2.

5 DEEP MIXING
INTRODUCTION
The deep mixing method is an in situ soi mixing te!hnoog" that mixes existing soi #ith !ementitious mate$ias
using mixing sha%ts !onsisting o% auge$ !utting heads& dis!ontinuous auge$ %ights& and mixing paddes. The
mixing e'uipment (a$ies %$om singe to eight sha%t !on%igu$ations depending on the pu$pose o% the deep mixing
The soi)!ement p$odu!ed gene$a" has highe$ st$ength& ess !omp$essi*iit"& and o#e$ pe$mea*iit" than the
nati(e sois.
The de(eopment and $esea$!h on deep mixing sta$ted %$om a*o$ato$" mode tests in +,-. *" the Po$t and
/a$*o$ Resea$!h Institute o% the 0apanese Minist$" o% T$anspo$tation %o$ the pu$pose o% sta*ii1ing so%t ma$ine
sois #ith ime in ha$*o$s o$ *eo# the sea %oo$ *e%o$e the !onst$u!tion o% ha$*o$ %a!iities In +,.2& the D3M
Method 4Deep 3ime Mxing method5 *e!ame %easi*e %o$ %u s!ae !onst$u!tion. 6ased on the te!hnoog"
de(eoped %o$ D3M& the CDM Method 4Cement Deep Mixing method5 #as initiated using !ement g$out as the
sta*ii1ation agent. 7ta$ting %$om a*o$ato$" mode tests th$ough on)8and %u s!ae testing and o!ean %u s!ae
testing& the CDM method #as de(eoped in +,.5 %o$ %u s!ae appi!ation 4CDM +,,25 T"pi!a CDM e'uipment
is sho#n in Ta*e 25)+. Pa$ae to the de(eopment o% the CDM method %o$ a$ge)s!ae)a$ea g$ound t$eatment
unde$ sea #ate$& the de(eopment and $esea$!h on the 7M9 47oi Mix 9a5 Method #as sta$ted in +,.2 *"
7!i:o ;og"o Co< 3td. o% Osa:a& 0apan %o$ the pu$pose o% t$eating soi on and aong a singe $o# to p$odu!e a
soi)!ement #a In +,.-& the 7M9 Method #as de(eoped %o$ %u)s!ae appi!ation. The soi)!ement is usua"
$ein%o$!ed #ith stee /)pies #hen used %o$ ex!a(ation suppo$t aong #ith g$ound#ate$ !ont$o T"pi!a 7M9
e'uipment is sho#n in Ta*e 25)+
In +,.-& de(eopment and $esea$!h on deep mixing using d$" !ementitious po#de$ #as sta$ted *" the Ci(i
Enginee$ing Resea$!h Institute o% the 0apanese Minist$" o% Const$u!tion. Caed the D0M 4Deep 0et Mixing5
method& the %u s!ae appi!ation *egan in +,=+. Due to the di%%i!uties o% supp"ing d$" !ement *" ai$& the
appi!ations o% the D0M method a$e imited in !ompa$ison to the CDM and 7M9 methods >ne# attempt in the
de(eopment o% the deep mixing method is to !om*ine the p$o!edu$es o% me!hani!a mixing and ?et mixing One
su!h method is !aed 0>C7M>N 40et and Chu$ning 7"stem Ma+agement5. 9ith this (a$iation o% deep mixing&
the !ent$a po$tion o% the soi)!ement !oumn is p$odu!ed *" me!hani!a mixing and the outside 1one o% the
!oumn is p$odu!ed *" !$oss ?et mixing
7in!e the initia de(eopment o% the CDM and 7M9 methods& (a$ious modes o% deep mixing e'uipment ha(e
*een !onst$u!ted *" di%%e$ent o$gani1ations using simia$ soi mixing p$o!edu$es. /o#e(e$& nume$ous ne#
names #e$e gi(en to ea!h mode o% deep mixing e'uipment and its ope$ationa p$o!edu$es su!h as DCM 4Deep
Mixing5& D0M 4Deep 0et Mixing5& D7M 4Deep 7oi Mixing5& and DMM 4Deep Mixing Method5) Re!ent"& a
gene$i! name& <Deep Mixing< has *een used to !o(e$ a the deep mixing methods #hi!h use me!hani!a sha%ts
as opposed to ?et g$outing #hi!h uses h"d$aui! po#e$ 4high p$essu$e ?et5 to a!!ompish the soi mixing
The initia intended appi!ation o% the CDM method #as a$ge)a$ea soi t$eatment %o$ so%t g$ound sta*ii1ation&
#hie the initia appi!ation o% the 7M9 method #as to insta su*su$%a!e soi)!ement #as on and %o$
ex!a(ation suppo$t and g$ound#ate$ !ont$o. Due to thei$ simia$it" in *asi! p$in!ipes %o$ soi t$eatment& the use
o% CDM method has *een extended onto and %o$ *oth g$ound sta*ii1ation and soi!ement #a instaation and
the 7M9 method has *een extended in its appi!ation to g$ound sta*ii1ation *oth on and and in the o!ean
MET/OD7 O@ 7OI3 TRE> TMENT
The deep mixing method mixes existing sois #ith !ementitious mate$ias using mutipe axis sha%ts. The
!ementitious mate$ias a$e gene$a" dei(e$ed in a g$out o$ su$$" %o$m %$om po$ts in the !utting heads o!ated in
the o#!$ ends o% the mutipe sha%ts) The mutipe sha%ts !onsist o% mixing paddes o$ a !om*ination o%
dis!ontinuous auge$ %ights and mixing paddes depending on the soi t"pes and the pu$poses o% the soi
t$eatment. Ea!h st$o:e o% the mutipe auge$ p$odu!es a *o!: o$ pane o% soi)!ement !oumns as sho#n in Ta*e
25)+. The soi)!ement panes a$e then extended to (a$ious patte$ns as sho#n in @ig. 2.5)+ %o$ (a$ious
appi!ations
>PP3IC>TION7 >ND DE7IGN O@ DEEP MIXING
Deep mixing is an in situ soi t$eatment te!hnoog" #hi!h modi%ies the enginee$ing p$ope$ties o% existing soi in
#e de%ined 1ones su!h as !oumns& panes& o$ *o!:s. Th$ough the design o% the enginee$ing p$ope$ties and
t$eatment patte$ns& deep mixing !onst$u!ts su*su$%a!e soi)!ement st$u!tu$es %o$ a #ide (a$iet" o% appi!ations in
the a$eas o% !i(i enginee$ing !onst$u!tion and en(i$onmenta $emediation
