1

Movles, Lhe Moral LmoLlons, and SympaLhy

8y noel Carroll

l.
lnLroducLlon

Movles are a mass arL form. 8y movles" here l am, of course, referrlng Lo malnsLream, moLlon-
plcLure, narraLlve flcLlons, wheLher seen on Lhe sllver screen or 1v (where many 1v programs are
Lhemselves movles, ln my sense of Lhe Lerm). !"#$%&, ln Lhe way LhaL l am uslng lL, are lnLended Lo
command large audlences. 1yplcally nowadays Lhey are made ln order Lo make subsLanLlal proflLs and,
ln order Lo do so, Lhey need Lo be capable of engaglng Lhe mulLlLudes.
1
Movles succeed, when Lhey do
succeed, ln large measure, by addresslng Lhe emoLlons of specLaLors. 1he emoLlons are able Lo perform
Lhls funcLlon so well, because Lhe emoLlons, or, aL leasL, Lhe emoLlons usually sLlrred up by Lhe movles,
are broadly convergenL across vasL populaLlons, populaLlons, lndeed, LhaL generally en[oy belng LhrusL
lnLo Lhe relevanL emoLlonal sLaLes, so long as Lhey do noL have Lo pay Lhe prlce LhaL Lhose sLaLes
sLandardly exacL (as sadness, for example, correlaLes wlLh personal loss). 1haL ls one of Lhe reasons
LhaL vlewers flock Lo Lhe movles. 1he emoLlons noL only conLrlbuLe Lo Lhe lnLelllglblllLy of
moLlon- plcLure narraLlves, buL Lhey do so ln a way LhaL promoLes pleasure.
2


1
1he quallflcaLlon above ls meanL Lo allow for movles made by communlsL sLaLes and oLher organlzaLlons LhaL are
noL made for proflL buL are almed aL mass audlences.
2
LmoLlons ln dally llfe solve Lhe frame problem, Lhey organlze Lhe buzzlng confuslon ln Lerms of our lnLeresLs.
Slmllarly, by engaglng our moral emoLlons, movle makers enable us Lo organlze Lhe lncomlng sLlmulus coherenLly,
very ofLen, as we shall see, by sLoklng our sense of good and evll.
2

ln Lhls chapLer, l wlll argue LhaL Lhe moral emoLlons are one of Lhe lmporLanL, lf noL Lhe mosL
lmporLanL, levers avallable Lo movle makers for recrulLlng Lhe mass audlences LhaL movles are deslgned
Lo enllsL. l wlll ouLllne how Lhe moral emoLlons underpln our reacLlons Lo Lhe persons, acLlons, evenLs
and scenes LhaL movles deplcL and Lhen conclude wlLh a dlscusslon of Lhe way ln whlch sympaLhy (and
anLlpaLhy), as moLlvaLed by moral concerns, supporL our oLher emoLlonal responses Lo Lhe movles,
lncludlng our moral-emoLlonal responses. Powever, before examlnlng Lhe operaLlon of Lhe moral
emoLlons ln Lhe movles, someLhlng needs Lo be sald abouL Lhe broader relaLlonshlp of Lhe emoLlons ln
general Lo Lhe movles.
ll.
LmoLlons and Movles
osslbly slnce Pomer sang of Lhe wraLh of Achllles, buL, aL leasL, from laLo's '%()*+$, onwards,
Lhe arLs have been assoclaLed Lhe emoLlons ln Lhe WesL, noL Lo menLlon ./&/ Lheory ln Lhe LasL. 1he
relaLlon beLween Lhe movles and Lhe emoLlons ls especlally pronounced, many of Lhe leadlng movle
genres Lake Lhelr very names from Lhe emoLlons Lhey are deslgned Lo arouse - horror, suspense,
mysLery, Lhrlllers, and Lear-[erkers. CLhers, llke comedy and drama, Lhough noL wearlng Lhelr relaLlon Lo
Lhe emoLlons upon Lhelr sleeves, are clearly llnked Lo Lhe emoLlons - Lo comlc amusemenL, on Lhe one
hand, and Lo plLy, anger, [oy, sadness and so forLh, on Lhe oLher.
eople ofLen go Lo Lhe movles Lo have Lhelr emoLlons aroused - Lo have a good cry or a good
scare. AlLhough such experlences may be unwelcome ln llfe ouLslde Lhe movles, Lhey are coveLed when
Lhey come cosL free - where, for example, our fear ls noL Lled Lo real danger. Movles afford an lnLense,
vlsceral experlence, an lnvlgoraLlng emoLlonal baLh, lf you wlll, one for whlch cusLomers are wllllng Lo
pay good money. 1hus, lL should come as no surprlse LhaL proflL seeklng movle makers should be
dlsposed Lo rely so heavlly upon arouslng emoLlons as a baslc sLraLegy.
3

Moreover, lnasmuch as Lhe emoLlons are parL of our blologlcal equlpmenL, mosL of us share lf
noL cerLaln baslc emoLlons, Lhen, aL leasL, cerLaln emoLlonal domalns - cerLaln concerns, such as Lhose
lnvolvlng harm, Lo whlch dlfferenL culLures crafL someLlmes dlverglng buL also ofLen converglng
paradlgmaLlc emoLlonal-response paLLerns. 8ecause some emoLlons are arguably nearly unlversal,
whlle many oLhers are recognlzably connecLed Lo recurrlng human lnLeresLs, Lhe emoLlons are an ldeal
medlum for Lhose, such as movle makers, who asplre Lo conquer a mass markeL. Movles explolL Lhe
poLenLlal of Lhe emoLlons Lo be poslLlvely exclLlng for mosL people worldwlde. 1haL ls why movles made
ln SouLhern Callfornla are soughL afLer by klds growlng up ln Lebanon. 1haL ls why a fllm llke 0#/1/. can
clear over a bllllon dollars early on ln lLs lnlLlal global run, sLlmulaLlng, as lL does, across conLlnenLs Lhe
emoLlons of moral lndlgnaLlon, awe, fear, loaLhlng, admlraLlon, [oy, as well as feellngs LhaL have no
preclse names ln our vocabulary.
AlLhough Lhe movles may be sald Lo be made for Lhe emoLlons, Lhe emoLlons, as ls obvlous,
were noL made for Lhe movles. Cur emoLlons are blologlcal adapLaLlons shaped by naLural selecLlon ln
order Lo proLecL and advance vlLal human lnLeresLs. lear, for example, alerLs Lhe organlsm Lo danger
and prepares lL Lo freeze, flee, or flghL. Anger slgnals LhaL a wrong has been done Lo me or mlne and
readles us for reLallaLlon. ulsgusL focuses upon polluLlon and lnlLlaLes bodlly responses llke gagglng,
choklng and vomlLlng where Lhe lmpurlLy aL lssue ls a foodsLuff or a sLench. 8ondlng emoLlons of all
sorLs - llke paLrloLlsm - are Lhe foundaLlon of communal acLlvlLy and Lhe achlevemenL of group ends
and purposes. 1he emoLlons enable us Lo negoLlaLe Lhe world - ln many cases, almosL auLomaLlcally.
1haL ls, ln conLrasL Lo slow cognlLlve processes llke dellberaLlon, Lhe emoLlons rapldly slze-up
slLuaLlons ln Lerms of our abldlng lnLeresLs and generally prlme some or anoLher behavloral response Lo
our pllghL and/or our prospecLs. uellberaLlon ls meLhodlcal and, well, dellberaLlve, emoLlonal appralsal
ls fasL. And a speedy declslon was ofLen [usL whaL Lhe momenL called for ln our ancesLral envlronmenLs,
4

where a sudden moLlvaLlng apprehenslon of fear aL Lhe posslble presence of a predaLor was a beLLer
pollcy Lhan slLLlng down and reasonlng one's way Lhrough Lhe evldence. 8ack Lhen, lL was beLLer Lo be
safe Lhan sorry. CfLen, lL sLlll ls.
1he emoLlons are appralsals of our lnLeresLs LhaL glve rlse Lo bodlly reacLlons - some
physlologlcal, some phenomenologlcal - whlch, ln Lurn, generally lead Lo an acLlon Lendency of some
sorL, as when angered we are prompLed Lo geL even." 1hese appralsals can be very fasL, Lhey may even
bypass processlng ln Lhe fronLal corLex of Lhe braln and sLlmulaLe our behavloral response sysLems
dlrecLly. Moreover, wlLh respecL Lo Lhe speed aL whlch Lhe emoLlons dellver Lhelr appralsals, Lhe
emoLlons and Lhe movles are well-sulLed Lo each oLher, slnce Lhe pace of Lhe acLlon ln Lhe movles ls very
fasL, ofLen fasLer Lhan ln llfe ouLslde Lhe movles. AL presenL, many movles are cuL a raLe of Lhree shoLs a
mlnuLe. ln order Lo follow all Lhls flurry of acLlvlLy, a rapld-response, Lracklng sysLem llke Lhe emoLlons
would have Lo be ln place. And, of course, lL ls and lL ls no accldenL LhaL movle makers have Laken
advanLage of lL.
AnoLher feaLure of Lhe emoLlons LhaL has been a boon Lo flcLloneers ln general and Lo movle
makers ln parLlcular ls LhaL Lhe emoLlons can be lgnlLed by lmaglnlngs. 1haL ls, emoLlons do noL requlre
our bellef ln Lhe exlsLence of Lhe ob[ecLs, persons, and evenLs LhaL ellclL Lhem. We may send a shudder
of anxleLy down our own splne by lmaglnlng LhaL we are ln Lhe process of cuLLlng off our lndex flnger
wlLh a meaL cleaver, even whlle we are aware LhaL Lhe evenL ln quesLlon ls noL happenlng.
undoubLedly, Lhe human capaclLy Lo be moved emoLlonally by conLrary-Lo-facL, lmaglned
slLuaLlons was adapLlve, slnce lL enabled our forebears Lo be apprehenslve abouL places and Lhlngs noL
lmmedlaLely presenL Lo Lhem. 1rlbal elders, for example, could lnsLlll fear ln Lhe hearLs of chlldren by
Lelllng Lhem sLorles abouL how Lhey would be devoured by crocodlles lf Lhey wandered Loo close Lo Lhe
rlverbank, Lhereby lncreaslng Lhe llkellhood LhaL Lhe klds ln quesLlon would maLure and reproduce.
3

