No less than the adult, the child is thought of as holding more or less coherent

"theories" not only about the world but about her own mind and how it works. These
naive theories are brought into congruence with those of parents and teachers not
through imitation, not through didactic instruction, but by discourse, collaboration,
and negotiation . . . . This model of education is more concerned with interpretation
and understanding than with the achievement of factual knowledge or skilled
performance. (1996, p. 57)

Science in Early Childhood Classrooms: Content and Process
Karen Worth
Center for Science Education
Education Development Center, Inc.
Newton, Massachusetts
Abstract
There is a growing understanding and recognition of the power of childrens early thinking and
learning as well as a belief that science may be a particularly important domain in early
childhood, serving not only to build a basis for future scientific understanding but also to build
important skills and attitudes for learning. This paper addresses the question of what the nature
of science teaching and learning in the early childhood classroom should be. It proposes four
basic ideas: (1) doing science is a natural and critical part of childrens early learning; (2)
childrens curiosity about the natural world is a powerful catalyst for their work and play; (3)
with the appropriate guidance, this natural curiosity and need to make sense of the world become
the foundation for beginning to use skills of inquiry to explore basic phenomena and materials of
the world surrounding children; and (4) this early science exploration can be a rich context in
which children can use and develop other important skills, including working with one another,
basic large- and small-motor control, language, and early mathematical understanding. The paper
describes a structure for learning through inquiry and criteria for the selection of appropriate
content for young children. It concludes with a discussion of implications for the classroom,
focusing on child-centered curriculum, the role of materials, the use of time and space, the key
role of discussion and representation, and the teachers role.
Introduction
In a world filled with the products of scientific inquiry, scientific literacy has become a
necessity for everyone. Everyone needs to use scientific information to make choices that arise
every day. Everyone needs to be able to engage intelligently in public discourse and debate
about important issues that involve science and technology. And everyone deserves to share in
the excitement and personal fulfillment that can come from understanding and learning about
the natural world.(National Research Council, 1996, p. 1)
Please help us keep ECRP free to readers around the world by making a financial contribution to
the journal. Every little bit helps!
The need to focus on science in the early childhood classroom is based on a number of
factors currently affecting the early childhood community. First and foremost is the growing
understanding and recognition of the power of childrens early thinking and learning. Research
and practice suggest that children have a much greater potential to learn than previously thought,
and therefore early childhood settings should provide richer and more challenging environments
for learning. In these environments, guided by skillful teachers, childrens experiences in the
early years can have significant impact on their later learning. In addition, science may be a
particularly important domain in early childhood, serving not only to build a basis for future
scientific understanding but also to build important skills and attitudes for learning. A recent
publication from the National Research Council supports this argument:
Children who have a broad base of experience in domain-specific knowledge (for
example, in mathematics or an area of science) move more rapidly in acquiring more complex
skills. Because these [mathematics and science] are privileged domains, that is, domains in
which children have a natural proclivity to learn, experiment, and explore, they allow for
nurturing and extending the boundaries of the learning in which children are already actively
engaged. Developing and extending childrens interest is particularly important in the preschool
years, when attention and self-regulation are nascent abilities. (Bowman, Donovan, & Burns,
2001, pp. 8-9)
This growing understanding of the value of science in early education comes at a time when the
number and diversity of children in child care settings and the number of hours each child spends
in such settings is increasing. Growing numbers of children live in poverty. More and more grow
up in single-parent homes and homes in which both parents work. Media have become
commonplace in the lives of the very young. Thus, experiences that provide direct manipulation
of and experience with objects, materials, and phenomenasuch as playing in the sink, raising a
pet, or going to the playgroundare less likely to occur in the home. More and more, it is in the
early childhood classroom where this kind of experience with the natural world must take place,
allowing all children to build experiences in investigation and problem solving and the
foundation for understanding basic science concepts.
What Is Science?
