UNIT.

l
2 ttARKS
1. What
is ptanning?
Planning
aims
at formulation.
of a time based plan
of action for coordinating
varrous
actiyities
and
resources
to achieve
soecified
objectiv":.
pffii;J'tihJiL"-g"*-gt
deveroping
the project
pran.
The
pran
ou'ines'
how
thi o.oj"r
rr
to ue airectEo
to'-"Jr,iur"
the assrgned goati.
ft specifies
a
i;:i"J:..J11,."if.;:Tfl::flj,",ff:i:Xm]:1".:fu:
f".l"o
on or,.,sir6ni
",i-iJir,iini
muo" on
(2.
Ihat
is construcflon
plannlng?
(
ovlDec
zOoT)
\J
The
construction
pranning
proces.s
is stimurated
through
a study. of pro,ect
documents.
These
oocuments
incrude
but are
not
.fimited
t"- tr,-"- rril[-oiJ.
technicar
and commerciar
studies
and
investigations,
desisris
and' orawings,
-
estimaiio"
-ii"qJl'"titi"r,
"od;.ti;;";IiiJ,o
".i!,"r"nt",
project
pranning
data,
conrract
oo.,l,i",it-+'iit"'i",ii,,[i1',
market survey,
rocar resouries, prolect
;::ffi:3T,X?
"t*:crienrs
oreanizato;'
ii'" pLi''iil'p"'oZe,.
t"t". in to ilcoriii,'t-n-Jli,'Jnsti'.
ano
ll-l!:
"
fundamental
and chattenging
activity in management
and execution
of construction
ii) This is a mental process
requiring
the use of lntellectual
faculties,
imaglnations,
foresight
and
i?ii:t*,,Ti:,J?*"::::,i:::J?:iiT,ii:Li:i,'iiiJ,oon",
h"" ihr
"i"i".ii,it
u;ion",
*no
(
a.Vfr.t
are the objectives
of planning?
(Nov/Dec
2ool r,taylJune
2ol2)
The marn oblective
of
Dlanning^is^
to
-execute
.the
preject
most economically
both in terms of money and time The
other objectives
are proper
design of e;ch erement
of the project, proper
serectron and arrangement
of equipments
and machinery
n"ui tt
"
iii" oiriorf.
.
proper
design
of each element
of the project
;:l.J::"r""j"fH?
of equipment
ano mJcn-inery
in big projects,
the use of tarse capacity ptants
are
.
Procurement
of materials
well in advance
.
Proper
arrangement
of repair
of equipment
and machinery
.
Emptoyment
of trained and
",,p".i"ni"J
,iii ;;'#'il:'".t
.
To provide
incentive
for good
workers
.
To arrange
constant
nodof
funOi ior the completion
of project
'
To provide
proper
safety
measures
ano venutition,
'p.if".
,r.ung"r"nt
oF right and water.
,
4. What are the types of proiect
plans?
(May/rune
2oo7)
Planning
the entire proiect
from
its inception
to completion requrres
a vast coverage,
varied skills and different
types of
ptani'
The nature
of
rjr"".
"".*ri"i"j'"'I',rp,.",
construction project
is indicated below. The types of project
plans
are tisted
below:
.
Development
stage nature
of plan
.
Inception
stage project
feasrUitity plan
.
Engrneering
stage project
preliminary
plan
.
tmptementation
stage project
construition plan
5. what ar the two types of plannlng of a construction
Proiect?
Cost oriented
Schedule oriented
6. Define work tasks?
work tasks represent the necessary frame work to
permit scheduling of construction activities, along
wiitr estimating the resources required by the individual work tasks and a necessary
precedence or
i"iri*J i"qr"-n"J imong the tailis. The ierms work tasks or activities are often used interchangeably
in ionstruction
plans to refer to specific defined items of work'
7. Llst out the
proiect planfling technlques?
Stages
plannang process Techniques/methods
. Planning time
. Planning resources
.
Planninqimplementation
Breaking down
project work, developing time nett/York
plans Forecasting resource requirements,
pf"-""*i rnunpo*"i requirements,
pla;ning material
'requirements,
budgeting costs, desiqning
organizitional
structure Formulating monitoring methodology
. Work break down, network analysis,
gnat chart
. Man
power scheduling
. Material scheduling
.
Resource allocation
.
Cost
planning & budgeting
. Equipment selection and scheduling
. nesource
productivity control, time control, contribution control, budgetary control
a. What are the steps involved in planning?
a. defining the scope of work to be performed
b.
p."pu.'in' the iogic or network diagram to establish a relationship among activities and
integrating these diagrams to develop the network model
c. aialyziig the
prol"ct network or models to determine
project duration, and identifying critical
and non-critical activities
d. Exploring trade-off between time to cost to arrive at optimal time and costs for completing
the project.
e. estaitisning standards for planning and controlling men, materials, equipment, costs and
income of each work
Package
f. Forecasting input resources,
production costs and the value of the work done
g. Forecasting the
project budget allocations for achieving targets assigned to each
organizational unit
h. Designing a control system for the organization
i. Developing the resources, time and cost control methodology
9, what is the
purpose of coding?
a. To identify the data connected with each work
package, as work
packages from the database
for managing various project functions.
b. To aid in the organization of data from the very detailed to the very broad levels
--=
c. To enable
the proces
management
""oi;;i[?'rifflns,
and
extraction
of information
required
at various
tevets
d
d. To computerize
ttre Oata piocJising
system
10. How
many
categorles
avallable
in codificauon?
;':"$;re..,f,H*:'#.i:rfi,'[?.,:.1i:,;1":"r:,::.:ffixh:*.::,s"?atwodcateeories
ie
.
Ihese
are the common
. ::*1":l!:
"*o"o"i
3?0""i
used ror deve'oping
an inter
department
database.
Ex: a project
.
upartmental
speclfied
codes:
I nese
codes
are develnoed_by
the departmental
heads
for
their use.
