The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of frying temperature, time and antioxidant addition on the quality of French fries (FF) and frying oil (FO). The antioxidants tested were synthetic tert-butylhydroquinone, TBHQ, and natural pandan leaf. The L* value reduction of FF and FO occurred on the increasing of frying temperature (160-190 o C) and time (1-7 min.). A remarkable reduction of a* value in FO was found in the sample with pandan leaf, while the a* value in FF slightly differed from the control sample (without antioxidant). Using both synthetic and natural antioxidants increased the oil absorption in FF, which was indicated by lower FF shear force values than the control. The oxidation reaction measured by conjugated dienes in FO and oil absorbed in FF showed a significant decreasing value when TBHQ and pandan leaf were present. The viscosity of FO was used for indicating the extent of the polymerization reaction, which reduced in the samples containing antioxidants. Keywords: Antioxidant, Pandan, TBHQ, French fries, Oxidation
Deep-fat frying is extensively used both at home and on a commercial scale to enhance the organoleptic properties of foods. A number of chemical changes occur both in the frying medium and the product fried. These affect the quality of the oil and the fried food product (Varela, 1988). All chemical changes of frying fats and oils and the product at elevated temperatures originate in oxidation, hydrolysis, polymerization, isomerization or cyclization reactions. All these reactions may be promoted by oxygen, moisture, traces of metal and free radicals (Gertz, 1996). These processes may reduce the amount of antioxidants in the oil, decrease its stability and produce new products which are responsible for loss of the nutritional value and quality of the oil (odor, flavor, absorption, etc). In some countries, such as USA, oil and fat manufacturers normally treat the refined oils with antioxidants to retard the undesirable changes during storage and frying operations and, in eventuality, to prolong the shelf-life of the fried products. It is believed that the antioxidants protect the fat from oxidation during the time that the oil is exposed to high temperatures (Augustin and Berry, 1983). To avoid or delay the lipid oxidation in food processing, antioxidants have been used for over 50 years (Cuvelier et al., 1994). The antioxidants play an important role in the manufacturing, packaging and storage of fats and fatty foods and have been proven to retard oxidation (Lin et al., 1981). Currently, synthetic antioxidants are often used to improve the storage behavior of fats and oils. The most commonly used antioxidants are butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ). They are added to a wide variety of foods in the market (Chang et al., 1977). However, their use is increasingly contested or even banned in certain countries. The recent consumer interest in natural products drives the need for natural antioxidative substances to replace the conventional antioxidants (Cuvelier et al., 1994). BHA and BHT are quite volatile and easily decomposed at high temperatures. Consequently, they are only effective for certain products and are not effective for such common food products as French fries and potato chips. Furthermore, it has been stated that BHA and BHT are not effective in vegetable oils at preventing the development of initial off-flavor (Chang et al., 1977). Recently, the use of natural antioxidants for frying purposes has increased (Bracco et al., 1981). Plant extracts, especially antioxidants obtained from herbs and spices, have been proposed for stabilizing frying oils. Plants belonging to the genus Pandanus (Pandanaceae) are palm-like evergreen trees or shrubs, widely distributed in the moist tropics from Africa to the Pacific Islands. In Thailand, the leaves of Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb. are widely used for flavoring foods and beverages. In some cases, pandan leaves are added to frying oil for flavoring fried foods and retarding oxidation. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of frying temperature, time, and antioxidant addition on the quality of French fries (FF) and frying oil (FO). The antioxidants tested were synthetic tert-butylhydroquinone, TBHQ, and natural pandan leaf.