Science is both a body of knowledge that represents current understanding of natural
systems and the process whereby that body of knowledge has been established and is continually
extended, refined, and revised. Both elements are essential: one cannot make progress in science
without an understanding of both. Likewise, in learning science one must come to understand
both the body of knowledge and the process by which this knowledge is established, extended,
refined, and revised.(Duschl, Schweingruber, & Shouse, 2007, p. 26)
Before turning to a deeper discussion of science for the very young, it is helpful to
describe our view of science. The goal of science is to understand the natural world through a
process known as scientific inquiry. Scientific knowledge helps us explain the world around us,
such as why water evaporates and plants grow in particular locations, what causes disease, and
how electricity works. Scientific knowledge can help us predict what might happen: a hurricane
may hit the coast; the flu will be severe this winter. Scientific knowledge can also help solve
problems such as unclean water or the spread of diseases. Science can guide technological
development to serve our needs and interests, such as high-speed travel and talking on the
telephone.
Science means different things to different people. Some think of it as a list of facts once
memorized in school. Others understand it as a body of knowledge, including facts, concepts,
principles, laws, theories, and models that explain the workings of the natural world. But, as is
clear from the quote above, science is more than knowledge and information; it also is a process
of studying and finding outwhich we call scientific inquiry or science practice. According to
the National Science Education standards, Science inquiry refers to the diverse ways in which
scientists study the natural world and propose explanations based on evidence from their work
(National Science Research Council, 1996, p. 23). Many scientists also speak of the fun and
creativity of doing science. A famous scientist, Richard Feynman, once said of his work, Why
did I enjoy doing it (physics)? I used to play with it. I used to do whatever I felt like doing
[depending on] whether it was interesting and amusing for me to play with (Feynman, 1997, p.
48).
Some people, when they think of people doing science, imagine laboratories filled with
scientists in white coats mixing chemicals and looking through microscopes. Such images are
real, but there are other images of scientists charting the course of a hurricane, studying the
behaviors of wolves, searching the skies for comets. But scientists are not the only people who
do science. Many jobs involve science, such as electrician, horticulturalist, architect, and car
mechanic. And people of all ages learn about the world through actions that begin to
approximate scientific practicefor example, when an amateur gardener asks a question, How
much light does my geranium need to flower well?, tries out different locations, and observes
the results. These activities, by scientists and nonscientists, whether happening in the laboratory,
in the field, or at home, have in common the active use of the basic tools of inquiry in the service
of understanding how the world works. Children and adults, experts and beginners, all share the
need to have these tools at hand as they build their understanding of the world.
The Science of Young Children
May 12: Today I asked the kids at the snail table to draw pictures of the snails. Christine was
reluctant at first, saying she didnt want to draw, she just wanted to play with the snails. I gave
her a choice thensaying she could draw pictures of snails or play in a different area. She said,
okay then, shed draw. Her snail pictures involved a lot of zigzaggy lines, and I tried to
understand what they represented to her. Then after awhile I figured out that the zigzags were the
paths where the snail moved. So at lunch I arranged for the kids who hang out by the snail table
to sit together and I joined them. And we talked snails. Christine talked about how the snail feels
when it walks on her arm (kind of sticky and slimy, kinda slippery). Christine said that some
kind of slime comes out from the bottom part and makes the snail move; Ena stood up and
demonstrated that the snail wiggles his tail/bum, saying that pushed him. Delmy said the snail
walks like we walk but just with two feet. Joanna said he goes slow and demonstrated by
walking two fingers lightly and slowly across the table; and John said the snail runs fast with lots
of feet.
May 16: Ever since Christine drew her zigzag pathway picture and we had our snail talk over
lunch, Ive been thinking about ways to get kids thinking more about how snails move. So, I had
the idea to cover a table with easel paper and have the kids follow the path of some snails with
pencil and see the shape of the trails they made. At first, Christine just wanted to play with
snails, and I said okay, but then when she saw the other kids tracing the paths of different snails,
she wanted to join in, too. After awhile, they used string to track the snail trails and ended up
with different length lines and loops.
