CHAPTER 1 AND 2 SUMMARY PSYCHOLOGY

NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY (CHAPTER 1)

Psychology systematic study of mental processes (thoughts, feelings, covert) and behaviours
(actions, overt)

Areas of specialisation
Sport psychologist athletes, maintain peak performance
Community psychologist community groups, improve health and welfare of people in community
Biological psychologist bodily structures associated with mental process and behaviour
Forensic psychologist legal correctional services
Organisational psychologist works with people in work places
Educational/developmental psychologist issues that affect learning or with life changes
Counselling psychologist personal and relationship problems
Clinical neuropsychologist irregular brain function, problems arising from brain damage
Personality psychologist peoples characteristics, thoughts, feelings and behaviours
Health psychologist health-related behaviour, improving healthcare system
Clinical psychologist diagnosis and treatment of mental health problems
Social psychologist behaviour affected by different social situations

Difference between psychology and psychiatry
Psychologist Psychiatrist
- 4-6 years at university - 13 years at university
- Cannot prescribe medication - Can prescribe medication
- Cannot hospitalise patients, but
can recommend
- Can hospitalise patients

- Cannot perform surgery

- Can perform surgery

- Master of clinical psychology - Medical degree

Contemporary perspectives
Biological perspective
Focusses on physiological influences on mental process and behaviour
Key assumption all thoughts, feelings and behaviours involve underlying bodily processes
Behavioural perspective focusses on how behaviour is acquired or modified by environmental
consequences such as rewards and punishments
Key assumption all behaviour can be explained in terms of learning processes
Cognitive perspective focuses on how we acquire, process, remember and use information about
ourselves and the world around us
Key assumption internal mental processes are important in their own right, as well as important
influences on observable behaviour
Socio-cultural perspective- focuses on the role of social and cultural influences on human mental
processes and behaviour
Key assumption sex, age, race, income level and the culture are also important influences

Origins of contemporary psychology
Nature vs. Nurture debate whether we are born with our thoughts, feelings, behaviour (nature) or
they are acquired through life experiences (nurture)
- Both nature and nurture very important influences on mental process and behaviour
Mind- body problem relationship between human mind and body
- Question of whether our mind and body are separate entities or same thing
- Dualism Descartes believed that mind and body are separate entities
- Descartes believed mind and body came into contact through pineal gland
Mind-brain problem questions about relationship between brain activity and conscious experience
Pseudoscience fake/false science
RESEARCH METHODS (CHAPTER 2)
Steps in psychological research
1. Identification of research problem
2. Construction of hypothesis
- Two types: research hypothesis and operational hypothesis
- Must include population, IV, DV, prediction
3. Designing a method
- Independent measures
- Repeated measures
- Matched participants
4. Collecting data
- Raw data
5. Analysing data
6. Interpreting data
7. Reporting research findings
Variables
IV variable manipulated by experimenter
DV variable being observed/measured

Extraneous variable variable other than IV, which may have an effect on DV in an unwanted way
- Participant differences (can be reduced by random sampling, matched pairs or repeated
measures)
- Order effects (two types: practise and boredom, can be reduced by counterbalancing B then
A and A then B)
- Experimenter effect (reduced by double-blind procedure where both participants and
experimenter unaware of conditions they are in)
- Placebo effect (reduced by single-blind procedure where participants are unaware of which
condition they are in)
- Demand characteristics situation may influence participants to respond unnaturally (can
be reduced by using deception if necessary)
- Artificiality (can be reduced by making setting as natural as possible)
- Non standardised instructions and procedures (Standardising instructions a.k.a use a script)

Confounding variable any variable, other than IV which has had an effect on DV, in unwanted way

Sampling procedures
Opportunity sampling selecting participants based on availability at the time
Strengths quick, economical
Weaknesses unrepresentative of population

Random sampling where every member of target population has an equal chance of being chosen
for experiment
Strengths best chance of unbiased representation of target population
Weaknesses the larger the population, harder it is to truly random sample

Stratified sampling dividing population into subcategories, then selecting sample in same
proportions as they occur in population
Strengths deliberate effort made for sample to be representative of population
Weaknesses- time consuming

Random stratified sampling divide population into subcategories, select sample in same
proportions as they occur in population at RANDOM
Strengths directly represents population since everyone has equal chance of being chosen
Weaknesses time consuming

Experimental Designs
Independent measures Each participant only exposed to one test condition
Strengths limited order effects and same test can be used
Weaknesses participant differences may occur and more subjects are required since each
participant only does one test condition

Repeated measures where each participant is exposed to both test conditions
Strengths participant differences are limited and fewer subjects required
Weaknesses order effects may occur since participants are exposed to both test conditions

Matched pairs participants are matched to similar characteristics, then one person experiences
control condition and other experiences experimental condition
Strength- participant differences limited, order effects are limited
Weaknesses participants can never be perfectly matched and time consuming


Descriptive research designs
Case study In depth study on person or small group of people
E.g. Phineus Gage allowed us to learn frontal lobe responsible for personality
Strength allows us to gain specific info about particular occurrence, very data-rich
Weaknesses- time consuming, difficult to generalise findings to wider population

Observation watching group of people in natural environment and recording behaviour
E.g Lumbardos Prison Experiment, wanted to record behaviour if people were given roles, placed
people in realistic jail and recorded behaviour
Strength eliminates effect of artificiality
Weakness results may be biased due to experimenter effect

Self-report individuals asked to comment on thoughts, feelings by answering series of questions
(surveys, a rating scale or interviews)
Strength allows us to collect data that cannot be overtly measured
Weakness Difficult to compare data between participant due to subjective nature

Qualitative and quantitative data
Qualitative description data
Quantitative numerical data

Ethics
- Guidelines to protect participants rights
Withdrawal rights participants must be free to participate, decline to participate, or withdraw
from study at any time, can also withdraw results too
Confidentiality private details must not be revealed unless written consent is given
Voluntary participation participants must not be forced to take part in study
Informed consent participants must be adequately told of nature of study in order to make
decision as to participate or not
Deception when revealing true nature of experiment may affect participants behaviour.
Debriefing must be used after experiment
Debriefing participants must be informed of true nature and purpose of study at the end, if any
psychological harm was caused, counselling must be provided
No harm principle no long-lasting harm must be caused

Before experiment voluntary participation/informed consent/deception
During experiment Withdrawal rights/deception/no-harm principle
After experiment Debriefing/confidentiality/no harm principle/withdrawal rights

Animal Ethics
Reasons to use animals in research:
- Genuine interest in animal behaviour
- Human participants unavailable because of physiological/psychological risk of harm
- Animals can be generalised slightly to humans
- Conducting research on animals is more practical
- Animal behaviour can be controlled compared to humans
- Limited placebo effect in animals
- Animals easier to obtain in large numbers
- Generational studies can be conducted on animals

Animal ethical guidelines
- Minimise discomfort, illness and pain
- Research must be justified
- If animal is to undergo pain, there must be no other alternative
- If surgery is performed, anaesthetic must be given to animal
- If animal must be killed, must be done quickly and painlessly