Dye penetrant inspection (DPI), also called liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) or penetrant

testing (PT), is a widely applied and low-cost inspection method used to locate surface-breaking
defects in all non-porous materials (metals, plastics, or ceramics). The penetrant may be applied
to all non-ferrous materials and ferrous materials, although for ferrous components magnetic-
particle inspection is often used instead for its subsurface detection capability. LPI is used to
detect casting, forging and welding surface defects such as hairline cracks, surface porosity,
leaks in new products, and fatigue cracks on in-service components.

History
The oil and whiting method used in the railroad industry in the early 1900s was the first
recognized use of the principles of penetrants to detect cracks. The oil and whiting method used
an oil solvent for cleaning followed by the application of a whiting or chalk coating, which
absorbed oil from the cracks revealing their locations. Soon a dye was added to the liquid. By the
1940s, fluorescent or visible dye was added to the oil used to penetrate test objects.
Experience showed that temperature and soak time were important. This started the practice of
written instructions to provide standard, uniform results. The use of written procedures has
evolved, giving the ability for design engineers and manufacturers to get the high standard
results from any properly trained and certified liquid penetrant testing technician.
Principles
DPI is based upon capillary action, where low surface tension fluid penetrates into clean and dry
surface-breaking discontinuities. Penetrant may be applied to the test component by dipping,
spraying, or brushing. After adequate penetration time has been allowed, the excess penetrant is
removed, a developer is applied. The developer helps to draw penetrant out of the flaw where an
invisible indication becomes visible to the inspector. Inspection is performed under ultraviolet or
white light, depending upon the type of dye used - fluorescent or nonfluorescent (visible).
Materials
Penetrants are classified into sensitivity levels. Visible penetrants are typically red in color, and
represent the lowest sensitivity. Fluorescent penetrants contain two or more dyes that fluoresce
when excited by ultraviolet (UV-A) radiation (also known as black light). Since fluorescent
penetrant inspection is performed in a darkened environment, and the excited dyes emit brilliant
yellow-green light that contrasts strongly against the dark background, this material is more
sensitive to defects.
When selecting a sensitivity level one must consider many factors, including the environment
under which the test will be performed, the surface finish of the specimen, and the size of defects
sought. One must also assure that the test chemicals are compatible with the sample so that the
examination will not cause permanent staining, or degradation. This technique can be quite
portable, because in its simplest form the inspection requires only 3 aerosol spray cans, some lint
free cloths, and adequate visible light. Stationary systems with dedicated application, wash, and
development stations, are more costly and complicated, but result in better sensitivity and higher
samples through-put.
Inspection steps
Below are the main steps of Liquid Penetrant Inspection:
1. Pre-cleaning:
The test surface is cleaned to remove any dirt, paint, oil, grease or any loose scale that could
either keep penetrant out of a defect, or cause irrelevant or false indications. Cleaning methods
may include solvents, alkaline cleaning steps, vapor degreasing, or media blasting. The end goal
of this step is a clean surface where any defects present are open to the surface, dry, and free of
contamination. Note that if media blasting is used, it may "work over" small discontinuities in
the part, and an etching bath is recommended as a post-blasting treatment.