Excerpts from Cindy Hoisingtons Journal (reprinted with permission)
These notes provide an image of science teaching and learning in the early childhood
classroom in which teachers and children are engaged in inquiries into scientific phenomena
animal behaviors and, more specifically, the behaviors of snails. They suggest the potential of 3-
to 5-year-old children to engage in the practices of science. These notes also provide a small
window into science for young children that is based on several beliefs that have guided my
work: (1) doing science is a natural and critical part of childrens early learning; (2) childrens
curiosity about the natural world is a powerful catalyst for their work and play; (3) with the
appropriate guidance, this natural curiosity and need to make sense of the world become the
foundation for beginning to use skills of inquiry to explore basic phenomena and materials of the
world surrounding children; and (4) this early science exploration can be a rich context in which
children can use and develop other important skills, including working with one another, basic
large- and small-motor control, language, and early mathematical understanding.
The Content of Science for Young Children
Children entering school already have substantial knowledge of the natural world, much of
which is implicit. Contrary to older views, young children are not concrete and simplistic
thinkers. Research shows that childrens thinking is surprisingly sophisticated. Children can
use a wide range of reasoning processes that form the underpinnings of scientific thinking, even
though their experience is variable and they have much more to learn. (Duschl, Schweingruber,
& Shouse, 2007, pp. 2-3)
The content of science for young children is a sophisticated interplay among concepts,
scientific reasoning, the nature of science, and doing science. It is not primarily a science of
information. While facts are important, children need to begin to build an understanding of basic
concepts and how they connect and apply to the world in which they live. And the thinking
processes and skills of science are also important. In our work developing curriculum for
teachers, we have focused equally on science inquiry and the nature of science, and content
basic concepts and the topics through which they are explored. In the process of teaching and
learning, these are inseparable, but here I discuss them separately.
Science Inquiry and the Nature of Science
The phrase children are naturally scientists is one we hear often. Their curiosity and
need to make the world a more predictable place certainly drives them to explore and draw
conclusions and theories from their experiences. But left to themselves, they are not quite natural
scientists. Children need guidance and structure to turn their natural curiosity and activity into
something more scientific. They need to practice scienceto engage in rich scientific inquiry.
In our work, we have used a simple inquiry learning cycle (Worth & Grollman, 2003, p.
19) to provide a guiding structure for teachers as they facilitate childrens investigations (Figure
1). The cycle begins with an extended period of engagement where children explore the selected
phenomenon and materials, experiencing what they are and can do, wondering about them,
raising questions, and sharing ideas. This is followed by a more guided stage as questions are
identified that might be investigated further. Some of these may be the childrens questions,
others may be introduced by the teacher, but their purpose is to begin the process of more
focused and deeper explorations involving prediction, planning, collecting, and recording data;
organizing experiences; and looking for patterns and relationships that eventually can be shared
and from which new questions may emerge. This structure is not rigid, nor is it linearthus the
many arrows. And while it is used here to suggest a scaffold for inquiry-based science teaching
and learning, it closely resembles how scientists work and, in interesting ways, how children
learn.


Scientific inquiry provides the opportunity for children to develop a range of skills, either
explicitly or implicitly. The following is one such list:
Explore objects, materials, and events.
Raise questions.
Make careful observations.
Engage in simple investigations.
Describe (including shape, size, number), compare, sort, classify, and order.
Record observations using words, pictures, charts, and graphs.
Use a variety of simple tools to extend observations.
Identify patterns and relationships.
Develop tentative explanations and ideas.
Work collaboratively with others.
Share and discuss ideas and listen to new perspectives.
This description of the practice of doing science is quite different from some of the science
work in evidence in many classrooms where there may be a science table on which sit interesting
objects and materials, along with observation and measurement tools such as magnifiers and
balances. Too often the work stops there, and little is made of the observations children make
and the questions they raise. Another form of science is activity-based science where children
engage in a variety of activities that generate excitement and interest but that rarely lead to
deeper thinking. There are a multitude of science activity books that support this form of science
in the classroom. Thematic units and projects are yet other vehicles for science work in the
classroom. These can be rich and challenging; however, they may not have a focus on science.
