati on computer program to coordi nate the system. The spl i t-cycl e
offset opti mi zati on techni que (SCOOT) program was recentl y i ntroduced and i s a
method of usi ng on-street i nformati on provi ded by l oop detectors to automati cal l y
update offsets and spl i ts based on current traffi c condi ti ons. Forty percent of
Londons si gnal s are control l ed by SCOOT, and changes to ti mi ng pl ans can be
made from a control center.
7
The use of the vari ous l i nked si gnal system packages
i s dri ven pri mari l y by capaci ty and del ay consi derati ons, and not much research
has been done to determi ne measurabl e safety resul ts.
Other opti mi zati on packages, such as mi croprocessor opti mi zed vehi cl e actuati on
(MOVA), are used routi nel y i n the Uni ted Ki ngdom to i mprove i ntersecti on
effi ci ency (Fi gure 3-9). MOVAs features i ncl ude the fol l owi ng:
Hol ds the green for traffi c fl owi ng at saturati on rate.
Detects accuratel y the end of saturati on fl ow.
Deci des after saturati on fl ow ends whether to end or conti nue green.
Makes maxi mum green ti mes no l onger cri ti cal .
Detects oversaturati on l ane by l ane.
Swi tches to capaci ty-maxi mi zi ng contr ol when over l oaded.
Figure 3- 9.
Microprocessor
op tim ized
vehicle
a ctua tion
(M OVA) tra ffic
m od el.
32
CHAPTER THREE
I mpl ementati on of MOVA technol ogy has resul ted i n substanti al del ay savi ngs,
dependi ng on si te and traffi c condi ti ons, and thi s remai ns the case wi th more than
500 MOVA-control l ed i ntersecti ons i n the Uni ted Ki ngdom. I ni ti al l y, MOVA was
shown to i mprove i ntersecti on safety by reduci ng i nci dents of red-l i ght runni ng at
hi gh-speed si tes by 50,000 per year and reduci ng i njury acci dents at four hi gh-
speed si tes by 30 percent. Later resul ts have not been as favorabl e, wi th safety
remai ni ng unchanged at 31 hi gh-speed si tes recentl y studi ed.
8
Further research
i nto MOVA safety resul ts i s under way.
The Uni ted Ki ngdom bui l t many of i ts roundabouts at freeway i nterchanges many
years ago. Traffi c has grown to the poi nt that ramp meteri ng, al though sti l l at the
pi l ot stage, i s used to prevent traffi c backi ng up onto hi gh-speed motorways. Si nce
many roundabouts were bui l t on structure, they cannot be enl arged, and
si gnal i zati on has been the onl y way to gi ve pri ori ty to the off-ramps to prevent
backups on the mai nl i ne. U.K. roundabouts are someti mes si gnal i zed to i mprove
capaci ty and safety condi ti ons, parti cul arl y at l ocati ons wi th heavy traffi c or
unbal anced traffi c vol umes al ong approaches. Though si gnal i zi ng a roundabout i s
typi cal l y a l ast-resort sol uti on, doi ng so can i ncrease capaci ty, manage approach
queues, and reduce speeds. The deci si on to si gnal i ze a roundabout i s typi cal l y
based on engi neeri ng studi es and research rather than on gui del i nes (Fi gure 3-10).
MOVA and SCOOT si gnal -ti mi ng and operati onal techni ques have been
successful l y appl i ed at roundabouts throughout the Uni ted Ki ngdom
.9
Figure 3- 10.
Features of a
fully
sig na lized
round a b out
in the United
King d om.
33
chapt er f our
I NNOVATI VE TRAFFI C CONTROL DEVI CES
SWEDEN
Sweden uses a number of i nnovati ve traffi c control devi ces to i mprove safety at
si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons. Some measures have been i n pl ace for some ti me and have
been shown to be effecti ve, whi l e others are new and consi dered experi mental .
LHOVRA System
Perhaps the most i ntri gui ng and comprehensi ve i ntersecti on safety techni que
bei ng used by the Swedes i s a system cal l ed LHOVRA.
10
The LHOVRA system
consi sts of a seri es of detectors pl aced al ong the approach to an i ntersecti on. The
detectors determi ne vehi cl e type and speed at vari ous l ocati ons al ong the
approach and adjust the si gnal ti mi ng by i ncreasi ng the yel l ow change and al l red
cl earance i nterval s to mi ni mi ze the number of vehi cl es caught i n the di l emma zone
(Fi gure 4-1). LHOVRA was ori gi nal l y desi gned to accommodate heavy trucks, but
the system appears to be fl exi bl e and can be programmed to opti mi ze several
featur es.
Figure 4- 1. Detector layout and relationship for LHOVRA system.
Relation betw een detectors and LHOVRA- function
Distances are related to 70 km/ h and scalable to any speed.
34
CHAPTER FOUR
Conversion of Signals from Incandescent Bulb to LED
Stockhol m recentl y converted al l of i ts si gnal s (more than 10,500 heads and 27,000
l enses) to LED. I t i s the l argest ci ty i n the worl d to have made the compl ete
conversi on, and i t di d so i n response to the nati onal governments offer of l arge
grants for energy conservati on. The conversi on to LED, dri ven by the need to
The LHOVRA system has been successful l y i mpl emented and i s most effecti ve at
hi gh-speed rural i ntersecti ons, parti cul arl y where heavy truck traffi c i s a safety
concern. SNRA has compl eted before-and-after studi es at i ntersecti ons where
LHOVRA has been i mpl emented, and the resul ts are promi si ng. Fi gure 4-2
summari zes before-and-after studi es i n whi ch i nci dent reducti on (the O functi on i n
LHOVRA) was the pri mary goal .
Type of conflicts*
)
and the number
w ith the O- function
Rear- end conflicts
Miscellaneous
Total
Before LHOVRA
=
Tra d . sig na ls With LHOVRA
34
4
30
10
3
7
*
)
w ith conflict technique analysis methodology
Figure 4- 2. Summary of before- and- after studies of implementation of LHOVRA system.
A number of i ssues shoul d be consi dered before the LHOVRA system i s
i mpl emented, and a l ocati on study must be compl eted to ensure that the
technol ogy wi l l functi on properl y and i mprove i ntersecti on safety performance. I t
i s possi bl e for the technol ogy to be used i mproperl y by road users (motori sts and
pedestr i ans).
11
A compr ehensi ve r epor t on devel opi ng and i mpl ementi ng LHOVRA
i s avai l abl e through SNRA, Si gnal Control Strategy for I sol ated I ntersecti ons
(publ i cati on 1991:51E). For more i nformati on, contact Al f Peterson, SNRA. See
Appendi x C for contact i nformati on.
35
INNOVATIVE TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES
conserve energy, cost the equi val ent of U.S. $5.3 mi l l i on (al most al l pai d by the
nati onal government) and i s esti mated to save about U.S. $870,000 a year i n energy
costs. The LEDs have an esti mated l i fe of 10 years, and the i nvestment i s expected
to be pai d off i n si x years. Whi l e no data on the safety advantages i s avai l abl e yet,
LED l i ghti ng i mproves vi si bi l i ty and publ i c response has been posi ti ve.
12
Figure 4- 3.
Rep o r t
sum m a rizing
conversion to
LED lighting
in Stockholm ,
Sw ed en.
36
CHAPTER FOUR
Handheld Transponders
Stockhol m i s experi menti ng wi th handhel d transponders that extend green si gnal s
at si gnal i zed crossi ngs for pedestri ans. When the transponder i s hel d up to a pol e-
mounted sensor, the green peri od i s extended, al l owi ng a group of chi l dren, for
exampl e, to cross the street compl etel y. Transponder use i s l i mi ted to ki ndergarten
teachers and crossi ng guards i n sel ected school zones wi th l arge numbers of
students. Responses from test groups have been posi ti ve, but the ci ty i s concerned
about recei vi ng a fl ood of requests from other speci al -user groups i nterested i n
seei ng the technol ogy i mpl emented on a broader basi s. Use beyond school zones
woul d have a si gni fi cant negati ve i mpact on traffi c fl ow synchroni zati on and
i nter secti on oper ati ons.
13
Portable Variable-Message Signs
Sweden i s al so experi menti ng wi th portabl e vari abl e-message si gns i n school
zones. When a motori st approaches the school zone travel i ng at a speed greater
than the posted l i mi t, the si gn l i ghts up wi th a message that i ndi cates the motori st
i s speedi ng i n a school zone.
Audible Crossing Indicators
Many pedestri an crossi ngs i n Stockhol m are equi pped wi th acousti c i ndi cators. The
devi ces serve two purposes. Fi rst, they rei nforce the vi sual crosswal k i ndi cators by
emi tti ng a fast ti cki ng sound duri ng the green pedestri an phase, an even-faster
ti cki ng duri ng the pedestri an-cl earance phase, and a sl ow ti cki ng duri ng the red
pedestri an phase. Si nce the same ti cki ng sounds are used on both streets, i t i s
essenti al that the speakers emi tti ng the sound be ai med di rectl y at the pedestri ans
wai ti ng at each crosswal k. The team bel i eves thi s i s a parti cul arl y effecti ve
approach (superi or to the chi rpi ng sounds used i n the Uni ted States). Second, they
provi de cl ear wal k and dont-wal k i ndi cati ons for the vi sual l y i mpai red. Some
pedestri an-crossi ng push buttons are equi pped wi th a speci al l ocator tone that
hel ps the vi sual l y i mpai red l ocate the button (Fi gure 4-4).
37
Raised Crossings
Sweden has al so i mpl emented the use of rai sed and vi rtual l y rai sed pedestri an
crossi ngs to sl ow vehi cl es approachi ng a crossi ng. Rai sed crossi ngs have been
somewhat successful i n reduci ng vehi cl e speed and i ncreasi ng the l i kel i hood a
motori st wi l l yi el d the ri ght-of-way. Surveys show that pedestri ans general l y favor
the rai sed wal k. One excepti on i s the vi sual l y i mpai red, for whom detecti ng a
rai sed crossi ng i s di ffi cul t.
Vi rtual l y rai sed pedestri an crosswal ks are pai nted on the roadway surface and
gi ve the opti cal i l l usi on of a rai sed surface (Fi gure 4-5). Thi s approach i s most
effecti ve and appropri ate i n l ocati ons where the majori ty of motori sts are
unfami l i ar dr i ver s.
Figure 4- 4.
Ped estria n
p ush b utton
eq uip p ed
w ith a coustic
loca tor tone
in Sw ed en.
38
CHAPTER FOUR
GERMANY
Photo Enforcement Equipment
Automated enforcement techni ques have been shown to be effecti ve i n Germany.
The Germans use photo enforcement to control speed on roadway segments and
hi gh-speed i ntersecti on approaches. As di scussed i n Chapter 3, Germany does not
si gnal i ze i ntersecti ons wi th approach speeds greater than 70 ki l ometers per hour.
For si tuati ons i n whi ch si gnal s are requi red on hi gher-speed roadways, the speed
l i mi t i s reduced before the i ntersecti on. Thi s practi ce i s effecti ve, however, onl y i f
motor i sts obey the r educed-speed l i mi ts.
To address thi s need, Germany has successful l y appl i ed photo enforcement
techni ques to sl ow traffi c and reduce red-l i ght runni ng. Offi ci al s i denti fi ed two
keys to successful appl i cati on. Fi rst, the publ i c must be aware that the cameras are
i n pl ace. Second, a substanti al penal ty must be associ ated wi th di sobeyi ng the
posted speed or runni ng a red l i ght. German speed-enforcement cameras are
hi ghl y vi si bl e, si gns warn of photo enforcement, and publ i c messages are broadcast
to make motori sts aware that the equi pment i s bei ng used. The Germans are
studyi ng the effecti veness of the cameras, but based on prel i mi nary observati ons
and before-and-after studi es at several i ntersecti ons, the reducti on i n the number
and severi ty of acci dents has been dramati c. Offi ci al s noted that i n some cases,
Figure 4- 5. Virtually raised crossw alks in Sw eden.
39
though, the number of l ess-severe rear-end acci dents has i ncreased because
motori sts are not wi l l i ng to chance runni ng a red l i ght by speedi ng through an
i ntersecti on. Photo enforcement has al so been shown to reduce vehi cl e speed on
roadway segments wi th hi gh-speed-acci dent probl ems. Probl ems wi th photo
enforcement have i ncl uded vandal i sm and equi pment tamperi ng at some l ocati ons.
Based on the resul ts to date, the Germans want to expand the use of photo
enforcement as part of thei r safety program, but the cost of camera equi pment and
the l abor requi red to process photographs and i ssue ci tati ons has l i mi ted the
number of l ocati ons that can be equi pped. (Offi ci al s noted that i ni ti al l y cameras
can generate substanti al revenue, but once the publ i c becomes aware of them, the
number of vi ol ati ons drops dramati cal l y, resul ti ng i n l ess revenue.) To broaden the
use of photo enforcement and control costs, the Germans are eval uati ng rotati ng
cameras among mul ti pl e si tes. The approach i s to construct the photo enforcement
i nfrastructure (i ncl udi ng the hi ghl y vi si bl e pol e-mounted camera box, si gns, etc.) at
mul ti pl e l ocati ons and move a camera randoml y from si te to si te. They anti ci pate
that a si ngl e camera coul d control traffi c at 15 l ocati ons.
Portable Radar and Message Signs
The Germans al so use portabl e radar and message si gns before i ntersecti ons wi th
speed-r el ated acci dent pr obl ems. A por tabl e r adar detector r ecor ds motor i sts
speeds, and i f they are travel i ng above the posted l i mi t, a message that tel l s them
they are travel i ng too fast i s acti vated. Thi s technol ogy has been shown to reduce
speeds by 5 to 8 ki l ometers per hour.
Signal Back Plates
At i ntersecti ons where si gnal vi si bi l i ty has been determi ned to be a contri buti ng
factor to hi gh numbers of acci dents, back pl ates are someti mes used to enhance the
vi si bi l i ty of the traffi c si gnal s (Fi gure 4-6).
40
CHAPTER FOUR
Figure 4- 6. Traffic
signal w ith back plate
in Germany.
41
Audible Crossing Indicators
Audi bl e pedestri an si gnal s are used to suppl ement si gnal i ndi cators. The audi bl e
si gnal s are desi gned wi th a vari abl e-vol ume feature control l ed by the surroundi ng
traffi c noi se. As the l evel of traffi c noi se i ncreases, so does the vol ume of the
audi bl e crossi ng si gnal (Fi gure 4-8).