6ased on the t"pe o% soi)!ement st$u!tu$e& the appi!ation and design o% deep mixing a$e dis!ussed *eo#
Cuto%% 9as
7ois a$e t$eated *" deep mixing pane *" pane aong one $o# using the p$o!edu$e as sho#n in @ig. 2.5)2. > %u
!oumn o(e$apping o% the se!onda$" pane #ith the p$ima$" pane is needed to ensu$e the !ontinuit" o% the soi
mix #a The existing sois to *e t$eated& in gene$a& a$e high pe$mea*iit" !oa$se g$ained sois o$ inte$*edded
st$ata o% %ine and !oa$se g$ained sois. The mate$ias used %o$ deep mixing in!ude !ement g$out& *entonite su$$"
and !a")*entonite su$$"
7oi)!ement Cuto%% 9as
In situ sois a$e mixed #ith !ement g$out to p$odu!e soi)!ement #as #ith st$ength $anging %$om +AA to 2AAA
:Pa 4+5 to BAA psi5 and pe$mea*iit" $anging %$om +A)C to +4D, n+8se! 4Eang et a +,,B5 The appi!ations in!ude
seepage !uto%% inside e(ees o$ em*an:ments& o$ unde$ em*an:ment dams 4Eang et a. +,,B and Eang and
Ta:eshima +,,25 T"pi!a !ase exampes a$e sho#n in @ig. 2.5)B.
>n inno(ati(e appi!ation in 0apan is to insta a soi)!ement !uto%% #a in po$ous st$ata o$ imestone te$$ain to
!onstitute a su*su$%a!e dam The su*su$%a!e dam is used to !ontain the g$ound#ate$ as a su*su$%a!e $ese$(oi$ %o$
i$$igation pu$poses) Nea$ !oasta $egions& su*su$%a!e dams a$e aso used %o$ the p$e(ention o% sat #ate$
int$usion. > tota o%ten su*su$%a!e dams ha(e *een !onst$u!ted in 0apan. >mong the dams !ompeted& 7unaga#a
7u*su$%a!e Dam in O:ina#a is the a$gest in si1e #ith a !$est ength o% +&=AA m 45&,A2 %t5 to a maximum depth
o%-5 m 42+B %t5 in imestone and a sto$age !apa!it" o% ,&5AA&AAA mB 4+2&225&AAA "dC 5 4;"ushu& +,,25 7!hemati!
se!tions sho#ing the !on!ept o% su*su$%a!e dams and a !ase exampe a$e p$esented in @ig. 2.5)B.
7oi)6e8toF+ite o$ 7oi)Ca")6eFtoF+ite C+Ito%%9as
6entonite su$$" o$ !a")*entonite su$$" is mixed #ith existing sois to p$odu!e soi)*entonite o$ soi)!a")
*entonite !uto%% #as #ith a pe$mea*iit" $anging %$om O)g
to +A)+G m8s!! Ca")*entonite su$$" is gene$a" used in sites unde$ain *" inte$*edded a"e$s o% %ine and !oa$se
g$ained sois to p$o(ide su%%i!ient sit and !a" %ines %o$ the $e'ui$ed o# pe$mea*iit" These o# st$ength !uto%%
#as a$e used %o$ poution !ontainment at sites #ith o#e$ di%%e$entia h"d$aui! heads in g$ound#ate$ *et#een
the inside and outside o% the !ontained a$ea
Case exampes #e$e p$esented in Eo* et a. 4+,,55 and Eang 4+,,55. One spe!ia appi!ation o% deep
mixing is to $epai$ a de%e!ti(e soi)*entonite !uto%% #a *" in?e!ting !a")*entonite su$$" into the sand and
g$a(e po!:ets o$ #indo#s inside a soi*entonite su$$" #a and $emix the #hoe su$$" #a t$en!h in pa!e to
o*tain a mo$e union and $eia*e soi)*entonite)!a" mixtu$e %o$ poution !ontainment 4Eang +,,55.
Excavation Support Walls
7ois a$e t$eated *" deep mixing as sho#n in @ig 25)2. 7tee /)pies o$ othe$ $ein%o$!ement mem*e$s a$e
instaed into the #a *" g$a(it" *e%o$e the soi)!ement ha$dens The $ein%o$!ed soi mix #a *e!omes a
st$u!tu$a #a %o$ ex!a(ation suppo$t and g$ound#ate$ !ont$o This appi!ation #as the d$i(ing %o$!e %o$ the
de(eopment o% the soi mix #a te!hnoog". The ma?o$ !ities o% 0apan a$e o!ated in !oasta $egions #ith high
g$ound#ate$ ta*es /igh demand %o$ spa!e and !onstant" $ising and !osts mandate the !onst$u!tion o% mutipe
e(e *asements unde$neath ne# *uidings. 7in!e its de(eopment in +,.-& mo$e than 2&AAA soi mix #as ha(e
*een !onst$u!ted. Due to the need to d$i in sti%% o$ dense sois& the auge$ %o$ the !onst$u!tion o% soi mix #as
gene$a" $anges %$om 55A mm to ,AA mm in diamete$ and is smae$ than CDM auge$s used %o$ the sta*ii1ation
o% so%t ma$ine soi. The $igidit" o% soi mix #as is signi%i!ant" o#e$ than !on!$ete su$$" #as and the ate$a
ea$th p$essu$e %o$ a %exi*e #a is usua" used %o$ the st$u!tu$a design o% soi mix #as. In addition to the
st$u!tu$a design& the inte$na st$ess o% the soi)!ement *et#een t#o $ein%o$!ement /pies has to *e ana"1ed to
dete$mine th! design st$ength o% the soi)!ement 4Ta:i and Eang +,=,5 The inte$na st$ess ana"ses in!ude
shea$ st$ess aong (e$ti!a panes *et#een t#o /)pies and !omp$essi(e st$ess a%te$ st$ess $edist$i*ution inside
the soi!ement as sho#n in @ig. 2.5)2. Tensie st$ength o% soi)!ement is gene$a" not in!uded in the design The
ho$i1onta spa!e *et#een t#o /)pies is designed to enhan!e a$!hing and $edu!e the de(eopment o% *ending
st$ess inside the soi)!ement. 6ased on nume$i!a simuation and %ied expe$ien!e& an empi$i!a design !$ite$ion
%o$ spa!ing $ein%o$!ement mem*e$s to a(oid *ending %aiu$e o% the soi)!ement is de$i(ed as sho#n in @igu$e 25)
2 T#o $e!ent !ase histo$i!s a$e sho#n in @igu$e 2.5)5 and summa$i1ed as %oo#s
Case Example 1. Cypres Permanent Replacement Project, Oakland, CA.