Transportation or a study of the neighborhood are typical examples that have the potential for
engaging children in interesting science but frequently focus more on concepts of social
studies.If these projects or themes are to truly engage students in science, care needs to be taken
to be sure that science is in the foreground, and the integration with other subject matter is
appropriate and related to the science.
Science Content
With an understanding of the practice of science that guides how we approach science
inquiry in the early childhood classroom, we turn to the question of the content of science for this
age. There are many phenomena that can be explored, many questions to be explored, many
basic concepts to be introduced, and many topics to choose from, so rather than make a list of
possible subject matter and topics, following are key criteria for guiding decisions about topic
selection.
At the core of inquiry-based science is direct exploration of phenomena and materials.
Thus, the first criterion is that phenomena selected for young children must be available for
direct exploration and drawn from the environment in which they live. The study of snails is an
example of an exploration that meets these criteria. Others include light and shadow, moving
objects, structures, and plant and animal life cycles. Examples of some that do not meet these
criteria include such popular topics as dinosaurs or space travel. While these are often brought up
by children because they are part of the media environment around them, they are not
appropriate content for inquiry-based science in the classroom because they present no
opportunity for direct exploration on the childrens part and even the simplest explanatory ideas
are developmentally problematic. Other topics often chosen in early childhood classrooms such
as the rain forest or animals of the Arctic (polar bears and penguins) may be based in appropriate
concepts (habitat, physical characteristics, and adaptation of animals), but these too lack the
possibility for direct engagement. Topics such as these need not be excluded. They can be the
subject of important dramatic play, elaborate discussion, and exploration using books and other
secondary sources. The problem arises when they take time away from or substitute for inquiry-
based science experiences.
The second criterion is that the concepts underlying the childrens work be concepts that
are important to science. For example, in the exploration of snails, the underlying concept is the
behavior of animals and how behaviors are related to physical structure and an animals way of
meeting its needs. Such an experience provides a base from which children will gradually
develop an understanding of adaptation and evolution. Studying shadows is another example,
where childrens experiences build a foundation for understanding a key concept about light
that it travels in straight lines. Working with balls on ramps is yet another example where
skillfully guided experiences build a foundation for later understanding of forces and motion.
A third criterion is that the focus of science be on concepts that are developmentally
appropriate and can be explored from multiple perspectives, in depth, and over time. When
children have many and varied opportunities to explore a phenomenon, they come to the final
stages of inquiry with a rich set of experiences on which to base their reflections, their search for
patterns and relationships, and their developing theories. In our example of the snails, the teacher
focuses the childrens attention first on description. But the next step might be to compare the
snails motion to that of an earthworm and a sow bug. This might be followed by observing their
own movement and that of other familiar animals and a continuing discussion about similarities
and differences and how movement relates to where an animal lives and how it gets its food. In
contrast to this depth and breadth are experiences with phenomena such as magnets that are very
engaging, but once children have noted what they do, there is little else to explore. With a range
of experiences, children are more likely to be able to think about connections among them,
question their nave ideas, and develop new ones.
Equally important, the third criterion is that the phenomena, concepts, and topics must be
engaging and interesting to the children AND their teachers. While not a criterion for the
selection of content for an individual unit, across a year, the science program should reflect a
balance of life and physical science. For many reasons, teachers are more comfortable with the
life sciences and steer away from physical science. This leaves out explorations of deep interest
to children and deprives them of the challenges and excitement of experimentation. Inquiry into
life science is different from inquiry into physical science, the former being more observational,
taking place slowly over time. Inquiry in the physical sciences is more experimental with
immediate results. Both are important, so it is balance that is important in an early childhood
science program.
The Classroom
January 14: Water tables continue to be one of the favorite centers in the room. I love seeing
how engaged the kids become filling cups, emptying cups, moving water from one compartment
in the water table to another.