Yellow Flashers
Speci al care i s taken to protect pedestri ans at l ocati ons wi th a si ght obstructi on
between motor vehi cl e traffi c and a pedestri an crossi ng or where a pedestri an
crossi ng phase confl i cts wi th a motori zed vehi cl e phase (Fi gure 4-7). For exampl e, i f
an obstructi on exi sts i n the si ght tri angl e of an i ntersecti on and a ri ght-turni ng
vehi cl e cannot see the pedestri an crosswal k, a yel l ow fl asher warns the motori st of
the possi bi l i ty of pedestri an traffi c around the corner.
Figure 4- 7.
Sup p lem enta l
sig na l
w arning right-
turning
m otor i sts
a b out
p ed estria ns.
42
CHAPTER FOUR
THE NETHERLANDS
The use of traffi c control devi ces i n the Netherl ands i s focused l argel y on the
desi re to control traffi c speed. The Dutch stri ve to provi de vi si bl e and easi l y
understood traffi c si gnal control s by doi ng the fol l owi ng:
Post si gnal ahead warni ng si gns before hi gh-speed i ntersecti ons (Fi gure 4 9).
Pai nt si gnal pol es wi th hi gh-contrast bl ack and whi te stri pes (Fi gure 4-10).
Consi stentl y use l arge bl ack back pl ates bordered by a whi te stri pe (Fi gure 4-
11).
Use col ored pavement to di sti ngui sh bi ke l anes from motori zed vehi cl e l anes
(Fi gure 4-12).
Figure 4- 8.
Pole- m ounted
audible signal
in Germany.
43
Figure 4- 9.
Sig na l
a hea d
w arning sign
in the
Netherla nd s.
44
CHAPTER FOUR
Figure 4- 10. Signal poles w ith high- contrast stripes.
45
Figure 4- 11.
Large back-
p la te
bordered by
w hite strip e.
Figure 4- 12. Colored pavement used to distinguish bike
la nes in the Netherla nd s.
46
CHAPTER FOUR
Offi ci al s recogni ze, however, that opti cal messagi ng al one i s not enough to
el i mi nate acci dents at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons and that they must l ower speeds to
reduce the severi ty of acci dents.
Photo enforcement to reduce speed and red-l i ght runni ng i s used extensi vel y i n
the Netherl ands and has been shown to be effecti ve. The programs success i s based
l argel y on vi si bi l i ty and publ i c awareness. I n Rotterdam, cameras are marked wi th
red and bl ue stri pes and are cl earl y vi si bl e to the publ i c (Fi gure 4-13). I n addi ti on,
many i ntersecti ons wi th photo enforcement equi pment are cl earl y si gned i n
advance (Fi gure 4-13). Li ke the Germans, the Dutch rotate one camera among
mul ti pl e si tes. The Netherl ands has 600 to 700 camera posts, wi th an average rati o
of one camera for every four posts. Wet fi l m technol ogy i s used to photograph
vi ol ators. Di gi tal camera technol ogy has been tested, but the l ack of secure data
l i nes between the camera i nstal l ati ons and pol i ce agenci es coupl ed wi th fi l e si ze
requi rements of di gi tal i mages have made di gi tal i magi ng prohi bi ti ve for now.
Fig ure 4- 13. Photo enforcement ca mera
for red- light running in the Netherlands.
47
Studi es have shown photo enforcement programs to be extremel y effecti ve. After
about si x months of enforcement, the number of vi ol ati ons drops to nearl y zero
(Fi gure 4-15). I n cases where the publ i c real i zes that a camera i s not al ways i n use,
the number of vi ol ati ons tends to i ncrease. When such an i ncrease i s recogni zed,
the enforcement ti me at that parti cul ar l ocati on i s i ncreased, and vi ol ati on rates
drop agai n.
Figure 4- 14.
Ph o to
en fo r cem en t
w a rning
signs in the
Netherla nd s.
Figure 4- 15.
Effecti ven ess
of photo
en fo r cem en t
in Utrecht,
Netherla nd s.
48
CHAPTER FOUR
To change motori sts behavi or, the Dutch have i nvested consi derabl e ti me and
money i n a publ i c awareness campai gn ai med i n part at photo enforcement goal s
but more broadl y at overal l road-user safety.
14
The Dutch have not yet concl uded studi es that confi rm the safety effecti veness of
the photo enforcement program. The program i s vi ewed as havi ng two phases: the
fi rst to change dri ver behavi or and the second to eval uate the i mpact on safety.
Because the Dutch started the program i n 1999 and they bel i eve i t takes about two
years to change motori st behavi or, they are just begi nni ng to research the safety
effects of photo enfor cement.
Variable-Message Signs
The Dutch use vari abl e-message si gns before hi gh-speed (50 ki l ometers per hour or
greater) i ntersecti ons to warn motori sts that they are travel i ng above the posted
speed l i mi t (Fi gure 4-16). Often these si gns are used i n conjuncti on wi th cl earl y
marked and si gned speed tabl es l ocated just beyond the stop bar (Fi gure 4-17).
Speed tabl es, careful l y desi gned so that traffi c travel i ng at or bel ow the speed l i mi t
passes over them comfortabl y, are not safety hazards for traffi c travel i ng over the
speed l i mi t. Speed tabl es are more comfortabl e than speed bumps for l ong vehi cl es
(buses, trai l ers) i n parti cul ar, but the speed reducti on of heavy traffi c sti l l
r emai ns.
15
Figure 4- 16. Variable
message signs on
approaches to high-
sp eed intersections in
the Netherla nd s.
49
Bi cycl es are used extensi vel y as regul ar transportati on i n the Netherl ands, and
bi cycl i sts i mpact on i ntersecti on safety and operati on i s a pri mary consi derati on.
The Dutch stri ve to el i mi nate confl i cts between motori zed and nonmotori zed
traffi c (e.g., protected-onl y phasi ng) and to reduce wai t ti mes for nonmotori zed
traffi c. Most seri ous pedestri an and bi cycl i st acci dents are a resul t of crossi ng
agai nst a red si gnal . To mi ni mi ze the l i kel i hood of nonmotori zed traffi c crossi ng
agai nst the red phase, the Dutch have i mpl emented several strategi es:
Short cycl e l engths to mi ni mi ze wai t ti me for nonmotori zed traffi c
Nearsi de bi cycl e and pedestri an si gnal s (Fi gure 4-18)
Suppl ementary si gni ng to warn motori sts of a pedestri an crossi ng (Fi gure 4-19)
LED l i ghts i n the pavement
16
Countdown cl ocks
Egg ti mer countdown i ndi cator s
Gr ade-separ ated cr ossi ngs
Figure 4- 17. Advance
w arning signs and
speed tables at
intersections in the
Netherla nd s.
50
CHAPTER FOUR
Figure 4- 18.
Nea rsid e
b icycle
signals In the
Netherla nd s.
Figure 4- 19. Supplemental signing
identifying bicycle and pedestrian
cr o ssi n g s.
51
Countdown Timers
Countdown ti mers appear to be an effecti ve way of provi di ng posi ti ve
rei nforcement to nonmotori zed traffi c that the pedestri an ti mi ng button has been
acti vated and the si gnal i s operati ng properl y. Several devi ces are used to convey
thi s message to pedestri ans and bi cycl i sts. One i s a round countdown si gnal wi th
31 l i ghts mounted next to the bi cycl e i ndi cator (Fi gure 4-20). At the begi nni ng of
the red phase, al l 31 l i ghts on the si gnal are l i t. As the green phase approaches, the
l i ghts darken one by one to l et the cycl i st know how much l onger unti l the green
phase i s acti vated. A si mi l ar i ndi cator surrounds the pedestri an push button
(Fi gure 4-21). The yel l ow l i ghts surroundi ng the push button are darkened to l et
pedestri ans know when the wai t i s endi ng.
Fig ure 4- 20.
Countd ow n
ind ica tor for
b icycle
cr ossi ng .
52
CHAPTER FOUR
Most si gnal s i n the Netherl ands are traffi c actuated, and the si gnal ti mi ngs vary
for each cycl e. The rate at whi ch the i ndi vi dual l i ghts go dark vari es and i s
synchroni zed to the si gnal ti mi ng and operati on. The ti mer starts by cal cul ati ng the
maxi mum wai t ti mes. I f a si gnal group does not get a cal l for green, the ti mer
accel erates, and when the l ast l i ght goes out, the si gnal turns green. Studi es have
shown the fol l owi ng:
Red-l i ght runni ng by bi cycl i sts has dropped 25 to 30 percent.
Si xty percent of users bel i eve the wai t ti me i s shorter.
Ei ghty-si x percent of users understand the meani ng of the wai t-ti me i ndi cator.
Seventy-ei ght percent of users fi nd the i nformati on useful .
Other ti mers bei ng tested are a di gi tal hourgl ass ti mer on the pedestri an si gnal
pol e and pavement l i ghts i nstal l ed i n the crosswal k.
Bicycle Turn Lanes
At si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons, separate l anes are stri ped for l eft- and ri ght-turni ng
bi cycl i sts. Si gns are posted to al ert dri vers to the presence of turni ng bi cycl es
(Fi gures 4-12 and 4-20).
Fig ure 4- 21. Ped estria n
countd ow n ind ica tor on
p ush b utton.
53
UNITED KINGDOM
Enforcement cameras were fi rst i ntroduced i n the Uni ted Ki ngdom i n 1991. A
number of research studi es have proven thei r effecti veness i n reduci ng traffi c
acci dents.
17
An August 2001 study and report prepared for the Department of Transport
exami ned the effecti veness of the cameras and the i ssue of cost recovery on a pi l ot
basi s.
18
The study found that si tes wi th cameras had an average of 35 percent fewer
acci dents and 47 percent fewer fatal i ti es and seri ous i njuri es. A number of si tes
i ndi cated that camera enforcement was parti cul arl y successful i n reduci ng
acci dents between vehi cl es and vul nerabl e road users (i .e., pedestri ans,
parti cul arl y chi l dren). The study i ncl uded a publ i c opi ni on pol l that found that the
publ i c was general l y supporti ve and that the number of requests for addi ti onal
cameras substanti al l y exceeded the number of compl ai nts about thei r operati on.
The use of speed and red l i ght cameras i n the Uni ted Ki ngdom i s covered by cost
recovery partnershi ps i n whi ch fi ne i ncome i s retai ned to fund i nstal l i ng,
mai ntai ni ng, and operati ng cameras and processi ng sancti ons (fi xed penal ty
noti ces). To qual i fy for a cost recovery partnershi p, cameras must be si ted
accordi ng to rul es, whi ch i ncl ude requi rements that cameras have a hi ghl y vi si bl e
yel l ow refl ecti ve cover and that the routes on whi ch they operate be si gned.
The fol l owi ng i s a summary of the rul es and framework for pi l ot study l ocati ons:
Pi l ot projects shoul d be coordi nated among the l ocal hi ghway authori ti es,
courts, and pol i ce.
Onl y the cost of the enforci ng speed and red-l i ght cameras shoul d be
consi der ed an al l owabl e expense.
No organi zati on shoul d be al l owed to make a profi t from photo enforcement
(i .e., any surpl us or fi ne i ncome over costs i ncurred shoul d be returned to the
tr easur y).
Al l cameras shoul d be l ocated i n hi gh-acci dent l ocati ons wi th a hi story of
speed-r el ated cr ashes.
Speed surveys shoul d be conducted before camera i nstal l ati on to prove that
speedi ng i s a probl em at each si te.
At the end of the year, partnershi ps shoul d be subject to a ful l audi t by the
di stri ct audi tor, and fai l ure to recei ve a cl ean audi t woul d resul t i n removal of
the pri vi l ege to retai n the funds.
Pavement Edge Markings
Pedestri an and bi cycl e safety i s a si gni fi cant i ssue at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons. To
i ncrease dri ver awareness on the approaches to a pedestri an crossi ng, strai ght
pavement edge marki ngs change to zi gzag l i nes (Fi gure 4-22). I n addi ti on, the U.K.
hi ghway code forbi ds dri vers from parki ng or passi ng another vehi cl e wi thi n the
54
CHAPTER FOUR
zi gzag zone (typi cal l y 16 meters pl us the crossi ng wi dth pl us 16 meters) to address
si ght di stance bei ng bl ocked and to prevent one dri ver from passi ng another that
may have stopped to yi el d to a pedestri an.
PUFFIN Crossings
The Uni ted Ki ngdom has devel oped a number of i nnovati ve si gnal i zed pedestri an
crossi ngs that rel y on the l atest detector technol ogy to i mprove safety and traffi c
operati ons. The PUFFI N crossi ng uses pedestri an detectors to automati cal l y vary
the l ength of the pedestri an phase, gi vi ng pedestri ans the ti me needed to cross
(Fi gures 4-23 and 4-24).
Figure 4- 22. Zigzag
pavement markings to
w arn motorists of a
p ed estria n crossing .
55
Fig ure 4- 23.
PUFFIN
crossing in
the United
King d om.
Figure 4- 24. Schematic layout of a PUFFIN crossing in the United Kingdom.
56
CHAPTER FOUR
Pedestri an pol es pl aced on the near si de of the road repl ace farsi de si gnal s. On
recei vi ng a pedestri an cal l from a push button, the control l er checks the curbsi de
presence detector. I f a pedestri an i s present, the pedestri an phase i s cal l ed and a
l i ght i s i l l umi nated, i nformi ng the pedestri an of the cal l . I f the output of the
curbsi de presence detector di sappears (the pedestri an has crossed on red) the
pedestri an phase cal l i s cancel ed. When the pedestri an phase i s started, the green
wal ki ng man appears on a nearsi de si gnal . Pedestri ans wi thi n the crosswal k are
moni tored by the crossi ng detectors and gi ven suffi ci ent ti me to cross the roadway.
After the green man i s exti ngui shed, the red man i s i l l umi nated, si gnal i ng to
pedestri ans that they shoul d not begi n crossi ng. Maxi mum al l owabl e crossi ng
ti mes are preset for each si te. I f the maxi mum al l owabl e crossi ng ti mes are
exceeded, vehi cul ar traffi c i s gi ven a red/amber, then green si gnal . On di vi ded
roadways wi th a medi an, PUFFI Ns are often operated as two separate crossi ngs
wi th a staggered medi an that forces pedestri ans to turn and face oncomi ng
vehi cul ar traffi c (Fi gure 4-25).
Fig ure 4- 25.
Schem a tic
layout for a
sta g g ered
PUFFIN
crossing in
the United
King d om.
Some benefi ts of PUFFI N crossi ngs i ncl ude the fol l owi ng:
Pedestri an si gnal s are si mpl i fi ed (no fl ashi ng green man).
Vehi cl e del ays are reduced (i f the pedestri an crosses duri ng the red phase after
havi ng pushed the pedestri an button, the pedestri an cal l i s cancel ed).