>ne# high#a" se!tion is *eing !onst$u!ted to $epa!e the C"p$ess @$ee#a" #hi!h !oapsed du$ing the
+,=, 3oma P$ieta Ea$th'ua:e. >t the inte$se!tion #ith a o!a st$eet and the high)$ise 6>RT 46a" >$ea Rapid
T$ansit5 st$u!tu$e& th$ee ma?o$ deep mixing #o$:s #e$e impemented +5 7oi mix #as& #ith a maximum depth
o%2-
m 4=5 %t5 and an tota a$ea o% 55& ..A m2 4-AA&AAA %t
2
5 #e$e instaed pa$ae to the 1!"#$ st$u!tu$e %o$
ex!a(ation suppo$t and g$ound#ate$ !ont$o& 25 Mo$e than 2&AAA soi!ement pies #e$e instaed unde$ the sea
sa*s o% the dep$essed o!a st$eet and $amps %o$ upi%t $esistan!e& a$id B5 Ten a$ge diamete$ soi)!ement !"inde$
pies #e$e !onst$u!ted to $epa!e the existing %oundations o% the 6>RT st$u!tu$e The deep mixing #o$: #i *e
!ompeted in +,,..
Case Example %. .&San 'rancisco Clean Water Project, Contract (, San 'rancisco, CA
> -A. m 4+&,,A %t5 ong *ox se#e$ #as !onst$u!ted to sto$e the sto$m se#age *e%o$e dis!ha$ging to the *a"
>pp$oximate" ++ m 4B- %t5 deep ex!a(ations into so%t 6a" Mud #as $e'ui$ed %o$ !onst$u!tion o% the - to ++ m
#ide *ox se#e$. 7oi mix #as #e$e instaed ad?a!ent to the Isais C$ee: %o$ ex!a(ation suppo$t and seepage
!ont$o > tota o% +.&2,A m2 4 +=-&AAA %tC 5 o% soi mix #as #e$e instaed The deep mixing #o$: #as
!ompeted in +,,-.
G$ound 7ta*ii1ation
Deep mixing in!$eases the st$ength and $edu!es the !omp$essi*iit" o% the existing su*su$%a!e st$ata to maintain
g$ound sta*iit" and to !ont$o g$ound mo(ement unde$ oads indu!ed *" !onst$u!tion 3a$ge s!ae !i(i #o$:s in
ma$ine en(i$onments su!h as the !onst$u!tion o% man)made isands& tunnes& ha$*o$s& sea #as& *$ea:#ate$ and
othe$ ha$*o$ %a!iities #e$e the d$i(ing %o$!e %o$ the de(eopment o% the CDM
Exampes o% these appi!ations a$e sho#n in @ig 25)- 7hips o$ *a$ges a$e gene$a" used to suppo$t the hea("
deep mixing e'uipment o% up to eight axes as sho#n in Ta*e 2.5)+. One o% the $e!ent a$ge s!ae ope$ations is
the T$ans)To:"o 6a" high#a" p$o?e!t #he$e += miion !u*i! mete$s o% ma$ine soi #as t$eated *" deep mixing
4U!hida et a +,,-5. Deep mixing is aso used %o$ the sta*ii1ation o% so%t g$ound on and %o$ suppo$t o% high#a"
em*an:ment and *uiding %oundations 4D#eing +,==5 T$eatment patte$ns sho#n in @ig. 2.5)+ a$e see!ted to
meet (a$ious pu$poses o% g$ound sta*ii1ation The design o% the soi)!ement st$u!tu$e o$ %oundation in!udes
exte$na sta*iit" ana"sis and
inte$na st$ess ana"sis. Exte$na sta*iit" in!udes !he!:s on ate$a siding&
o(e$tu$ning& *ea$ing !apa!it" o% soi)!ement st$u!tu$es and existing *ea$ing st$atum using the exte$na %o$!e
diag$am sho#n in @ig 25) . The inte$na st$ess ana"sis in!udes !he!:s on !omp$essi(e st$ess and shea$ st$ess
inside the soi)!ement st$u!tu$e T#o ma?o$ deep mixing !ase exampes using *utt$ess)t"pe soi)!ement st$u!tu$es
%o$ g$ound sta*ii1ation in the United 7tates a$e sho#n in @ig 25)=
Liquefaction Stabilization
The use o% soi)!ement #as o$ g$ids %o$ i'ue%a!tion sta*ii1ation in!udes i'ue%a!tion p$e(ention&
$ein%o$!ement o% i'ue%ia*e soi& and po$e p$essu$e $edu!tioH
3i'ue%a!tion p$e(ention is a i'ue%a!tion $emedia measu$e %o$ existing st$u!tu$es #he$e othe$ $emedia measu$es
!annot *e impemented > pe$imete$ soi)!ement !uto%%
#a is instaed to isoate !ohesioness sois unde$ the existing st$u!tu$eThe
g$ound#ate$ #ithin the pe$imete$ !uto%% #a is then pe$manent" o#e$ed to p$o(ide a d$" o$ non)i'ue%ia*e
1one unde$ the st$u!tu$e 4Mu$amatsu et a5
Rein%o$!ement o% i'ue%ia*e sois is a!!ompished *" instaing soi)!ement #as in *o!:& #a o$ g$id patte$ns
to $esist the st$ess %$om em*an:ments o$ othe$ st$u!tu$es #hen oose !ohesioness %oundation soi i'ue%ies
du$ing seismi! g$oundsha:ing 7ha:ing ta*e studies and nume$i!a ana"ses #e$e pe$%o$med to stud" the
e%%e!ti(eness o% (a$ious g$ound t$eatment patte$ns in the $edu!tion o% i'ue%a!tion potentia 9ith the same
g$ound t$eatment $atio& the g$id t"pe #as most e%%e!ti(e in $edu!ing shea$ st$ess and ex!essi(e po$e #ate$
p$essu$e. The next most e%%e!ti(e #as the #a t"pe and then the !oumn t"pe 4;oga et a +,=- and @u:uta:e and
Ohtsu:i
+,,25 The use o%a g$id patte$n is most e%%e!ti(e due to its %un!tion to em*od" the enti$e t$eated a$ea as unit %o$
%u mo*ii1ation o% the !omp$essi(e st$ength o% soi!ement and the $igidit" o% the t$eated g$ound.