January 19: It was too cold for the kids to go outside today, so the kids in my small group did a
clay project instead. The theme for the project was making things that can hold water. Tonya
made a pot. Alex made a vase. Sam made a bowl. Ben made a pancake, then rolled it up. When I
asked him what he was making, he said, a pipe. Tonya was quick to point out that pipes dont
hold water, but Ben didnt care. The idea of making a pipe for water to go through, rather than a
container for water to hold, captured his interestand everyone elses in the group, too. And
suddenly, all the kids were making pipes!
January 20: The kids in my small group asked if they could keep making clay pipes today, so
we did. It was Tonyas idea to roll the clay around wooden cylinders, then remove the cylinders
so that there is a hole for the water to move through, and everyone followed suit. After
completing each pipe, they then told me where to attach itwatching very carefully to see if a
hole needed to be bigger so that the water wouldnt get stuck. They can really imagine how the
water is going to move. Later Sam and Ben worked on making a long pipe. They wanted water to
come out of both ends at once, so Sam suggested cutting a hole in the middle of the top so that
they can add another pipe there. I asked him where that idea came from. He paused for a minute,
and then said, I was riding my bike really, really fast, and it made me think of water going down
the pipe. All of these pipes attached together are quite a sight. The kids have even given it a
namethey call it Water Town.
January 31: During free choice, the kids continue to spend lots of time at the water tableusing
the tubes and T-connectors, exploring how water goes up and down and around the water wire
wall. Its almost as if the kids explorations at the water table are feeding their work with
Water Town. At the same time, their work on Water Town feeds their work at the water table.
After all, its at the water table where they can test out new ideas and possibilities that they can
then bring back to Water Town.
Excerpts from Sue Steinsiecks Teachers Journal (reprinted with permission)
There are many implications for the classroom given this view of science. Here I will briefly
address science in the child-centered curriculum, the role of materials, the use of time and space,
the key role of discussion and representation, and the teachers role.
Science in the Child-Centered Curriculum
There are many definitions for child-centered curriculum that fall along a continuum. At one
end is the belief that much of the curriculum is centered on the childrens ideas and questions. It
is co-constructed by the child and the teacher. At the other end is a structured program with little
child input except during free time. The reality of a good science curriculum is that it sits in
between these extremes. The phenomena and the basic concepts are determined by the teacher,
perhaps because of an interest she has observed in the classroom, but this need not be the case.
Once a phenomenon is introduced and children begin their explorations, their questions may
guide much of what follows.
From this perspective, the question to be asked is not, Whose question is it? but rather, Are
the children engaged? Children need to own the content, but it need not necessarily be initiated
by them. In the example above, water was the teachers science focus. But the idea of pipes and
Water Town clearly belonged to the children.
Materials for Science
The selection of and access to materials are critical to science. It is through the materials that
children confront and manipulate the phenomenon in question. To the extent possible, the
materials must be open ended, transparent, and selected because they allow children to focus on
important aspects of the phenomenon. This is in contrast to materials that by their appearance
and the ways in which they can be manipulated guide what children do and think. One example
of the difference is the prefabricated marble run. Rather than creating their own roadway for
marbles and struggling to make it work, the marble run has done the thinking for the children.
All they need to do is drop the marble in and watch it roll. This is very different from using
blocks and some form of gutter materials where they need to grapple with the slope, the corners,
the intersection of the parts, and solve the problem of getting the marble to reach their finish line.
Another example is the use of transparent tubing, droppers, and funnels in the water exploration
as described in the teachers journal above. The materials themselves are open ended, and the
movement of water visible. A third example is the use of multiple kinds of blocks and
construction materials when investigating structures. In such an investigation, Legos might be
temporarily removed because the fact that they snap together reduces the challenge of building
towers and walls and thus reduces the focus on the forces at work.
Time and Space for Science
Good science investigations take place over extended time, both short term and long term.