Application of the penetrant to a part in a ventilated test area.
2. Application of Penetrant:
The penetrant is then applied to the surface of the item being tested. The penetrant is allowed
"dwell time" to soak into any flaws (generally 5 to 30 minutes). The dwell time mainly depends
upon the penetrant being used, material being tested and the size of flaws sought. As expected,
smaller flaws require a longer penetration time. Due to their incompatible nature one must be
careful not to apply solvent-based penetrant to a surface which is to be inspected with a water-
washable penetrant.
3. Excess Penetrant Removal:
The excess penetrant is then removed from the surface. The removal method is controlled by the
type of penetrant used. Water-washable, solvent-removable, lipophilic post-emulsifiable, or
hydrophilic post-emulsifiable are the common choices. Emulsifiers represent the highest
sensitivity level, and chemically interact with the oily penetrant to make it removable with a
water spray. When using solvent remover and lint-free cloth it is important to not spray the
solvent on the test surface directly, because this can remove the penetrant from the flaws. If
excess penetrant is not properly removed, once the developer is applied, it may leave a
background in the developed area that can mask indications or defects. In addition, this may also
produce false indications severely hindering your ability to do a proper inspection.
4. Application of Developer:
After excess penetrant has been removed a white developer is applied to the sample. Several
developer types are available, including: non-aqueous wet developer, dry powder, water
suspendable, and water soluble. Choice of developer is governed by penetrant compatibility (one
can't use water-soluble or suspendable developer with water-washable penetrant), and by
inspection conditions. When using non-aqueous wet developer (NAWD) or dry powder, the
sample must be dried prior to application, while soluble and suspendable developers are applied
with the part still wet from the previous step. NAWD is commercially available in aerosol spray
cans, and may employ acetone, isopropyl alcohol, or a propellant that is a combination of the
two. Developer should form a semi-transparent, even coating on the surface.
The developer draws penetrant from defects out onto the surface to form a visible indication,
commonly known as bleed-out. Any areas that bleed-out can indicate the location, orientation
and possible types of defects on the surface. Interpreting the results and characterizing defects
from the indications found may require some training and/or experience [the indication size is
not the actual size of the defect]
5. Inspection:
The inspector will use visible light with adequate intensity (100 foot-candles or 1100 lux is
typical) for visible dye penetrant. Ultraviolet (UV-A) radiation of adequate intensity (1,000
micro-watts per centimeter squared is common), along with low ambient light levels (less than 2
foot-candles) for fluorescent penetrant examinations. Inspection of the test surface should take
place after 10 to 30 minute development time, depends of product kind. This time delay allows
the blotting action to occur. The inspector may observe the sample for indication formation when
using visible dye. It is also good practice to observe indications as they form because the
characteristics of the bleed out are a significant part of interpretation characterization of flaws.
6. Post Cleaning:
The test surface is often cleaned after inspection and recording of defects, especially if post-
inspection coating processes are scheduled.
Advantages and disadvantages
The main advantages of DPI are the speed of the test and the low cost. Disadvantages include the
detection of only surface flaws, skin irritation, and the inspection should be on a smooth clean
surface where excessive penetrant can be removed prior to being developed. Conducting the test
on rough surfaces, such-as "as-welded" welds, will make it difficult to remove any excessive
penetrant and could result in false indications. Water-washable penetrant should be considered
here if no other option is available. Also, on certain surfaces a great enough color contrast cannot
be achieved or the dye will stain the workpiece.
[1]

Limited training is required for the operator although experience is quite valuable. Proper
cleaning is necessary to assure that surface contaminants have been removed and any defects
present are clean and dry. Some cleaning methods have been shown to be detrimental to test
sensitivity, so acid etching to remove metal smearing and re-open the defect may be
necessary.
[citation needed]

Standards
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
ISO 3059, Non-destructive testing - Penetrant testing and magnetic particle testing -
Viewing conditions
ISO 3452-1, Non-destructive testing. Penetrant testing. Part 1. General principles
ISO 3452-2, Non-destructive testing - Penetrant testing - Part 2: Testing of penetrant
materials
ISO 3452-3, Non-destructive testing - Penetrant testing - Part 3: Reference test blocks
ISO 3452-4, Non-destructive testing - Penetrant testing - Part 4: Equipment
ISO 3452-5, Non-destructive testing - Penetrant testing - Part 5: Penetrant testing at
temperatures higher than 50 C
ISO 3452-6, Non-destructive testing - Penetrant testing - Part 6: Penetrant testing at
temperatures lower than 10 C
ISO 12706, Non-destructive testing - Penetrant testing - Vocabulary
ISO 23277, Non-destructive testing of welds - Penetrant testing of welds - Acceptance
levels
European Committee for Standardization (CEN)
EN 571-1, Non-destructive testing - Penetrant testing - Part 1: General principles. May
be replaced by EN ISO 3452-1.
EN 1371-1, Founding - Liquid penetrant inspection - Part 1: Sand, gravity die and low
pressure die castings
EN 1371-2, Founding - Liquid penetrant inspection - Part 2: Investment castings
EN 2002-16, Aerospace series - Metallic materials; test methods - Part 16: Non-
destructive testing, penetrant testing
EN 10228-2, Non-destructive testing of steel forgings - Part 2: Penetrant testing
EN 10246-11, Non-destructive testing of steel tubes - Part 11: Liquid penetrant testing of
seamless and welded steel tubes for the detection of surface imperfections
ASTM International (ASTM)
ASTM E 165, Standard Practice for Liquid Penetrant Examination for General Industry
ASTM E 1417, Standard Practice for Liquid Penetrant Testing
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section V, Art. 6, Liquid Penetrant
Examination
ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section V, Art. 24 Standard Test Method for
Liquid Penetrant Examination SE-165 (identical with ASTM E-165)