AlLhough Lhe emoLlons dld noL evolve ln order Lo make movles posslble, Lhe facL LhaL Lhe
emoLlons can be engendered by lmaglnlngs ls a prerequlslLe for movles becomlng a mass arL. lor had lL
noL been Lhe case LhaL wlLh respecL Lo our cognlLlve archlLecLure LhaL flcLlons could provoke emoLlonal
responses, Lhen Lhe movles would lack Lhe affecLlve calllng card LhaL gaLhers vasL audlences before
Lhem. 1he movles ln Lhls regard explolL menLal powers LhaL developed Lo deal wlLh someLhlng else, [usL
as Lhe movles Lake advanLage of Lhe speed of emoLlonal processlng LhaL evolved Lo scope ouL slLuaLlons
where Llme was of Lhe essence raLher Lhan Lo keep up wlLh fasL-movlng sLorles.
Lven lf Lhe beneflLs Lo movle makers of engaglng Lhe emoLlons are obvlous, Lhe way ln whlch
movle makers succeed ln achlevlng Lhls may be LheoreLlcally less apparenL. 8uL here lL pays Lo remlnd
ourselves LhaL Lhe emoLlons are prlmarlly appralsal mechanlsms. 1hey evaluaLe persons and ob[ecLs,
acLlons and evenLs wlLh respecL Lo vlLal human lnLeresLs.
!ealousy, for example, alerLs one slbllng Lo anoLher slbllng's percelved encroachmenL upon
hls/her parenLs's affecLlon and, Lherefore, concern. 1haL ls, [ealousy, ln such cases, deLecLs challenges
Lo Lhe condlLlons of one's well-belng and Lrlggers alarm when Lhey are LhreaLened. ulsgusL zeroes-ln on
lmpurlLy, fear on percelved danger or harm, and so on.
ln Lhe laLLer cases, Lhe emoLlons ln quesLlon evaluaLe Lhe clrcumsLances ln Lerms of proLecLlng,
flrsL and foremosL, our physlcal lnLegrlLy. 8uL Lhe emoLlons may also funcLlon Lo advance our sense of
soclal sLandlng, as conLempL does by assesslng oLhers as lnferlor Lo ourselves.
?eL noLe: lf Lhe emoLlons lnvolve appralsal, Lhere musL be some sLandard or crlLerlon, however
lmpllclL, agalnsL whlch Lhe parLlcular ob[ecLs of our emoLlonal sLaLes are belng assayed. Anger, for
example, ls Lhe appralsal of an evenL as a wrong done Lo me or mlne: you wlllfully sLep on my fooL, l
assess LhaL Lo be a wrong, Lhereby seLLlng off a Lraln of physlcal evenLs and sensaLlons and, mosL llkely, a
deslre for reLrlbuLlon.
6

1hese appralsals can orlglnaLe near Lhe slLe of percepLlon wlLhouL any furLher need for
compuLaLlon: Lhe self-regardlng preacher spllls waLer on hlmself and we laugh, our percepLual paLLern-
deLecLors recognlze LhaL an expecLed paLLern has been broken. neverLheless, on oLher, probably less
frequenL occaslons, our emoLlonal appralsals emerge only afLer exLended cognlLlve processlng and
rumlnaLlon - as when we flnally puL LogeLher all Lhose subLle slgns of favorlLlsm LhaL Lhe boss has been
besLowlng upon our offlce rlval.
Powever, wheLher speclflc emoLlve reacLlons arlse wlLh percepLlon or resulL from cognlLlve
processlng downsLream, Lhese eplsodes are appralsals relaLlve Lo cerLaln crlLerla, as, for lnsLance,
percelved danger ls a crlLerlon for fear - l.e., Lhe emoLlve appralsal of a slLuaLlon as dangerous.
ln Lhe ordlnary course of evenLs, when an emoLlon engulfs us, lL focuses our aLLenLlon on Lhose
feaLures of Lhe slLuaLlon LhaL are perLlnenL Lo Lhe human lnLeresLs or Lhemes lL ls Lhe funcLlon of Lhe
relevanL emoLlon Lo advance or proLecL, whlle, aL Lhe same Llme, fllLerlng ouL aspecLs of Lhe slLuaLlon
LhaL are noL germane Lo Lhe presldlng emoLlonal Lheme. We focus on Lhe car speedlng Loward us -
assesslng lLs dangerousness - whlle noL reglsLerlng Lhe numbers on lLs llcense plaLe.
1he emoLlons are selecLlvely aLLenLlve ln Lerms of Lhe lnLeresLs Lhey govern. ln Lhe flrsL
lnsLance, Lhe emoLlons baLLen upon promlnenL elemenLs of Lhe slLuaLlon LhaL LhreaLen our lnLeresLs or
LhaL afford opporLunlLles Lo advance Lhem. 8uL Lhen feedback, relnforced aL Lhe hormonal level, Lo Lhls
lnlLlal assessmenL of Lhe slLuaLlon leads us Lo scan Lhe scene furLher, selecLlng ouL more feaLures of Lhe
slLuaLlon LhaL are perLlnenL Lo Lhe domlnanL emoLlonal concern. lor example: LhaL Lhe drlver ln Lhe
aforesald auLomoblle ls almlng lL aL us - LhaL he lnLends Lo klll us.
When ln Lhe grlp of an emoLlon, Lhe sLaLe selecLlvely organlzes or gesLalLs Lhe slLuaLlon under
Lhe aegls of lLs cenLral Lheme or concern. lL sLrucLures aLLenLlon selecLlvely ln llghL of crlLerla, namely,
Lhe crlLerla approprlaLe Lo Lhe abldlng lnLeresL lL ls Lhe funcLlon of Lhe emoLlon Lo proLecL or advance. ln
7

Lhe precedlng car-scenarlo, fear gesLalLs Lhe scene ln Lerms of percelved harm. ercelved harm ls Lhe
crlLerlon of relevance for Lhe emoLlve appralsal LhaL we call fear.
1urnlng from Lhe ordlnary course of evenLs and back Lo Lhe movles, we can lmmedlaLely noLe
one sLrlklng dlfference beLween Lhem. ln llfe, our emoLlons do mosL of Lhe work of organlzlng Lhe
evenLs LhaL come our way. We slze-up Lhe slLuaLlon, plcklng ouL and appralslng, albelL under Lhe
guldance of Lhe emoLlon, whaL ls relevanL for our aLLenLlon. WhaL ls relevanL, of course, ls whaL falls
under Lhe crlLerlon or Lhe crlLerla of Lhe presldlng emoLlonal sLaLe. ln Lhls respecL, we may say LhaL our
emoLlve appralsal ls crlLerlally focused.
Powever, when lL comes Lo Lhe movles (as well as Lhe oLher arLs), we noLlce LhaL a greaL deal of
Lhe selecLlon LhaL lL ls up Lo Lhe emoLlons Lo secure ln llfe has already been done by Lhe movle makers.
Whereas ln mosL lnsLances ln llfe Lhe emoLlons have Lo sLarL Lhe process of gesLalLlng Lhe sLlmulus from
scraLch, wlLh movles a greaL deal of LhaL work has already been done for us by Lhe movle maker who has
deslgned Lhe flcLlonal slLuaLlon ln such a way LhaL lLs crlLerlally perLlnenL varlables sLand ouL sallenLly ln
ways LhaL make our emoLlve appralsal of lL ln Lhe manner Lhe movle maker lnLends vlrLually
unavoldable. lf ln everyday llfe, our emoLlons crlLerlally focus evenLs for us, movle evenLs have been, Lo
an appreclable exLenL, crlLerlally (.%focused for us.
lor example, were we Lo fllm Lhe car sequence lmaglned above, we would economlcally selecL
[usL Lhose deLalls needed Lo moblllze and exacerbaLe Lhe fear-appralsal - perhaps we would lnclude a
shoL of Lhe car headed Loward us and Lhen maybe a close-up of Lhe malevolenL drlver sLarlng us down.
We wouldn'L lnclude a shoL of Lhe llcense plaLe or of Lhe back seaL of Lhe car. 1he sequence would be
selecLlvely prefocused crlLerlally - ln Lhls case by means of edlLlng - ln Lerms of feaLures approprlaLe Lo
lnsplrlng fear - Lhe appralsal of Lhe evenL as dangerous Lhen leadlng Lo a guL reacLlon.
8

Movles have a panoply of means for engenderlng emoLlons ln audlences. undoubLedly Lhe
mosL obvlous sLrucLure for ellclLlng specLaLor emoLlon ls Lhe narraLlve. Clearly, Lhe narraLlve sLrucLure ls
an lnsLrumenL for maklng cerLaln evenLs and Lhe varlous componenLs of Lhose evenLs sallenL. Comedles,
for example, wlll ofLen favor lncongruous Lralns of evenLs - Lhe hereLofore physlcally lnepL hero
suddenly and unexpecLedly rlses Lo Lhe challenge of savlng hls beloved and vanlshes hls lmposlng
adversarles (Lhlnk 8usLer keaLon here) - where percelved lncongrulLles are crlLerlal for comlc
amusemenL.
3

ulalogue and volce-over commenLary can also call aLLenLlon Lo Lhe emoLlvely relevanL feaLures
of Lhe flcLlonal evenLs before us, flcLlonal characLers, lncludlng flcLlonal narraLors, can brlng our
aLLenLlon Lo Lhose elemenLs ln a scene LhaL we are mandaLed Lo focus upon, as do Lhe off-screen volces
ln 23% !/45$6$,%51 07*%.&"5& whlch volces shape our assessmenL of young Ceorge's behavlor.
AlLhough Lhe use of narraLlve and dlalogue as a means of crlLerlally prefocuslng Lhe audlence's
emoLlve appralsal ls shared by movles, LheaLer, and, lndeed, wlLh many oLher arL forms (lncludlng
narraLlve palnLlng, opera, song and so forLh), Lhere are also cerLaln devlces avallable Lo funcLlon ln Lhls
way LhaL are more hlsLorlcally characLerlsLlc of Lhe movles (lncludlng vldeo and 1v) Lhan Lhey are of Lhe
oLher arLs. Cne Lhlng LhaL l have ln mlnd ln Lhls respecL ls varlable framlng - Lhe alLeraLlon of whaL ls
made vlsually sallenL Lo Lhe vlewer by scallng (maklng Lhe ob[ecL of aLLenLlon larger ln Lhe vlsual fleld),
lndexlng (by polnLlng Lhe camera Loward Lhe ob[ecL) and by brackeLlng (placlng Lhe ob[ecL wlLhln a
frame LhaL excludes LhaL whlch ls lrrelevanL). 1hese processes of varlable framlng can be lmplemenLed
by edlLlng, camera movemenL, or by Lhe deploymenL of lenses of varylng focal lengLhs. varlable framlng