Engaged children may stay with something for significant periods of time, and some children
may need time to get involved. The typical schedule in the classrooms of young children often
militates against inquiry-based science learning. Short 20- or 30-minute activity or choice times
allow children to start but not continue their work. In addition, if science work is episodic and
not available regularly during the week, continuity is lost and the opportunity to draw
conclusions reduced. Science also needs to be talked about and documented. This, too, takes
time. Science needs space. If children are to engage with phenomena in many different ways,
activity may need to be spread out in the classroom and outdoors. Building structures may
happen in the block area, on table tops, in the sand table. Germinating seeds need to be put
somewhere, as do plants that are growing in other ways and interesting collections from
outdoors. An investigation of shadows might include a shadow puppet theater, a darkened alcove
for playing with flashlights, and a lamp and screen to explore shapes. The implication of this
need for space and time is that focusing on a science study may require that other things be set
aside or changed. The morning circle routine might become a science talk a couple of time a
week. The dramatic play corner might be a shadow puppet theater, and the water table might be
closed to dish washing and baby doll bathing.
Discussion and Representation in Science
Discussion and representation are both critical to science learning and an important part of the
inquiry process and the development of science reasoning. Both in small groups and in large
ones, discussion encourages children to think about what they have experienced, listen to the
experiences of others, and reflect on their ideas. Similarly, representation using a variety of
mediaincluding drawing, writing, and collageencourages children to observe closely and
reflect on their experiences over time as well as build vocabulary and language structures.
George Forman, emeritus professor at the University of Massachusetts, in an unpublished
comment says it this way, Experience is not the best teacher. It sounds like heresy, but when
you think about it, its reflection on experience that makes it educational (Conference
presentation).


The Teachers Role
The teachers role is critical to childrens science learning, and it is a complex one that is
informed by her knowledge of children, of teaching and learning, and of pedagogical science
knowledge. I want to highlight just one of thesepedagogical science knowledge. Childrens
scientific inquiry is guided by the teachers explicit understanding of the important underlying
science concepts of the focus she has chosen. For example, the childrens work with water in the
teacher journal above is indeed about pipes and Water Town, but it is also about how water
flowsa basic property of liquids. While explicit teaching of the concept is not appropriate, the
structure of the experiences and the teachers facilitation is guided by her understanding of the
concepts and how children learn them. Her questions, comments, and probes draw the childrens
attention to the conceptin this case, that water flows and flows down. In the study of snails,
described earlier, the children were interested in lots of thingswhether snails liked each other,
how they had babies, how they got in their shells. In the notes, we see the teacher picking up on
one of those interests and a basic characteristic of animal behavior and adaptationhow they
move. This kind of teacher guidance and facilitation is based in each teachers understanding of
the concepts behind the childrens work and enables her to encourage children to notice and
reflect on key aspects of the phenomenon they are exploring.
Conclusion
For many years, the role of early childhood education has been focused on childrens social,
emotional, and physical development as well as very basic skills in language and arithmetic.
Although work with materials is fundamental to early childhood, focusing childrens thinking on
the science of these experiences is rare. Science activities often are seen as vehicles for the
development of vocabulary and skills such as small motor coordination, counting, and color and
shape recognition. These activities are not parts of long-term explorations or sequenced into
projects focused on the science concepts and emphasizing the processes of scientific inquiry.
This is exacerbated when teachers are uncomfortable with science, have little science
background, and lack confidence in their abilities to teach science to children.
In many settings, the new knowledge about childrens cognitive potential is not being used to
broaden and deepen the science curriculum to include more in-depth and challenging
experiences. Instead, the increasing concern about reading has reinforced the almost singular
focus on learning basic skills of literacy, numeracy, and socialization. It also is bringing to the
early childhood setting increased pressure for accountability, leaving little room for childrens
rich play and exploration of the world around them.
The exploration of the natural world is the stuff of childhood. Science, when viewed as a process
of constructing understanding and developing ideas, is a natural focus in the early childhood
program. As described here, childrens inquiry into appropriate phenomena is not only the place
to build foundational experiences for later science learning, it is fertile ground for the
development of many cognitive skills. It also is a context in which children can develop and
practice many basic skills of literacy and mathematics. Finally, science is a collaborative
endeavor in which working together and discussing ideas are central to the practice.