Ex: to indicate
the location
of materials
in ,itu *"i"
noi.J--"
11. Define
the
types
of tabeling
approach?
a. alphabet
codes
b. numerical
codes
c. alphanumeric
codes
1?Il*l
codes:
Atphaber
tefters
A to Z, singte
or combined.
arpiabet
in a sinste
crraraaei
splie;"";:::::I
ilT.?^i13,-_"?,
be used
to represenr
a code. An
which
can o"pia,irri-i,i
iirdl1?i."ffilr*'resent
26 variations
as compared
t,i *,nujJ"d
to s,
I{umerical
codes:
It is the mos
represented
by a numerical
,"rlilTi""#ilLt"rtm
of coding in numerlcal
codes,
each character
can be
lnt
n"t""'"tl
cods:
It is the combination
oF arphabets
and numerars
to deverop
a each code.
(12.
P.fining
precedence
relatiohshth
\l
. _._tionship
among
activiues?
(Nov/Dec2OOZ
2OOS)
3$::*:'."-',",lii[x',
i:H::i,=llTties
sienirv
that the activities
must
take
structurat
intug.itllugri"'I'
os sequences
exist for construction
activities
due
ror
example
'nd
other
technical
requirements.
.
Excavate place
formworl
.
Trench
( place
reinforcement
pour
concrete
13. Define
the following
terms?
r'
Activity
/
Event
lH;?;":
J#;T;T"Trji-"j:l
'o*,
in
to various
operations
and process
necessary
For
its
ca ed activity.
Th"
".tiriti",
"ii't'ons
and processes,
which
ionsume
ti." 5i,Ji,"..il"li'ii3olr."r,
,.
For
example:
grauruti*'''"
-'
c represented
by arrows'
Event:
it. is the state
betweel-tl:
comptetion
of a preceding
activity
and the beginning
of the
succeeding
one. It has no duratron
an event is shown
by a circle or ellipse
14. Define
actiyity
di.ect
cost?
lll:'.1'iffi:T,::S;:,lj:inil,:l;:rw*hrhe
executon
or a speciric
activity.
rt consists
or costs
or
3:":: l*:f:
o.u.t uq, i p-
"nt
r-n"0";d;J,
;1;'" J':":f
For
exampte:
rn tne aciijtv
oi.#;;"il;:il:?ltrio*rng
direct costs woutd
be invotved.
place
in a particular
to requirements
for
Types of costs ltm of costi
Direct materials cost of concrete and steel
. Direct labour cost of labour emploYed
15. Define activlty lndlrect cost?
This is the cost that incurred while
performing an activity, but cannot be traced directly to its
;;;.,;ti";:l;;iher
words, all costs otier than t-he direct ones fall in this category'
Thse represent
if,"
-"ppo*io""J
snare of-superviiion;
general and adminlstration
costs are commonly
refer to as
overheads.
16, what are the agencies supporting Construction
lndustry
i) Business
Promoters
ii) Construction
project management consultant
iii) Architects-Engineering
associates
iv) Input suPPliers
v) Contractors
17. Explain the classlfication of contractors
i) General contractors
ii) Building contractors
iii) Specialized contractors for infrastructure works
iv) Specialized contracto6 for industrial works
18. Define Constructlon Proiect.
It is a high value, time-bound, special construction
mission with
predetermined performance
oli"kv"s. it
puts together human and non-human resources and headed by Project Manager
@*nra
are the categories of Project?
(Mav/Juno 2oo7)
i) Building construction
Project
ii) tnfrastructure construction
project
iii) Industrial construction
projects
ivjspeciat
purpose buildinqs like fire fighting, electrical works, water supply, safety, etc
20. Name the aspects of
Planning?
i) Contribution to objectives
li, Primary planning
iii) Efficiency
@
Wfr"t are the benefits of
Planning?
(Nov/Dec2oo7)
i) It
gives
direction on objectives.
ii) It focuses attention on activities.
iii) It helps to balance chanqe and uncertainty'
iv) It facilitates managerial control.
vj tt tretps in the economical operations and accounts for the
growth'
22. What ar6 the types of prorect
based on Ume and cost or value?
Based on time, a) Long duration(>
loyears),
b)Medium duration(3-10 years),
c) short duration(
3
years)
and d) speciat short duration(il
v"iri'
-- --
'
-- -
Based.on value or cost, a) Mega valtie_ pro;ecL
lr5OOO.rorer), b) Large value projects (50_5oo
crores), c) Medium vatue prorects (5_50
ciores;ino oj ,."ff ,irrl pir,r.".i;'Gi;;;;6.""
23. Deflne work tasks
Work tasks represent
tire *-.::11
lur," Iqrk
to permit
scheduling of construction
activities,
along with estimating
the resources required
by the individuat
tasks.
24. What are the stageS of a construction project?
i) hitialization lncludes Environmental
impact assessment, project
feasibility, investment
etc
li) Mobirization
of resources inctuoes
oetaitiJ oeiisn,'ilirinunt"tion
for contract, etc
iii) Eiecution
25. What are the two methods
of execution
of a project?
i) Sequential
or Traditional
approach
il) Fast-Track
approach
26. What is a Work-Breakdown
structure?
It is a deriverabre, focusedr hierarchar grouping
of a project.
defiverabre means measurabre part
oF a
project.
The levels of work breakdown
structure are a) sub-project rever, b) Task rever, c) work package
level and d) activity level
What is defining precedence
relauonshlp
among activifies? (Nov/D6c
2ooz, Nov,/Dec
2OOa)
It signines that the activrties must take place
in a sequence, precedence
rerationship is
:flT:l]"-1ry
"
network or a.graph,.Links
or arrows rep.ei;nt an activity and nodes represent
28. what are the three mistakes to be avorded whire definrng a precedence
retationship
among activities?
i) Circle of activities is impossible
ii) Forgetting
a necessary relationship
should be avoided
iii) correctlons on the spot or site may resurt in increased cost and
probrems
of quarity
in the
project.