3
See my 1wo Comlc loL SLrucLures," ln my 0.1 $5 23.%% 8$7%5&$"5& (Cxford: Cxford unlverslLy ress, 2010).
9

lnsures LhaL vlewers wlll be looklng where Lhe movle maker lnLends Lhem Lo be looklng preclsely when
Lhe movle maker wanLs Lhem Lo be looklng Lhere.
4

lf Lhe movle maker wlshes Lo sLlmulaLe plLy ln Lhe audlence, she may show us a close-up of a
characLer, prevlously esLabllshed by Lhe narraLlve Lo be pralseworLhy, as LhaL characLer's face wrlLhes ln
agony ln response Lo a flogglng admlnlsLered by a merclless prlson guard. Powever, emoLlon may noL
only be ellclLed by movlng Lhe camera ln. Lxpandlng Lhe fleld of vlslon may also be effecLlve ln
engenderlng suspense as when Lhe movle maker cuLs from Lhe close-up of Lhe herolne bobblng above
and below Lhe waLer llne ln a fasL movlng sLream Lo a broader shoL of Lhe omlnously cascadlng waLerfall
Loward whlch Lhe ersLwhlle herolne seems lnevlLably headed.
1he varlable framlng selecLlvely plcks ouL or crlLerlally prefocuses Lhe elemenLs of Lhe sequence
LhaL are perLlnenL Lo Lhe affecL Lhe movle maker wanLs Lo prompL, and wlLh Lhose approprlaLely
valenced or charged lLems domlnaLlng our aLLenLlon, we are, all Lhlngs belng equal, smooLhly led Lo
make Lhe apposlLe, vlscerally lnflecLed appralsals - such as plLy, on Lhe one hand, or suspense on Lhe
oLher. Call Lhe audlence's share here %7"1$#% )(&1/9% where emoLlve upLake ls Lhe alm of Lhe creaLor's
acLlvlLy of ,.$1%.$/++: (.%6",)&$54 cerLaln feaLures of Lhe movle world.
Cf course, Lhere are oLher devlces avallable Lo movle makers for Lhe purpose of crlLerlal
prefocuslng. Sound, boLh nolse and muslc, dlgeLlc and nondlgeLlc, can be deployed ln Lhe servlce of
crlLerlal prefocuslng. Loud, offscreen sounds may alerL us Lo oncomlng menace - as, for example, when
we hear Lrees snapplng and someLhlng very large approachlng Lhe alLar where Anne uarrow ls bound ln
Lhe orlglnal verslon of ;$54 ;"54. Llkewlse, nondlgeLlc muslc may underscore (llLerally) Lhe emoLlve
slgnlflcance of an evenL as when a march cadence annoLaLes Lhe gaLherlng of Lhe forces of Lhe rlghLeous
ln a WesLern.

4
See my 23% <3$+"&"(3: "6 !"1$"5 <$,1).%& (Malden, Ma.: 8lackwell ubllshers, 2008), especlally ChapLers llve and
Slx.
10

erhaps needless Lo say, varlable framlng does noL even exhausL Lhe vlsual means avallable Lo
movle makers for Lhe purpose of crlLerlal prefocuslng. CLher devlces lnclude llghLlng, masks (llke lrlses),
and racklng focus, all of whlch enable Lhe movle maker Lo conLrol whaL Lhe specLaLor sees - whaL she
focuses upon. lor example, ln order Lo provoke fear, Lhe movle maker may flrsL show us Lhe proLagonlsL
sLandlng agalnsL a background ln sofL focus, suddenly a blur appears, Lhen Lhe movle maker reverses Lhe
fleld of focus and Lhe blur meLamorphoses lnLo LhaL lncarnaLlon of evll, Mlchael Meyers. 8y racklng
focus ln Lhls way, Lhe movle maker crlLerlally prefocuses Lhe proLagonlsLs's clrcumsLances ln llghL of
lmmlnenL danger, Lhereby seLLlng up for emoLlve upLake ln vlewers ln Lerms of Lhe emoLlonal appralsal
LhaL we call fear.
LmoLlonal appralsal, of course, can occur before we have a fully deLermlnaLe concepLlon of Lhe
naLure of Lhe parLlcular ob[ecL of our aLLenLlon. lor lnsLance, fear may begln Lo Lake hold before we
recognlze LhaL Lhe blur ln Lhe prevlous example ls none-oLher Lhan Lhe deaLh-deallng Mlchael Meyers.
1haL lL ls large, advanclng, and obscure may be enough Lo seL off an alarm of apprehenslon. lor obvlous
reasons of securlLy, Lhe emoLlons are Lyplcally halr-Lrlggered, ofLen dlscharglng before we have fully
cognlzed Lhe ob[ecL ln quesLlon and relylng lnsLead upon very baslc processes for recognlzlng paLLerns
and devlaLlons Lherefrom.
ln summary, Lhe emoLlons - Lhe glue LhaL keeps movle audlence ln Lhelr seaLs - depends heavlly
on whaL we called crlLerlal prefocuslng, crlLerlal prefocuslng ls whaL predlsposes us Lo Lhe varleLles of
emoLlonal arousals LhaL ldeally Lhe movle maker lnLends Lo ellclL. Such emoLlonal arousal may also be
called emoLlve upLake. As we shall see ln Lhe nexL secLlon, Lhe ellclLaLlon of Lhe moral emoLlons by Lhe
movles ls, as mlghL be expecLed, slmply a speclal case of provoklng emoLlonal arousal ln response Lo
movles. lL lnvolves crlLerlally prefocuslng scenes and sequences so as Lo faclllLaLe emoLlve upLake. 1he
way ln whlch Lhe ellclLaLlon of Lhe moral emoLlons dlffers from Lhe ellclLaLlon of Lhe non-moral emoLlons
11

ls prlmarlly a maLLer of LhaL whlch ls crlLerlally prefocused ln Lhe moral cases versus whaL ls crlLlerlally
prefocused ln Lhe oLher cases.


ll.
1he Moral LmoLlons and Lhe Audlence's 8esponse Lo Movle CharacLers, AcLlons, LvenLs, and Scenes

1he moral emoLlons are a subcaLegory of Lhe emoLlons ln general. As we have seen, Lhe
emoLlons ln general are normaLlve lnasmuch as Lhey are appralsals. 1he moral emoLlons emerge
naLurally from Lhe non-moral emoLlons, slnce Lhey are evaluaLlve, albelL evaluaLlve ln a very speclal
manner - speclflcally, Lhe moral emoLlons are emoLlons LhaL respond Lo acLlons and evenLs LhaL
conform or LhaL fall Lo conform Lo moral sLandards.
3
1he moral emoLlons enllsL, so Lo say, Lhe non-
moral emoLlons for moral purposes.
Anger, for example, has an evaluaLlve dlmenslon - lL ls an emoLlonal response moblllzed by Lhe
percepLlon of a wrong done Lo me or mlne. Moral anger or moral lndlgnaLlon speclfles Lhe relevanL sorL
of wrong ln Lerms of Lhlngs llke ln[usLlce. Moral fear responds Lo harm where Lhe harm ln quesLlon ls an
evll, perhaps a greaL evll, such as genoclde. Moral conLempL ls conLempL, buL conLempL whlch assesses
oLhers Lo be 7"./++: lnferlor, whlle moral dlsgusL LargeLs 7"./+ polluLlon - LhaL ls, lmpurlLy wlLh a moral
dlmenslon, llke gang rape. 1he examples so far lnvolve negaLlve moral emoLlons. 8uL Lhere are poslLlve
moral emoLlons as well. AdmlraLlon ls an emoLlonal response Lo excellence ln persons, moral admlraLlon
appralses Lhe moral excellence of persons. lL ls a form of moral [udgmenL.
lL should noL be surprlslng LhaL Lhe emoLlons are connecLed Lo moral [udgmenL, slnce, as we
have seen, Lhe emoLlons are naLurally selecLed adapLaLlons for maklng assessmenLs rapldly. 1he

3
!esse rlnz, 23% =7"1$"5/+ >"5&1.),1$"5 "6 !"./+& (Cxford: Cxford unlverslLy ress, 2007), p. 118.
12

emoLlons are a form of value [udgmenL. Pence, slnce moral [udgmenLs are evaluaLlve, albelL eLhlcally, lL
ls mosL llkely LhaL Lhey wlll possess some relaLlons Lo Lhe emoLlons ln general. lndeed, many moral
[udgmenLs are rooLed ln moral-emoLlonal responses.
We are consLanLly maklng moral [udgmenLs ln Lhe course of everyday llfe. We are always
[udglng Lhe characLer and Lhe acLlons of Lhe people who surround us. MosL of Lhese [udgmenLs are
borne ln emoLlon, as when we angrlly dlsapprove, lf only Lo ourselves or Lo our confldanLs, of Lhe
permlsslve parenL who allows her nolsy chlldren Lo run up and down Lhe alsle of a crowded alrplane.
1he ldea LhaL moral [udgmenLs are rooLed ln Lhe emoLlons may appear Lo fly ln Lhe face of
common plcLures of moral [udgmenL. usually, we (especlally phllosophers) Lend Lo Lhlnk of moral
[udgmenLs as belng lssued afLer a chaln of reasonlng. Powever, alLhough Lhls may happen someLlmes,
Lhere ls evldence LhaL greaL many moral [udgmenLs are based on guL reacLlons. 8ecenL research by
soclal psychologlsLs, such as !ohn PaldL, lndlcaLes LhaL moral [udgmenLs are generally fasL, auLomaLlc,
lnLulLlve appralsals,
6
ln shorL, Lhey are emoLlons.
lor example, when sub[ecLs are asked Lo morally evaluaLe a slLuaLlon lnvolvlng a broLher and
slsLer who agree Lo Lry lncesL, buL ln secreL, only once, and employlng several meLhods of blrLh conLrol,
sub[ecLs assess Lhe behavlor of Lhese slbllngs as morally wrong, desplLe Lhe facL LhaL Lhe case has been
seL-up ln such a way as Lo undermlne cerLaln sLandard ob[ecLlons Lo lncesL, lncludlng LhaL lL wlll seL a
bad example, LhaL lL wlll splral lnLo an addlcLlon, and LhaL lL wlll lead Lo physlcally compromlsed
offsprlng. neverLheless, even Lhough Lhelr ob[ecLlons do noL hold up, mosL sub[ecLs wlll noL budge from
Lhelr lnlLlal negaLlve appralsals. 1hose appralsals, Lhus, are probably noL based on reasons, lnsLead Lhey
are mosL llkely based on emoLlonal responses. 1hls hypoLhesls, moreover, ls supporLed by Lhe facL LhaL