Vi si bi l i ty probl ems are el i mi nated (nearsi de si gnal s are used).
57
PUFFI N technol ogy i s al so bei ng appl i ed to shared bi cycl e-pedestri an crossi ngs
(e.g., TOUCAN) and equestri an crossi ngs.
Yellow Box Junctions
Hi gh-vol ume, congested i nter secti ons ar e str i ped wi th yel l ow cr osshatches (Fi gur e
4-26). Dri vers can be ci ted for enteri ng the i ntersecti on and stoppi ng i n the
crosshatched area because the exi t l anes are bl ocked by stati onary vehi cl es,
al though under some ci rcumstances (crosshatched area i s bl ocked by opposi ng
vehi cl es turni ng ri ght) dri vers are al l owed to enter the area.
Guide Signs at Restricted Turns
Si gns are posted before l ocati ons where turns are restri cted to tel l dri vers how to
use other routes to reach thei r i ntended desti nati on (Fi gure 4-27).
Fig ure 4- 26.
Yellow
cr ossha tched
intersection in
the United
King d om.
58
CHAPTER FOUR
Figure 4- 27.
Restr i cted -
turn sig n.
59
chapt er f i ve
I NNOVATI VE GEOMETRI C DESI GNS
SWEDEN
The Swedi sh i ntersecti on safety program i s focused more on control l i ng dri ver
behavi or through the use of technol ogy such as LHOVRA than through desi gn, but
a number of safety-dri ven i ntersecti on desi gn practi ces, many of whi ch are di ctated
through desi gn codes and statutes, do exi st:
At speeds greater than 70 ki l ometers per hour, excl usi ve turn l anes and
protected phasi ng must be provi ded. At speeds between 50 and 70 ki l ometers
per hour, shared l ane use and permi tted phasi ng i s opti onal .
At speeds equal to or greater than 90 ki l ometers per hour, accel erati on l anes
are provi ded for free-fl ow ri ght turns.
At i ntersecti ons where pedestri an acti vi ty i s heavy, a ti ght turni ng radi us i s
used to sl ow motori sts through the turn.
GERMANY
Raised Medians
The team i denti fi ed several geometri c desi gn practi ces i ntended to enhance
pedestri an safety at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons. I f a pedestri an crossi ng crosses more
than two l anes, then a protecti ve rai sed medi an i s provi ded to functi on as a
refuge area (Fi gure 5 1). The medi an must be at l east 2 meters wi de. Thi s practi ce
appl i es to both si gnal i zed and unsi gnal i zed i ntersecti ons. I n addi ti on, pedestri an
crossi ngs are someti mes staggered wi thi n the medi an area to force pedestri ans to
turn and face oncomi ng traffi c before conti nui ng across the street (Fi gure 5-2).
60
CHAPTER FIVE
Figure 5- 1.
Ped estria n
refug e isla nd
in Germany.
Figure 5- 2.
Sta g g ered
p ed estria n
crossing in
Germ a ny.
61
INNOVATIVE GEOMETRIC DESIGNS
Separate Stop Lines for Motor Vehicles and Bicycles
Bi cycl i st vi si bi l i ty and safety i s enhanced through pl acement of separate stop l i nes
for motori sts and bi cycl i sts. Where a bi ke l ane runs paral l el to a si gnal i zed
i ntersecti ons approach l ane, the stop l i ne for the bi cycl e l ane i s pl aced cl oser to
the i ntersecti on, and motori zed vehi cl e traffi c i s forced to stop behi nd the bi cycl i st.
Thi s desi gn practi ce enhances bi cycl i sts vi si bi l i ty and parti cul arl y hel ps reduce
confl i cts between ri ght-turni ng vehi cl es and bi cycl es.
Bollards
Germany al so uses speci al bol l ards, or seri es of short posts set at regul ar i nterval s,
to del i neate pavement areas to prohi bi t vehi cl es from parki ng too cl ose to
i ntersecti ons and bl ocki ng the vi ew of a pedestri an or bi cycl i st crossi ng the
i nter secti ng str eet.
Left-Turn Lanes
For safety reasons, l eft-turn l anes wi th protected phasi ng are used at hi gh-vol ume
and hi gh-speed l ocati ons. Accordi ng to several members of the host del egati on, the
use of two phased si gnal s (parti cul arl y i n rural areas) wi thout l eft-turn l anes
provi des l i ttl e or no safety benefi t over an unsi gnal i zed i ntersecti on, so the use of
l eft-turn l anes wi th protected phasi ng i s hi ghl y encouraged. I f dual l eft-turn l anes
are used, then a protected phase must be provi ded for the motori zed traffi c and for
the confl i cti ng pedestr i an-bi cycl e tr affi c.
Roundabouts
Roundabouts are used on a l i mi ted basi s as an al ternati ve to si gnal i zed
i ntersecti ons. Si ngl e-l ane roundabouts are preferred, and mul ti l ane approaches
and confi gurati ons are strongl y di scouraged. The Germans have found that
roundabouts tend to reduce overal l i ntersecti on del ay and are most effecti ve when
approach vol umes are bal anced among al l approaches. The Germans have
devel oped a mi ni -roundabout for use i n l ow-speed urban condi ti ons. The i nner
radi us i s 13 to 25 meters and i t has a si ngl e 4-to-4.5-meter l ane. A rai sed (no more
than 10 centi meter) i sl and wi th a 4-meter radi us i s constructed i n the center of the
mi ni -roundabout. Mi ni -roundabouts have been shown to reduce acci dents by 60
percent over the use of si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons.
Nearside Signals
Nearsi de si gnal s are preferred to mi ni mi ze the number of vehi cl es stoppi ng beyond
the stop-bar and bl ocki ng pedestri an/bi cycl e crossi ngs.
THE NETHERLANDS
Roundabouts
Where practi cal and feasi bl e, the Dutch have converted si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons to
roundabouts (about 6 percent i n the l ast three to four years). A conversi on to
r oundabouts i s consi der ed when ser i ous si gnal i zed i nter secti on acci dents cannot
be control l ed by other means. They have successful l y used both si ngl e-l ane and
62
CHAPTER FIVE
dual -l ane roundabouts, and studi es have shown a 60 percent i ncrease i n
i nter secti on safety per for mance.
The Dutch have devel oped computer programs to predi ct capaci ti es, queue l engths,
and del ays at roundabouts, comparabl e to the ARCADY software program used i n
the Uni ted Ki ngdom. The Dutch recogni ze that a si ngl e roundabout desi gn wi l l not
fi t al l si tuati ons. To achi eve the best resul ts, they have devel oped and i mpl emented
several di fferent roundabout desi gns to address vari abl e condi ti ons.
The dog bone roundabout confi gurati on i s successful at di amond-i nterchange
i ntersecti ons. I n Fi gure 5-3, the i nteri or of the roundabout i s cl osed, and paral l el
roadways are used between the ramp termi nal s. The team vi si ted a dog bone
roundabout i n operati on. The i nterchange, l ocated i n an i ndustri al area, carri ed a
si gni fi cant vol ume of heavy truck traffi c. Based on fi el d observati ons, thi s
confi gur ati on oper ated ver y wel l .
63
Figure 5- 3.
Dog bone
round a b out
in the
Netherlands.
64
CHAPTER FIVE
The turbo roundabout, a modi fi cati on of a standard dual -l ane roundabout, i s used
i n the Netherl ands to el i mi nate weavi ng confl i cts found i n standard mul ti l ane
roundabouts (Fi gure 5-4). Thi s l ow-speed confi gurati on al so has been found to al l ow
a hi gher capaci ty than the standard two-l ane roundabout. Whi l e a standard
roundabout has 16 potenti al confl i ct poi nts, the turbo roundabout has 10. I n ei ther
case, the confl i ct poi nts are l ow speed, and the resul ti ng acci dents are typi cal l y
l ess severe than those at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons (Fi gure 5-5).
Figure 5- 4.
Turb o
round a b out
config ura tion
in the
Netherla nd s.
65
Roundabouts l i mi t the abi l i ty to control traffi c fl ow and mai ntai n pl atoons i n a
network. Typi cal l y, upstream and downstream si gnal s are used to control and
meter traffi c fl ow and i mprove the effi ci ency of the roundabout and the overal l
traffi c network. Pedestri an and bi cycl e safety i ssues at roundabouts are addressed
by provi di ng cl earl y del i neated bi cycl e and pedestri an crossi ngs (Fi gure 5-6).
Figures 5- 5. Comparison of conflict points
betw een traditional and turbo roundabouts.
Tra d itiona l
Turb o
66
CHAPTER FIVE
Speed Tables
A method to control speed at hi gher-speed si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons i s the use of
speed tabl es pl aced just i nsi de the stop bar. Speed tabl es are desi gned to be
comfortabl y traversed at the posted speed l i mi t. I f a vehi cl e i s travel i ng above the
speed l i mi t, the dri ver feel s the effect of the bump. The team saw an i nteresti ng
versi on of thi s approach at a si gnal i zed i ntersecti on where onl y the ri ght turn l ane
had a speed tabl e. The purpose was to sl ow vehi cl es turni ng ri ght to i mprove safety
for pedestri ans and bi cycl i sts crossi ng the i ntersected street (Fi gure 5 7).
Figure 5- 6.
Delinea ted
bicycle and
p ed estria n
paths at
round a b outs
in the
Netherla nd s.
67
Fig ures 5- 7.
Speed table
in rig ht- turn
la ne.
UNITED KINGDOM
Pri mary gui del i nes for geometri c desi gn at i ntersecti ons are i n two documents
prepared by the U.K. Hi ghways Agency: Desi gn Standards for Si gnal Control l ed
Juncti ons (document TD 50/99) and Layout of Large Si gnal Control l ed Juncti ons
(document TD89/02).
ARCADY
Roundabouts are used extensi vel y i n the Uni ted Ki ngdom. Urban and suburban
roundabouts that carry hi gh traffi c vol umes are commonl y si gnal i zed to i mprove
safety, capaci ty, and fl ow. TRL has devel oped a software program, known as
ARCADY, to predi ct capaci ti es, queue l engths, and del ays at roundabouts.
ARCADY i s used as an ai d i n desi gni ng new roundabouts, as wel l as i n assessi ng
the effects of modi fyi ng exi sti ng desi gns. ARCADY i s al so capabl e of acci dent
predi cti on for vari ous types of roundabout desi gns.
The Bri ti sh have devel oped several compl ex si gnal i zed roundabouts. One desi gn,
cal l ed a through-about or hamburger, takes the major through movement through
the center of the roundabout and el i mi nates that heavy movement from the
ci rcul atory roadway (Fi gure 5-8). Al l turners use the roundabout, and si gnal s
separate them from through traffi c when they reach that poi nt.
68
CHAPTER FIVE
Figure 5- 9. Schematic layout of a double
throug h- a b out intersection.
Figure 5- 8. Schematic layout of a through-
a b out intersection.
Another desi gn, known as the doubl e through-about or the hot cross bun, takes
both through movements through the center of the roundabout, whi l e turns remai n
on the roundabouts ci rcul ar porti on (Fi gure 5-9). These desi gns pri mari l y address
capaci ty i ncreases. Anecdotal evi dence suggests that they do not affect safety
si gni fi cantl y, and i t i s cl ear that these desi gns are operati onal l y compl i cated and
requi re si gni fi cant desi gn study before they are i mpl emented. Cl earl y, as these
roundabout desi gns become more compl ex, i t becomes i mperati ve that thei r traffi c
si gnal s r emai n pr oper l y synchr oni zed.
69
A fi rst-of-i ts-ki nd, hi gh-capaci ty i ntersecti on i s schedul ed to begi n constructi on i n
the Uni ted Ki ngdom i n 2002 (Fi gure 5-10). The desi gn di spl aces ri ght turns
(equi val ent to l eft turns i n the Uni ted States) to cross the confl i cti ng through
movement far before the i ntersecti on, al l owi ng i ntersecti on control to be si mpl i fi ed
from four phases to two. I ntersecti on si mul ati ons i ndi cate that the desi gn wi l l
i mprove effi ci ency by 20 to 30 percent. Fi ve of these i ntersecti ons have been bui l t
i n Mexi co, and one has been constructed i n Quebec.
Figure 5- 10. Schematic of a
hig h- ca p a city intersection.
70
chapt er si x
PROCESSES AND PROCEDURES FOR
PROBLEM I DENTI FI CATI ON
SWEDEN
SNRA, l ocal transportati on agenci es, and pol i ce col l aborate on revi ewi ng acci dent
stati sti cs to i denti fy probl ems at, study, and devel op sol uti ons for hi gh-acci dent
l ocati ons.
GERMANY
I n Germany, hi gh-crash l ocati ons are i denti fi ed by traffi c safety commi ssi ons
(known as the KEBU i n Frankfurt), whi ch typi cal l y use the frequency and type of
acci dents at an i ntersecti on to i denti fy a hi gh-crash l ocati on, or bl ack spot.
Threshol d val ues for the number of crashes of a si mi l ar type must be met before a
l ocati on can be consi dered a hi gh-crash si te. I n Frankfurt, an i ntersecti on wi th fi ve
or more acci dents of the same type i n one year i s consi dered a bl ack spot and must
be addressed by the traffi c safety commi ssi on. Frankfurt does not consi der
exposure (acci dent rates) i n bl ack spot i denti fi cati on, but some ci ti es i n Germany
are begi nni ng to rel y on acci dent rates to hel p i denti fy bl ack spots.
The federal government provi des funds for trai ni ng opportuni ti es and desi gn/
countermeasure gui del i nes for traffi c safety commi ssi ons. Si te-speci fi c safety
sol uti ons and countermeasures are devel oped on the basi s of si te-speci fi c
engi neeri ng studi es. Traffi c safety commi ssi ons are responsi bl e for moni tori ng and
ensuri ng the effecti veness of safety i mprovements.
THE NETHERLANDS
Safety goal s i n the Netherl ands are establ i shed at a nati onal l evel and dri ven by
the pri nci pl es of sustai nabl e safety. The nati onal government covers 50 percent of
the cost of safety efforts at provi nci al , metropol i tan, and l ocal l evel s.
Devel opment of sustai nabl e safety goal s and pri nci pl es has l ed the Dutch to adopt
a systemati c approach to roadway safety. The three pri mary pri nci pl es of
sustai nabl e safety are functi onal use, homogeneous use, and predi ctabl e use. I n
1997, the Dutch began i mpl ementi ng phase I of the sustai nabl e safety pl an
cl assi fyi ng thei r enti re roadway network. The network was di vi ded i nto three
types: nati onal and regi onal freeways, regi onal and di stri ct di stri butors, and urban
and rural access roads. Once a road has been i denti fi ed by type, offi ci al s make sure
i t meets i ts cl assi fi cati on requi rements. Thi s systemati c approach to maki ng form
fol l ow functi on has provi ded safety i mprovements on roadways and at si gnal i zed
i nter secti ons.