29. What are the methods
of rePresentation
of
precedence
relationshlp
of activities?
il ImDlicit
Precedence
List
iir iJiritv-on--u."nch
Network
diagram
iii) Activiw-on-node
Network diagram
ivi ExPlicit
Precedence
List
d"n.a ... unlt
Productlvlty
rate and Unlt
Productivlty
time ln estlmating
activity
[/
illIjation
ot a
prorect?
(AprlMav 2o1o)
The unit
productivity rate
(Pir) is the average
productlvity of a
group represented
in square
yards
per hour'
..
red to complete
a unit of work by a
iie unJt
proouaivitv time
(Tu) is defined
as the time-re.qui
standard
group. T1 i,
'"pti'''6Li"0
in hours
per square
yards' Unit
productivity is used as a
productivity measure'
Trt
=1/
Pu
Give the use of Learnlng curwes
ln estlmating
durations'
(Nov/Dec2o11)
The oroductivitv
increase occurrifr
"iti-"-ip"'l-""2"
gained by familiaritv
of a
group is
reDresented
in a curve called Learning
curve'
If a
sroup
becomes
familiar *ith';;';'.;;it;;'the
productivity
will improve
in svstematic
manner'
32. What are the factors influencing
the estimation
of activiw
duration?
l) Skill of workers
'
ii) weather effects
iii) Average
Productivity
iriiili"tiS"tiip
between
duration and the number
of workers
33. What are th methods
of estimation
of actlvity
duratlon?
i) One-Time
estimate
ii) Three-time
PERT estimate
iii) Non-linear
or Trapezoidal
Estimate
34.whatarethefactorsaffectingestimationofresourcerequirementsofactivities?
i) Availability
of equipments
or a
group
ii) Location of two activities
/t){nrn.a
is a coding svstem?
(Apr,'MaY 2010}
V
rne metnod of defining a
plan within the constraints
for identifying
activities
is ca-lled coding
System. Coding ayr,"ra
u.J'n"u"'i"g
tytt""
to replace verbal descriptions
of activit'ies'
What are the advantages
of using Coding Systems?
(Aprll'laY 2o1o)
i) These codes
reduce the length or complexity
of information
to be recorded
ii) i;;Ir;'ffi;;"i#;;;i;i";;"'i';;;;['
orio't'
productivitv and duration
o
particurar
i:il1'i:?:r",.
data storage and extractrng
rnformation
of operations
are more efficient
with
standard
codinq sYstem.
:
I
.
g
16 MARK
QUESTIONS
1. What is Construction Plannlng? Explaln the basic concepts ln the developmer
Constructlon plans. (May/June
2012)
Construction
planning is a fundamental and challenging activity in the management and execution of
construction
poects.
It involves the choice of technology. the definition of work tasks, the estimation
of the required resources and durations for individual tasks, and the identification of any interactions
among the different work tasks.
A good
construction
plan is the basis for developing the budget and the schedule for work. Developing
the construction
plan
is a crltical task in the management of construction, even if the plan is not
written or otherwise formally recorded. In addition to these technical aspects of construction planning,
it may also be necessary to make organizational decisions about the relationships between project
participants and.even which organizations to include in a
project.
For example, the extent to which subcontractors wall be used on a
project is often determined during
constructign
planning.
A planner begins with a result (i.e.
a facility design) and must synthesize the steps required to yield
this result. Essential aspects of construction planning include the generation of required activities,
analysis of the implications of these activities, and choice among the various alternative means of
performing
activities.
In contrast to a detective discovering a single train of events, however, construction
planners also face
the normative
problem
of choosing the best among numerous alternative
plans. A planner must
imagine the final facility as described in the
plans
and specifications.
In developing a construction plan, it is common to adopt a primary emphasis on either cost control or
on schedule control. Some projects
are
primarily divided into expense categories with associated
costs- In these cases, construction planning is cost or expense oriented.
Wrthin the categories of expenditure, a distinction is made between costs incurred directly in the
performance of an activity and indirectly for the accompllshment of the project.
For example, borrowing expenses for project financing and overhead items are commonly treated as
indi.ect cOsts. For other projects, scheduling of work activities over time is critical and is emphasized
in th
planning process. In this case- the
planner insures that the
proper precedences among activities
are maintained and that efficient scheduling of the available resources
prevails.
Traditional scheduling
procedures
emphasize the maintenance of task
precedences (resulting in critical
path
sdreduling
procedures) or efncient use of resources over time
(resulting in
job
shop scheduling
procedu res) .
Finally, most complex
projects require consideration of cost and scheduling over time, so that
plan.ing, monitoring and record keeping must consider both dimensions. In these cases, the
integrdion of schedule and budget information is a major concern.
Alternatiy Emphases in Construction Planning construction
planning is not an activity which is
restricEd to the
period
after the award of a contract for construction. lt should be an essential activity
during t E fadlrty design.
Also, if proderns anse during construction, re-planning is required. These are the concepts about the
developlE t d Coftstruction
plans.
n
t
Resource
Oriented
(Job Schop
Schedule)
Time
Oriented
(Critical
Patt
Problem)
lndirect
Costs
Direct
Cosls
Fieue 9-1 Altemative Emphases in Conskucdon Planrung
2, Explain bdfly Choice of Construction Technotogy and Construction method.
(May/June
2OO9, Nov/Oec 2Or1)
Choice of Construction Technotogy and Construction method
As in the development of appropriate alternatives for facility design, choices of appropriate technology
and methods for construction are often ill-structured
yet critical ingredients in the success of the
project. For example, a decision whether to
pump or to transport concrete in buckets will directly
affect the cost and duration of tasks involved in building construction. A decision between these two
alternatives should consider the relative costs, reliabilities, and availability of equipment for the two
transport methods.
Unfortunately, the exact implications of different methods depend upon numerous considerations for
which information may be sketchy during the
planning phase, such as the experience and expertise of
workers or the oarticular underqround condition at a site.