Materials and Methods
Materials Palm olein oil, pandan leaf, and frozen potatoes strips (5 x 5 x 60 mm) were purchased in a local supermarket. Deep-fat Frying Procedure Before frying, the potatoes strips were thawed and allowed to reach room temperature. 200 ml oil was poured into the pan fryer and heated to 160, 170, 180 or 190 o C. Then, 150 g of potato strips were added to the fryer and fried at a time for 1, 3, 5 or 7 min. After frying, the French fries were removed from the oil and allowed to cool to room temperature. The frying oil was allowed to cool and filtered through cheesecloth. The French fries and frying oil were collected, flushed with nitrogen, and kept below-20 o C until analyzed. Frying procedures were replicated three times for each experiment. The antioxidant-treated oils were prepared by adding 100, 200 ppm TBHQ, or 5, 10% (w/w oil) pandan leaf into the cold oils before frying processes. Extraction of Oil from French Fries The method for extraction of oil from French fries was modified from the method of Rafecas (1998). To 50 ml chloroform/methanol (2:1, v/v), a 25 g sample ground French fries was added. The solution was mixed using magnetic stirrer for 30 min and then filtered (Whatman No.1 filter paper). The solvent extraction steps were repeated twice. The filter paper was washed with 25 ml solvent to recover the residual oil on the filter paper. All of the extraction solvents were then collected in separatory funnel. 35 ml saturated NaCl solution was added to the funnel. The chloroform layer was separated and filtered through filter paper with an anhydrous Na 2 SO 4 layer. The chloroform was evaporated at 35 o C under vacuum. The extracted oil from French fries was collected, flushed with nitrogen, and kept below -20 o C until analyzed. Physical Properties The color of French fries and frying oil were measured using a Tri-stimulus colorimeter, Model JC801, Tokyo, Japan. Viscosity of frying oil was measured using a Brookfield Viscosimeter, Model DV III, Stoughton, MA, USA. Textural Properties Shear force of French fries was determined using a Lloyd universal testing machine, Model LR10K, Fareham Hampshire, UK. The full scale load was set at 1 kN with the cross head speed set at 100 mm/min. Data were recorded as the average of three samples per treatment. The measured parameter was the maximum cutting force. Chemical Properties Oil absorption in French fries was determined according to AOAC (2000). Conjugated dienes contents of oil absorbed in French fries and frying oil were determined according to AOCS (1997).
Results and Discussion
The L* values were used to indicated the lightness of the FF and FO. As shown in Fig. 1 the lightness of FF and FO decreased with the increasing of frying temperature and time. Frying foods at elevated temperature in the presence of water caused lipolysis. Antioxidant addition helped in preventing the darkening of the frying oil by retarding oxidation. In general, an increase in a* values is undesirable because that means a more red product, which is not acceptable for FF. As shown in Fig. 2, the a* values of FF and FO increased when increase the frying time which is negative for color of FF and FO (become more red). Addition of antioxidants resulted slightly changes of a* values in FF and FO, except for natural pandan leaf addition reduced the red color in FO significantly due to dissolved green pigment from pandan leaf in FO. In general higher b* values give more yellow products, which is desirable for fried products. The b* value decreased with the increasing of frying time (Fig. 3). Antioxidants did not effect changes of b* value in FF and FO. 0 20 40 60 80 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) L *
0 1 2 3 4 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) L *
0 20 40 60 80 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) L *
0 1 2 3 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) L *
0 20 40 60 80 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) L *
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) L *
0 20 40 60 80 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) L * control 100 ppm TBHQ 200 ppm TBHQ 5% Pandan leaf 10% Pandan leaf
0.00 0.25 0.50 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) L * control 100 ppm TBHQ 200 ppm TBHQ 5% Pandan leaf 10% Pandan leaf
Fig. 1 L* values of French fries (a) and frying oil (b) at different frying temperature, time, and antioxidants 160 o C 170 o C 180 o C 190 o C (a) 160 o C (b) 170 o C 180 o C 190 o C -10 0 10 20 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) a *
-2 0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) a *
-10 0 10 20 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) a *
-2 0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) a *
-10 0 10 20 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) a *
-2 0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) a *
-10 0 10 20 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) a * control 100 ppm TBHQ 200 ppm TBHQ 5% Pandan leaf 10% Pandan leaf
-2 0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) a * control 100 ppm TBHQ 200 ppm TBHQ 5% Pandan leaf 10% Pandan leaf
Fig. 2 a* values of French fries (a) and frying oil (b) at different frying temperature, time, and antioxidants 160 o C 170 o C 180 o C 190 o C (a) 160 o C (b) 170 o C 180 o C 190 o C 0 10 20 30 40 50 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) b *
14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) b *
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) b *
14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) b *
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) b *
14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) b *
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) b * control 100 ppm TBHQ 200 ppm TBHQ 5% Pandan leaf 10% Pandan leaf
14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) b * control 100 ppm TBHQ 200 ppm TBHQ 5% Pandan leaf 10% Pandan leaf
Fig. 3 b* values of French fries (a) and frying oil (b) at different frying temperature, time, and antioxidants
160 o C 170 o C 180 o C 190 o C (a) 160 o C 170 o C 180 o C 190 o C (b) 0 5 10 15 20 25 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) % o i l
a b s o r b e d
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) % o i l
a b s o r b e d
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) % o i l
a b s o r b e d
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) % o i l
a b s o r b e d control 100 ppm TBHQ 200 ppm TBHQ 5% Pandan leaf 10% Pandan leaf
Fig. 4 % Oil absorption in French fries at different frying temperature, time, and antioxidants
During deep-fat frying, oil is absorbed into the fried materials and absorbed on its surface, which is undesirable due to oily appearance and high caloric content of such products (Mellema, 2003). The addition of synthetic TBHQ and natural pandan leaf increased the oil absorption in FF (Fig. 4).