Nume$ous $esea$!h studies ha(e *een pe$%o$med to dete$mine the e%%e!ti(eness o% using g$id t"pe soi)!ement %o$
$edu!tion o% ex!essi(e po$e #ate$ *uid)up in oose sand du$ing seismi! g$ound sha:ing The methods o%
app$oa!h in!ude t#o) and th$eedimensiona %inite eement simuation 46a*asa:i et a +,,+& ;ose:i et a +,,+5
and sma s!ae to a$ge s!ae d"nami! mode tests eithe$ on a sha:ing ta*e o$ in a !ent$i%uga %ied. These
studies indi!ate that g$id t"pe soi)!ement #as e%%e!ti(e" $edu!e the ex!essi(e po$e #ate$ p$essu$e as sho#n in
Ta*e 25)2. In addition to the studies on g$id t"pe g$ound t$eatment& the nume$i!a simuation and mode tests
#e$e aso used to stud" the e%%e!ti(eness o% deep mixing t$eatment to !ont$o seismi! indu!e settement o$
upi%ting o% existing em*an:ments and su*su$%a!e tunnes o$ t$en!hes 4;u*ode$a et a +,,A and ;oga et a +,,+5
Using these app$oa!hes& nume$ous st$u!tu$es #e$e designed and !onst$u!ted on oose sand sta*ii1ed *" g$id
t"pe so !ement #as T#o !ase exampes a$e sho#n in @ig 25),. One additiona !ase exampe is summa$i1ed as
%oo#sI
Case Example B )otel!*erminal +uildin,, -o.e, /APA0
7e(e$e damage #as indu!ed in the ;o*e a$ea du$ing theJ ,,5 ea$th'ua:e >s one o% the studies on the e%%e!t o%
ea$th'ua:es on st$u!tu$es& the /ote8 Te$mina 6uiding !onst$u!ted on the pie$ at ;o*e /a$*o$ #as in(estigated
This *uiding su$(i(ed the magnitude .2 g$ound sha:ing #hie the ad?a!ent st$u!tu$es su%%e$ed se(e$e damage
due to g$ound i'ue%a!tion The $esuts indi!ate that the$e #as no st$u!tu$a damage to the hote #hi!h o!!upied
the ma?o$ po$tion o$ the $i(e$ In !ont$ast& the sea #as su$$ounding th$ee sides o$ the hote su+e$ed a$ge ate$a
mo(ements o%4IK o 2 m 4+- to -- %t5 to#a$d the sea& the same as othe$ sea #as in the a$ea
The hote #as suppo$ted *" d$ied pies To p$e(ent g$ound i'ue%a!tion and the a!!ompan"ing ate$a %o#
to#a$d the sea& soi)!ement g$id #as at spa!es *et#een -2 to +.- m 42+ to 5.. %t5& #e$e instaed to a depth o%
+5= m 45+= %t5 using the deep mixing method The a"out o% the soi)!ement g$id #a is sho#n in @ig 25)+A The
post)ea$th'ua:e stud" in!udes +5 o*se$(ation o% su$%a!e !onditions su!h as sin:ing o% g$a(es& !o**es& and
a*andoned sho$t stee *a$s and (e+i!a tempo$a$" tim*e$ suppo$ts& 25 in(estigation o% post)ea$th'ua:e soi
!onditions su!h as t$a!es o% sand *ois at test pits and the !onditions o% the g$ade *eams and the su$$ounding soi)
!ement g$id #as 6ased on the $esuts o% the detaied stud"& it is !ea$ that no i'ue%a!tion o$ ate$a %o#
o!!u$$ed in the %oundation sois en!osed *" the soi)!ement g$id #as @$om this stud"& it is !on!uded that soi)
!ement g$id #as a$e e%%e!ti(e in p$e(enting g$ound i'ue%a!tion and a!!ompan"ing ate$a %o# du$ing ma?o$
ea$th'ua:es 4/osomi + ,,5 and 7u1u:i et a +,,-5
Environmental Remediation
In situ soidi%i!ation and sta*ii1ation is a method %o$ $emediation o% !ontaminated sois and sudges #hi!h has
seen in!$easing a!!eptan!e and expanded use in the past %e# "ea$s& Th$ough *en!h s!ae studies& mix
p$opo$tions #ith (a$ious $eagents !an *e designed to $edu!e the Iea!ha*iit" o% sois and sudge !ontaining
metas& semi)(oatie o$gani! !ompounds& and o#)Ie(e $adioa!ti(e mate$ias 6" see!ting ade'uate deep mixing
e'uipment& $eagents& and p$o!edu$es& the $eagents !an *e uni%o$m" in?e!ted at depths and $eia*" mixed #ith in
situ sois o$ sudge The %oo#ing !ase exampe is used to iust$ate this appi!ation o% deep mixing
Case Example 2 +,,A 6a" Road 7ite& C>
> t#o phase %u s!ae in situ soidi%i!ation8sta*ii1ation #as impemented at a site in the 7an @$an!is!o 6a" >$ea
o% Cai%o$nia in +,,2 and +,,2 The site #as used %o$ the manu%a!tu$e o% a$seni!a pesti!ides %$om the +,2ACs to
t1e +,-ACs 7ois at the site !onsist o% %ine)g$ained au(ia deposits and 7an @$an!is!o 6a" Muds. T#o $eagents
#e$e used to sta*ii1e the !ontaminated soi to a maximum depth o% II m 42- %t5 T$ipe) auge$ mixingK e'uipment