Liquid Penetrant Examination

Jim Worman
Senior Staff Engineer
National Board
Category : Design/Fabrication
Summary: This article was originally published in the Winter 2011 National Board BULLETIN.
(4 printed pages)



Liquid penetrant examination is one of the most popular Nondestructive Examination (NDE)
methods in the industry. It is economical, versatile, and requires minimal training when
compared to other NDE methods. Liquid penetrant exams check for material flaws open to the
surface by flowing very thin liquid into the flaw and then drawing the liquid out with a chalk-like
developer. Welds are the most common item inspected, but plate, bars, pipes, castings, and
forgings are also commonly inspected using liquid penetrant examination.
Over the years, liquid penetrant examination has been called many names: penetrant testing (PT),
liquid penetrant testing (LP), and dye penetrant testing (DP). The American Society for
Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) uses the name liquid penetrant testing (PT). The American
Society of Mechanical Engineers Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (ASME B & PVC) and the
National Board Inspection Code (NBIC) use the name liquid penetrant examination (PT).

The first documented use of PT was in the railroad industry. Cast railroad wheels were dipped in
used oil, dried off, and then coated with powder chalk or suspension of chalk in alcohol. Once
the wheels were dry, any oil stored in the flaw would bleed out into the chalk and be detected.
This was called the oil and whiting method.

The ASME Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code recognizes six different techniques of PT. They vary
by type of penetrant and method of cleaning before applying a developer. The two penetrant
types are either fluorescent or color contrast (dye) penetrant. They can then be used with any of
the three methods of cleaning water washable, post-emulsifying, and solvent removable. The
most popular is dye penetrant that is solvent removable. This method is referenced throughout
the article.

The dye penetrant solvent removable method is most popular because it is low cost and very
versatile. It typically comes in three aerosol cans cleaner, penetrant, and developer. The cans
can be purchased from welding supply distributors for typically $5 to $15 a can. For less than
$50 you can have all the equipment you need to conduct liquid penetrant examinations. The
aerosol cans are very versatile which allow them to be taken up ladders, inside boilers, down into
pits, and into very tight places. Most nonporous materials (steel, stainless steel, cast iron,
aluminum, brass, bronze, titanium, rubber, plastics, and glass) can be examined using PT. Porous
materials (concrete, wood, paper, cloth, and some types of fiberglass if the fibers are exposed to
the surface) should not be examined using PT.

Dye penetrant solvent removable aerosol cans

There are several advantages and disadvantages to using liquid penetrant examination.