Speci fi c i ntersecti on-rel ated safety probl ems are i denti fi ed through a revi ew of
acci dent records i n coordi nati on wi th l ocal l aw enforcement agenci es. I n addi ti on,
the Dutch use thei r extensi ve network of l oop detectors to hel p target potenti al
speed-rel ated and red-l i ght-runni ng safety probl ems. Once an acci dent probl em i s
i denti fi ed, an engi neeri ng study i s performed to eval uate appropri ate safety
71
PROCESSES AND PROCEDURES
i mprovements. Gui dance on speci fi c safety strategi es i s provi ded i n the sui te of
handbooks prepared by CROW. A wi de array of traffi c safety i mprovements i s
typi cal l y consi dered, but the pri mary focus i s to reduce severi ty of acci dents
through the speed reducti on measures i denti fi ed i n previ ous chapters.
UNITED KINGDOM
As i n other countri es the team vi si ted, responsi bi l i ty for i denti fyi ng bl ack spots i n
the Uni ted Ki ngdom l i es pri mari l y wi th l ocal hi ghway authori ti es worki ng i n
conjuncti on wi th pol i ce agenci es. TRL devel oped software to hel p i denti fy bl ack
spots and overal l trends i n hi ghway safety. The mi croprocessor acci dent anal ysi s
package (MAAP) i s bui l t on a rel ati onal database that can be customi zed for a
users parti cul ar needs. The tool i ncl udes geographi c i nformati on system (GI S)
software to hel p target hi gh-acci dent l ocati ons and provi des the user wi th a range
of tool s for i denti fyi ng and anal yzi ng probl ems and i sol ati ng common features
among acci dents (Fi gure 6-1). One program feature the team found parti cul arl y
useful i s the sti ck di agram, a tabul ar di agram that provi des a graphi cal summary of
acci dent stati sti cs at a gi ven l ocati on (Fi gure 6-2).
19
The di agram l i sts al l
si gni fi cant characteri sti cs of each crash (ni ght-day, wet-dry, hour of crash, etc.),
al l owi ng anal ysts to i denti fy crash-causi ng trends easi l y.
Figure 6- 1. MAAP GIS- based softw are
to ta rg et hig h- a ccid ent loca tions.
72
CHAPTER SIX
TRL has devel oped a software package that can be used to eval uate safety trade-
offs i n the desi gn and operati on of si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons. The software can be
appl i ed to new desi gns and used to eval uate current condi ti ons and proposed
i mprovements. Opti mi zed si gnal capaci ty and del ay (OSCADY) software i s used
pri mari l y for capaci ty cal cul ati ons, queue l engths, and del ay at i sol ated si gnal i zed
i ntersecti ons. I n addi ti on, the software has acci dent-predi cti on capabi l i ti es for l ow-
speed (30 mi l es per hour or l ess) urban i ntersecti ons. The data requi red for
acci dent predi cti on i s vehi cl e and pedestri an fl ow, l ength of pedestri an crossi ng,
geometri c characteri sti cs, and si gnal ti mi ng pl an. Wi th thi s i nformati on, the
softwar e wi l l esti mate expected acci dent char acter i sti cs. The softwar es model
rel i es on the l arge amounts of empi ri cal acci dent data col l ected i n the Uni ted
Ki ngdom, so i t i s not l i kel y to produce rel i abl e resul ts for condi ti ons i n the Uni ted
States.
Figure 6- 2.
M AAP stick
diagram used
to graphically
sum m a rize
a ccid ent
sta ti sti cs.
73
chapt er seven
LOW-COST SAFETY I MPROVEMENTS
SWEDEN
I n thei r meeti ngs wi th the scanni ng team, the Swedi sh hosts di scussed a number of
i ntersecti on safety i mprovements. To avoi d el i mi nati ng any potenti al safety
i mprovements, the team chose to i ncl ude some treatments that mi ght be
consi dered hi gh-cost safety i mprovements i n the fol l owi ng l i st:
Prohi bi t ri ght turns on red, parti cul arl y at i ntersecti ons wi th si gni fi cant
pedestri an and bi cycl e traffi c.
Use 100-second-maxi mum cycl e l engths to i mprove pedestri an, bi cycl e, and
motori st compl i ance wi th the red phase.
Use a pocket transmi tter to extend a si gnal s green ti me for school groups or
other speci al users. Thi s approach coul d be used to compl y wi th Ameri cans wi th
Di sabi l i ti es Act r equi r ements wi thout pr ovi di ng unnecessar i l y l ong pedestr i an
cl earance i nterval s when they are not needed.
Provi de audi bl e pedestri an-crossi ng si gnal s to rei nforce vi sual si gnal s and
address the needs of the heari ng i mpai red.
Adopt i ntersecti on desi gn and operati onal concepts based on approach speeds.
For exampl e, al l si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons wi th an approach speed l i mi t greater
than 70 ki l ometers per hour shoul d be provi ded wi th excl usi ve turn l anes and
perhaps have protected-onl y phasi ng for l eft and ri ght turns.
I mpl ement the LHOVRA system at i sol ated hi gh-speed i ntersecti ons where
safety probl ems have been demonstrated and si gnal synchroni zati on i s not a
concer n.
GERMANY
The German hosts presented several i ntersecti on safety i mprovements. To avoi d
el i mi nati ng any potenti al safety i mprovements, the team chose to i denti fy the
fol l owi ng safety i mprovements regardl ess of thei r costs:
Determi ne cl earance i nterval s based on confl i ct poi nts and approach speeds.
Doi ng so can be i ncorporated i nto desi gn or si gnal -ti mi ng modi fi cati ons
i nexpensi vel y.
Devel op and i mpl ement mul ti di sci pl i nary (enforcement, educati on, and
engi neeri ng) traffi c safety commi ssi ons to i denti fy, study, and recommend
i mprovements at hi gh-acci dent l ocati ons. The success of these commi ssi ons
requi res adequate trai ni ng and/or traffi c safety background for members and a
strong l eadershi p commi tted to i mprovi ng traffi c safety.
Publ i cl y i denti fy hi gh-acci dent i nter secti ons thr ough di sti ncti ve si gni ng
(si mi l ar to the curve warni ng si gn).
74
CHAPTER SEVEN
Consi der prohi bi ti ng l eft turns at congested i ntersecti ons and i nstead i nstal l
si gni ng to reroute traffi c to make three ri ght turns.
I nstal l pl ease wai t si gnal s at pedestri an crossi ngs to i ndi cate that the
pedestri an button has been acti vated.
Compl ete detai l ed, wel l -documented phasi ng and ti mi ng pl ans to ensure that
change i nterval s can accommodate vehi cl es approachi ng the i ntersecti on. Such
pl ans woul d ensure that motori sts coul d stop wi th a reasonabl e decel erati on
rate or proceed and cl ear potenti al l y confl i cti ng traffi c safel y.
Perform safety audi ts as part of regul ar desi gn and eval uati on of hi gh-acci dent
l ocati ons.
I nstal l photo enforcement equi pment at hi gh-crash l ocati ons. The German
approach i s to reduce motori sts speed on i ntersecti on approaches to mi ni mi ze
the consequences of potenti al confl i cts.
Enhance i ntersecti on pavement marki ngs for bi cycl e and pedestri an crossi ngs.
(Members of the German del egati on di sagreed about the effecti veness of
addi ti onal pavement marki ngs. One school of thought says the most effecti ve
way to i mprove nonmotori zed safety i s to provi de protected phasi ng for
pedestri an and bi cycl e traffi c.)
Devel op speed-r el ated (r ather than tr affi c vol ume-r el ated) war r ants for
excl usi ve l eft-turn l anes and protected phasi ng requi rements.
El i mi nate ri ght turns on red, parti cul arl y when pedestri an crossi ngs are
pr esent.
I nstal l pedestri an fences, or staggered crossi ngs, so that pedestri ans must turn
when crossi ng a street and face oncomi ng traffi c.
THE NETHERLANDS
The team i denti fi ed a number of l ow-cost i mprovements the Dutch i mpl ement to
make si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons safer. Many are ai med at i mprovi ng the safety of
pedestri ans and bi cycl i sts, si nce wal ki ng and bi ki ng are such si gni fi cant means of
travel , parti cul arl y i n urban areas. Low-cost safety i mprovements i ncl ude the
fol l owi ng:
Li mi t maxi mum cycl e l engths to 90 to 120 seconds to mi ni mi ze del ay and
maxi mi ze compl i ance. I n the case of actuati on and demand control , cycl e
l engths are substanti al l y shorter. Shorter cycl e l engths tend to reduce the l evel
of red-l i ght runni ng of both motori zed and nonmotori zed traffi c.
Consi der the effects of pl aci ng si gnal heads on the near si de of the i ntersecti on
so crossroad dri vers cannot anti ci pate the end of a confl i cti ng phase and
pedestr i an wal kways ar e kept cl ear.
Suggest protected l eft-turn phasi ng, whi ch may be hel pful when opposi ng
vehi cl e approach speeds are i n excess of 50 ki l ometers per hour.
75
LOW-COST SAFETY IMPROVEMENTS
Target traffi c l aw enforcement and automated enforcement acti ons based on
speed and red-l i ght-runni ng vi ol ati ons at hi gh-acci dent l ocati ons. Dutch
offi ci al s strongl y emphasi zed the i mportance of a coordi nated publ i c awareness
program i n conjuncti on wi th an automated enforcement program.
Provi de countdown cl ocks at pedestri an and bi cycl e crossi ngs.
Consi der the use of l arge si gnal back pl ates to i ncrease vi si bi l i ty.
Pr ovi de dynami c, r adar-contr ol l ed speed si gns at hi gh-speed i nter secti ons.
Pr ovi de speed tabl es on i nter secti on appr oaches to contr ol speed.
Consi der usi ng puni ti ve si gnal i zati on (cut-off si gnal s) to reduce hi gh speed. I f
a vehi cl e i s detected travel i ng more than 10 mi l es per hour over the posted
speed l i mi t, the si gnal changes to red before the vehi cl e enters the di l emma
zone.
Devel op a mul ti di sci pl i nary (enforcement, ci ti zens, uni versi ti es, etc.) task force
to target hi gh-acci dent l ocati ons and the dri ver behavi or associ ated wi th severe
i nter secti on acci dents.
To the extent possi bl e, provi de consi stency i n i ntersecti on desi gn and operati on
to mi ni mi ze dri ver confusi on.
UNITED KINGDOM
The team observed a number of l ow-cost safety i mprovements i n the Uni ted
Ki ngdom:
Use short cycl e l engths to encourage dri ver and pedestri an compl i ance wi th
si gnal contr ol s.
Pr ovi de di l emma zone pr otecti on thr ough appr opr i ate detector pl acement and
setti ngs for speeds greater than 35 mi l es per hour.
Depl oy PUFFI N and TOUCAN technol ogi es where pedestri an and bi cycl e
traffi c i s present.
Provi de zi gzag pavement marki ngs at l ane edges approachi ng pedestri an
cr ossi ngs.
Use the speed di scri mi nati on and extensi on (SDE) strategy on hi gh-speed
approaches to vary green extensi on and mi ni mi ze vehi cl es caught i n the
di l emma zone.
Use speed and red-l i ght-runni ng cameras where acci dents are rel ated to such
vi ol ati ons.
Use road safety audi ts at prel i mi nary desi gn, fi nal desi gn, i mpl ementati on, and
fol l ow-up l evel s.
I nstal l hi gh-fri cti on surfaces i n the di l emma zone at hi gh-speed i ntersecti ons.
76
CHAPTER SEVEN
I nstal l offset crosswal ks wi th staggered crossi ngs to force pedestri ans to face
oncomi ng tr affi c.
77
chapt er ei ght
RESEARCH ON SI GNALI ZED
I NTERSECTI ON SAFETY
SWEDEN
MATRIX
Sweden i s usi ng real -ti me traffi c model s to opti mi ze si gnal ti mi ngs i n thei r
network. MATRI X i s a real -ti me traffi c automati on system that uses a generi c
i nformati on and control pl atform. Traffi c i nformati on col l ected from road network
sensors feeds i nto MATRI X so that traffi c si gnal ti mi ng pl ans can be managed i n a
demand-r esponsi ve manner.
The strategy i s to compare real -ti me traffi c data wi th ori gi n/desti nati on and
assi gnment esti mati on and adjust si gnal ti mi ngs to compensate for thi s vari ance i n
traffi c demand. Thi s strategy i s bei ng i mpl emented usi ng technol ogy devel oped i n
Turi n, I tal y, and the system i s sti l l under devel opment.
20
SuperLHOVRA
Sweden i s i n the process of i mprovi ng LHOVRA wi th SuperLHOVRA. The focus of
SuperLHOVRA i s heavy vehi cl es, whi ch safety studi es have confi rmed are
di sproporti onatel y i nvol ved i n ri ght-angl e crashes. The system detects heavy
vehi cl es 250 meters and 130 meters from an i ntersecti on, measures speed and
vehi cl e l ength, and adjusts si gnal ti mi ngs to reduce the l i kel i hood of red-l i ght
runni ng. The system has been i nstal l ed at four l ocati ons, resul ti ng i n a 90 percent
reducti on i n heavy truck red-l i ght runni ng. Because thi s system requi res a l arge
number of l oop detectors, whi ch are often unrel i abl e, researchers are l ooki ng i nto
cheaper, mor e r el i abl e detecti on techni ques.
21
GERMANY
The Federal Hi ghway Research I nsti tute (BAST) i s conducti ng or overseei ng
nearl y 300 hi ghway-rel ated research projects. I ts budget i s about EUR 30 mi l l i on
per year. Fi fty percent of the budget i s spent on research projects, i ncl udi ng about
EUR 4 mi l l i on on safety. BAST i denti fi ed seven projects that address i ssues rai sed
by the team:
Ri ght turn on red wi th green arrow (1996-1999)
Tol er ance towar d tr affi c detecti on systems for vehi cl e-actuated contr ol
methods (1997- 1999)
Standardi zati on and modul ar desi gn for traffi c engi neeri ngbased probl ems at
si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons, i ncl udi ng eval uati on of the use of standardi zed
contr ol l er s (1998)
Exami nati on of the effecti veness of i nterventi ons at exi sti ng traffi c l i ghts (1995-
2000)
78
CHAPTER EIGHT
Accel erati on of publ i c transport under speci al consi derati on for cycl i sts and
pedestr i ans (ongoi ng)
Standardi zati on of i nterfaces for traffi c l i ghts (ongoi ng)
Assurance of traffi c l i ght qual i ty (ongoi ng)
THE NETHERLANDS
The team i denti fi ed a number of research efforts focused on si gnal i zed i ntersecti on
safety. Dutch research shows that photo enforcement can effecti vel y encourage
user compl i ance and reduce vehi cl e speed and red-l i ght-runni ng vi ol ati ons. The
Dutch are just begi nni ng a research program wi th SWOV (a sci enti fi c safety
board
22
) to determi ne the effect photo enforcement has had on actual safety
performance metri cs, such as reduci ng the number and severi ty of acci dents.