#as used to dist$i*ute the $eagents se'uentia" and uni%o$m" into sois at depth and to mix the $eagents #ith the
sois in situ #hie the auge$s penet$ated into and out o% the g$ound. > tota (oume o% +A&-.B mB 4 J2&AAA "dB5 o%
!ontaminated sois #ith a$seni! $anging %$om 5AA to 5&AAA miig$ams pe$ :iog$am 4mg8:g5 #e$e t$eated using
in situ soi mixing te!hnoog" Mo$e than BAA a$seni! ea!ha*iit" tests #e$e pe$%o$medK none ex!eeded the
%ede$a toxi!it" !$ite$ion 4TC5 imit o% a$seni! o%5 miig$ams I+!$ ite$ 4mg85 4C+Cang !t a +,,55
ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOIL-CEMENT
The ma?o$ %a!to$s that in%uen!e the enginee$ing p$ope$ties o% soi)!ement in!ude soi t"pe& amount o% !ement o$
othe$ ha$dening $eagents used& #ate$ !ement $atio o% g$out& deg$ee o% soi)!ement mixing& !u$ing en(i$onment&
and age Eithe$ sea #ate$ o$ %$esh #ate$ !an *e used %o$ deep mixing 7ea #ate$ has *een used %o$ most o% the
ma$ine !onst$u!tion #o$: sin!e the$e is no di%%e$en!e in st$ength a%%e!ted *" the use o% eithe$ sea #ate$ o$ %$esh
#ate$ 4CDM +,,25 @$esh #ate$ #as used %o$ most o% the !onst$u!tion on and. Conside$ing the appi!ation o% the
soi)!ement #a %o$ ex!a(ation suppo$t& g$ound#ate$ !ont$o& and soi sta*ii1ation& the enginee$ing p$ope$ties o%
ma?o$ !on!e$n a$e st$ength& pe$mea*iit"& !omp$essi*iit"& and moduus o% easti!it"
Strength
The st$ength o% soi)!ement !an *e o*tained in a a*o$ato$" *" pe$%o$ming un!on%ined !omp$essi(e st$ength
tests& t$iaxia !omp$ession tests& di$e!t shea$ tests& and tensie tests The test sampes in!ude a*o$ato$" sampes&
%ied #et sampes& and !o$e sampes p$epa$ed *e%o$e& du$ing& and a%te$ !onst$u!tion& $espe!ti(e" The most
!ommon t"pe o% test is the un!on%ined !omp$essi(e st$ength test and its $esuts a$e used %o$ design& !onst$u!tion
'uait" !ont$o and 'uait" assu$an!e
7oi t"pe is the most dominant %a!to$ that in%uen!es the st$ength o% soi)!ement The same t$eatment used in
di%%e$ent sois p$odu!es $esuts #ith a #ide (a$iation The e%%e!t is att$i*uted to the adso$ption and po11oani!
$ea!tion in the (a$ious sois as #e as the $ea!tion o% the ha$dening $eagent itse% It imits the st$ength o% the soi)
!ement in a !e$tain $ange *e"ond #hi!h the design *e!omes not !ost e%%i!ient o$ e(en imp$a!ti!a @ig 2.5)++
sho#s the un!on%ined !omp$essi(e st$ength o% soi)!ement #as instaed in !a"e" soi& sand" soi& and g$a(e"
soi o*tained %$om do1ens o% soi)!ement #a p$o?e!ts The in!$eased dosage o% !ement in!$eased the st$ength o%
the soi)!ement %o$ ea!h t"pe o% sois The in!$ease o% st$ength in !ohesi(e sois due to in!$eased amounts o%
!ement is mino$ in !ompa$ison #ith those in sand and g$a(e" sois
The !o$$eation *et#een un!on%ined !omp$essi(e st$ength and shea$ st$ength o*tained %$om di$e!t shea$ tests is
$ep$esented *" the %oo#ing e'uation 47aito et a +,=A5
o L A.5B M A.B. 'u )AAA+2 'u
2
4'u-A :g8!m
2
5
#he$e o I 2=)da" shea$ st$ength 4:g8!m25 o*tained *" di$e!t shea$ test #ith 1e$o no$ma st$ess
'uI 2=)da" un!on%ined !omp$essi(e st$ength 4:g8!m25
The 'u to o $atio is app$oximate" 2 #hen 'u is ess than +A :g8!m2 4+22 psi5 This $atio $edu!es g$adua" as
'u in!$eases. The tensie st$ength o% soi)!ement is measu$ed *" di$e!t uniaxia tensie tests o$ spitting tensie
st$ength tests The atte$ p$o(ides o#e$ o$ !onse$(ati(e tensie st$ength @o$ soiI)!ement #ith un!on%ined
!omp$essi(e st$ength Iess than -A :g8!m
2
4=52 psi5& the tensie st$ength o*tained *" spitting tensie st$ength tests
on a*o$ato$" sampes (a$ies %$om = to +2 pe$!ent o% the un!on%ined !omp$essi(e st$ength 7pitting tensie
st$ength testing o% %ied sampes indi!ated simia$ $esuts 4Te$ashi et a +C5=45& Na:a?ima et aF +,=+& and CDM
+,,25
Coe22icient o2 Permea.ility
The !oe%%i!ient o% pe$mea*iit" o% soi)!ement is a%%e!ted *" the soi t"pe& the amount o% !ement and *entonite
used& the #ate$ !ement $atio& the g$out in?e!tion ratio and age Cement and *entonite dosage is used to !ont$o the