In selecting among alternative methods and technologies, it may be necessary to formulate a number
of construction
plans
based on alternative methods or assumptions. Once the full plan is'available,
then the cost, time and reliability impacts of the alternative approaches can be reviewed, Thj:
examination of several alternatives is often made explicit in bidding comptitions in which several
alternative designs may be proposed or value engineering for alternative construction methods may
be
permitted. In this case,
potential constructors may wish to
prepare plans for each alternativ.
design using the suggested construction method as well as to
prepare plans
for alternative
construction methods which would be
proposed as
part
of the value engineerinq
process.
In forming a construction
plan,
a useful approach is to simulate the construction
process either in the
imagination of the planner or with a formal computer based simulation technique. By observing the
result. conlpdlisons amonE different plans
or problems with the existing plan
can be idenufied-
f''
example, a-declsion to use a
particular piece
of equipment for an operatlon immediately leads to tt!
question
of whether or not there is sumcient access space for the equipment, Threa dimensixrd
geometric
models in a computer aided design (cAD)
system may be helpful in simulating spacE
requirements for operations and for identlfying any interferences. Slmilarly, problems
in resoure
availability identified during the simulation of the construction process
might be effectively forestalled
by
providing
additional resources as part
of the construction plan,
Example-Laser Leveling
An example of technology choice is the use of laser leveling equipment to improve the productlvity
of
excavation and grading.
In these systems, laser surveying equipment is erected on a site so that the
relative height of mobile equipment is known exactly. This height measurement is accomplished by
flashing a rotating laser light on a level plane
across the construction site and observing exac{y where
the light shines on receptors on mobile equipment such as graders. Since laser light dols not disperse
appreciably, the height at which the laser shines anywhere on the constructaon site
gives
an accurate
indication of the height of a receptor on a piece
of mobile equipment. In turn, the releptor height can
be used to measure the height of a blade, excavator bucket or other piece
of equipment. Coirbined
with electro-hydraulic control svstems mounted on mobile e.!uinment sr.h es hrllrraTpre ara.tar< ,n.r
with electro-hydraulic
systems mounted on mobile equipment such as bulldozers, graders and
scrapers. the height of excavation and grading
blades can be
precisely
and automatically controlled in
these systems. This automation of blade heights has reduced costs in some cases by over 8oo/o and
improved
.quality
in the finished product,
as measured .by the desired amount of excavation or the
extent to which a final grade
achieves the desired angle. These systems also
permit
the use of smaller
machines and less skilled operators. However, the use of these semi-automated systems requires
investments in the laser surveying equipment as well as modiRcation to equipment to permit
electronic feedback controt units. Still, laser leveling appears to be an excellent technological choice in
many instances.
3. ExPlaln coding systems. (May/June 2OO9, Nov/Dc ZO1t, AprlMay 2Ot1)
One objective in many construction planning
efforts is to define the
plan
within the constraints of a
universal coding system for identiFying activities. Each activity defined for a project would be identified
by a
pre-defined
code specific to that activity. The use of a common nomenclature or identification
system is basically motivated by the desire for better integration of organizational efforts and
improved information flow. In
particular,
coding systems are adopted to
provide
a numbering system
to replace verbal descriptions of items. These codes reduce the length or complexity of the information
to be recorded.
A common coding system within an organization also aids consistency ln deflnitions and categories
between projects
and among the various
parties
involved in a project.
Common coding systems also aid in the retrieval of historical records of cost,
productivity
and duration
on
particular
activities. Finally, electronic data storage and retrieval operations are much more
efficient with standard coding systems.
The most widely used standard coding system for constructed facilities is the MASTERFORMAT system
developed by the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) of the United States and Construction
Specifications of Canada. After development of separate systems, this combined system was originally
introduced as the Uniform Constructlon Index (UCI) in 1972 and was subsequently adopted for use by
numerous firms, information providers. professional
societies and trade organizations. The term
MASTERFORMAT was introduced with the 1978 revision of the UCI codes. MASTERFORMAT
provides a
standard identification code for nearly all the elements associated with building construction,
MASTERFoRMAT
involves a hierarchical
coding system
with multiple
levels
plus keyword
text
descriptions
of each item. r. ,n!'"nr]""r-i."i
."Ji"q-iiii"r.,
the first two digits represent
one of the
sixteen divisions
for work; .;;;i;;;ih
&iii"i it'""0-t"
code conditions
of the contract
for a
constructor.
In the latest ,"..io-;
;i ili"
-MASTERFORMAT_,_
a third digit is added to indicate a
subdivision
within each oivision. Eacfoiviiio"
iirr.tiio
.p"cified
bv a three diqit extension
indicating
another level of subdivisions.
,^ i"ivl"r"r,
,r'"r" .rlolri.ionr
are further divided with an additional
three digits to identify more specific
work items or matenals'
For example,
the code 16950-960, 'Electrical
Equipment.Testing"
are defined as within Division 16
(Etectrical) and sub-Division
,so"Gesii;il.
il"-iEIro.J.
"ei".tr;al
Equipment
Testins"
is a standard
description
of the activity.
WhileMASTERFoRMATprovidesaveryusefulmeansoforganizinoandcommunicatinginformation,it
has some obvious
limitation.
"Jr
io'rpr"i"
project cooinig syst;m.
First, more sPecific information
such as location
of work or ,".pol.iur"''ors;[."iion
rnigtt b"'.required
loi PJgJect.
cost control.
code
extensions
are then added i"
"io]iiii"
ti"i'tr'.iJigiti-in
th;ou.i.
MAbTERF9RMAT
codes' For example'
a
typrcat extenaeO
code might have the following elements:
The first four digits indicate the
project for this activity; this code refers to an activity on
project
number 0s34. The next nr. oigit#;'i;;i"
tir" ieSiEni6nMAT
secondary
division;
referring to Table
9-7, this activity
woutd be ozzzd"eicarating,
B".kfirling and. compacting."