23
Pedestri an crossi ng duri ng the red phase i s an i mportant concern i n the
Netherl ands. The Dutch have devel oped several techni ques to mi ni mi ze thi s
behavi or. They are testi ng and researchi ng addi ti onal strategi es and techni ques to
further i mprove nonmotori zed motori sts compl i ance wi th red si gnal s. Several
ongoi ng research projects i nvol ve the use of vi deo detecti on to i denti fy wai ti ng
pedestri ans or bi cycl i sts and LED countdown sensors i n the pavement.
The use of dynami c, hydraul i c speed bumps i s bei ng studi ed i n the Netherl ands.
The hei ght of the speed bump can be vari ed, dependi ng on the speed of the
appr oachi ng vehi cl e.
I n addi ti on, CROW i s devel opi ng gui del i nes for pedestri ans and bi cycl es on
roundabouts.
24
The Transport Research Centre
25
from the Mi ni stry of Transport,
Publ i c Works, and Water Management i s engaged i n a number of research projects:
Use of rescue servi ces to i mprove hi ghway safety
Rai l way cr ossi ngs
Roadway wor k zones
I nformati on si gns and stati ons
UNITED KINGDOM
TRL, i n partnershi p wi th the Department for Transport, the Hi ghways Agency, and
other transportati on agenci es i n the Uni ted Ki ngdom, i s i nvol ved i n a number of
research projects focusi ng on si gnal i zed i ntersecti on safety.
The Department for Transport i s worki ng on three research projects i n 2002 and
2003:
Effects of traffi c si gnal strategi es on the safety of vul nerabl e road users
Safety effects of bus pri ori ty schemes
Assessment of the casual ty reducti on performance of l ocal hi ghway authori ti es
79
RESEARCH
The Uni ted Ki ngdom i s researchi ng new technol ogi es to i mprove detecti on
capabi l i ti es used i n PUFFI N and TOUCAN crossi ngs.
80
chapt er ni ne
RECOMMENDATI ONS AND
I MPLEMENTATI ON PLANS
The team met several ti mes duri ng the scan to di scuss observati ons and fi ndi ngs.
Each member provi ded a l i st of recommendati on i deas. Through group di scussi on,
team members combi ned these i deas and di sti l l ed them i nto the fol l owi ng l i st of
team recommendati ons. The team al so di scussed prel i mi nary i mpl ementati on
i deas, and the teams fi nal i mpl ementati on strategy wi l l be refl ected i n the scan
technol ogy i mpl ementati on pl an (STI P). I n addi ti on, many i ndi vi dual team
members observed i nnovati ve processes and techni ques of personal or professi onal
i nterest to them, and those i mpl ementati on i deas are captured i n the addi ti onal
r ecommendati ons secti on.
PRIMARY RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Develop a model photo enforcement process/program to reduce red-light
running and control speed at high-accident signalized intersections. Ken
Kobetsky wi l l serve as the team champi on for thi s recommendati on. Goal s
i ncl ude devel opi ng best practi ces through whi ch publ i c support for photo
enforcement can be enhanced (e.g., maki ng si gnal ti mi ng fai r to road users,
maki ng cameras readi l y i denti fi abl e, and ensuri ng that enforcement methods
are not used si mpl y to rai se money). I mpl ementati on strategi es i ncl ude the
fol l owi ng:
Obtai n funds through the STI P program to devel op a producti on report for
depl oyment and i mpl ementati on.
Communi cate fi ndi ngs through transportati on-rel ated groups such as
AASHTO, FHWA, and I TE.
Devel op programs and strategi es targeted toward safety organi zati ons such
as the AASHTO Standi ng Commi ttee on Hi ghway Traffi c Safety, Mothers
Agai nst Drunk Dri vi ng, Nati onal Hi ghway Traffi c Safety Admi ni strati on,
I nsurance I nsti tute for Hi ghway Safety, and Advocates for Hi ghway and Auto
Safety.
2. Enhance dilemma-zone detection at high-speed, isolated, rural
intersections using LHOVRA, MOVA, OSCADY, and other identified
strategies. Rudy Umbs wi l l serve as the team champi on for thi s
r ecommendati on. I mpl ementati on str ategi es i ncl ude the fol l owi ng:
Col l ect si te-speci fi c i nfor mati on at hi gh-acci dent l ocati ons.
Sol i ci t team members for candi date i ntersecti ons wi thi n thei r juri sdi cti ons.
Coordi nate wi th the Nati onal Commi ttee on Uni form Traffi c Control
Devi ces (NCUTCD) and the AASHTO Subcommi ttee on Traffi c Engi neeri ng
and Standi ng Commi ttee on Hi ghway Traffi c Safety.
I denti fy candi date l ocati ons wi thi n fi ve months.
81
RECOMMENDATIONS
Obtai n ful l or parti al fundi ng through the STI P program.
Bri ng European experts to the Uni ted States to assi st i n desi gni ng,
i mpl ementi ng, and testi ng new technol ogy.
3. Develop a series of pilot projects to control speed through intersections
using a combination of practices observed in Europe. Techni ques i ncl ude
geometri cs (l ane wi dth and speed tabl es), pavement marki ngs, automated photo
enforcement, and adjustabl e message si gns. Ri ck Col l i ns wi l l serve as the team
champi on for thi s recommendati on. I mpl ementati on strategi es i ncl ude the
fol l owi ng:
Compi l e best-practi ce i nformati on from Sweden and the Netherl ands to
devel op a best-practi ces gui de.
I denti fy candi date l ocati ons for test i mpl ementati on.
Bri ng European experts to the Uni ted States to assi st i n desi gni ng and
i mpl ementi ng speed-r educti on str ategi es.
Work wi th FHWA to fund a synthesi s project to devel op a best-practi ce pl an
and i denti fy demonstr ati on pr ojects.
4. Promote roundabouts as alternatives to signalized intersections as a
way to manage the consequences of collisions (severity versus
frequency). Phi l Cl ark wi l l serve as the team champi on for thi s
r ecommendati on. I mpl ementati on str ategi es i ncl ude the fol l owi ng:
Work wi th European experts to devel op gui del i nes for converti ng si gnal s to
roundabouts i n the Uni ted States.
Devel op semi nars and trai ni ng courses, i ncl udi ng operati onal and geometri c
computer si mul ati on (si mi l ar to ARCADY) i nstructi on for hi ghway
desi gner s.
Devel op a process and tool s, i ncl udi ng operati onal and geometri c computer
si mul ati on packages, to assi st desi gners and hi ghway agenci es i n conveyi ng
the advantages to the publ i c.
5. Develop guidelines and identify pilot projects to enhance pedestrian
safety at signalized intersections in the United States. Gui del i nes wi l l
focus on appl yi ng strategi es such as PUFFI N and TOUCAN crossi ngs,
countdown i ndi cators, and audi bl e pedestri an si gnal s. Nazi r Lal ani wi l l serve as
the team champi on for thi s recommendati on. I mpl ementati on strategi es i ncl ude
the fol l owi ng:
Coordi nate wi th the NCHRP pedestri an si gnal project.
Devel op a tool box to i denti fy best practi ces.
Work wi th the AASHTO task force to i ncorporate some of the geometri c
desi gn appl i cati ons observed duri ng the vi si t.
Coordi nate wi th user groups such as the Ameri can Di sabi l i ty Associ ati on.
82
CHAPTER NINE
Coor di nate wi th NCUTCD.
I denti fy feasi bl e l ocati ons to pi l ot test vari ous strategi es.
ADDITIONAL RECOMMENDATIONS
I n addi ti on to the pri mary team recommendati ons, several team members have
i denti fi ed practi ces or programs that rel ate to thei r speci fi c areas of experti se. The
fol l owi ng i s a summary of i ndi vi dual recommendati ons:
83
RECOMMENDATIONS
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84
appendi x a
TEAM MEMBERS
CONTACT INFORMATION
Gene K. Fong (Co-Chai r)
Di r ector of Fi el d Ser vi cesEast
Feder al Hi ghway Admi ni str ati on
Ci ty Crescent Bl dg., Sui te 4000
10 South Howard Street
Bal ti more, MD 21201
Phone: 410-962-5177
Fax: 410-962-3655
Cel l : 410-984-9201
E-mai l : gene.fong@fhwa.dot.gov
J ames H. Kopf (Co-Chai r)
Chi ef Engi neer and Deputy Executi ve Di r ector
Mi ssi ssi ppi Depar tment of Tr anspor tati on
PO Box 1850
Jackson, MS 39215
FEDEX: 401 North West Street, Jackson, MS 39201
Phone: 601-359-7004
Fax: 601-359-7050
E-mai l : jkopf@mdot.state.ms.us
Philip J . Clark
Deputy Chi ef Engi neer /Di r ector, Desi gn Di vi si on
New York State Department Of Transportati on
Bui l di ng 5, Room 405
State Offi ce Campus
1220 Washi ngton Avenue
Al bany, NY 12232-0748
Phone: 518-457-6452
Fax: 518-457-7283
E-mai l : pcl ar k@gw.dot.state.ny.us
Rick Collins
Engi neer of Traffi c
Texas Department of Transportati on
125 East 11
th
Street
Austi n, TX 78701-2483
Phone: 512-416-3135
Fax: 512-416-3349
E-mai l : r col l i ns@dot.state.tx.us
85
TEAM MEMBERS
Richard A. Cunard
Engi neer of Traffi c & Operati ons
Tr anspor tati on Resear ch Boar d
Room GR326P
2001 Wi sconsi n Avenue NW
Washi ngton, DC 20007
Phone: 202-334-2963
Fax: 202-334-2003
E-mai l : rcunard@nas.edu
Ken F. Kobetsky
Pr ogr am Di r ector for Engi neer i ng
Ameri can Associ ati on of State Hi ghway and Transportati on Offi ci al s
444 North Capi tol Street NW, Sui te 249
Phone: 202-624-5254
Fax: 202-624-5469
E-mai l : kenk@aashto.org
Nazir Lalani
Pr i nci pal Engi neer
Tr anspor tati on Depar tment
County of Ventura
800 South Vi ctori a Avenue
Ventura, CA 93009-1600
Phone: 805-654-2080
Fax: 805-654-3852
E-mai l : nazi r.l al ani @mai l .co.ventur a.ca.us
Fred N. Ranck
Safety Engi neer
FHWA Mi dwester n Resour ce Center
19900 Governors Dri ve
Ol ympi a Fi el ds, I L 60461-1021
Phone: 708-283-3545
Fax: 708-283-3501
E-mai l : fr ed.r anck@fhwa.dot.gov
Robert K. Seyfried
Di r ector, Tr anspor tati on Engi neer i ng Di vi si on
Northwestern Uni versi ty Center for Publ i c Safety
405 Church Street
Evanston, I L 60204
Phone: 847-491-3431
Fax: 847-491-5270
E-mai l : r-seyfr i ed@nor thwester n.edu
86
APPENDIX A
Kevin Slack (Report Faci l i tator)
Vi ce Presi dent & Seni or Transportati on Engi neer
CH2M HI LL
13921 Park Center Road, Sui te 600
Herndon, VA 20171
Phone: 703-471-6405, ext. 4517
Cel l : 703-338-8547
Fax: 703-796-6299
E-mai l : ksl ack@ch2m.com
J ames W. Sparks
Deputy Str eet Tr anspor tati on Di r ector
Ci ty of Phoeni x
200 West Washi ngton Street
Phoeni x, AZ 85003-1611
Phone: 602-262-4435
Fax: 602-495-0336
Cel l : 602-509-6693
E-mai l : jsparks@ci .phoeni x.az.us
Rudolph M. Umbs
Acti ng Di rector, Offi ce of Safety Desi gn
Feder al Hi ghway Admi ni str ati on
HAS-10, Room 3419
400 Seventh Street, SW
Phone: 202-366-2177
Fax: 202-366-3222
Pager: 1-800-692-8829
E-mai l : r udol ph.umbs@fhwa.dot.gov
Stephen N. Van Winkle
Di rector of Publ i c Works
Ci ty of Peori a
Department of Publ i c Works
419 Ful ton Street, Room 307
Peori a, I L 61602
Phone: 309-494-8800
Fax: 309-494-8658
E-mai l : svanwi nkl e@ci .peor i a.i l .us
BIOGRAPHIC SKETCHES
Gene K. Fong (co-chai r) i s the di rector of Fi el d Servi cesEast for the Federal
Hi ghway Admi ni strati on (FHWA) i n Bal ti more, Maryl and. Fong oversees the
Federal -ai d Hi ghway Program i n 14 eastern States and the Eastern Resource
Center offi ces. Hi s emphasi s i ncl udes provi di ng strategi c l eadershi p i n enhanci ng
i ntermodal and i nteragency cooperati on and coordi nati on to advance FHWA and
U.S. Department of Transportati on (DOT) i ni ti ati ves, i ncl udi ng support for the
87
TEAM MEMBERS
DOT and FHWA goal to conti nual l y i mprove hi ghway safety. I n the past, he served
as the di vi si on admi ni strator i n Washi ngton State and assi stant di vi si on
admi ni strator i n New York State. Fong has a masters degree from San Jose State
Uni versi ty. He i s a l i censed professi onal engi neer i n Mi chi gan and serves on
several executi ve l eadershi p commi ttees for FHWA.
J ames H. Kopf (co-chai r) i s the chi ef engi neer and deputy executi ve di rector of
the Mi ssi ssi ppi Department of Transportati on (MDOT) i n Jackson, Mi ssi ssi ppi . He
i s responsi bl e for devel opi ng and executi ng al l techni cal pol i ci es and procedures
for MDOT. He al so exerci ses general and techni cal supervi si on of MDOT functi ons.