pe$mea*iit" o% soi)!ement #as The !oe%%i!ient o% pe$mea*iit" o% the soi)!ement $anges %$om +A). and +A),
m8se! *ased on a*o$ato$" testing o% %ied #et sampes o*tained du$ing !onst$u!tion 4Eang et a +,,B5 @o$ use as
ex!a(ation suppo$t and g$ound#ate$ !ont$o& soi)!ement #as #ith !oe%%i!ient o% pe$mea*iit" in the o$de$ o%
+A)= m8se! a$e !onside$ed satis%a!to$") > !oe%%i!ient o% pe$mea*iit" o% +A)= m8s o$ ess is usua" $e'ui$ed %o$
poution !ont$o o$ pe$manent seepage !ont$o in dams& di:es& o$ d$" do!: p$o?e!ts. In !ases #he$e a
pe$mea*iit" o% o#e$ than +A), n+8s is $e'ui$ed& *entonite o$ !a")*entonite su$$ies ha(e to *e used %o$ mixing
#ith in situ soi 4Eang +,,55
3odulus o2 Elasticity and Poisson4s Ratio
The moduus o% easti!it" 5E67& o% soi)!ement is p$opo$tiona to the un!on%ined !omp$essi(e st$ength 4 'u5 #ith a
$atio o% B5A to +AAA 47aito et a +,=A5 and is a%%e!ted *" the same %a!to$s that in%uen!e the st$ength o% soi)
!ement @o$ !ohesi(e sois #ith sand !ontent ess that +A to +5 pe$!ent& the E67 to 'u $atio is *et#een 2AA to -AA
The $atio is o*tained %$om the st$ess)st$ain !u$(e o% soi)!ement sampes > $e!ent stud" indi!ates that this $atio is
dependent on the methods used to measu$e st$ain du$ing oad tests. 3o!a and sensiti(e measu$ements o% axia
st$ains using o!a de%o$mation t$ansdu!e$s 43DT5 #e$e %ound impe$ati(e %o$ a!!u$ate e(auation o% the sti%%ness
o% soi) !ement at sma st$ains #hi!h a$e expe!ted to o!!u$ in the %ied o% soi)!ement masses at #o$:ing oads
4Tatsuo:a et a +,,-5
The stati! PoissonCs $atio is app$oximate" A5 i% the in situ soi)!ement is oaded unde$ und$ained !onditions and
$anges *et#een AB to A25 unde$ othe$ oading !onditions 4CDM +,,25
Compressi.ility
The !omp$essi*iit" o% soi)!ement #as studied *" pe$%o$ming !onsoidation tests to de(eop the e)og p !u$(es.
7oi)!ement has a (e$" !ea$ P" (aue simia$ to the undistu$*ed !a"s as sho#n in @ig 25)+2. The P" (aue is
app$oximate" 2.N highe$ than the un!on%ined !omp$essi(e st$ength 4CDM +,,25. The !ementation o% soi)
!ement is not damaged *" !onsoidation p$essu$e g$eate$ than P" unde$ at $est 4;o5 !omp$ession !onditions
@u$the$ stud" indi!ates that the shea$ st$ength o% soi)!ement !omp$essed o(e$ P" is highe$ than those o% soi)
!ement #ith p$e)!onsoidation p$essu$e ess than P" In $eait"& the !onsoidation p$essu$e o(e$ the soi)!ement is
gene$a" su*stantia" o#e$ than P" and the !onsoidation settement o% the soi)!ement st$u!tu$e is negigi*e
4CDM J,,25
CONC3UDING REM>R;7
7in!e its eme$gen!e in the +,.ACs& deep mixing has *e!ome one o% the ma?o$ methods %o$ a$ge s!ae soi
t$eatment Due to the in!$easing need to de(eop so%t g$ound sites %o$ the de(eopment o% u$*an in%$ast$u!tu$es&
an in!$eased use o% deep mixing is anti!ipated. To !ope #ith this up!oming demand& $esea$!h and de(eopment
in the %oo#ing a$eas a$e needed .
O7impi%ied methods %o$ design and ana"sis %o$ i'ue%a!tion sta*ii1ation using soi)!ement g$id #as
O7tanda$di1ed !$ite$ia %o$ design and ana"sis %o$ using soi)!ement as su*su$%a!e st$u!tu$es.
OEnginee$ing p$ope$ties o% soi)!ement su!h as du$a*iit" in se(e$e weather !onditions and st$ess st$ain modes
%o$ nume$i!a simuation o% soi)!ement st$u!tu$es unde$ !ompex oad !onditions
RE@ERENCE7
Note. ) O Pu*ished in EngishK o Pu*ished in 0apanese
O6a*asa:i& It& 7u1u:i& ;& 7aitoh& 7& 7u1u:i& E and To:itoh& ; 4+,,+5& <Const$u!tion and Testing o% Deep
@oundation Imp$o(ement Using the Deep Cement Mixing MethodI (eep 'oundation #mprovements8 (esi,n,
Construction and *estin,, >7TM 7TP +A=,& Phiadephia& P>& pp 222)2BB
o6a*asa:i& R& 7u1u:i& ;& 7u1u:i& E. and @u?ii& N. 4+,,+5. <Ce T"pe @oundation Imp$o(ed *" Deep Cement
Mixing Method >gainst 7oi 3i'ue%a!tion. 4pa$t 25 Cent$i%uga Pi*$ation Tests on Ce T"pe @oundation.< %941
Soil En,ineerin, Researc1 Con2erence, Nagano& 0apan& pp +AA.)+AA=.