The next two digits refer
to specific activities definea
witni-n t[ir ifn#EifOnUAT
c-ode; the digits 2i in tnis example
might refer
to excavation
of column toot,ngt. iiil
""-t
trt"raaer
319rs.
t9 the block or
general area on the site
that the activity will take
place; in this case, block A is indicateo'
The digits OO could be replaced by a code to indicate the responsible or-ganizatlon
.
for th-e- attivity'
Finally, the characters
cf;l rerei t t["Ji'tit'fu'
design element
number for which this excavation
is
intended;
in this case, .o,urnn"roitinq'
[r.u"i-l+ li ]"tendd.
Thus, this activitv is to
perform the
excavation
for column footing number 34 in block A on the srte'
4. Discuss the various factors deciding the activity duratiohs'
(Mav/June 2or2)
Inmostschedulingprocedures,eachworkactivityhasassociatedtimeduration.Thesedurationsare
used extensively
in
preparing ;;;;rl;.
it
"
"nti."
set of activities
would then require at least :J
days, since the activities
rorro*ii"'.noit er Jirecfly and require a total of 1.0 + 0.5
+ 0.5 + 1.0
=
3
days. If another activity
procee-Je-d
-in-paiarier
with this.sequence'
the 3 day minimum
duration of
these four activities is unanecte-ollioi"
[nun f days would be required for the sequence if there was a
i;i;;
";;
tiq uetween the completion of one activitv and the start of another'
All formal scheduling
procedures rely upon estimates
of the durations
of the various
project activities
.r *"ll u, the definit-ions of the
predecessor relationships
among tasks'
The variability of an activity,s duration may also be considered.
Formally, the
probability distribution
of
inlitiriiv't,irtution
as well
".
ir,u
",p".t"a
or most likely duration may be used in scheduling'
AprobabilitydistributionindicatesthechancethataparticularactivitydUrationwill.occur..lnadvance
of'actually doing a
particular taik, *e cannot be certain exactly how long the task will require'
Astraightforlvardapproachtotheestimationofactivitydurationsistokeephistoricalrecordsof
pu.tjaui", actrvrties and rely on the average durations
from. this experience
in making new duratriri'
Eritrnut"r.
-iin."
tn" scope' or' aiiiuitiei aie unlikely to be identical between different
projects, unit
productivity rates are typically employed for this
purpose'
Forexample,thedurationoranactivityDijsuchasconcreteformworkassemblymightbeestimated
as: where Aij is the ,"qri."J foi.*ork irea to assemble
(in square
yards)' Pij rs the-..averaqe
pi"o"iitritv df
"
,t.ndurb .."* in tno task
(measured in square
yards per hour), and Nrj is the
:CI
number of crews assigned to the task_. tn some organizations.
unit producuon
time, TU, is
the time required
to conlplete
a unit of work by a stinOarO irew (mebsured
Illustration of Productivity
Changes Due to Learning
Random factors will also influence productivity
rates and make estimation of activity durations
yncert?il..For examPle, a scheduler vvill typicalli not know at the time of makin! ttre
-iniiiaticneoute
how skillful the crew and manager will be that ari assigned to a particular proJectl
The productivity
of a skilled designer may be many times that of an unskilled engineer. In the absence
of specific knowledge,
the estimator can only use iverage values of
productivity.
5, Explain how prcedence
relationshlps among activities are defined. (AprlMay
20ro)
Precedence relations
between activities signify that the activities must take place in a particular
sequence. Numerous
natural sequences exist For construction activities due'to requirerients
for
structural integrity,
regurations, and other technicar requirements. For exampre, design diawings
cannot be checked before they are drawn.
Diagramatically, precedence
relationships
can be ilustrated by a network or graph
in which the
activities are represented by arrows,,
The arrows in Figure are called branches or links in the activity network, while the circles marking the
beginning'or end of each arrow are called nodes or events. in ttris figlre, tinks repieslni
iarticutar
activities, while the nodes represent milestone events.
Illustrative Set of Four Activities with
precedences
More complicated precedence
rela-tionships can also be specified. For example, one activity mlght not
be able to start for several days after the completion of another activity.
As a common example, concrete might have to cure (or
set) for severar days before formwork is
removed. This restriction on the removal of forms activity is called a lag betr,yeen the completion of
one activity (i.e., pouring
concrete in this case) and the start of another activity (i.e., removing
formwork in this case). Many computer based stheduting programs permit
the usL ir a variety oi
precedence
relationships.
Three mastakes should be avoided in specirying predecessor
relationships for construction plans.
First,
a carcle of activity precedences
will result in in impossible plan.
For ixample, if activity A
precedes
activity B, activity B precedes
activity c. and activity c precedes
activity A, then tne pro1ect
cin nere.
be started or completed! Figure 9-4
illustratG the resulting activity network. Fortunately, formal scheduling methods and good
computer
scrEduling programs
will find any such errors in the logic of the construition plan.
Example of an Impossible Work
plan
Finally, it is important
to realize that different types of precedence
relationships can be defined and
that eadl has different implications for the schedule oF activities:
'
Some actiYiues have a necessary technical or
physical
relationship that cannot be superseded. For
example, aorrrete pours
cannot proceed
before formwork and reinfoicement are in place.
.someactivitieshaveanecessaryprecedencrelationsh.ipoveracontinuousspaceratherthanas
discrete
work task relationsnipsl
'F;;
;;;pi", formwork
mav be
placed in the first
part of an
excavation
trench even as tne Jxcaiation
"duifjrnunt
continues
to wdrk turther along in the trench'
Formwork
ptacement cannot
p."::;;#;;;ilJn'in"
eiiir"tion,
but the two activities can be started
inJ ttopp"a
independently
within this constraint'
.
Some'precedence
relationships'
are not technically
necessary
but are imposed due to implicit
decisions within the construction
plan'
Figru'e 9-3 fiUstrarive
Set ofFour Activities n' h Precedences
6. Discuss the difference DGtwGen
CP[l AND PERT'
(Hav/]une 2oo7]
CPM
SL.NO
1-
2.