Kopf has been wi th MDOT for 35 years. He has a bachel ors degree i n ci vi l
engi neeri ng from Mi ssi ssi ppi State Uni versi ty. He i s a l i censed professi onal
engi neer and a l i censed professi onal l and surveyor i n Mi ssi ssi ppi . He serves on
vari ous nati onal transportati on commi ttees, i ncl udi ng the Ameri can Associ ati on of
State Hi ghway Offi ci al s Standi ng Commi ttee on Hi ghways, Study Commi ttee on
Qual i ty, Speci al Commi ttee on TRAC, Standi ng Commi ttee on Hi ghway Traffi c
Safety, Subcommi ttee on Transportati on Systems Management, and Transportati on
Research Commi ttee. He i s al so a member of the Nati onal Soci ety of Professi onal
Engi neers and Mi ssi ssi ppi Engi neeri ng Soci ety.
Philip J . Clark i s deputy chi ef engi neer and di rector of the Desi gn Di vi si on for
the New York State Department of Transportati on i n Al bany, New York. He i s
responsi bl e for oversi ght of transportati on desi gn acti vi ti es statewi de, i ncl udi ng
devel opi ng rel ated pol i ci es, procedures, and standards. Cl ark has al so served as
di rector of the departments Poughkeepsi e regi onal offi ce, where hi s
responsi bi l i ti es i ncl uded oversi ght of a $200 mi l l i on annual capi tal constructi on
program and mai ntenance and operati on of the State transportati on system i n
seven counti es north of New York Ci ty. He i s a l i censed professi onal engi neer i n
New York and has a bachel ors degree i n ci vi l engi neeri ng from the Uni versi ty of
Vermont. Cl ark serves on the Ameri can Associ ati on of State Hi ghway and
Transportati on Offi ci al s Task Force on Geometri c Desi gn, whi ch i s responsi bl e for
prepari ng A Pol i cy on Geometri c Desi gn of Hi ghways and Streets.
Rick Collins i s the di rector of the Traffi c Engi neeri ng Secti on for the Texas
Department of Transportati on (TxDOT) i n Austi n, Texas. He i s responsi bl e for
devel opi ng and i ssui ng statewi de gui del i nes, standards, and procedures for traffi c
engi neeri ng features such as si gns, traffi c si gnal s, and pavement marki ngs. The
Traffi c Engi neeri ng Secti on i s al so responsi bl e for the Hazard El i mi nati on
Program, a Federal safety constructi on program. Col l i ns has served wi th TxDOT
for more than 18 years and has been i nvol ved i n traffi c, safety, and desi gn i ssues.
He al so has two years of desi gn experi ence wi th a pri vate engi neeri ng fi rm i n
Austi n. He has a bachel ors degree i n ci vi l engi neeri ng from Texas A&M Uni versi ty
and a masters degree i n engi neeri ng from the Uni versi ty of Texas at Austi n. He i s a
l i censed professi onal engi neer i n Texas and i s a member of the Ameri can
Associ ati on of State Hi ghway and Transportati on Offi ci al s Hi ghway Subcommi ttee
on Traffi c Engi neeri ng and the I nsti tute of Transportati on Engi neers.
Richard A. Cunard i s the engi neer of traffi c and operati ons for the
Transportati on Research Board (TRB) i n Washi ngton, D.C. He i s responsi bl e for the
88
APPENDIX A
techni cal acti vi ti es at TRB rel ated to traffi c engi neeri ng and control , traffi c
operati ons, i ntel l i gent transportati on systems (I TS), and vehi cl e-hi ghway
automated systems. He has authored numerous techni cal papers and arti cl es on
traffi c control , operati ons, and safety i ssues. Cunard has served wi th TRB for more
than 13 years and has more than 25 years of experi ence i n traffi c engi neeri ng and
safety for publ i c and pri vate agenci es. He has bachel ors and masters degrees i n
ci vi l engi neeri ng from Wayne State Uni versi ty. He i s a l i censed professi onal
engi neer. Cunard i s acti ve i n several nati onal and i nternati onal professi onal
associ ati ons and soci eti es and serves on i nternati onal techni cal program
commi ttees i n the areas of I TS, traffi c control , traffi c engi neeri ng, and traffi c safety.
Ken F. Kobetsky i s the program di rector for engi neeri ng for the Ameri can
Associ ati on of State Hi ghway and Transportati on Offi ci al s (AASHTO) i n
Washi ngton, D.C. Kobetsky serves as l i ai son for AASHTOs Standi ng Commi ttee on
Hi ghways (SCOH) and Standi ng Commi ttee on Research. He i s al so l i ai son for
SCOHs techni cal Subcommi ttees on Mai ntenance, Materi al s, and Traffi c
Engi neeri ng, as wel l as several task forces and joi nt commi ttees. Kobetsky works
wi th AASHTO techni cal commi ttees and task forces to produce engi neeri ng and
rel ated professi onal publ i cati ons and addresses techni cal i nqui ri es on hi ghway
engi neeri ng. Kobetsky al so di rects the Nati onal Transportati on Product Eval uati on
Program and the Snow and I ce Pool ed Fund Cooperati ve Program techni cal
servi ces programs. Kobetsky has been wi th AASHTO for ei ght years and has more
than 30 addi ti onal years of State hi ghway agency experi ence i n traffi c operati ons,
desi gn, and constructi on. He has a bachel ors degree i n ci vi l engi neeri ng from the
Uni versi ty of North Dakota, a graduate degree i n traffi c engi neeri ng from Yal e
Uni versi ty, and a masters degree i n engi neeri ng from the West Vi rgi ni a Col l ege of
Graduate Studi es. He i s a regi stered professi onal engi neer. Kobetsky chai rs the
Nati onal Commi ttee on Uni form Traffi c Control Devi ces and serves on many
techni cal commi ttees of the Transportati on Research Board.
Nazir Lalani i s a pri nci pal engi neer i n the Ventura County, Cal i forni a,
Transportati on Department i n charge of the Traffi c and Transportati on Pl anni ng
Di vi si on. He i s responsi bl e for desi gni ng and operati ng si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons. He
al so teaches a course on the fundamental s of traffi c engi neeri ng for the I nsti tute of
Transportati on Studi es at the Uni versi ty of Cal i forni a at Berkel ey. An expert on
si gnal i zed i ntersecti on safety, he serves on a revi ew panel for a new Federal
Hi ghway Admi ni strati on publ i cati on on thi s topi c. For the past 25 years, he has
been responsi bl e for the operati on of si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons i n a number of ci ti es
and counti es i n several States, focusi ng on i mpl ementi ng safety i mprovements to
reduce col l i si ons. Lal ani has a bachel ors degree i n chemi cal engi neeri ng from the
Uni versi ty of Exeter i n Engl and and a masters degree i n ci vi l engi neeri ng from
Ari zona State Uni versi ty. He i s a member of the I nsti tute of Transportati on
Engi neers (I TE) and the Ameri can Publ i c Works Associ ati on. He chai rs the I TE
Publ i c Agency Counci l and i s a frequent presenter on safety-rel ated topi cs at I TE
confer ences.
Fred N. Ranck i s a safety/geometri cs engi neer for the Federal Hi ghway
Admi ni strati on (FHWA) at the Mi dwestern Resource Center. Ranck i s responsi bl e
for safety techni cal support to the 10 FHWA di vi si ons i n thei r mi dwestern
89
TEAM MEMBERS
transportati on programs and i s responsi bl e for Parts 2 and 5 of the Manual on
Uni form Traffi c Control Devi ces as a member of FHWAs MUTCD Team. I n the past,
Ranck was the ci ty traffi c engi neer for Napervi l l e, I l l i noi s; manager of the Hi ghway
Traffi c Safety Department for the Nati onal Safety Counci l ; and county traffi c
engi neer for DuPage County, I l l i noi s. He was the pri nci pal i nvesti gator for
devel opi ng the nati onal WALK ALERT Pedestri an Safety Program and has been
the nati onal di rector for the Operati on Li fesaver Grade Crossi ng Safety Publ i c
I nformati on Program. Ranck has bachel ors degrees i n physi cs and ci vi l
engi neeri ng and a masters degree i n transportati on engi neeri ng from the
Uni versi ty of I l l i noi s-Champai gn/Urbana. He i s a l i censed professi onal engi neer i n
I l l i noi s. He i s certi fi ed as a professi onal traffi c operati ons engi neer by the I nsti tute
of Transportati on Engi neers and has I nternati onal Muni ci pal Si gnal Associ ati on
traffi c si gnal techni ci an l evel I I and ATTSEA work si te supervi sor certi fi cati ons.
Robert K. Seyfried i s the di rector of the Transportati on Engi neeri ng Di vi si on of
the Northwestern Uni versi ty Center for Publ i c Safety. He i s responsi bl e for
admi ni steri ng, pl anni ng, devel opi ng, and presenti ng semi nars and workshops on
transportati on engi neeri ng on the Evanston, I l l i noi s, campus and throughout the
Uni ted States. These conti nui ng educati on programs i ncl ude trai ni ng i n traffi c
si gnal desi gn, operati ons, and traffi c safety, and are attended by professi onal s from
ci ty, county, State, and pri vate engi neeri ng organi zati ons. Seyfri ed has 33 years
experi ence i n transportati on engi neeri ng, and has been on the staff of the
Northwestern Uni versi ty Center for Publ i c Safety for the past 25 years. I n the past,
Seyfri ed worked as a consul tant prepari ng i ntersecti on i mprovement and traffi c
si gnal pl ans. Seyfri ed has bachel ors and masters degrees i n ci vi l engi neeri ng from
Northwestern Uni versi ty. He i s a member of the I nsti tute of Transportati on
Engi neers, Ameri can Soci ety of Ci vi l Engi neers, Transportati on Research Board,
and Gui de Si gns Techni cal Commi ttee of the Nati onal Commi ttee on Uni form
Traffi c Control Devi ces. He i s a regi stered professi onal engi neer i n I l l i noi s and a
cer ti fi ed pr ofessi onal tr affi c oper ati ons engi neer.
Kevin L. Slack (report faci l i tator) i s a seni or transportati on engi neer and vi ce
presi dent for CH2M HI LL i n Herndon, Vi rgi ni a. Sl ack manages CH2M HI LLs
Transportati on Group i n Vi rgi ni a and i s the copri nci pal I nvesti gator for the
Nati onal Cooperati ve Hi ghway Research Program (NCHRP) Project 17-18(3) on
I mpl ementati on of the AASHTO Strategi c Hi ghway Safety Pl an. At CH2M HI LL,
Sl ack has been responsi bl e for transportati on pl anni ng, traffi c engi neeri ng,
prel i mi nary desi gn, and fi nal desi gn on a wi de vari ety of projects i n more than 10
States. As copri nci pal i nvesti gator for NCHRP Project 17-18(3), Sl ack i s
responsi bl e for devel opi ng documents and materi al s to gui de transportati on
agenci es on programs and acti ons that can produce measurabl e reducti ons i n
hi ghway fatal i ti es at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons. I n addi ti on, Sl ack supports the
Federal Hi ghway Admi ni strati on i n devel opi ng i ts I nteracti ve Hi ghway Safety
Desi gn Model . Sl ack earned bachel ors and masters degrees i n ci vi l engi neeri ng
from Pennsyl vani a State Uni versi ty. He i s a regi stered professi onal engi neer i n
Vi rgi ni a and I l l i noi s and a member of the I nsti tute of Transportati on Engi neers.
J ames W. Sparks i s traffi c engi neer for the Ci ty of Phoeni x, Ari zona. Sparks
di rects the Traffi c Operati ons Di vi si on for Phoeni x and serves as deputy di rector
90
APPENDIX A
for the Street Transportati on Department. He i s responsi bl e for al l aspects of
operati ng traffi c, i ncl udi ng si gni ng, stri pi ng, si gnal s, and parki ng meters. He has
been wi th Phoeni x as a transportati on professi onal for 30 years and has ei ght pri or
years wi th the Okl ahoma Department of Transportati on. Sparks has bachel ors and
masters degrees i n ci vi l engi neeri ng from the Uni versi ty of Okl ahoma and
recei ved a certi fi cate from the Yal e Bureau of Hi ghway Traffi c. He i s a l i censed
professi onal engi neer i n Ari zona and has served as presi dent of the Ari zona
Secti on of the I nsti tute of Transportati on Engi neers. Sparks has authored more
than a dozen arti cl es i n professi onal journal s on effecti ve and effi ci ent means of
movi ng traffi c. He serves on the Nati onal Commi ttee on Uni form Traffi c Control
Devi ces.
Rudolph M. Umbs i s acti ng di rector of the Federal Hi ghway Admi ni strati on
(FHWA) Offi ce of Safety Desi gn. The offi ce i s responsi bl e for the Roadway,
Roadsi de, I ntersecti on, and Hi ghway-Rai l Crossi ng Safety Programs, i ncl udi ng the
new Road Safety Audi ts Program. I n addi ti on, the offi ce handl es FHWAs
responsi bi l i ti es for safety data systems and anal yses and the State and Communi ty
Hi ghway Safety Grant Program. Umbs al so serves as the FHWA headquarters
l i ai son to more than 70 FHWA fi el d hi ghway safety staff. He has been i nvol ved i n
the Ameri can Associ ati on of State Hi ghway and Transportati on Offi ci al s Strategi c
Hi ghway Safety Pl an si nce i ts i ncepti on and i s a member of the Nati onal
Cooperati ve Hi ghway Research Programs Project 17-18 Panel on i mpl ementi ng the
pl an. Umbs has been wi th FHWA for more than 31 years, i ncl udi ng 26 years i n
hi ghway safety. Hi s most recent posi ti on was chi ef of the Safety Desi gn and
Operati ons Di vi si on, whi ch was responsi bl e for revi si ng and mai ntai ni ng the
nati onal Manual on Uni form Traffi c Control Devi ces. He i s a graduate of Marquette
Uni versi ty and a regi stered professi onal engi neer i n Mi nnesota. Umbs has recei ved
the FHWA Nati onal Safety Leadershi p Award and Admi ni strator Award. Hi s offi ce
has recei ved Tel l y Awards and the Ameri can Soci ety of Associ ati on Executi ves
Gol d Ci rcl e Award for excel l ence i n hi ghway safety publ i c rel ati ons programs and
FHWAs Qual i ty Journey Award.
Stephen N. Van Winkle i s the publ i c works di rector for the Ci ty of Peori a, I l l i noi s,
a posi ti on he has hel d si nce 1982. Among hi s responsi bi l i ti es i s management of 225
si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons. Motori st and pedestri an safety are hi s pri mary goal s. I n
the past, Van Wi nkl e worked for the I l l i noi s Department of Transportati on, where
he was i nvol ved i n geometri c i ntersecti on and roadway desi gn and the appl i cati on
of traffi c control devi ces. He served as the bureau chi ef of Traffi c Engi neeri ng and
Roadway Pl anni ng and Project Programmi ng for one of I l l i noi s ni ne hi ghway
di stri cts. Van Wi nkl e has a bachel ors degree i n ci vi l engi neeri ng and a masters
degree i n hi ghway and traffi c engi neeri ng from Texas A&M Uni versi ty. He i s a
fel l ow of the I nsti tute of Transportati on Engi neers (I TE) and has served as I l l i noi s
Secti on presi dent, Urban Traffi c Engi neeri ng Counci l chai r, i nternati onal di rector
for Di stri ct 4, and I TE del egati on chai r on the Nati onal Commi ttee of Uni form
Tr affi c Contr ol Devi ces.