oCDM 4+,,25. <CDM Design and Const$u!tion Manua&< CDM Resea$!h Institute.
oD#eing and U$*an Rede(eopment Co$po$ation 4+,==5. <Guideines %o$ the Design and Const$u!tion o% 7oi)
!ement Coumns&< 4p$oposition5
o@u:uta:e& ; and Ohtsu:i& > 4+,,25 <Th$ee Dimensiona 3i'ue%a!tion >na"sis %o$ E(auating E%%e!ti(eness o%
3i'ue%a!tion P$ote!tion *" Pie Patte$n& 9a)Patte$n and 3atti!e)Patte$n Imp$o(ement< %:t1 Soil En,ineerin,
Con2erence, pp. +++5Q+It=&C
o/osomi& N 4+,,55 <The E%%e!ti(eness o% DCM G$id 9as %o$ 3i'ue%a!tion P$e(ention&< ;ecture."4 711 Recent
*ec1nolo,y o2 Countermeasures a,ainst ;i<ue2action a1ld Case #c=>ample.14, Institute o% Indust$ia
Te!hnoogies <
o;oga& E.& Tanigu!hi& E& Na:a:ado& and ;u$inami& ; 4 +,=-5 <7ha:ing Ta*e Tests on DM0R&+ Method as a
Counte$measu$e >gainst 3i'ue%a!tion o% 7and" G$oundI ?# r4 Civil En,ineerin, Con2erence, 0apanese 7o!iet" o%
Ci(i Enginee$s& pp 2A+)2A2
o;oga& E& Matsuo& A& Eno:ida& M& Ito ; and 7u1u:i& ; 4+,==5 <7ha:ing Ta*e Tests on DM0R&+ Method as a
Counte$measu$e >gainst 3i'ue%a!tion o% 7and" G$ound 4Pa$t 25& E%%e!ts o% Imp$o(ed G$ound in G$id
Con%igu$ation >gainst 3i'ue%a!tionI %rd Soil En,ineerin, Researc1 Con2erence, Mi"a1a:i& 0apan& pp +A+,)
+A2A
O;oga& ;& Matsuo& A& ;ose:i& 0& Goto E& ;u*ode$a& & 7u1u:i& ;& @u:ada& / and O:umu$a& R 4+,,+5
<>ppi!a*iit" o% the D"nami! Cent$i%uge Mode Test Method in De(eoping Counte$measu$es >gainst 7oi
3i'ue%a!tion&< Centri2u,e ,+& 6a:ema& pp 2B+)2B=.
o;ose:i& 0& ;u*ode$a& i& Ito& ;.& 7u1u:i& ;& Nishio:a& 7& and @u:ada& / 4+,,+5 <7tud" on the >ppi!a*iit" o%
Deep Mixing Method as a Counte$measu$e 7"stem >gainst 3i'ue%a!tion 4Nume$i!a >na"sis *" Means o%
DI>N>)05&< 2A<C S5&i! En,ineerin, Researc1 Con2erence, pp +A+5)+A+-
o;u*ode$a& i& ;oga E& and ;ose:i& 0 4 +,,A5 <Resea$!h on the E%%e!ti(eness o% Deep Mixing as a
Counte$measu$e against 3i'ue%a!tion& Pe$i%i!ation o% E%%e!ti(eness *" Cent$i%uga TestsI ?16>4 Civil
En,ineerin, Con2erence, 0apanese 7o!iet" o% Ci(i Enginee$s& pp 2B2)2B5
o;"ushu Regiona >g$i!utu$a o%%i!e 4+,,25 <Design and Const$u!tion o% Cuto%% 9as %o$ 7u*su$%a!e Dams on
>mami and R"u:"u Isands most 7outh #este$n Pa$t o% 0apan < Minist$" o% >g$i!utu$e& @o$est$"& and @ishe$ies&
0apan& pp 2).
oMatsuo& A& ;ose:i& 0.& @u:ada& /.& ;u*ode$a& i& 7u1u:i& E and Nishio:a& 7 4+,,+5 <7ha:ing Ta*e Tests on
DM0R&+ Method as a Counte$measu$e >gainst 3i'ue%a!tion o% 7and" G$ound 4pa$t B5& E%%e!ts o% mp$o(ed
G$ound in G$id Con%igu$ation against 3i'ue%a!tion&< 2-<C Soil En,ineerin, Researc1 Con2erence, Nagano&
0apan& pp +AA,)+A+A
oMu$amatsu& M& 7a:emi& T& ;ode$a& / and Na:ao& ;& 4no date5 <D"nami! 7ta*iit" o% 7u$$" Cuto%% 9a in the
7and 3i'ue%a!tion P$e(ention MethodI ISepo$t No +=& Resea$!h Institute o% Taisei ;ensetsu
oNa:a?ima& /.& ;a#asa:i& T& Niina& 7& 7aito& 7& 6a*asa:i& R 4+,=+5 <7tudies on Deep Mixing Method Using
Cement /a$dening >gent 4No +55& Tensie Cha$a!te$isti!s o% Imp$o(ed 7ois&< +-C< Soil En,ineerin, Researc1
Con2erence, pp +.2B)+.B-.