PERT
PERT(Program
Evaluation and Review
Technique)
CPM
(Critical Path Method)
PERT is a
probabilistic tool used with three
CPlvl Ir a det"rministic
tool, with only single
Estimating the duration
for completion of
estimate
of
duration'
activities.
Eitvt atso atto*s and explicit estimate of
and control of time. costs in addition to time,
therefore
cPM can
control
both time and cost.
4.
5.
This tool is basically a tool for
planning
PERT is more suitable for R&D related
tp is best suited for routine and those
projects where the
project is performed for
proiects where time and cost estimates can
the first time and the estimate of duration be
accurately
calculated.
are uncertain,
he
probability factor i major in PERT
The deterministic
factor is more so values or
so outcomes
may not be exact. outcomes are
generally accurate and
realistic.
7, Briefly discuss the three tame estimate ln
pERf
network analysls.
2008)
Introduction
(,,aylt',,E-.--i
Before any activlty begins related to the work of a
project,
every
project
requires an advancd,
accurate time estimate. Without an accurate estimate, no
project
can be completed within the brrdgct
and the target completion date.
Developing an estimate is a complex task. If the project
is large and has many stakeholders, things
can be more complex.
Therefore, there have been many initiatives, to come up with different techniques for estimation
phase of the project,
in order to make the estimation more accurate.
PERT (Program ivaluation and Revlew Technique) ls one of the successful and proven methods among
the many other techniques, such as, CPM, Function Point Counting, Top-Down Estimating, WAVE, etc.
PERT was initially created by the us Navy in the tate 1950s. The pilot project was for devetdping
Ballistic Missiles and there have been thousands of contractors involved.
After PERT methodology was employld for this
project, it actually ended two
years ahead of its initial
schedule.
The PERT Basics:
At the core, PERT is all about management
probabilities.
Therefore, PERT involves in many simple
statistical methods as well.
Sometimes, people
categorize and put PERT and CPM together. Although CPM
(Critical Path Method)
shares some characteristics with PERT, PERT has a different focus.
Same as most of other estimation techniques, PERT also breaks down the tasks into detailed activities.
Then a Gantt chart will be prepared illustrating the interdependencies among the activities. Then, a
,etwork of activities and their interdependencies are drawn in an illustrative manner.
In this map, a rode represents each event. The activities are represented as arrows and they are
drawn from one event to another. based on the sequence.
Next, the Earliest Time (TE) and the Latest Time (TL) are Rgured for each activity and identiry the
slack time for each activity.
When it cemes to deriving the estimates, the PERT model takes a statistical route to do that. We will
cover more on this in the next two sections.
Following is an example PERT chart.
t.,
.,F
PEIT n.tworl chrt fot. iGv.i-rnoith
p'oj"t rvhh
'lvr
-
liilril-i., iio-rii-"O
so) .!d tlr
'Gtivltts
(A lhtough F)
The Three
Chances
There are three estimation
times involved in PERT; optimistic
Time Estimate
(ToPT), Most Likely
Time
el,:t]i."i" dixeiij,
ina nessimistic Tiine Estimate
(rPESs)'
InPERT,thesethreeestimatetimesarederivedforeachact.vity'Thisway,arangeoftimeisgiven
i"i*ii"i
""tiritv,
with the most
probable value, TUKELY'
Following
are further details on each estimate'
1. roPT
This is the fastest time an activity can be completed.
For this, the assumption
is made that all the
necessary
resources are avaitabt'l ;; ;ii
;;";;a.or
activities are completed
as
planned.
2. TLIKELY
Mostofthetimes,projectmanagersareaskedonlytosubmitoneestimate'Inthatcase'thisisthe
estimate that
qoes to the upper management'
3. TPESS
This is the maximum
time required to cbmplete
an activity'
In this case' it is assumed
that many
things
go wrong related to ,n" ,.]t'l'lti' e iJi oi t"*otr and resource unavailability
are assumed when
this estimation
is derived.
The PERT Mathematics
BETA
probability distribution
is what works behind
PERT' The expected completion
time
(E) is
calculated as below:
E
=
(TOPT + 4 X TLIEKLY
+ TPESS) /
6
At the same time, the
possible variance
(V) of the estimate
is calculated
as below:
v
=
(TPESS
- roPtl^2 1
6^'
t\
Now, following is the process
we follow with the two values.
1. For every activity in the critical path.
E and V are calculated.
2' Then the total of all Es are.taken. Thls is the overall expected compleuon flme for the projct.
3'
llo,*l
the coresponding. v is added to each activity of the critical plttr.
tns is ttre variJnce or
tne entire project.
This is done only for the activities h the criticai path
as only the critical
path
activities can accelerate or dehy the project
durauon.
4. Then, standard deviation of the project
rs iarcurated. This equals to the square root of the
variance (V).
5. N9y, the normal probability
distribution is used for calculating the project
completion time
with the desired probabitity.
Conclusion
The best thing about PERT is, its ability to integrate
the uncertainty in project
times estimations into
its methodology.
It also makes use of much assumption that can accererate or deray the project progress.
using PERT,
project
managers can have an idea of the possible
time variation ior tne oefiv",ierino or"i a-"iir".y
dates to the client in a safer manner.
8. rllustrate typlcar hrerarchtcat activrty drvrsions for a road prorect. (Nov/Dec
2ooa)
As in the development
of appropriate altematives for facility deslgn. cholces of appropriate technology
and methods for construction are often ill-structured yet
critic-al ingredients i'n'tfri suiceii of tne
pr-oject'
For example, a decision. whether to
pump
or to transport ioncrete in buckets will direc{y
affect the cost and duration of tasks involved iri OuiiOing construction.
A decisio! between these two alternatives should consider the relative costs, reliabilities, and
av-ailability of equipment for the two transport methods. Unfortunately. the exict impficiiions
or
different methods depend upon numerous considerations for which informitton mav ue il6tchy ouring
the planning phase,
such as the experience and expertise of workers or ttre parficuiai
,nJ"igrorno
condition at a site.