91
appendi x b
AMPLI FYI NG QUESTI ONS
To hel p cl ari fy the scanni ng teams areas of i nterest, members have i denti fi ed si x
topi cs as i mportant categori es for di scussi on. Team members have devel oped
speci fi c questi ons i n each category to hel p faci l i tate di scussi ons and provi de
addi ti onal i nsi ght i nto thei r i nterests i n safety at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons.
A key goal of our vi si t i s to i denti fy readi l y i mpl ementabl e i ntersecti on-safety
sol uti ons and programs for depl oyment i n the Uni ted States. Pl ease focus your
di scussi ons and efforts on hi ghl y promi si ng and i mpl ementabl e i ntersecti on-safety
countermeasures and sol uti ons. We are parti cul arl y i nterested i n how you have
i denti fi ed and overcome i mpl ementati on barri ers and any speci al i mpl ementati on
needs. Pl ease provi de speci fi c exampl es and documentati on.
I n addi ti on to the pri mary topi cs of i nterest, outl i ned i n I through VI , the panel has
i denti fi ed a number of general topi cs that pertai n to several or al l of the
categor i es:
The organi zati on of, structure of, and responsi bi l i ti es for your countrys traffi c
si gnal operati ons and i ntersecti on safety.
What are your countrys safety pri ori ti es for pedestri ans, bi cycl i sts, and
motori sts, rel ati ve to provi di ng overal l mobi l i ty? How do these pri ori ti es affect
your approach to i ntersecti on safety programs?
How do l egal i ssues or the ri sk of tort l awsui ts i nfl uence your approach to
i ntersecti on safety? To what extent do concerns about possi bl e tort l awsui ts
create barri ers to consi deri ng or i mpl ementi ng i nnovati ve safety
i mpr ovements?
How does your organi zati on fund i ntersecti on safety-rel ated acti vi ti es?
The panel i s i nterested i n both urban and rural si gnal i zed i ntersecti on safety,
parti cul arl y safety at hi gh-speed rural si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons.
Do you have any publ i c educati onal programs that target i ntersecti on safety? I f
so, pl ease provi de exampl es (fl yers, posters, tel evi si on commerci al s, etc.). We
are i nterested i n programs targeted to al l users, i ncl udi ng dri vers, pedestri ans,
bi cycl i sts, school chi l dren, etc.
What correl ati on have you found between the enforcement of i ntersecti on-
rel ated l aws and i ntersecti on safety?
As you revi ew the ampl i fyi ng questi ons, pl ease consi der these general i ssues and
thei r effect on your agencys approach to si gnal i zed i ntersecti on safety. Any speci fi c
exampl es (pl ans, photographs, reports, si te vi si ts) that i l l ustrate your safety
appr oach woul d be appr eci ated.
92
APPENDIX B
I. SELECTION, DESIGN, INSTALLATION, OPERATION, AND MAINTENANCE OF TRAFFIC
CONTROL DEVICES AT SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS WITH A FOCUS ON THE SAFETY
IMPLICATIONS OF EACH OF THESE ELEMENTS.
1. How does your organi zati on use safety measures or safety-based performance
i ndi cators to justi fy the i nstal l ati on of traffi c si gnal s or i mprovements to
si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons? On whi ch safety measures are the cri teri a based?
2. Under what ci rcumstances woul d you not si gnal i ze an i ntersecti on? How woul d
you address i ntersecti on safety under those ci rcumstances?
3. Under what ci rcumstances woul d you downgrade i ntersecti on control (e.g.,
repl ace a si gnal wi th stop control ) to i mprove i ntersecti on safety?
4. How do si gnal oper ati on pol i ci es and pr ocedur es expl i ci tl y addr ess i nter secti on
safety (e.g., speci al si gnal ti mi ng requi rements, cycl e l engths, permi ssi ve versus
protecti ve l eft-turn phasi ng, number of phases, l ead versus l ag phasi ng, l ength
of cl earance i nterval , al l -red i nterval , pedestri an phase, di l emma zone
protecti on, ri ght-turn prohi bi ti ons on red, pre-green i nterval , etc.)?
5. Pl ease descri be or document any pol i ci es, procedures, or speci al devi ces
(i ncl udi ng pavement marki ngs or sensors) empl oyed to address safety i ssues at
si gnal i zed i nter secti ons wi th the fol l owi ng:
Hi gh pedestri an vol ume
Si gni fi cant bi cycl e traffi c
El derl y users (both dri vers and pedestri ans)
Di sabl ed or handi capped users (i ncl udi ng the vi sual l y i mpai red)
6. What traffi c control devi ces are used to address safety i ssues at i sol ated hi gh-
speed i ntersecti ons (e.g., advanced warni ng systems, speci al si gnal operati onal
schemes, and speci al hardware)? Pl ease di scuss or provi de documentati on on
operati onal and desi gn cri teri a for such devi ces and successes of thei r
appl i cati on i n i mpr ovi ng i nter secti on safety.
7. What types of speci al si gnal di spl ays (e.g., l eft/ri ght turn, pedestri an, bi cycl e,
etc.) are used to i mprove i ntersecti on safety?
8. I n what manner i s safety consi dered i n si gnal system coordi nati on?
9. To what extent i s mai ntenance consi dered an i ntersecti on safety i ssue? What i s
your agencys pol i cy for si gnal troubl e cal l s? Do you have a proacti ve bul b
r epl acement pr ogr am?
10. What trai ni ng i s offered i n the sel ecti on, desi gn, i nstal l ati on, operati on, and
mai ntenance of traffi c control devi ces?
11. What speci al consi derati ons are gi ven to emergency preempti on at si gnal i zed
i nter secti ons?
93
AMPLIFYING QUESTIONS
12. How common are l awsui ts i nvol vi ng traffi c control devi ces? What ki nd of
l awsui ts?
13. What safety effects (posi ti ve or negati ve) have been noted i n usi ng LED
si gnal s?
II. INNOVATIVE TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES AT SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS.
1. What are some exampl es of i nnovati ve traffi c control devi ces empl oyed on or
adjacent to the roadway pri mari l y for i ntersecti on safety reasons? Exampl es
mi ght i ncl ude the fol l owi ng:
Strobe l i ghts to i ncrease vi si bi l i ty
Pedestr i an detector s or countdown ti mer s
Advance vehi cl e detecti on
Vi deo sur vei l l ance or detecti on
2. What ci rcumstances have l ed to the i nstal l ati on of these i nnovati ve traffi c-
contr ol devi ces?
3. What measurabl e effects have these devi ces had on i ntersecti on safety? Pl ease
pr ovi de exampl es and documentati on.
4. What safety measures or procedures are used to determi ne i f tradi ti onal traffi c
control sol uti ons are i neffecti ve and that i nnovati ve traffi c control i s requi red?
5. How are automated enforcement measures used to enforce red l i ght runni ng?
Pl ease descri be the technol ogy, enforcement practi ces, barri ers to
i mpl ementati on, and speci al i mpl ementati on needs. How effecti ve has
automated enfor cement been i n r educi ng i nter secti on-r el ated acci dents?
6. How i s i nnovati ve traffi c control technol ogy i denti fi ed, i mpl emented, and
measured for effecti veness? What l egal and/or admi ni strati ve i ssues are
encounter ed?
7. Pl ease descri be any i nnovati ve traffi c control devi ces, i nterconnecti ons, or
speci al si gnal operati onal treatments used at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons near at-
grade rai l crossi ngs.
8. Pl ease descri be any i nnovati ve traffi c control devi ces used to address transi t
safety at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons. Thi s i ncl udes both bus and l i ght-rai l transi t.
III. INNOVATIVE GEOMETRIC DESIGNS FOR SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS.
1. Pl ease descri be and provi de exampl es of i nnovati ve geometri c desi gns
devel oped, depl oyed, or i n the process of bei ng depl oyed to address safety
probl ems at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons. Pl ease provi de any avai l abl e supporti ng
data or studi es to veri fy measurabl e i mprovements.
2. Pl ease descri be any safety cri teri a or gui del i nes that address conversi on of a
si gnal i zed i ntersecti on to a roundabout. On what measures are such cri teri a
94
APPENDIX B
based? What are the key i ssues (e.g., pedestri an acti vi ty, transi t acti vi ty, bi cycl e
use, publ i c educati on/awareness, vehi cl e desi gn consi derati ons, approach speed,
etc.) to be consi dered when eval uati ng a roundabout versus a si gnal i zed
i nter secti on?
3. Pl ease descri be safety or other gui del i nes you fol l ow to convert an at-grade
i ntersecti on to a grade-separated i nterchange. Exampl es of such sol uti ons
woul d be appreci ated. What i mpact do these conversi ons have on i ntersecti on
safety?
4. What effects do auxi l i ary l anes have on si gnal i zed i ntersecti on safety? Pl ease
consi der the fol l owi ng:
Left-/r i ght-tur n decel er ati on/stor age l anes (l ength/tr ansi ti ons)
Doubl e l eft-/r i ght-tur n decel er ati on/stor age l anes
Ri ght-tur n accel er ati on l ane
Hi gh occupancy vehi cl e (HOV) l anes
Bi cycl e l anes
5. What i nnovati ve desi gn measures are used to separate pedestri ans and bi cycl es
from motori zed vehi cl e traffi c at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons?
6. What safety-based cr i ter i a or gui del i nes r el ated to i nter secti on geometr i c
features are used?
7. Pl ease descri be and provi de background on how i ntersecti on safety and
operati ons di rectl y i nfl uence the desi gn process. Pl ease di scuss or descri be how
you choose the desi gn of si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons, addressi ng the fol l owi ng key
deci si ons:
Sel ecti on of desi gn vehi cl e for channel i zati on
Deter mi nati on of desi gn speed
Sel ecti on of human factor i nputs, such as pedestri an wal ki ng speed
Determi nati on of need and desi gn for l eft- and ri ght-turn l anes
Determi nati on of need and desi gn for rai sed i sl ands, medi ans, and other
physi cal channel i zati on
Determi nati on of the number of l anes, i ncl udi ng through l anes and turni ng
l anes
Deter mi nati on of appr opr i ate l ane wi dths
8. How are traffi c-cal mi ng measures used to i mprove traffi c safety at si gnal i zed
i ntersecti ons or on the approaches to si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons?
9. To what extent are i nnovati ve geometri c desi gns used to el i mi nate or mi ni mi ze
confl i cti ng movements wi thi n an i ntersecti on? Exampl es i ncl ude the fol l owi ng:
95
AMPLIFYING QUESTIONS
Medi an U-turns
I ndi r ect l eft-tur n l anes
Left-tur n accel er ati on l anes
Pl ease provi de exampl es of thei r i mpl ementati on, speci al i mpl ementati on
needs, and barri ers to i mpl ementati on, parti cul arl y i n ci rcumstances where
safety was an expl i ci t consi derati on. What i mpact does the appl i cati on of these
i nnovati ve geometri c desi gns have on i ntersecti on safety?
IV. PROCESSES AND PROCEDURES FOR PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION, EVALUATION,
AND COUNTERMEASURE SELECTION AT SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS WITH SAFETY
PROBLEMS.
1. What measures are used to i denti fy and pri ori ti ze safety probl ems at si gnal i zed
i ntersecti ons? What types of data are col l ected and how are they used?
2. What pri mary consi derati ons are used to sel ect the appropri ate safety
countermeasures at si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons? How are the costs of
i mprovements compared to the benefi ts? How do you bal ance safety needs wi th
i nter secti on effi ci ency?
3. How are safety countermeasures moni tored for effecti veness? How i s the
i nformati on compi l ed and made avai l abl e for reference by others?
4. Pl ease descri be any governmental l y (or other) mandated safety goal s i n your
countr y r el ated to i nter secti ons and si gnal i zed i nter secti ons.
5. What surrogate measures do you use for crash frequency or severi ty? I f
possi bl e, pl ease provi de documentati on and exampl es.
6. How are l aw enforcement or other agenci es i nvol ved i n i denti fyi ng and sol vi ng
safety pr obl ems at si gnal i zed i nter secti ons?
7. What reference materi al s/gui del i nes are provi ded to staff or l ocal offi ci al s to
ai d them i n eval uati ng thei r i ntersecti ons for safety and choosi ng among
appr opr i ate i mpr ovements? How i s thi s i nfor mati on di ssemi nated?
8. How do you educate the publ i c on safety i ssues and dri vi ng procedures?
V. LOW-COST SAFETY IMPROVEMENTS FOR SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS.
1. What are some speci fi c exampl es of l ow-cost i ntersecti on safety i mprovements
i n operati ons, geometri c desi gn, enforcement, or educati on? What were the keys
to successful i mpl ementati on?
2. How do you empl oy l eft- or ri ght-turn prohi bi ti ons as a l ow-cost means of
addressi ng safety probl ems? Pl ease provi de i nformati on on the safety effects of
these prohi bi ti ons at the i ntersecti on and al ong the path of di verted
movements.
96
APPENDIX B
3. How do you i ncorporate l aw enforcement measures to i mprove safety at
si gnal i zed i ntersecti ons? Are there studi es that document the effecti veness of
l aw enforcement measures? We are i nterested i n both conventi onal and
automated enfor cement techni ques.
VI. RESEARCH PROJECTS FOCUSED ON SAFETY ISSUES AT SIGNALIZED
INTERSECTIONS.
1. What ongoi ng research acti vi ti es i n your country (or el sewhere i n Europe) are
rel ated to si gnal i zed i ntersecti on safety? Topi cs of i nterest i ncl ude the
fol l owi ng:
Surrogate measures for safety
Al ter nati ve geometr i c desi gn sol uti ons
Oper ati onal effects
Human factors
El der l y dr i ver s
Di sabl ed user s
I TS strategi es
Safety of pedestri ans
Safety of bi cycl i sts
Col l i si on avoi dance systems (i n vehi cl e or road based)
Model i ng the expected safety effects of desi gn or operati onal treatments
2. What agenci es or organi zati ons sponsor, parti ci pate i n, or have a strong i nterest
i n i ntersecti on safety? How do they i nfl uence and hel p carry out your nati onal
r esear ch agenda?
3. How are research pl ans and fi ndi ngs di ssemi nated and i mpl emented i n your
countr y?