160 o C 180 o C 170 o C 190 o C 0 10 20 30 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) S h e a r
f o r c e
( N )
0 10 20 30 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) S h e a r
f o r c e
( N )
0 10 20 30 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) S h e a r
f o r c e
( N )
0 10 20 30 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) S h e a r
f o r c e
( N ) control 100 ppm TBHQ 200 ppm TBHQ 5% Pandan leaf 10% Pandan leaf
Fig. 5 Shear force values of French fried at different frying temperature, time, and antioxidants
Shear force indicated the textural quality of the products. In case of FF, shear force values lower than 10 N indicates soft, 10-15 N indicates crispy, and higher than 15 N indicates hard. As shown in Fig. 5, shear force values of FF increased with the increase in frying temperature and time. The appropriate combinations of frying temperature and time, that is combinations giving shear force values between 10 and 15 N, were 160 o C 5 min., 170 o C 3-5 min., 180 o C 3-5 min., and 190 o C 3 min. Antioxidant additions decreased the shear force values, which was a result of increased oil absorption in FF.
160 o C 180 o C 170 o C 190 o C 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) A b s o r b a n c e
a t
2 3 3
n m
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) A b s o r b a n c e
a t
2 3 3
n m
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) A b s o r b a n c e
a t
2 3 3
n m
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) A b s o r b a n c e
a t
2 3 3
n m
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) A b s o r b a n c e
a t
2 3 3
n m
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) A b s o r b a n c e
a t
2 3 3
n m
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) A b s o r b a n c e
a t
2 3 3
n m control 100 ppm TBHQ 200 ppm TBHQ 5% Pandan leaf 10% Pandan leaf
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) A b s o r b a n c e
a t
2 3 3
n m control 100 ppm TBHQ 200 ppm TBHQ 5% Pandan leaf 10% Pandan leaf
Fig. 6 Conjugated dienes values of oil absorbed in French fries (a) and frying oil (b) at different frying temperature, time, and antioxidants
160 o C 170 o C 180 o C 190 o C (a) 160 o C 170 o C 180 o C 190 o C (b) Conjugated dienes concentration was used as a measure of the amount of primary oxidation products present throughout the deep-fat frying processes. Results shown in Fig. 6 indicate that frying temperature and time had a significant effect on conjugated dienes formation in FF and FO in all of the samples. The conjugated dienes increased with the increased frying temperature and time as a result of oxidation reaction occurred during frying. The use of both synthetic TBHQ and natural pandan leaf during frying had excellent antioxidant activities as shown by giving remarkable reductions of conjugated dienes in FF and FO.
50 55 60 65 70 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) V i s c o s i t y
( c e n t i p o i s e )
50 55 60 65 70 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) V i s c o s i t y
( c e n t i p o i s e )
50 55 60 65 70 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) V i s c o s i t y
( c e n t i p o i s e )
50 55 60 65 70 0 2 4 6 8 Time (min.) V i s c o s i t y
( c e n t i p o i s e ) control 100 ppm TBHQ 200 ppm TBHQ 5% Pandan leaf 10% Pandan leaf
Fig. 7 Viscosity of frying oil at different frying temperature, time, and antioxidants
The viscosity of FO was used for indicating the extent of the polymerization reaction caused by oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids. These polymeric materials are mainly responsible for the increase in viscosity in cooking oils (Berger, 1984). As shown in Fig. 7, the viscosity of FO increased with the increase of frying temperature and time. The addition of antioxidants significantly lowered the viscosity of FO by retarding polymerization reactions during frying.
Conclusion
Frying processes at elevated temperature affected the quality of FF and FO. Oxidative reactions during frying are the major cause of the product quality deterioration. The use of synthetic TBHQ and natural pandan leaf as antioxidants had the effects of improved color in FF, but a lower textural quality. Increased oil absorption in FF was observed when antioxidants were used in FO. Natural pandan leaf was shown to be a 160 o C 180 o C 170 o C 190 o C tremendous potential source of natural antioxidant for retarding oxidation in fried products and reducing polymerization in the frying oil.
References
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