6
!ohn PaldL, 1he LmoLlonal uog and lLs 8aLlonal 1all: A Soclal lnLulLlonlsL Approach Lo Moral !udgmenL," ln
<&:,3"+"4$,/+ '%#$%?, 108 (2001), pp. 814-34.
13

when pressed Lo supporL Lhese moral assessmenLs, sub[ecLs glve as reasons lssues LhaL have already
been precluded by Lhe sLory, such as Lhe LhreaL of blrLh defecLs.
7

Cn Lhe accounL emerglng from conLemporary moral psychologlsLs, upon recognlzlng cerLaln
paLLerns, Lhe sLlmull, such as Lhe suggesLlon of lncesL, are processed rapldly, Lrlggerlng, almosL
lmmedlaLely, feellngs of approval or dlsapproval. 8easonlng, lf lL comes lnLo Lhe emoLlon process aL all
comes lnLo play afLer Lhe lnlLlal lnLulLlve appralsal Lakes hold, monlLorlng our guL reacLlons , someLlmes
modlfylng Lhem, and ofLen, lf asked, confabulaLlng afLer-Lhe-facL raLlonallzaLlons Lo back-up our
emoLlonal responses. 1he moral lnLulLlons here are cognlLlve, aL leasL ln Lhe sense LhaL Lhey depend on
paLLern recognlLlon, buL Lhey need noL be fronL-loaded by reasonlng. lndeed, some moral psychologlsLs
clalm Lhey never are. l am noL convlnced LhaL Lhey are rlghL ln Lhls maLLer, alLhough Lhe evldence
suggesLs LhaL many more lnsLances of moral [udgmenL flL Lhe lnLulLlve model Lhan flL Lhe raLlonallsLlc
one.
As prevlously menLloned, we undergo Lhese flashes of moral lnLulLlons almosL lncessanLly. lf
you doubL lL, observe yourself observlng oLher drlvers on a busy hlghway. Moreover, Lhls sorL of
relenLless acLlvaLlon of our moral emoLlons ls posslbly even more saLuraLed ln response Lo Lhe movles, lf
only because movles are more condensed - ln a mere Lwo hours or so, Lhere are so many more
occaslons Lo approve or dlsapprove of Lhe characLers - of Lhelr LralLs and Lhelr acLlons -- Lhan mosL
comparable Lwo-hour sLreLches ouLslde Lhe clnema. lurLhermore, Lhe rlghLs and wrongs LhaL exerclse
our moral emoLlons ln Lhe course of an ordlnary day are Lyplcally noL as sallenL as Lhose we flnd ln Lhe
movles, slnce ln Lhe ma[orlLy of cases ln dally llfe, Lhose rlghLs and wrongs have noL been framed
dellberaLely for our scruLlny.

7
lbld.
14

Llke Lhe emoLlons ln general, Lhe moral emoLlons serve Lhe purposes of Lhe movles
expedlLlously. noL only are Lhey a source of pleasure - we en[oy approvlng and dlsapprovlng of Lhe
acLlon of oLhers, especlally when Lhelr acLlons do noL lmplnge dlrecLly on us and our lnLeresLs - buL Lhe
moral emoLlons also orlenL Lhe specLaLor Lo Lhe narraLlve by parslng Lhe dramaLlc confllcL, mosL ofLen ln
Lerms of good versus evll, and Lhey do Lhls rapldly, allowlng Lhe movle Lo hurLle forward aL Lhe
characLerlsLlcally acceleraLed pace of clnema, Lhereby enabllng us Lo Lrack Lhe characLers and Lhe acLlon
ln a consLanL rhyLhm of approval and dlsapproval.
needless Lo say, Lhe movles, by deflnlLlon, are producLs deslgned Lo aLLracL mass audlences.
And Lhey are capable of acqulLLlng Lhls funcLlon ln large measure because Lhe moral emoLlons Lhey
acLlvaLe fall lnLo nearly unlversal domalns of concern or, aL leasL, can be recognlzed as belonglng Lo
domalns of concern acknowledged cross-culLurally.
8
1hus, Pollywood movles can lnsplre Lhe moral
emoLlons of vlewers noL only of subculLures sLaLe-slde, buL ln SouLh Amerlca, whlle Lhe Pong kong and
8ollywood clnemas also move LransnaLlonally. 05$7@ ls popular ln Madlson, Wlsconsln as well as 1okyo
Lo an appreclable exLenL because Lhe moral emoLlons ln whlch lL Lrades cross borders as well as
conLlnenLs.
Cne of Lhese domalns of concern mlghL be called, followlng Lhe currenL llLeraLure, welfare. lL
concerns harm. CharacLers who lnfllcL harm - parLlcularly ln Lerms of paln, and especlally, where Lhe
vlcLlms are Lhe young, Lhe old, Lhe dlsabled or Lhe oLherwlse defenseless - provoke fasL, lnLulLlve, oLher-

8
See !ohn PaldL and C. !oseph, lnLulLlve LLhlcs: Pow lnnaLely repared lnLulLlons CeneraLe CulLurally varlable
vlrLues, 8/%A/+)&B 133 (2004), pp. 33-66. See also: . 8ozln, L.Lowery, S. lmada and !. PaldL, 1he CAu
PypoLhesls," C").5/+ "6 <%.&"5/+$1: /5A D",$/+ <&:,3"+"4:B 76 (1999), pp. 374-86. 1hroughouL Lhls secLlon l rely
heavlly upon Lhe noLlon of globally recurrlng domalns of moral concerns, llke Lhe ones dlscussed ln Lhe prevlous
arLlcles, because l am Lrylng Lo explaln Lhe 7/&& reach of Lhe movles and Lhese domalns cross culLures. lurLher
evldence LhaL emoLlons are Lo a cerLaln exLenL nearly unlversal ls suggesLed LhaL lnfanLs apparenLly possess proLo-
moral predlsposlLlons. See aul 8loom, 1he Moral Llfe of 8ables," 23% E%? F".9 2$7%& !/4/G$5% (May 9, 2010),
pp. 44-49, 36, 62, 63, 63. See also aul 8loom, H"? <+%/&).% I".9& (new ?ork: W.W. norLon, 2010).
13

condemnlng, emoLlve appralsals, such as anger, lndlgnaLlon, loaLhlng, and conLempL.
9
1he fllm - or
raLher Lhe fllm& - J)55: K/7%& are predlcaLed upon ralslng our moral lre agaln and agaln aL Lhe
unmoLlvaLed wanLon LhaL Lhe lnLruders lnfllcL upon Lhe alLogeLher lnnocenL famlly and lLs nelghbors.
10

Moreover, Lhe audlence ls noL only encouraged Lo appralse Lhe agenLs of harm wlLh varlous
grades of opprobrlum. 1he vlcLlms also Lyplcally clalm a degree of compasslon from us. 1he evenL ls
noL only an occaslon for Lhe condemnaLlon of oLhers, buL for compasslon for Lhe harmed. 1hus, aL Lhe
same Llme LhaL Lhe Cossacks on Lhe Cdessa SLeps ln Sergel LlsensLeln's <"1%79$5 provoke moral
lndlgnaLlon, moral compasslon ls also engendered for Lhose who are ruLhlessly desLroyed. 1hey lnclude
Lwo mlnors, one an lnfanL, a group of elders, Lwo moLhers, and Lhen an older woman whose face ls
slashed by a cavalryman's saber. ln Lhls fllm, as ln oLhers, lncludlng hls 0+%L/5A%. E%#%&9:B LlsensLeln ls
explolLlng a wldely dlsLrlbuLed, eLhlcal procllvlLy Lo culLlvaLe moral alleglance wlLh - or aLLracLlon Loward
-- Lhe proLoLyplcally weakesL members of socleLy, whlle, aL Lhe same Llme, ellclLlng compasslon for Lhe
people" (Lhe clLlzens of Cdessa) by represenLlng Lhem synecdochlcally ln Lerms of Lhese lnnocenL
vlcLlms.
ln wesLerns, Lhe peaceable sheepherders are savaged by Lhe bruLlsh gunflghLers who have been
hlred by Lhe Lyrannlcal caLLle ranchers Lo drlve Lhe shepherds from Lhelr pasLures. As Lhe newcomers
are beaLen by Lhe bullles, Lhe harms lnfllcLed upon Lhem ralse our rlghLeous rage whlle slmulLaneously
ellclLlng pangs of dlsLress for Lhe goodly folk.