97
appendi x c
HOST COUNTRY CONTACTS
SWEDEN
Vagverket
Al f Peter son
Seni or Advi sor, I TS
Phone: +46 8 757 66 00
E-mai l : al f.peter son@vv.se
Tor bjor n Boi vi e
M. Sc. Ci v. Eng.
Phone: +46 8 98 41 91
E-mai l : tor bjor n.boi vi e@vv.se
Svante Berg
Traffi c Management, Road Desi gn Offi ce
Phone: +46 243 755 61
E-mai l : svante.ber g@vv.se
Lena Ryden
Di r ector at I nter nati onal Secr etar i at
Phone: +46 243 755 21
E-mai l : l ena.r yden@vv.se
Roger Johansson
Deputy Di rector, Traffi c Safety Department
Phone: +46 243 758 80
E-mai l : r oger.johansson@vv.se
Real Estate and Traffic Administration
Lars Soder
Seni or Advi ser, Techni cs & Purchasi ng
Phone: +46 8 508 262 08
E-mai l : www.gfk.stockhol m.se
Mats Fager
Phone: +46 8 508 262 98
E-mai l : mats.fager @gfk.stockhol m.se
PEEK
Davi d Andr ew
Mar keti ng & Pr oduct Devel opment
Phone: +46 8 556 10 700
E-mai l : davi d.andr ew@peek.se
98
APPENDIX C
Mi chael Cewer s
Oper ati v Chef/Oper ati ons Manager
Phone: +46 8 556 10 700
E-mai l : mi chael .cewer s@peek.se
Mats Mansson
Tekni ck Chef/Techni cal Manager
Phone: +46 8 556 10 700
E-mai l : mats.mansson@peek.se
John Chi pper fi el d
Phone: 941-552-1500
E-mai l : john.chi pper fi el d@peekcor p.com
GERMANY
SIEMENS
Rober to Br agagnol o
Regi onal Di r ector
Phone: +49 89 7 22 5 54 03
E-mai l : r ober to.br agagnol o@si emens.com
Ber nhar d Her i ng
Di r ector
Phone: +49 89 7 22 2 46 38
E-mai l : ber nhar d.her i ng@atd.mchh.si emens.de
Hans-Jochen Monni ch
Pr oject Manager
Phone: +49 89 7 22 2 61 52
E-mai l : hans-jochen.moenni ch@atd.mchh.si emens.de
Fri tz Busch
Vi ce Presi dent, SI TRAFFI C
Phone: +49 89 7 22 2 63 67
E-mai l : fr i tz.busch@atd.mchh.si emens.de
Stadt Frankfurt AM Main
Her ber t Schr oeder
Phone: (069) 212-4 22 19
E-mai l : Her ber t.shr oeder @stadt-fr ankfur t.dt
Joachi m Bi el efel d
Phone: (069) 212-4 23 23
E-mai l joachi m.bi el efel d@stadt-fr ankfur t.de
99
Federal Ministry of Transport, Building, and Housing
Konstanti n Sauer
Phone: +49 2 28 3 00 52 88
E-mai l : konstanti n.sauer @bmvbw.bund.de
Stadt Koln
Hans Ri chter
Phone: (02 21) 2 21- 2 78 33
E-mai l : hans.r i chter @stadt-koel .de
Grahl
Stefan Grahl
Tr anspor tati on Consul ti ng Engi neer
Phone: +49 (030) 47 00 37 55
E-mai l : stefan.Gr ahl @t-Onl i ne.de
Institut fur Verkehrswirtschaft, Stobenween und Stadtebau Universtat Hannover (IVH)
Ber nhar d Fr i edr i ch
Phone: +49 (0) 5 11 7 62 28 02
E-mai l : fr i edr i ch@i vh.uni -hannover.de
Gesamtverband der Deutschen Versicherungs-wirtschaft e.V. (GDV)
Wer ner Koppel
Phone: 02 21/1 60 24-25
Web si te: http://www.gdv.de
Bundesanstalt fur StraBenwesen (Bast)
Kl aus Krause
Phone: 0 22 04 /43-518
Axel Elsner
Head of Secti on Acci dent Stati sti cs
Phone: +49 (22 04) 43 420
E-mai l : el sner @bast.de
Chr i sti ne Kel l er mann
Phone: +49 (22 04) 43 311
E-mai l : kel l er mannc@bast.de
100
APPENDIX C
THE NETHERLANDS
Ministry of Transport, Public Works, and Water Management
Fr ans Mi ddel ham
Seni or Consul tant, Model i ng and Control Techni ques
Phone: +31 10 282 58 80
E-mai l : f.mi ddel ham@avv.r ws.mi nvenw.nl
Gover t Scher mer s
Seni or Consul tant, Traffi c Safety
Phone: +31 10 282 57 04
E-mai l : scher mer s@avv.r ws.mi nvenw.nl
Henk Taal e
Seni or Consul tant, Traffi c Model i ng & Control
Phone: +31 10 282 58 81
E-mai l : h.taal e@avv.r ws.mi nvenw.nl
Hans Ti nsel boer
Head of Secti on Road I nfrastructure & Traffi c Management
Phone: +31 10 282 56 81
E-mai l : h.j.j.m.ti nsel boer @avv.r ws.mi nvenw.nl
Ministry of Justice
Mei ne van Essen
Resear cher /Pr oject Consul tant
Phone: +31 346 33 33 60
E-mai l : m.van.essen@bvom.drp.mi njus.nl
Province Zuid-Holland
Marti jn de Leeuw
Tr affi c Contr ol Engi neer
Phone: +31 70 441 61 31
E-mai l : l eeuwam@pzh.nl
Ber end Feddes
Seni or Consul tant, Traffi c Control
Phone: +31 70 441 78 98
E-mai l : feddes@pzh.nl
Ber tus For tui jn
Head of Traffi c Bureau
Phone: +31 70 441 63 63
E-mai l : fortui jn@pzh.nl
101
City of Rotterdam
Rober t Kooi jman
Seni or Tr affi c Contr ol Engi neer
Phone: +31 10 489 50 13
E-mai l : R.Kooi jman@dsv.r otter dam.nl
Information and Technology Centre for Transport and Infrastructure (CROW)
Hi l l i e Tal ens
Pr oject Manager
Phone: +31 318 695 300
E-mai l : tal ens@cr ow.nl
Witteveen + Bos
Wal ter C. M. Fransen
Phone: +31 570 69 75 11 /69 75 83
E-mai l : w.fr ansen@wi tbo.nl
Verenigde Verkeers Veiligheids Organisatie (3VO)
Jer oen Kempen
Seni or Consul tant
Phone: +31 35 524 88 38
E-mai l : j.kempen@3vo.nl
DTV Consultants
Bo Boor mans
Di r ector
Phone: +31 76 513 66 00
E-mai l : b.boor mans@dtvconsul tants.nl
Goudappel Coffeng
Luc Pri nsen
Seni or Consul tant, Traffi c Management
Phone: +31 570 666 222
E-mai l : l pr i nsen@goudappel .nl
Vialis, Traffic and Mobility Suppliers
Peter van Di jk
Busi ness Uni t Manager
Phone: +31 23 518 93 57
E-mai l : peter.van.di jk@vi al i s.nl
102
APPENDIX C
Rudi J. Lagerwei j
Consul tant, Busi ness Devel opment
Phone: +31 23 5189209
E-mai l : r udi .l ager wei j@vi al i s.nl
Arcadis Nederland
Robert Jan Roos
Pr oject Manager
Phone: +31 33 460 44 43
E-mai l : r.j.r oos@ar cadi s.nl
UNITED KINGDOM
Department for Transport
Davi d Wi l l i ams
Traffi c Management Di vi si on
Phone: 020 7944 2595
E-mai l : davi dj.wi l l i ams@dft.gsi .gov.uk
I an Drummond
Road Safety
Phone: 020 7944 2629
E-mai l : l an.dr ummond@dft.gsi .gov.uk
Mi ke Mi ddl eton
Traffi c Manager
Phone: 020 7944 2145
E-mai l : mi chael .mi ddl eton@dft.gsi .gov.uk
Highways Agency (HA)
John Smart
Pr i nci pal Techni cal Advi ser
Phone: 020 7921 4986
E-mai l : john.smar t@hi ghways.gsi .gov.uk
TRL
John Pei r ce
Traffi c Consul tancy Manager
Phone: +44 (0) 1344 770032
E-mai l : jpei r ce@tr l .co.uk
103
Transport for London
Ji m Landl es
Assi stant Di r ector, Tr affi c Technol ogy Ser vi ces
Phone: 020 7941 4380
E-mai l : ji ml andl es@tfl .gov.uk
Mark Beasl ey
Si gnal Mai ntenance & Data Management
Phone: 020 7941 4103
E-mai l : mar kbeasl ey@tfl .gov.uk
Del Cook
Tr affi c Oper ati ons
Phone: 020 7941 2335
E-mai l : del cook@str eetmanagement.or g.uk
Chri s Wynne
Chi ef Engi neer, Traffi c Control Center
Phone: 020 7941 2347
E-mai l : chr i swynne@str eetmanagement.or g.uk
Mi chael J. Smi th
Team Manager, Traffi c Control Systems & Road Li ghti ng Team
Phone: 0117 372 8227
E-mai l : mi ke.smi th@hi ghways.gsi .gov.uk
104
Endnot es
1. Road Acci dents, 2001 fi gures, Mi ni stry of Transport, Publ i c Works, and Water
Management, Transport Research Centre (AVV), e-mai l :
ser vi cedesk@avv.r ws.mi nvewn.nl .
2. For more i nformati on, contact Govert Schermers, Mi ni stry of Transport, Publ i c
Works, and Water Management. See Appendi x C for contact i nformati on.
3. For more i nformati on about safety ti mi ng cal cul ati ons, contact Joachi m
Bi el efel d, Ci ty of Frankfurt. See Appendi x C for contact i nformati on.
4. For more i nformati on about the si gnal mai ntenance program and experi ence
wi th hal ogen bul bs i n Frankfurt, contact Joachi m Bi el efel d, Ci ty of Frankfurt.
See Appendi x C for contact i nformati on.
5. Onl y the recommendati ons are avai l abl e i n Engl i sh. The handbooks are i n
Dutch. For more i nformati on, contact Hi l l i e Tal ens, CROW. See Appendi x C for
contact i nfor mati on.
6. For more i nformati on see: Traffi c Control i n Urban Areas, a Survey Among
Road Managers, A.P.M. Wi l son, F. Mi ddel ham, J.W.M. Vermeul , paper publ i shed
at the 10th I nternati onal Conference on Road Transport I nformati on and Con-
trol , I EE, London, Apri l 2000, Conference Publ i cati on No. 472, or contact Frans
Mi ddel ham. See Appendi x C for contact detai l s.
7. For more i nformati on about SCOOT, contact Mi ke Mi ddl eton, Department of
Transport. See Appendi x C for contact i nformati on.
8. For more i nformati on about MOVA, contact J. R. Pei rce, TRL. See Appendi x C
for contact i nformati on.
9. For addi ti onal i nformati on about si gnal i zi ng roundabouts, contact J. R. Pei rce,
TRL. See Appendi x C for contact i nformati on.
10. Each l etter of thi s acronym stands for an opti mi zati on, or pri ori ty, functi on of
the system. The acronym does not transl ate wel l i nto Engl i sh, but i ts l etters
stand for the fol l owi ng: L, generi c pri ori ty (trucks, buses, queue, pl atoons); H,
pri ori ty of the mai n road (mobi l i ty); O, i nci dent reducti on (traffi c safety); V,
vari abl e yel l ow i nterval (mobi l i ty); R, red-l i ght-runni ng control (traffi c safety);
and A, mi ni mi zati on of green-yel l ow-red-green sequences (i .e., rest i n red when
traffi c i s not present).
11. A comprehensi ve report on devel opi ng and i mpl ementi ng LHOVRA i s avai l abl e
through SNRA, Si gnal Control Strategy for I sol ated I ntersecti ons (publ i cati on
1991:51E). For more i nformati on, contact Al f Peterson, SNRA. See Appendi x C
for contact i nformati on.
12. For more i nformati on on Stockhol ms LED conversi on, i ncl udi ng conversi on
pl ans, techni cal speci fi cati ons, warranti es, and mai ntenance, contact Torbjrn
Boi vi e, SNRA, or Lars Sder, Ci ty of Stockhol m. See Appendi x C for contact
i nfor mati on.
105
ENDNOTES
13. For more i nformati on on the use of handhel d transponders, contact Mats Fager,
Ci ty of Stockhol m. See Appendi xC for contact i nformati on.
14. For more i nformati on about the publ i c safety messages, contact Jeroen Kempen,
3VO. See Appendi x C for contact i nformati on.
15. For more i nformati on about speed tabl es, contact Bertus Forti jn, Provi nce Zui d-
Hol l and. See Appendi x C for contact i nformati on.
16. Thi s has been proposed by Bo Boormans from DTV. See Appendi x C for contact
i nfor mati on.
17. These studi es i ncl ude the fol l owi ng: (1) A. Hooke, J. Knox, and D. Portas, 1996,
Cost Benefi t Anal ysi s of Traffi c Li ghts and Speed Cameras, Pol i ce Research
Seri es Paper 20, Pol i ce Research Group, Home Offi ce, London, U.K. (2) D.J.
Fi nch, P. Kompfner, C.R. Lockwood, and G. Maycock, 1994, Speed, Speed Li mi ts
and Acci dents, Project Report 58, Transport Research Laboratory (TRL),
Crowthorne, U.K. (3) M.C. Tayl or, D.A. Lynam, and A. Baruya, 2000, The Effects
of Dri vers Speed on the Frequency of Road Acci dents, Report 421, TRL,
Cr owthor ne, U.K.
18. For a copy of the report, contact Davi d Wi l l i ams, Department of Transport. See
Appendi x C for contact i nformati on.
19. For more i nformati on about the MAAP, contact J. R. Pei rce, TRL. See Appendi x
C for contact i nformati on.
20. For more i nformati on about MATRI X, contact Torbjrn Boi vi e, SNRA. See Ap-
pendi x C for contact i nformati on.
21. For more i nformati on about SuperLHOVRA, contact Al f Peterson, SNRA. See
Appendi x C for contact i nfor mati on.
22. For more i nformati on, see www.swov.nl .
23. For more i nformati on about the program, contact Mei ne van Essen, Openbaar
Mi ni steri e. See Appendi x C for contact i nformati on.
24. For more i nformati on, contact Hi l l i e Tal ens, CROW. See Appendi x C for contact
i nfor mati on.
25. For more i nformati on, contact Frans Mi ddel ham, AVV. See Appendi x C for
contact i nfor mati on.

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