oNi::ei Const$u!tion 4+,,A5 <7to$age o%,5 Miion mB o% 9ate$ 6eo# the G$ound 7u$%a!e&< Update on
7unaga#a 7u*su$%a!e Dam P$o?e!t& O:ina#a& 0apan
OPu?o)Rius& >.& G$i%%in& P.& Nea& 0.& and Ta:i& A 4+,=,5 <@oundation 7ta*ii1ation o% 0a!:son 3a:e Dam&< +2<C
#nternational Con2erence o2 Soil 3ec1anics and 'oundation En,ineerin,, 7an Pauo& 6$a1i
o7aito& 7& ;a#asa:i& T& Niina& 7& 6a*asa:i& R and Mi"ata& T 4+,=A5 <Resea$!h on Deep Mixing Method Using
Cementitious >gents 4pa$t +A5 )Enginee$ing P$ope$ties o% T$eated 7ois 4B5&< +5C< Soil En,ineerin, Researc1
Con2erence, pp .+.) .2A
o7u1u:i& E.& 7u1u:i& ;. and 6a*asa:i& R. 4+,=,5. <Ce T"pe @oundation Imp$o(ed *" Deep Cement Mixing
Method >gainst 7oi 3i'ue%a!tion 4Pa$t 25 Cent$i%uga Pi*$ato$" Tests on >nti)3i'ue%a!tion E%%e!ts&< Annual
Con2erence o2 Arc1itectural #nstitute o2 /apan, ;"ushu& pp +2B5)+2B-
o7u1u:i& ;& 6a*asa:i& R& 7u1u:i& E and @u?ii& / 4 +,,A5 <Ce T"pe @oundation Imp$o(ed *" Deep Cement
Mixing Method >gainst 7oi 3i'ue%a!tion 4pa$t +5& Cent$i%uga Pi*$ato$" Tests *" a 3amina$ 6ox&< %6t1 Soil
En,ineerin, Researc1 Con2erence, O:a"ama& 0apan& pp +AB5)+AB-
o7uSu:i& E& 7aito& 7& Onima$u& 7& ;imu$a& T& U!hida& > and O:umu$a& R& 4+,,-5. <G$id)shaped 7ta*ii1ed
G$ound Imp$o(ed *" Deep Cement Mixing Method against 3i'ue%a!tion %o$ a 6uiding @oundation&< *"4#!c1i?to?
-iso, PoI 22& No& B.& The 0apanese Geote!hni!a 7o!iet"& pp 22)2=
OTa:i& O ad &CanQ. O7 4+,=,5 Ex!a(ation 7uppo$t and G$ound#ate$ Cont$o Using 7oi)!ement Mixing 9a
%o$ 7u*#a" P$o?e!ts&< Rapid Excavation and *unnelin, Con2erence 3os >ngees& C>& pp +5-)+.5
OTa:i& O and Eang& D7 4+,,A5 <Poution Containment Using 7oi)!ement Mixed 9a& T/a1a$dous Mate$ias
Management Con%e$en!e and Exposition, &>naheim& C>
OTa:i& O and EanQ& D7 4 +,,A5 <The Eme$gen!e o% 7oi)!ement Mixed 9a Te!hni'ue and Its >ppi!ation in
the +,,ACs&< (eep 'oundations #nstitute Annual 3eetin,, 7eatte& 9 >
OTa:i& O and Eang& D7 4+,,+5 <7oi)Cement Mixed 9a Te!hni'ue& >7CE 7pe!ia Con%e$en!e& Den(e$& CO < &
OTatsuo:a& @& ;ohata& E& U!hida& ; and Imai& ; 4+,,-5 <De%o$mation Q) < Cha$a!te$isti!s o% Cement T$eated
7ois in the T$ans) To:"o 6a" /igh#a" P$o?e!t& . @routin, and (eep 3ixin,, #S?*okyo C,-& The %>d
#nternational Con2erence on @round #mprovement @eosystems, To:"o& pp. 25B)25,
OU!hida& ;& Tmai ;& Tatsuo:a& @ and ;ohata& E 4+,,-5 <G$ound Imp$o(ement *" Cement T$eatment i T$ans)
To:"o +Ba" F)/igh#a" P$o?e!t&< @routin, and (eep 3ixin,, #S?*okyo C,-& l1e %>>Al#ter#ll#tiol#@# Con2erence on
@round #mprovement @eosystems>, To:"o& pp --,)-.2 &
oTe$ashi& M& ana:a& /& N$itsumoto& T& 7hindome& E. and /onma& 7. 4+,=A5. <@undamenta P$ope$ties o% 3ime
and Cement T$eated 7ois 42nd Repo$t5&< Report o2 t1e Port and )ar.our Researc1 #nstitute, Po++,& No.+
OEang& D7& 3us!he$& U& ;imoto& & and Ta:eshima& 7 4+,,B5& <7M9 9a %o$ 7eepage Cont$o in 3e(ee
Re!onst$u!tion&< *1ird #nternational Con2erence on Q )istories i @eotec1nical En,ineerin,, 7t. 3ouis& MO&
pp& 2=.)2,2&
OEang& D7 4+,,25 <The >ppi!ations o% 7oi 3ix 9as in the United 7tates&< @eotec1nical 0eBC,4, De!em*e$&
pp 22)2.
OEang& DS 4+,,55 <Pe$ti!a 6a$$ie$s *" Deep Mixing&< International Containment *ec1nolo,y Works1op,
6atimo$e& MD 4%o$ pane dis!ussion5&
OEang& O7& Ta:eshima& 7& De%ino& T>. and Ra%%e$t"& M.T& 4+,,55& <Use o% 7oi Mixing at a Metas 7ite&< EE
t1

Annual 3eetin,, Air U Waste 3ana,ement Association, 7an >ntonio& TX
OEang& DS and Ta:eshima& 7 4+,,25 <7oi Mix 9as in Di%%i!ut G$ound&< #n situ @round #mprovement Case
)istories, >7CE Con(ention& >tanta& pp& +A-)+2A&
!ob" 7.0.& 7pi:ua& D.R& 6enson& CR and 7ha$e$& >3 4+,,55 <Geoen(i$onmenta Chaenges at the Od
Dominion 7anita$" 3and%i and Resou$!e Management @a!iit"&< @eoenvironment 2AAA& >7CE Geote!hni!a
7pe!ia Pu*i!ation No 2-& Po +& pp. -2+)-52
oEoshida& N. 4+,,55. <7hea$ 7t$ain Rest$aint Method as a Counte$measu$e against 3i'ue%a!tion&< ;ectures on
Recent *ec1nolo,y o2 Countermeasures a,ainst ;i<ue2action and Case Examples, Institute o$ ndust$ia
Te!hnoogies