Advantages:
High sensitivity to small surface discontinuities
Easy inspection of parts with complex shapes
Quick and inexpensive inspection of large areas and large volumes of parts/materials
Few material limitations (metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic and nonmagnetic, and
conductive and nonconductive can all be inspected)
A visual representation of the flaw are indicated directly on the part surface
Aerosol spray cans make the process portable, convenient, and inexpensive
Indications can reveal relative size, shape, and depth of the flaw
It is easy and requires minimal amount of training
Disadvantages:
Detects flaws only open to the surface
Materials with porous surfaces cannot be examined using this process
Only clean, smooth surfaces can be inspected. (Rust, dirt, paint, oil and grease must be
removed.)
Metal smearing from power wire brushing, shot blasting, or grit blasting must be
removed prior to liquid penetrant examination
Examiner must have direct access to surface being examined
Surface finish and roughness can affect examination sensitivity. (It may be necessary to
grind surfaces before PT.)
Multiple process steps must be performed and controlled
Post cleaning of parts and material is required, especially if welding is to be performed
Proper handling and disposal of chemicals is required
Fumes can be hazardous and flammable without proper ventilation
It is important to remember penetrant is a very thin liquid designed to seep into the smallest
crack. Consequently, if an assembly has stitch welds or material not sealed by a weld, the
penetrant will travel behind the welds and between layers of unfused material. Penetrant can be
nearly impossible to remove from these areas. Trapped penetrant will cause defects in welds if
further welding is done or will bleed out over time and contaminate paint and process fluids.

For PT to be used on ASME Code construction or NBIC repair or alterations, a written
procedure must be followed. This must comply with ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel
Code, Section V, Article 6, and address all essential and nonessential variables. Many liquid
penetrant examinations are done for informational purposes only, and do not follow a written
procedure. For instance, a written procedure does not need to be followed if a welder grinding
out a weld crack for repair is using PT to ensure removal of the entire crack. However, if the PT
is being done to comply with Code, the written procedure needs to be followed by qualified NDE
personnel.

There are six basic steps to follow when using the dye penetrant solvent removable method.
1. Pre-clean part.
This can range from grinding and wire brushing to merely wiping the part with a rag
moistened with the cleaner/ remover. The surface needs to be free of dirt, rust, scale,
paint, oil, and grease, and be smooth enough to wipe off the penetrant without leaving
residue.




2. Apply penetrant.
This is generally done by spraying penetrant from the aerosol can or applying it with a
brush. A dwell (soak) time needs to be observed to allow for the penetrant to permeate
into cracks and voids. This is typically 5 to 30 minutes but should never be long enough
for the penetrant to dry. The penetrant manufacturers recommendations and written
procedure should be followed.




3. Remove penetrant.
All penetrant should be removed with clean, dry, lint-free rags until thoroughly clean.
The part or material should be rubbed vigorously until the penetrant is not visible on the
dry rags. Next, cleaner/ remover should be sprayed on another clean, dry, lint-free rag
and used to vigorously rub the part again until there is no penetrant visible on the rag.




4. Apply developer.
A thin, light coating of developer should be sprayed on the part being examined. A dwell
time needs to be observed to allow time for the dye to exit the flaws and create an
indication (flaw) in the developer. The dwell time for developer is typically 10 to 60
minutes. The developer manufacturers recommendations and written procedure should
be followed closely.




5. Evaluate indications.
It is critical to examine the part within the time frame designated in the written
procedure. Length of an indication can grow over time as penetrant bleeds out, causing
an acceptable indication to be a rejectable defect. Length of indication is measured for
evaluation, not length of the flaw. Here, the two linear indications are rejectable defects.
The round indication is nonrelevant.




6. Post-clean part.
The part needs to be cleaned to remove all developer after it has been evaluated.






ASME Section V also requires the dye penetrant solvent removable method be evaluated with a
minimum light intensity of 100 foot candles on the part surface. Proper quantity of light must be
verified using some type of light meter.

Light meter showing 109.9 footcandles of light
In the ASME B & PV Codes of Construction, magnetic particle examination or liquid penetrant
examination is called out many times to detect the possibility of surface defects. If material is
nonmagnetic the only choice is PT. Some typical examples of ASME Code required
examinations include:
castings for surface defects
plates for laminations in corner joints when one plates edge is exposed and not fused
into the weld joint
head spin hole plug welds
weld metal build-up on plates
removal of defects before welding repair
Once boilers and pressure vessels are in service, PT can be a very valuable tool. The NBIC
recommends PT for examination of: firetube boiler tube sheets to find leakage around tubes,
external inspection of weld joints, evaluating components subjected to fire damage, historical
boilers, fiber-reinforced thermosetting plastic pressure equipment, Yankee dryers, and pressure
vessels in liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) service.