9
CLher-regardlng, moral emoLlons are, l predlcL, more common ln response Lo movles, slnce specLaLors are
generally ln Lhe poslLlon of wlLnesses, Lhough Lhere are excepLlons, as when Lhe specLaLor ls nudged Lowards
evaluaLlng hls or her own responses. CerLaln popular fllms, such as Alfred PlLchcock's D1./54%.& "5 / 2./$5 and
'%/. I$5A"? have been sald Lo have Lhe effecL of maklng Lhe vlewer feel gullLy ln recognlLlon of hls lmpllclL
endorsemenL of Lhe moral lnfracLlons of cerLaln characLers - such as ScoLLle's voyeurlsm ln '%/. I$5A"?M
10
erhaps Lhls fllm aL a second remove ls also deslgned Lo ellclL self-regardlng moral emoLlons, maybe we are
supposed Lo condemn ourselves as paylng cusLomers Lo enacLmenLs of sadlsm of Lhe sorL LhaL J)55: K/7%&
exempllfles.
16

Porror movles also revolve around Lhe Lheme of harm. 1he allens from ouLer space lnvade our
planeL wlLh Lhe lnLenLlon of maklng lL Lhelr own and enslavlng us. Cur moral loaLhlng mounLs as Lhe
movle makers hlghllghL Lhe paln and sufferlng, physlcal and ofLen psychologlcal , undergone by Lhe
hapless humans whose only crlme ls LhaL Lhey lnhablL Lhe real esLaLe LhaL Lhe MarLlans coveL. As one of
Lhese sllmy, auLocraLlc monsLers rlses up behlnd and Lhen prepares Lo sLrlke aL some harmless earLhllng
(frequenLly a woman), our feellngs of suspense are frelghLed wlLh Lhe moral concern LhaL a wrong ls
abouL Lo Lransplre, vlrLually lnexorably. And as Lhe beasL snaps lL prey beLween lLs mandlbles, a lump of
moral sorrow welghs upon our hearLs.
WesLerns and horror movles are only Lwo genres LhaL speclallze ln endangerlng and resLorlng
Lhe welfare of characLers. So many oLher genres foreground harm as Lhelr abldlng moral Lheme,
lncludlng war movles, crlme fllms, nln[a sagas, specLacles (anclenL, medleval and modern), psycho-
sLalker fllcks, soclal proLesLs movles and so forLh. ln shorL, an lmpresslve proporLlon of movle genres
focus on harms, noLably harms dlrecLed aL Lhe undeservlng. And where Lhe movle makers crlLerlally
prefocus Lhe harm wreaked upon Lhe undeservlng, Lhere ls predlcLably a response lnvolvlng moral
anlmus and even moral haLred LhaL reaches across Lhe mass audlences LhaL Lhe movle makers seek Lo
engage so eagerly.
Cur concern for Lhe welfare of cerLaln characLers noL only anlmaLes our negaLlve lnLulLlve
appralsals of clrcumsLances and characLers LhaL meLe ouL harms Lo Lhe lnnocenL. Cur concern for Lhe
welfare of varlous characLers also makes us senslLlve Lo acLs of ald, succor, benevolence, generoslLy, and
helpfulness on Lhe parL of cerLaln characLers on behalf of oLher characLers. Such gesLures are apL Lo
ellclL felL, lnLulLlve appralsals ln Lerms of moral admlraLlon of varylng magnlLudes. 1hls ls key Lo Lhe
emoLlonal address of many melodramas (a.k.a. 1%/. N%.9%.&). Such movles lnLroduce us Lo characLers
who go ouL of Lhelr way Lo do good for (and Lo allevlaLe Lhe mlsforLune of) oLhers (e.g., O+$5A&$A%).
17

ln one parLlcular varlaLlon of Lhe melodrama, a relaLlve, say a moLher, as ln Lhe case of D1%++/
8/++/&, sacrlflces her own deslres Lo beneflL her kln, for example her daughLer. We, ln Lurn, cry for [oy -
our Lears are shed ln parL ouL of plLy for Lhe loss Lhe self-sacrlflclng moLher suffers, buL we also, aL Lhe
same momenL, feel poslLlvely and admlrlngly Loward her - morally upllfLed by Lhe crlLerlally prefocused
specLacle of her selflessness ln a way LhaL makes us proud Lo be, ln a manner of speaklng, ln her corner.
1hus, even melodramas qulLe frequenLly rlde on engaglng our moral senLlmenLs. And we don'L even
need Lo speak of rellglous fllms here.
Movles Lrade ln moral emoLlons connecLed wlLh concerns abouL human welfare because LhaL ls
a domaln of eLhlcal concern LhaL ls global. Along wlLh a concern for Lhe welfare of cerLaln characLers,
audlences also share a sense of [usLlce - Lhe deslre LhaL falrness prevall, LhaL rlghLs be upheld, LhaL
explolLaLlon be eschewed and LhaL lndlvlduals be respecLed. 1hls concern wlLh [usLlce, of course, ls very
ofLen llnked Lo Lhe concern for Lhe welfare of varlous characLers, slnce a very obvlous way of
perpeLraLlng ln[usLlce ls Lo harm people who have done no wrong. When characLers who are porLrayed
as pralseworLhy or, aL leasL, blameless, are physlcally abused, explolLed, LorLured or humlllaLed, a
rlghLeous anger ls ralsed ln Lhe collecLlve gorge of Lhe audlence and a passlon for [usL reLrlbuLlon keeps
vlewers ln Lhelr seaLs for Lhe duraLlon of Lhe fllm, unLll Lhe lasL of Lhe maraudlng bandlLs have been
vanqulshed by Lhe vlllagers and Lhe MagnlflcenL Seven (or Lhelr Samural breLhren). 1he moral redress of
ln[usLlce ls Lhe moral moLor LhaL drlves Lhe ploL and our lnLeresL ln lL wlLh respecL Lo counLless acLlon
fllms and Lhrlllers, noL Lo menLlon moLlon plcLures of serlous soclal crlLlclsm.
1he Lhemes of [usLlce and ln[usLlce - of revenge, reLrlbuLlon, and resLoraLlon - are sLaples of Lhe
movles because Lhese moral emoLlons and Lhe crlLerla LhaL govern Lhem are so wldely shared by masses
of people LhaL Lhey are ldeally someLhlng LhaL large numbers of vlewers are wllllng Lo flock Lo see for Lhe
purpose of havlng sald moral emoLlons exclLed. So ofLen Lhe movles are denounced as belng lmmoral -
18

ofLen ln Lerms of Lhelr sexual conLenL. ?eL l would speculaLe LhaL lf one could counL up Lhe number of
Llmes LhaL Lhe movles lnclLe accepLable moral emoLlons versus Lhe lnsLances of dublous LlLlllaLlon, Lhe
former would way ouLwelgh Lhe laLLer.
Such movles, needless Lo say, noL only Lrafflc ln moral revulslon Loward Lhose who revel ln
ln[usLlce, buL also ln moral admlraLlon Loward Lhose, llke ALLlcus llnch, who work Llrelessly for Lhe sake
of [usLlce. 1hlnk of Lhe scene aL Lhe end of Lhe Lrlal ln 2" ;$++ / !",9$54*$.A when ScouL ls Lold Lo sLand
up because her uaddy ls passlng by. 1he cllmacLlc Lhrlll LhaL Lhe audlence experlences aL LhaL momenL ls
grounded ln Lhe moral awe we are encouraged Lo feel ln response Lo Lhe courage LhaL Lawyer llnch has
dlsplayed for Lhe sake of [usLlce, and, perhaps agaln, we also feel a blL of prlde on our parL for belng on
hls slde.
Cf course, Lhls concern wlLh [usLlce need noL be as eplc as Lhe examples clLed so far. 1he
ln[usLlces can be lnLerpersonal as when Lhe execuLlve LreaLs Lhe elevaLor operaLor played by Shlrley
Maclaln ln 23% 0(/.17%51 as merely a means or when Lhe dlsabled woman ls humlllaLed ln P5 13%
>"7(/5: "6 !%5. lndlgnaLlon aL Lhe prospecL of vlolaLlons of Lhe audlence's concepLlon of [usLlce ls a
flne emoLlve flxaLlve Lo keep masses of vlewers who share Lhe same concepLlon collecLlvely Lled Lo Lhe
screen.
A Lhlrd domaln of moral concern LhaL appears nearly unlversal ls whaL has been called Lhe
eLhlcs of communlLy."
11
1hls caLegory lnvolves rules perLalnlng Lo lssues of soclal relaLlonshlps, lncludlng
boLh relaLlons beLween lndlvlduals and beLween Lhe lndlvldual and Lhe group or groups Lo whlch he or
she belongs. 1he moral rules relevanL Lo Lhe eLhlcs of communlLy apply Lo famlly relaLlons, soclal rank,
obllgaLlons Lo one's lnsLlLuLlonal afflllaLlons, lncludlng Lhe sLaLe, and Lo Lhe apporLlonmenL of communal

11
8.A. Shweder, Much, n.C., MahapaLra, M. and ark, L., 1he '8lg 1hree' of MorallLy," ln !"./+$1: /5A !%51/+
H%/+13B ed. by . 8ozln and A. 8randL (new ?ork: 8ouLledge, 1997), and . 8ozln, L.Lowery, !. PaldL, and Sumlo
lmada, 1he CAu PypoLhesls," C").5/+ "6 <%.&"5/+$1: /5A D",$/+ <&:,3"+"4:B vol. 76, no. 4 (1999), pp. 374-396.
19

resources.
12
vlolaLlon of Lhese rules Lends Lo ellclL moral anger, lndlgnaLlon and conLempL. AlLhough
Lhe parLlcular rules assoclaLed wlLh Lhe eLhlcs of communlLy show varlaLlon from culLure and subculLure
Lo culLure and subculLure, Lhe possesslon of rules ln Lhls caLegory occurs everywhere.
CulLures globally esLabllsh Lo whom and Lo whaL Lhelr lnhablLanLs owe deference, respecL,
fealLy, loyalLy, and paLrloLlsm. When Lhose norms are vlolaLed, blLLerness and rancor ensue, ofLen
moblllzlng a reLallaLory response Loward Lhe offender. Cbedlence wlLh regard Lo Lhese rules, especlally
conformlLy of an especlally supererogaLory degree, ln conLrasL, provoke palplLaLlons of admlraLlon, [oy,
perhaps prlde, and even awe.
lor example, famllles can be found everywhere. CulLures generally have norms of rank, respecL,
and obllgaLlons of muLual ald beLween famlly members. When Lhose rules are flouLed - as when sons
dlsrespecL faLhers - observers become dlsLurbed, angered, ofLen conLempLuous, and even morally
dlsgusLed. When we wlLness speclal, mlndful aLLenLlon glven by a characLer Lo famlly relaLlon, our
response ls a warm feellng of approval or admlraLlon and, ln pronounced cases, someLhlng llke
elevaLlon.
Clven Lhe pervaslveness of Lhe eLhlcs of communlLy, lL should be no surprlse LhaL Lhe movles
deploy lL ln Lhelr endeavor Lo assemble mass audlences. ln some cases, Lhe eLhlcs of communlLy of
dlverse audlences may converge, buL even where Lhe codes of dlfferenL audlences vary, mosL vlewers
wlll be able Lo access someLhlng of Lhe feellng for whaL ls aL sLake on an analogy wlLh Lhe rules of famlly
Lles wlLh whlch Lhey are famlllar.
lor Lhese reasons, probably mosL audlences wlll be enraged and saddened by Lhe way ln whlch
Sarah !ane, Lhe mlxed-race daughLer who ls Lrylng Lo pass as whlLe, re[ecLs her black moLher, Annle
!ohnson, ln P7$1/1$"5 "6 Q$6%M Llkewlse, when Lhe grown chlldren of 8arkley and Lucy allow Lhelr elderly