In selecting among alternative methods and technologies, it niay be necessary to formulate a number
of construction plans
based on alternative methods or assumpiions. Once the full
plan
is available,
then the cost, time and reliability impacts of the alternative approaches can be reviewed.
This examination of several alternatives is often made explicit in bidding competitions in which several
alternative designs may be
proposed
or value engineering for alternatlve construction methods may
b permitted.
In this case, potential
constructor! may wish to prepare plans for each atternative
design using the suggested construction method as well as to
prepare plans for alternative
construction methods which would be
proposed
as part
of the value engineering
process.
In brming a construction plan,
a useful approach is to simulate the construction process
either in the
imagination of the planner
or with a formal computer based simulation technique. By observing the
result,
.comparisons
among different plans
or problems
with the existing plan tan O6 identified. For
example,
.a_
decision to use a particular piece
of equipment for an operation immediately leads to the
question
of whether
or not there is sumcient access space for the equipment. Thre; dimensional
geornetric
models in a computer aided design (cAD)
system may be helpful in simulating space
requirements for operations and for identifying any interferences.
Similady,
g.oblems
in resource availability identified during the simulation of the construction process
might be ftiYelY forestalled
by
providing
additional resources as
part
of the construction plan.
ti
Case study for Roadway rehabllltation
ProJect
An example
from a roadway rehabilitatlon
project
in
Pittsburgh,
PA can serv-e to. illustrate the
i.oortrni" of
qood
construction
pianning ani t[e effect of technology
choice. In this
project, the
ll;il5;;;-r";d;;
u.iag;
",
*irr is ure p-avement on the hishway itsetf were to be replaced.
The initial construction
plan was to work outward from each end of the overpass bridges while the
niinJ'ilv lr-.riiir iir i"pr"i"o bilow ttre bridges. As a result, access of equipment and concrete trucks
io"it
"-6rurpu*
bridgei was a considerable
iroblem.
However.. the highway work could be staged so
if,"i'"";t or"rprss 6ridge was accesslble frdm below at
prescribed times. By
pumping concrete up to
ir'"-"r"ip"ir
|iiage dect: from the highway below, costs were reduced and the work was accomplished
much more
quickly.
g.
Briefly explain the methods of estimations
of activity durations in a construction
proiect
and their limitations.
(Nov/Dec 2011)
In most scheduling
procedures, each u,iork activity has associated time duration. These durations are
useJ eit"nslrety
ii
ireparing
a schedule. For example, suppose
that the durations shown in Table 9-3
wire estimated
for the
project diagrammed in Figure 9-0. The entire set of activities Would then
..ouire at least 3 days, sinci tne aci;vitles follow one another directly and require a total.of 1.0 + 0'5
ft:;i1.il
3 divi. ii"notn".
"aivity
proceeded in
pan et wittl this sequence, the 3.day minimum
duration of these four activities is unatricted. More than 3 days would be required for the sequence if
in"i" *",
"
delay or a lag between the completion of one activity and the start of another.
All formal scheduling
procedures rely upon estimates of the durations of the various
project activities
as well as the definitions of the
predecessor relationships among tasks. The variability.of an activity's
Or."ti"" rniy
"lr"
Oe considered. Formally, ttle
probability distribution of an activity's duration as well
"r
ir" t*p"*"6 or most tikely duration may be used in scheduling. A probability distribution indicates
tne-ctranie that a
particular activity duration will occur. In advance of actually doinq a
particular task,
we cannot be certain exactly how long the task will require-
A straightforward approach to the estimation of activity durations is to keep historical records of
pa.ti.riu, activities and rely on the average durations from this experience in making new duration
!iiir"t"r. iince ttre scope of activities ii unlikely to be identical between different
projects, urrii
pioauctivity rates are typically employed for this
purpos' For example, the duration of an activity Du
such as concrete formwork assembly might be estimated asi
TABLE 9.3
Durations
and
Predecessors
for a Four
Activity
Project
Illuskahon
Activity
i.0
0.5
Uf
1.0
Excavate trench
Place formwork
lace reinforcing
Exc avate trench
Place formwork
Plac e reinforcing
I
Dii
-
Prn6
where Ar is the required formwork arga to assemble
(in square yards), P, is the average
productivity
of a standard crew in thls task
(measured in square
yards per
hour), and Nn is the number of crews
assigned to the task. In some organizations, unit
production
time. Trr, is defined as the time required
to complete a unit of work by a standard crew
(measured in hours per square
yards)
is used as a
productivity measure such that T[ is a reciprocal of Pu.
A Formula such as Eq. (9.1) can be used for nearly all construction activities. Typically, the required
quantity of work, Au is determined from detailed examination of the final facility design. This guantity-
take-off to obtaln the required amounts of materials, volumes, and areas is a very common
process in
bid
preparation
by contractors. In some countrles. specialized
quantity
Surveyors
provide the
information on requlred
quantities for all
potential
contractors and the owner. The number of crews
working, N4, is decided by the planner. In many cases, the number or amount of resources applied to
particular activities may be modified in light of the resultlng
project plan and schedule. Finally, some
estimate of the expected work productivity, Pil must be
provided to apply Equation (9.1). As with cost
factors, commercial services can provide average productivity figures for many standard activities of
this sort. Historical records in a firm can also
provide data for estimation of
productivities.
The calculation of a duration as in Equation (9.1) is only an approximation to the actual actlvity
duration for a number of reasons. First. it is usually the case that
peculiarities of the project make the
accomplishment of a particular activity more or less dlfflcult, For example, access to the forms in a
particular location may be difficult; as a result, the
productivity of assembling forms may be lower
than the average value for a particular project.
Often, adjustments based on engineering
Judgment
are made to the calculated durations from Equation
(9.1) for this reason.
