LESSON 23 - Integration

1. Anti derivatives
An antiderivative of a function f is a function whose derivative is f . In other words, F is an antiderivative of f if
F' = f . To find an antiderivative for a function f , we can often reverse the process of differentiation. For
example, if f = x
4
, then an antiderivative of f is F = x
5
, which can be found by reversin the power rule.
!otice that not only is x
5
an antiderivative of f , but so are x
5
" 4 , x
5
" # , etc. In fact, addin or
subtractin any constant would be acceptable.
This should ma$e sense alebraically, since the process of ta$in the derivative %i.e. oin from F to f &
eliminates the constant term of F .
'ecause a sinle continuous function has infinitely many antiderivatives, we do not refer to (the
antiderivative(, but rather, a (family( of antiderivatives, each of which differs by a constant. )o, if F is an
antiderivative of f , then G = F " c is also an antiderivative of f , and F and G are in the same family of
antiderivatives.
Indefinite Integral
The notation used to refer to antiderivatives is the indefinite interal. f %x&dx means the antiderivative of f
with respect to x . If F is an antiderivative of f , we can write f %x&dx = F " c . In this context, c is called the
constant of interation.
To find antiderivatives of basic functions, the followin rules can be used*
1. x
n
dx = x
n+1
+ c as long as n does not equal -1. This is essentially the power rule for
derivatives in reverse
2. cf (x)dx = c f (x)dx . That is, a salar an !e pulled out of the integral.
". (f (x) + g(x))dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx . The antiderivative of a su# is the su# of the
antiderivatives.
$. sin(x)dx = - os(x) + c
os(x)dx = sin(x) + c
se
2
(x)dx = tan(x) + c
These are the opposite of the trigono#etri derivatives.
2. Area and integration
Approximate the area between the curve of y = x
+
and the x , axis from x = - to x = . *
Figure %: Area bounded by a curve
The method to be used in this section to solve this problem is /iemann sums, which involves subdividin the
reion into rectanles of e0ual width and addin up the areas of all of the rectanles to approximate the area
of the reion.
1et2s first use three subdivisions to approximate this area*
Figure %: Three subdivision of the region
3ach of the reions has a width of .45 the interval from x = - to x = . which is .45. These will form the bases
of the rectanles, but what should be chosen for the heiht6 7ne possibility would be to use the value of the
function at the left endpoint of each subdivision as the heiht. This is called a left,hand approximation.
Figure %: Left-hand approximation of area using three subdivisions
The left,hand approximation for the area is as follows*
%-& " " =
Another possibility is to use the value of the function at the riht endpoint of each subdivision as the heiht.
This is called a riht,hand approximation.
Figure %: Right-hand approximation of area using three subdivisions
The riht,hand approximation for the area is as follows*
" " %.& =
Finally, a third possibility is to use the value of the function at the midpoint of each of the subdivisions as the
heiht. This is called a midpoint approximation.
Figure %: Right-hand approximation of area using three subdivisions
The midpoint approximation for the area is as follows*
% & " % & " % & =
3ach of these three methods seems reasonable, yet each enerated a different result for the area. It seems
as thouh no matter which point we choose for the heiht of the box, we will never et the exact area, since
there is always a marin of error present.
8owever, it also seems intuitive that if .- subdivisions or .-- subdivisions were used instead of only three,
the error would decrease. This is indeed true. As the number of subdivisions increases, the accuracy of the
approximation oes up reardless of what endpoint is bein used as the heiht of the rectanles. This is a
very important observation, but discussin it further re0uires the establishment of some notation first*
1et2s enerali9e the procedure of doin left,hand approximations to find the area under the raph of f on the
closed interval :a, b; usin n subdivisions. <ith e0ual subdivisions, each rectanle has a width of x = .
If we let x - = a and x n = b , then x . = x - " x , x + = x - "+x , etc*
Figure %: Genera!i"ed subdivision method
3ach of the subdivisions uses the left endpoint for the heiht, so the heiht of the first subdivision is f %x -& ,
the heiht of the second subdivision is f %x .& , etc. Thus, L n , the (nth left,hand approximation( is e0ual to
L n = f %x -&x " f %x .&x " ...f %x n,.&x
=efinin x $ as x - " #x allows us to collapse the left,hand approximation into*
L n = f %x $&x

)imilarly, the riht,hand approximation could be written as
R n = f %x $&x

!otice how this formula is >ust slihtly different from the one for the left,hand approximation. It was
con>ectured previously that usin more subdivisions would improve the accuracy of the approximations. To
ma$e this approximation exact, one would need an infinite number of subdivisions, and limits allow us to et
close to this* if A is the exact area of a reion bound by a function f , the x ,axis, and the lines x = a and x =
b , then
A = L n andA = R n

This means that
A = f%x#&x

and
A = nf%x#&x
3. The definite integral
The definite interal is a convenient notation used the represent the left,hand and riht,hand approximations
discussed in the previous section. f %x&dx means the area of the reion bounded by f , the y ,axis and the
lines x = a and x = b. <ritin f %x&dx is e0uivalent to writin
f%x#&x

on the interval :a, b; , but it is a much more compact way of doin so. !ote also the similarity between the
two expressions. This should serve as a clear reminder that the definite interal is >ust the limit of riht,hand
and left,hand approximations.
?nli$e the indefinite interal, which represents a function, the definite interal represents a number, and is
simply the sined area under the curve of f . The area is considered (sined( because accordin to the
method of calculatin the areas by subdivisions, the reions located below the x ,axis will be counted as
neative, and the reions above will be counted as positive. !eative reions cancel out positive reions,
and the definite interal represents the total balance between the two over the iven interval. For example,
find
sin%x&dx

'ased on the picture of the reion bein considered, it should be clear that the answer is 9ero. 8ere, the
neative reion is exactly the same si9e as the positive reion*
Figure %: Graph of f $x% & sin$x% on the interva! '- () (*
%roperties of the &efinite Integral
The definite interal has certain properties that should be intuitive, iven its definition as the sined area
under the curve*
1. cf (x)dx = c f (x)dx
2. f (x)+g(x) dx = f (x)dx + g(x)dx
". If c is on the interval 'a, b( then
f %x&dx = f %x&dx " f %x&dx

This means that we can rea! "# a gra#h into convenient "nits and find the definite
integral of each section and then add the res"lts to find the total signed area for the
whole region. The $"ndamental Theorem of %alc"l"s The f"ndamental theorem of
calc"l"s& or '$T%'& offers a ("ic! and #owerf"l method of eval"ating definite integrals.
It states) if F is an antiderivative of f & then
f %x&dx=F%b& , F%a&

)or e*a#ple,
x
+
dx = %.&
5
, %-&
5
=

+ften, a shorthand is used that #eans the sa#e as what is written a!ove,
x
+
dx = x
5
=

+ne interpretation of the )T- is that the area under the graph of the derivative is equal to the total
hange in the original funtion. )or e*a#ple, reall that veloity is the derivative of position. .o,
v%t&dt=s%b& , s%a&

This #eans that the hange in area under the veloity urve represents the total hange in
position.