12
!esse rlnz, 23% =7"1$"5/+ >"5&1.),1$"5 "6 !"./+& (Cxford: Cxford unlverslLy ress, 2007), p. 72.
20

parenLs Lo be parLed, mosL llkely forever, aL Lhe end of !/9% I/: 6". 2"7".."?B one feels noL only
dlsplrlLed buL dlsgusLed by Lhe lack of graLlLude lnvolved. Cf course, we may noL only be eLhlcally
moved when chlldren beLray parenLs, dlsapproval can flow ln Lhe oLher dlrecLlon as well. lor lnsLance,
ln </.%513""AB when Lhe overzealous naLhan Puffner sLarLs groomlng hls preschooler daughLer for Lhe
lvy League aL Lhe expense of chlldhood fun, lL ls hard noL Lo be morally aggravaLed by hlm.
needless Lo say, famlly llfe ls noL Lhe only area preslded over by Lhe eLhlcs of communlLy. Cne's
relaLlons Lo one's naLlon or one's people also fall lnLo Lhls caLegory. 1hus, paLrloLlc prlde and [oy are
frequenL poslLlve emoLlonal reacLlons LhaL movle makers aLLempL Lo curry, parLlcularly durlng Llmes of
wars LhaL a naLlon supporLs, as was Lhe case wlLh Pollywood movles durlng Lhe Second World War.
1hlnk of fllms such as 0 K): E/7%A C"% or 23$.1: D%,"5A& "#%. 2"9:". lndeed, paLrloLlc fllms of LhaL war
can sLlll sLlr up prlde ln Lhe hearLs of Amerlcan audlences as wlLnessed by D/#$54 <.$#/1% ':/5.
Moreover, dlsloyalLy can engender surges of haLred ln vlewers as does Lhe behavlor of Lhe
sclenLlsL ln Poward Pawks's 23% 23$54 who appears Lo favor Lhe glanL carroL from ouLer space over Lhe
human race. Slmllarly, Lhose who Lake more Lhan Lhelr falr share, llke Lhe plgs ln Lhe carLoon verslon of
05$7/+ J/.7B or who preLend Lo soclal sLaLus Lhey don'L deserve, llke Zlggy, ln Lhe 1v serles 23% I$.%,
are very llkely Lo earn Lhe vlsceral conLempL of Lhe audlence. 1he crlLerlally prefocused explolLaLlon of
facLory workers, as ln D1.$9% and !%1."("+$&, can also be a cause for moral lndlgnaLlon ln vlrLue of
counLlng as a vlolaLlon of Lhe eLhlcs of communlLy, alLhough lL may, aL Lhe same Llme, also be
compounded by consLlLuLlng a harm Lo oLhers, namely Lhe workers, as well as a vlolaLlon of Lhelr rlghLs.
AnoLher domaln of moral concern rlpe for arLlculaLlon by movle makers ls LhaL of purlLy, and,
especlally, vlolaLlons Lhereof. Cf course, Lhe prlmary emoLlonal response Lo lmpurlLy ls dlsgusL. And
genres, such as Lhe horror movle, Lake Lhe ellclLaLlon of dlsgusL Lo be Lhelr brlef. As Lhe molderlng
mummy wlLh mlsslng faclal parLs reaches ouL Lo Louch Lhe bare shoulder of Lhe herolne, we lnsLlncLlvely
21

recoll, as Lhe zomble, drlpplng wlLh blood and puLrefacLlon, Lakes a blLe ouL of Lhe aglng preacher, we
gag.
Crlglnally dlsgusL ls an emoLlon LhaL has been adapLed Lo guard Lhe lnLlmaLe borders of Lhe
human body - mouLhs, nasal passages, genlLals, and so forLh. 1hus, foodsLuffs (noLably spolled ones),
sLenches, sexual acLs and pracLlces are apL LargeLs of dlsgusL. Mllk LhaL has scoured makes us reLch,
cerLaln odors, llke vomlL, make our sLomachs churn, whlle Lhe conLemplaLlon of cerLaln sexual acLs may
make us lnvolunLarlly exclalm ugh."
1hese reacLlons are deployed flrsL and foremosL ln our own case: we choke when we swallow
Lhe feLld mllk. 8uL Lhe response can also be launched when we observe oLhers, for example, belng
Lrlcked lnLo eaLlng someLhlng lmpure. lndeed, lL ls Lhls capaclLy for dlsgusL Lo be engendered by Lhe
acLlons of Lhlrd parLles whlch enables movle makers - lncludlng Lhe masLers of horror - Lo acLlvaLe lL so
easlly by means of Lhelr lmagery.
undoubLedly, whaL l've sald so far wlll sLrlke you as unexcepLlonable. Powever, on second
LhoughL, you may ask yourself why ls he Lalklng abouL dlsgusL ln Lhe conLexL of moral concern?" lor,
dlsgusL, as we have been uslng LhaL Lerm, ls prlmarlly a response Lo physlcal sLlmull, noL moral sLlmull.
So, whaL does dlsgusL have Lo do wlLh eLhlcs, ls lL even a moral emoLlon?
As noLed, dlsgusL orlglnaLes as a devlce Lo defend Lhe body agalnsL Lhe lngesLlon of noxlous
subsLances such as decaylng food. Powever, Lhe presence of sexual pracLlces on Lhe llsL of dlsgusL
ellclLors lndlcaLes LhaL dlsgusL can be Lrlggered by Lhlngs oLher Lhan lnedlbles. 1hlngs lnvolvlng bodlly
flulds, such as blood, mucous, semen, and so forLh are also dlsgusLlng as are, by exLenslon, a greaL many
sllmy Lhlngs. 1hus, pracLlces lnvolvlng Lhe exchange of bodlly flulds can be dlsgusLlng meLonymlcally, so
Lo speak. lurLhermore, dlsgusL can be assoclaLed wlLh Lhlngs, such as Labooed foods, LhaL have no
naLural propenslLy Lo make us gag. And whaL ls Lrue of foods can be exLended Lo acLlvlLles of all sorLs,
22

Lhereby dragoonlng dlsgusL ln Lhe servlce of morallLy, relnforclng oLher culLural dlcLaLes, as exempllfled
by Lhe pracLlces of Lhe Plndu casLe sysLem.
1haL ls, dlsgusL can be exLended as a response Lo pracLlces and behavlors oLher Lhan Lhose
lnvolvlng a bodlly focus, lL can be expanded as a reacLlon Lo vlolaLlons of moral norms where lL can serve
Lo guard Lhe boundarles of oLher moral domalns. Pence, we may say of someone who breaks some
moral rule - such as Lhe prohlblLlons agalnsL lylng or adulLery - LhaL her behavlor ls dlsgusLlng.
13

1he exLenslon of dlsgusL lnLo Lhe moral realm ls an especlally useful form of moral rheLorlc ln
Lhe hands of movle makers. ln u.W. CrlfflLh's O$.13 "6 / E/1$"5, Lhe AfLrlcan-Amerlcan leglslaLure ls
deplcLed as dlsgusLlng as a means of hlghllghLlng CrlfflLh's bellef LhaL Lhelr very presence ln Lhe
assembly ls a moral wrong. 1he quesLlonable cleanllness of Lhese delegaLes, Lhelr vulgar way of eaLlng,
and Lhelr general obllvlousness Lo soclal decorum are meanL Lo slgnal Lhelr moral LurplLude by way of
aLLempLlng Lo ellclL from Lhe audlence a vlsceral reacLlon of repugnance. ln Lhe wesLern, 23% O$4
>")51.:B Lhe uLLer moral unscrupulousness of Lhe uncouLh younger Pennessey ls underscored by
represenLlng hlm as sallenLly unwashed, focuslng Lhe moral dlsgusL wlLh whlch we are lnLended Lo
regard hlm by means of hls physlcally dlsgusLlng appearance. Llkewlse, when monsLers and psychopaLhs
Lear Lhelr vlcLlms aparL, Lhe crlLerlally prefocused gore Lhey lncur ls dlsgusLlng ln a way LhaL relnforces
our convlcLlons abouL Lhe evll of Lhelr acLlons.
ln Lhese lnsLances, dlsgusL ls belng employed Lo ampllfy a moral [udgmenL raLher llke Lhe way ln
whlch uorlan Cray's porLralL ls lnLended Lo. 8uL Lhere ls also someLhlng LhaL we may Lhlnk of as moral
dlsgusL. 1hls dlsgusL perLalns flrsL and foremosL Lo lmmoral behavlors LhaL we already regard as
dlsgusLlng - ones ofLen connecLed Lo Lhe body, such as Lhe forced fellaLlo and rape scenes ln 23% K$.+

13
ln earller wrlLlng, l aLLempLed Lo resLrlcL dlsgusL excluslvely Lo Lhe physlcal realm, buL l now agree LhaL lL may
exLend Lo Lhe moral realm as well. See my 23% <3$+"&"(3: "6 H"..".R ". </./A"L%& "6 13% H%/.1 (new ?ork:
8ouLledge, 1990)
23