During inservice inspections, PT should also be used in areas suspected of defects. These
include, but are not limited to, nozzles (see Figure 1), tubesheets (see Figure 2), knuckles of
heads (see Figure 3), and head spin hole plug welds (see Figure 4). To effectively use liquid
penetrant on the tubesheet in Figure 2, an extensive amount of work would need to be done. All
rust and scale would need to be removed so the penetrant could be cleaned off. Rolled, unfused
tube ends would also bleed out dye and cause false indications. The head spin hole plug weld
looks acceptable to the naked eyes, but shows many defects once it has been liquid penetrant
examined (see Figures 5 and 6).



In conclusion, PT can be a very valuable tool during new construction and inservice inspections.
PT does have limitations and is not the best method for all applications. However, for quick, low
cost examinations in any location, PT is often the best choice of NDE methods.

Terjemahan
Hal mendasar yang perlu dipertimbangkan ketika melakukan penetran cair
Apakah penetran terlihat atau neon yang diperlukan
Apa persyaratan sensitivitas
Bagaimana bersih adalah bagian atau komponen dan pembersihan pra akan diperlukan.
Bagaimana diakses adalah area pemeriksaan
Apakah persyaratan untuk menggunakan Metode A Air Dicuci, Metode B Pos Lipohilic
diemulsikan, Metode C Solvent Removable, atau Metode D Posting Hidrofilik teremulsi.
Apakah ada ruangan gelap yang tersedia untuk mencapai kebutuhan cahaya 2FC.
Akan kekuasaan akan tersedia.

Basic things to consider when performing liquid penetrant are.
1. Is visible or fluorescent penetrant being required
2. What is the sensitivity requirement
3. How clean is the part or component and is pre cleaning going to be required.
4. How accessible is the inspection area
5. Is the requirement to use Method A Water Washable, Method B Post Emulsifiable
Lipohilic, Method C Solvent Removable, or Method D Post Emulsifiable Hydrophilic.
6. Is there a dark room available to achieve the 2fc light requirement.
7. Will power be available.
Tujuan dan Manfaat Uji Penetrasi ( PT )

Uji penetrasi sangat efektif untuk mengungkap keberadaan cacat atau
non konformasi yang terbuka dipermukaan , seperti misalnya : lipatan
( fold / lap ), porositas , lapisan ( seam ) , inklusi terak / kotoran (
slag inclusion ) , fusi tidak sempurna ( incomplete fusion ) , retak (
crack ) , dll. yang biasanya berada pada produk pengelasan , tempaan
, rolan dan pengecoran .

Khususnya untuk produk pengelasan , PT digunakan pada jenis las
fillet baik untuk sambungan sudut ( corner ) , tumpu ( overlap ) ,
sambungan T ( T joint ) , dan soket .
Sebagai diketahui jenis sambungan las tersebut diatas tidak dapat
diradiografi karena penetrasinya partial sehingga menghasilkan imagi
yang membingungkan.

Kadang kadang , sesuai dengan persyaratan spesifikasi , PT
dilaksanakan pula pada las akar ( root bead ) , dan antar lajur (
interpass ).

PT memiliki keterbatasan penerapan , yakni pada material dengan
suhu permukaan melebihi 40C atau < 0C , pada permukaan yang
sangat kotor atau sangat kasar , dan jumlah atau jenis kontaminan
dalam penetrant yang menyebabkan kegetasan atau serangan karat
pada material tertentu.
Pada suhu diatas 40C , cairan penetrant akan menguap sebelum
sempat meresap kedalam non conformasi terbuka , sedangkan pada
suhu 0C kebawah , cairan penetrant akan membeku atau mengental
sehingga sangat mengurangi daya resapnya.
Pada permukaan yang sangat kotor atau sangat kasar , akan terdapat
terlalu banyak indikasi sehingga membingungkan mana yang asli dan
mana yang palsu.
Kontaminasi seperti sulfur , halogen , dan alkali , menyebabkan
penggetasan dan serangan karat pada bahan austenitic , titanium ,
paduan nikel , dan heat resisting steel.








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