In addition,
productivity rates may vary in both systematic and random fashions from the average. An
example of systematic variation is the effect of learning on
productivity. As a crew becomes familiar
with an activity and the work habits of the crew. their
productivity will typically improve. Figure 9-7
illustrates the type of productivity increase'that might occur v{ith experience; this curve is called a
learning curve. The result is that
productivity P, is a function of the duration of an activity or
project. A
common construction example is that the assembly of floors in a building might
90
faster at higher
levels due to improved productivity even though the transportation time up to the active construction
area is longer. Again, historical records or subjective adjustments might be made to represent
learning curve variations in average
productivity.
Random factors will also influence productivity rates and make estimation of activity durations
uncertain. For example, a scheduler will typically not know at the time of making the initial schedule
how skallful the crew and manager will be that are assigned to a particular poect. The
Productivity
of
a skilled designer may be many times that of an unskilled engineer. ln the absence of sPecific
knowledge, the estimator can only use average values of
productivity.
Weather effects are often very important and thus deserve
particular attention in estimatinq
durations. Weather has both systematic and random influences on activity durations. Whether or not a
rainstorm-will come on a particular day is certainly a random effect that will influence the
productivity
of m ry actavities- However, the likelihood of a rainstorm is likely to vary systematically from one
m(x|th o. one site to the next. Adjustment factors for inclement weather as well as meteorological
rElorxds can be used to incorporate the effects of weather on durations. As a simple example, an
dn
ry
mrght require ten days in
perfect weather, but the activity could not
proceed in the rain.
E
F,
Furthermore, suppose that rain is expected ten
percent
of the days in a
particular month. In this case,
the expected activity duratlon is eleven days including one expccted rain day'
Finally, the use of average
productlvity factors themselves cause
problems in the calculation
'presented
in Equation
(9.1).
The reciprocal of expected
productivity is 25olo less than the expected value of the reciprocal in this
case! By represenung only two
possible productiviry values, this example represents an extreme case,
but it ii always trui that the use of average
productivity factors in Equation
(9.1) will result in
opttmrsuc estimates of activity durations. The use of actual averages for the reciprocals of
productivity
or small adjustment factors may be used to correct for this non-llnearity
problem'
.
E
e
c
Time
Ilau.li ItuE dm ofProdxdrt Ctq.t Dr to t tq
L.
t
r
6
!
I
F
b
E
t
*
op0nistc tJont*av i,!e6n P:ssim,nl.
lBa.) tBata) 0.loridl {Eela)
nF. r., Bd
-A
N@I, Dttb..a rdniltDdn6
- Ouantity of work
- Weather
- Number of Crers
Task. TechnoloEy
and Site Dala
Figrue 9-8 A lierarclu.al Esbnraioll Frarnework for Masony Constrllatlon
lO. Explain estimations ot rcsourcca for work activltics. (Api/Mdy
2oto)
In addition to precedence
relationships
and time duraflons, refiurce requlremeng are usralry
estimated for ech activity. Since the work activities defined for a
project
are cbmprehsrsive,
ttre totar
resources required for the project
are the sum of the resources required for tte various activities. By
making resource requirement
estimates for each activity, the requirements for particular
reiources
du.ring the course of the project
can be identified.
potentiat
botflenecks can thus be identified, and
schedule, resource allocation or technology changes made to avoid problems.
Many formal scheduling procedures
can incorporate constraints imposed by the availability of
particular
resources. For example.
the unavairability of a specific piec'e
or equipment oi ciiw may
prohibit
.activities
from being undertaken at a parti;ular
tinie. nnoiher
rype
of iesou.ce iispace. I
planner
typically will schedule only one activity in the same location at the iame time. While activities
requiring. the same space may have no necessary technical precedence,
simultaneous ,nori ,trignt not
le
possible-.
computational procedures
for thesi various icheduling probtems
witt be
jesirileo
in
chapters 10 and 11. In this section, we shafl discuss the estimation oiriquired resources.
The initial problem
in estimating resource requirements is to decide the extent and number of
resources that might be defined..At a very aggregate level, resources categories might be limited to
the amount.of labor (measured
in man-hourj or in dollars), the amount oimatu.iali required for an
activity, and the total cost of the activity. At this aggregite level, the resource estimites may be
useful for purposes
of project
monitoring and cash flow planning.
Foi example, actual expenditures on
an. activity can be compared wlth the estimated required resources to reveai any probiems
that are
being encountered during the course of a project-
Mbnitoring procedures
of this sort are described in
Chaptr 12. However,
this aggregate definition of resor]rie use would not reveal botdenecks
associated with particular
types of equipment or workers.
More detailed definitions of required resources would include the number and type of both workers
and equipment required by an activity as well as the amount and types of materials. standard
resource requirements for particular
activities can be recorded anO aalusi6O for the special conditions
of particular projects.
As a result, the resourcei types required for pariicular
activiges may afr"iOv u"
deflned. Reliance on historical or standard activity definiiions of this type requires a standard codirp
system foi.activities.
In making adjustments for ihe resources required by a
particular
activlty. most
of the problems
encountered in forming duration estimations described in tire
previous
section iie also
present.
In particular,
resources
such as labor requirements will vary in proportion
to the work
productivity,
PiJ, used to estimate activity durations in Equation
1s.i1.
r"ritnimatically, a typical
estimating equation would be:
where Rt, are the resources of type k required by activity
u,
Du is the duration of activity ij. N{ is the
number of standard crews allocated to activity ij, and uku ii th6 amount of resource tvpi
-ti
uik per
standard crew. For example. if an activity required eight hburs with two crews assigned'ind eadt o'fi
required three workers, the effort would be R
=
g*2*3
=
4g labor-hours.
From the planning perspective,
the important ddcisions in estimating resource requirements are b
determine the type bf technology and equipment to employ and the number of crews to allocaE to
each task. clarly, assigninq additional crews might resuit in faster completion of a particular
actilriry.
Hotyver, . additional crews might result in congestion and coordination problems,
so ttEt rort
produchYrty
maqht decline. Further, cbmpleting a particular
activity earlier might not result in earhr
compltbn of the entire project.
&i
-
DiNiu;
i:i