?$13 13% 8./4"5 2/11"". Powever, we are also prone Lo descrlbe and experlence excesslvely evll acLlons
or persons as dlsgusLlng, llke Cordon Crekko ln Cllver SLone's I/++ D1.%%1.
undoubLedly, lL may seem sLrange LhaL someLhlng llke dlsgusL LhaL orlglnaLed as a response Lo
physlcal lmpurlLles can be exLrapolaLed Lo Lhe moral realm. erhaps one reason Lhe LransporLaLlon lnLo
Lhe eLhlcal domaln ls LhaL many culLures Lhlnk of Lhe splrlL as belng ln an lnlLlal pure sLaLe LhaL can be
polluLed by moral lnfracLlons, llke sln. 1he body ls a Lemple conLalnlng Lhe soul, whlch can be breached
and lnfecLed as some nasLy llquld can Lurn one's sLomach. !usL as dlsgusL sLaves off physlcal lmpurlLy, lL
also does double duLy fendlng off splrlLual lmpurlLy. Movle makers, as a resulL, can moblllze moral
dlsgusL agalnsL screen characLers, llke Lhe nazl commandanL ln D,3+$5A%.S& Q$&1B whose sadlsm audlences
flnd repugnanL. Moreover, lf excesslve evll, sulLably foregrounded and crlLerlally prefocused, can ellclL
moral dlsgusL, an excess of goodness or moral goodness can ellclL awe, an emoLlon many movle makers
sLrlve Lo evoke ln moLlon plcLures lnvolvlng !esus ChrlsL.

lv.
SympaLhy/AnLlpaLhy, MorallLy and Lhe Movles

As we have seen, mosL of our emoLlonal responses Lo movles are focused upon characLers and
Lhelr clrcumsLances. Many of Lhose reacLlons, ln Lurn, are moral emoLlons. We are rlled by Lhe
ln[usLlces suffered by proLagonlsLs and lnnocenL bysLanders, angered by chlldren who fall Lo pay proper
deference Lo Lhelr parenLs, whlle feellng a sorL of moral saLlsfacLlon and even admlraLlon Lowards
characLers who proLecL Lhe weak and worLhy, and we experlence a sense of elevaLlon or [oy when
[usLlce ls resLored. ln order for Lhese emoLlons Lo Lake hold, however, we need Lo have an anLecedenL,
24

poslLlve, affecLlve lnvesLmenL ln some characLers, Lhelr slLuaLlons, and Lhelr prospecLs, whlle, aL Lhe
same Llme, bearlng a negaLlve aLLlLude Loward an opposlng seL of characLers, Lhelr slLuaLlon, and Lhelr
prospecLs. Call Lhe former group of characLers, Lhe proLagonlsLs, and Lhe laLLer group, Lhe anLagonlsLs.
My hypoLhesls ls LhaL Lo a large exLenL whaL bonds us Lo Lhe proLagonlsLs affecLlvely ls sympaLhy whlch
emoLlonal aLLachmenL ls secured prlmarlly by moral conslderaLlons and LhaL, conLrarlwlse, whaL
engenders anLlpaLhy Loward Lhe vlllalns ls Lhelr dlscernlble moral falllngs.
1haL ls, ln order Lo be angered by LhreaLs Lo Lhe proLagonlsLs, we need Lo be on Lhelr slde. We
need Lo be ln sympaLhy wlLh Lhelr agenda. ln order Lo curry LhaL sympaLhy, movle makers chlefly
depend upon addresslng our moral senLlmenLs of approval. 1o Lake pleasure ln Lhe defeaL of Lhose who
would harm Lhe proLagonlsLs, we musL Lyplcally regard Lhem ln a negaLlve llghL. And movle makers
Lyplcally englneer LhaL aLLlLude by porLraylng Lhe anLagonlsLs as lmmoral lf noL downrlghL evll, as 8llly
Wllder porLrays Lhe ruLhless newspaper man, played by klrk uouglas, ln 0,% $5 13% H"+% who noL only
arranges Lo have Lhe rescue of Lhe lndlan curlo dealer blocked, buL who also, whlle dolng so, seduces Lhe
man's wlfe.
SympaLhy and anLlpaLhy - concelved of as underlylng pro and con aLLlLudes - govern Lhe
acLlvaLlon of our moral emoLlons Loward sald characLers ln speclflc scenes and slLuaLlons as Lhe movle
unfolds. Moreover, Lhese overarchlng aLLlLudes Loward Lhe varlous characLers are secured by crlLerlally
prefocuslng Lhelr vlrLues and Lhelr vlces.
ln order Lo see how Lhls works, leL's sLarL wlLh sympaLhy. 8oughly, sympaLhy ls a non-passlng
aLLlLude of care or concern - a pro-aLLLlLude - Loward anoLher person or group (flcLlonal or nonflcLlonal,
lncludlng anLhropomorphlzed belngs of every sLrlpe). SympaLhy, consLrued as an occurenL emoLlon, ls a
supporLlve reacLlon. lL supplles a supporLlve lmpulse of benevolence Loward lLs ob[ecL (alLhough Lhls
lmpulse ls ofLen noL acLed upon ln everyday llfe, lnsofar as lL frequenLly confllcLs wlLh our lnLeresLs).
23

SympaLhy, T)/ occurenL emoLlon, lnvolves vlsceral feellngs of dlsLress when Lhe lnLeresLs of Lhe ob[ecLs
of our overarchlng pro-aLLlLudes are compromlsed or lmperlled, and feellngs of elaLlon or saLlsfacLlon
when Lhelr well-belng ls advanced or achleved. SympaLheLlc emoLlonal responses appralse
clrcumsLances poslLlvely when Lhlngs go nlcely for Lhe ob[ecLs of our concern, buL assess slLuaLlons
negaLlvely when Lhe pro[ecLs of Lhe ob[ecLs of our concern are frusLraLed or aborLed. Moreover, Lhese
evaluaLlons are connecLed Lo some degree of euphorla, on Lhe one hand, and dysphorla, on Lhe oLher
hand.
We are saddened when Lhe anclenL Pebrews are enslaved by pharaoh, buL gladdened by Lhelr
escape across Lhe 8ed Sea. 8ecause of our sympaLheLlc or pro-aLLlLude Loward Lhe oppressed Pebrews,
we feel moral lndlgnaLlon when Lhe LgypLlan lash bloodles Lhe backs of Lhe apparenLly blameless
workers, and when pharaoh's charloLs slnk beneaLh Lhe waves, we experlence a specles of [oy LhaL
mlghL be called moral elevaLlon or moral Lrlumph.
A pracLlcal quesLlon for movle makers and a LheoreLlcal quesLlon for phllosophers of Lhe moLlon
plcLure ls: how ls LhaL sympaLheLlc or pro-aLLlLude Lyplcally puL ln place? SympaLhy, as noLed, lnvolves a
benevolenL dlsposlLlon Loward Lhe ob[ecL of our aLLlLude. ln order Lo warranL LhaL benevolence, Lhe
person or persons ln quesLlon musL be LhoughL Lo be worLhy of our pro-aLLlLude ln vlrLue of our
lnLeresLs, pro[ecLs, values, loyalLles, commlLmenLs, and alleglances. ConsequenLly, Lhe quesLlon for
movle makers and phllosophers allke becomes: whaL needs Lo be foregrounded or crlLerlally prefocused
so LhaL Lhe masslve audlences movle makers seek afLer wlll flnd Lhe perLlnenL characLers deservlng of
our good wlll on Lhelr behalf?
!usL because movle makers are almlng for mass audlences, Lhe answer Lo Lhls quesLlon ls noL
obvlous. lor mass audlences are comprlsed of people wlLh dlfferenL and someLlmes even confllcLlng
lnLeresLs, pro[ecLs, values, loyalLles, commlLmenLs, and alleglances. 1hls ls Lhe case noL only when Lhe
26

deslred audlence spans culLures, counLrles, and conLlnenLs, buL even wlLhln slngle counLrles and
culLures. AfLer all, Lhe makers of D($A%. !/5 wanL llberals /5A conservaLlves Lo geL behlnd Lhe
eponymous web-swlnger.
As an emplrlcal con[ecLure, l hypoLheslze LhaL Lhe mosL commonly recurrlng soluLlon Lo Lhls
deslgn problem-- by a long shoL -- ls for movle makers Lo creaLe proLagonlsLs (and Lhe oLher characLers
meanL Lo warranL our concern) ln such a way LhaL Lhe audlence wlll recognlze Lhem Lo be, broadly
speaklng, morally good.
1haL ls, morallLy, especlally of a wldely shared and ofLen nearly unlversal varleLy, provldes Lhe
movle maker wlLh Lhe LouchsLone she needs Lo assure Lhe convergence ln senLlmenL on behalf of Lhe
proLagonlsLs from peoples of Lhe same and dlfferenL culLures. 1he movle maker needs Lo flnd
someLhlng upon whlch dlsparaLe audlences agree, desplLe Lhelr oLherwlse dlverglng lnLeresLs. And, as
one may observe Lhrough Lhe examlnaLlon of counLless movles, LhaL someLhlng ls generally a shared
moral sense.
1he proLagonlsLs uphold [usLlce, do noL harm unavoldably, show respecL and frlendllness Loward
one and all. 1hey are pro-famlly, courLeous, and mosLly pro-soclal (deep down Lhls ls even Lrue of
apparenL anLl-heroes and rebels wlLhouL causes). 1hese characLers are honesL and Lhey sLand by Lhelr
promlses Lo good people. lndeed, Lhey are Lhemselves good people. 1hls forges alllances beLween
heLerogeneous audlences on Lhelr behalf for Lhe duraLlon of Lhe moLlon plcLure whlch sympaLhy
underlles Lhe moral elaLlon we feel ln response Lo Lhelr vlcLorles and Lhe moral lndlgnaLlon we
experlence aL Lhelr defeaLs.
8y deslgnlng proLagonlsLs who are morally appeallng, Lhe movle maker purchases Lhe crlLerlal
wherewlLhal necessary Lo ellclL Lhe pro-aLLlLudes requlred Lo underwrlLe Lhe audlences's moral
responses Lo Lhe sLory, Lhereby susLalnlng Lhe audlence's absorpLlon ln Lhe movle. 8y belng morally
27

upsLandlng, Lhe relevanL characLers saLlsfy Lhe condlLlons for belng worLhy of our benevolenL wlshes
because Lhey are morally deservlng ln ways LhaL can be recognlzed by mass audlences wlLh oLherwlse
hlghly dlverslfled lnLeresLs. 1hese characLers exhlblL vlrLue and Lhe audlence rewards vlrLue wlLh
sympaLheLlc concern. MorallLy, undersLood very generously, ls a pro[ecL LhaL audlences wlLh oLherwlse
wldely varlegaLed commlLmenLs can share.
roLagonlsLs are usually good guys, slnce good guys are preclsely whaL are llkely Lo command
pro-aLLlLudes from mass and masslvely mlxed audlences. 1hese characLers are aLLracLlve because Lhey
are morally aLLracLlve or appeallng. 1helr vlrLue wlns Lhe audlence's alleglance. We slde wlLh uoroLhy
raLher Lhan Lhe Wlcked WlLch, because uoroLhy ls a good person, klnd Lo Lhose less forLunaLe Lhan
herself, whereas Lhe Wlcked WlLch Lerrorlzes Lhe weak. Lven Lhe superflclally allenaLed anLl-heroes of
Lhe movles ln Lhe end Lurn ouL Lo wln our admlraLlon because Lhey do Lhe rlghL Lhlngs, as 8lck does aL
Lhe end of >/&/*+/5,/.
An underlylng pro-aLLlLude Loward Lhe proLagonlsLs ls cenLral Lo Lhe emoLlons, lncludlng Lhe
moral emoLlons, whlch we musLer for Lhese characLers LhroughouL Lhe moLlon plcLure. Cf course, over
Lhe duraLlon of a glven movle, we may undergo a gamuL of dlfferenL emoLlonal reacLlons Lo Lhese
characLers lncludlng moral lndlgnaLlon aL Lhe way Lhey are LreaLed, on Lhe one hand, and moral
saLlsfacLlon or elevaLlon aL Lhe success of Lhelr [usL causes. 8uL lL ls Lhe sympaLhy LhaL we feel wlLh
Lhese characLers LhaL generally plays Lhe ma[or sLrucLurlng role vls a vls whaLever accompanylng feellngs
may emerge, lncludlng our affecLlve moral reacLlons. We are proud of Lhe hero's vlcLory over evll and
morally angered by Lhe way Lhe vlllalns mlsLreaL hlm because hls well-belng ls an ob[ecL of our concern.
Moreover, LhaL sympaLhy on hls behalf has been lnsLllled ln us by represenLlng hlm as deservlng ln vlrLue
of hls goodness.
28

Cf course, sympaLhy ls noL Lhe only facLor LhaL sLrucLures our emoLlonal responses Lo movles.
AnoLher, relaLed facLor ls anLlpaLhy. MosL movles confronL Lhe proLagonlsLs and Lhe oLher goodly folk
wlLh some adversarles, a.k.a. Lhe bad guys. We are noL only lnvlLed Lo embrace Lhe rlghLeous as fellow
members of a generlc us," Lhelr opposlng number consLlLuLes a 1hem" Loward whom Lhe audlence ls
prompLed Lo reacL wlLh lll wlll. lurLhermore, lf Lhe pro-aLLlLude engendered ln vlewers Lowards Lhe us"
ls encouraged by crlLerlally prefocuslng Lhelr moral worLhlness, Lhe anLlpaLhy channeled Loward Lhe
1hem" ls generally susLalned by represenLlng Lhem as morally defecLlve. Where Lhe proLagonlsL ls nlce
Lo nlce people - showlng good manners and respecL Lo everyone regardless of rank - Lhe vlllaln ls rude
Lo anyone weaker or soclally lnferlor Lo hlm and ofLen much worse Lhan merely dlsrespecLful. 1he
anLagonlsLs plllage, cheaL, lle, klll and so on.
1he hero plcks up Lhe lolllpop Lhe chlld has dropped, Lhe vlllaln ls more llkely Lo Lhrow lL furLher
afleld, lf noL eaL lL hlmself. 8ecause Lhe negaLlve moral aLLlLude LhaL we bear Loward Lhe anLagonlsLs,
we greeL hls successes ln baLLle wlLh moral ouLrage and hls defeaLs wlLh a feellng of approprlaLeness - a
sensaLlon of moral closure. When Lhe nazl leadershlp ls burnL Lo Lhe ground aL Lhe end of CuenLln
1aranLlno's P54+".$)& O/&1%.A&, Lhe hearL qulckens wlLh a [oyousness rooLed ln convlcLlon LhaL PlLler and
hls accompllces have been dealL Lhelr [usL moral desserLs.
SympaLhy, moLlvaLed by morallLy, lncllnes us Lo asslmllaLe Lhe proLagonlsLs as belonglng Lo us.
8uL Lhls bond ls usually furLher deepened by ranglng one or more enemles agalnsL us where Lhese
enemles are Lyplcally recognlzable because Lhey have been fashloned as morally bad people. 1haL ls,
mosL movles lnvolve lnsLllllng Lwo klnds of aLLlLudes ln audlences: a pro-aLLlLude Lo Lhe proLagonlsLs and
Lhelr assoclaLes, and a con-aLLlLude Loward Lhe anLagonlsLs and Lhelr allles, and Lhese aLLlLudes, ln Lurn,
provlde Lhe basls for our emoLlonal responses Lo Lhese characLers, lncludlng our affecLlve moral
appralsals of Lhem. 1he specLaLors feel allled Lo Lhe proLagonlsL and opposed Lo Lhe anLagonlsL. lndeed,
29

Lhe anLagonlsL engenders anger, haLred, and even dlsgusL ln us where Lhese anLlpaLheLlc emoLlonal
reacLlons are mosL ofLen moral ln naLure.
Whereas sympaLhy ln Lhe ordlnary run of evenLs Lends Lo be someLhlng LhaL we exLend, all
Lhlngs belng equal, by defaulL Lo mosL of Lhe people we encounLer, ln movles sympaLhy musL lnduced.
ln movles (and oLher popular flcLlons) Lhls ls usually accompllshed by maklng Lhe perLlnenL characLers
morally aLLracLlve. 1he vlewer's afflllaLlon wlLh Lhese characLers ls furLher relnforced by seLLlng an array
of nemeses agalnsL Lhem whom we flnd repelllng, generally due Lo Lhelr crlLerlally prefocused moral
falllngs, whlch can range from peLLy vlces Lo pronounced vlclousness.
ln mosL cases, l hypoLheslze LhaL lL ls Lhe sympaLhy wlLh whlch we regard Lhe proLagonlsLs LhaL
ls Lhe leadlng source of our emoLlonal responses Lo Lhe characLers. Powever, someLlmes anLlpaLhy
Loward Lhe vlllalns ls enough Lo wln some characLers sympaLhy on Lhe rebound, ln a manner of
speaklng. 1haL ls, Lhe movle maker may explolL Lhe enemy-of-my-enemy-ls-my-frlend" phenomenon as
when Lhe dasLardly space lnvaders, wleldlng Lhelr deadly Z- rays, evaporaLe Lhousands of law abldlng
earLhllngs wlLhouL a bllnk of Lhelr eyes (usually more Lhan Lwo). Cur haLred for Lhese merclless
marauders from galaxles far, far away ls enough Lo enllsL our sympaLhles for our fellow earLh folk whlch,
ln Lurn, sparks Lhe moral lndlgnaLlon LhaL we feel ln response Lo Lhe abuses Lo whlch Lhey are sub[ecLed.
lnclLlng our moral emoLlons ls key Lo Lhe success of mosL movles. 1he posslblllLy of lnsplrlng
Lhose emoLlons ln vlewer depends upon nurLurlng aLLlLudes of sympaLhy and anLlpaLhy Loward Lhe
varlous characLers ln Lhe movle. ?eL, securlng Lhose aLLlLudes ls Lyplcally accompllshed by crlLerlally
prefocuslng cerLaln characLers as vlrLuous and oLhers as morally blemlshed, lf noL vlclous.


30


v.
Concludlng 8emarks

We began by polnLlng ouL LhaL Lhe movles seek mass markeLs. 1hls makes Lhe arousal of
emoLlon especlally aLLracLlve Lo movle makers for a number of reasons. Many emoLlons (and especlally
Lhe ones ln whlch Lhe movles Lyplcally Lrafflc) are wldely shared, due Lo Lhelr blologlcal orlgln, and can
Lhus provlde Lhe Lerms of engagemenL wlLh whlch Lo address poLenLlally lmmense audlences. 8y
exclLlng Lhe emoLlons, movle makers Lhereby render Lhelr sLorles accesslble Lo Lhe many.
Moreover, Lhose audlences possess an lnLeresL ln havlng Lhese emoLlons aroused lnasmuch as
emoLlonal arousal can lLself be pleaslng, especlally lf lL does noL endanger any of one's lnLeresLs. Pence,
movle makers are naLurally drawn Lo lnclLlng Lhe emoLlons of vlewers, noL only as a means for maklng
Lhelr sLorles lnLelllglble for Lhe masses, buL also as a means of dolng so ln a way LhaL has Lhe added
beneflL of affordlng pleasure.
Lven lf Lhls observaLlon ls almosL a plaLlLude, perhaps Lhe exLenL Lo whlch movle makers seek Lo
ellclL moral emoLlons ls less obvlous. ConsequenLly, l Lrled Lo show how many of Lhe sLandard
emoLlonal Lhemes of Lhe movles lnvoke wldespread, nearly unlversal (albelL ofLen overlapplng) domalns
of moral concern, such as welfare, [usLlce, communal order, and lmpurlLy.
LmoLlonal responses, lncludlng moral ones, Lowards characLers and Lhelr slLuaLlons generally
requlre overarchlng pro and/or con aLLlLudes Loward Lhe relevanL flcLlonal belngs. l call Lhese aLLlLudes
sympaLhy and anLlpaLhy respecLlvely. lnLeresLlngly, as lnduced by movles, Lhese aLLlLudes appear Lo be
31

founded prlmarlly upon moral Lhemes. ln movles, we are usually mandaLed Lo sympaLhlze wlLh Lhe
vlrLuous, Lhe characLers we love Lo love, and Lo dlsdaln Lhe vlclous, Lhe characLers we love Lo haLe.
AlLhough frequenLly rebuked as Lhe acme of moral decadence, Lhe movles are moral Lhrough
and Lhrough. 1hls ls especlally evldenL when one conslders Lhe ways ln whlch Lhe movles engage Lhe
affecLlve responses of Lhelr audlences. lor Lhose affecLlve reacLlons qulLe ofLen Lake Lhe form of moral-
emoLlonal responses whlch, ln Lurn, are underglrded by pro and con aLLlLudes LhaL Lhemselves depend
upon moral facLors. 1herefore, desplLe Lhe recurrlng [eremlads of pundlLs, Lhe movles and morals
belong LogeLher. lndeed, lL ls hard Lo lmaglne how movles could have ever Laken hold wlLhouL Lhe
supporL of Lhe moral senLlmenLs.