Acknowledgments
This paper draws from work done in collaboration with Ingrid Chalufour, Cindy Hoisington, and
Jeff Winokur, which resulted in the publication of the Young Scientist Series (Chalufour &
Worth, 2003, 2004, 2005) and Worms, Shadows, and Whirlpools (Worth & Grollman, 2003).
References
Bowman, Barbara T.; Donovan, M. Suzanne; & Burns, M. Susan (Eds.). (2001). Eager to learn:
Educating our preschoolers. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
Chalufour, Ingrid, & Worth, Karen; with Moriarty, Robin; Winokur, Jeff; & Grollman, Sharon
(2003). Discovering nature with young children (The Young Scientist Series). St. Paul, MN: Red
Leaf Press.
Chalufour, Ingrid, & Worth, Karen; with Moriarty, Robin; Winokur, Jeff; & Grollman, Sharon.
(2004). Building structures with young children (The Young Scientist Series). St. Paul, MN: Red
Leaf Press.
Chalufour, Ingrid, & Worth, Karen; with Moriarty, Robin; Winokur, Jeff; & Grollman, Sharon
(2005). Exploring water with young children (The Young Scientist Series). St. Paul, MN: Red
Leaf Press.
Duschl, Richard A.; Schweingruber, Heidi A.; & Shouse, Andrew W. (Eds.). (2007). Taking
science to school: Learning and teaching science in grades K-8. Washington, DC: National
Academies Press.
Feynman, Richard P. (1997). Surely youre joking, Mr. Feynman!: Adventures of a curious
character. New York: W.W. Norton.
Michaels, Sarah; Shouse, Andrew W.; & Schweingruber, Heidi A. (2007). Ready, set, science.
Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
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Worth, Karen & Grollman, Sharon. (2003). Worms, shadows, and whirlpools: Science in the
early childhood classroom. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Science in Early Childhood
Jill de Kock
Abstract
Much research has been published about childrens science ideas and how to teach scientific
phenomena and concepts to children in the upper primary and secondary schools. Research is
now slowly growing with regards to the foundational knowledge and understanding of children
at early childhood level and the role of teachers subject content in providing authentic science
learning experiences. This paper reviews the science education literature relating to early
childhood education and the early years of primary school. It discusses childrens foundational
knowledge and understanding of science and teachers professional knowledge of science and
understanding of childrens learning and development. It then examines the nature of teacher
pedagogical content knowledge needed to provide quality and appropriate enriching learning
experiences in the realm of science, and places this within Te Whaariki and other curriculum
frameworks.
Introduction
Traditionally, the professional knowledge base of a teacher in training for the early education
sector was seen as acquiring knowledge of child development and the pedagogy of how children
learn (Cullen, 1999). Research has shown that, in contrast to Piagets emphasis on domain-
general structures and processes, children have specific knowledge and content, known as
domain-specific knowledge (Cullen, 1999). This implies that children can now be viewed as
having specific knowledge in various areas like literacy, science and mathematics. Gelman
(1998, cited in Cullen 1999), believes that young children are able to make sense of their world
by using categories and groupings. This is in line with Te Whaarikis (Ministry of Education,
1996) image of the child as a capable and competent learner. The acquisition of domain-specific
knowledge is also referred to in the early childhood curriculum document, Te Whaariki, as one
of the areas of development for children. (p. 21). This paper focusses on the science domain-
specific knowledge of children, and the science knowledge needs of teachers.

Childrens domain-specific knowledge is unlikely to be acknowledged and extended if teachers
are not confident in the knowledge themselves. It is doubtful that teachers will be able to
identify, analyse and extend childrens scientific interests, if they are not comfortable with
imparting the scientific knowledge themselves.
Childrens foundational knowledge and understanding
Childrens science views are a result of personal experiences, which include oral language
interactions, watching television and reading books (Crabtree, 1982). Interaction with family
members and other adults also greatly influence childrens ideas in their everyday understanding
of science (Aram et al., 2001).
Historically, little attention was paid to young childrens conceptions of science as it was thought
that children could not understand scientific phenomena (Crabtree, 1982). However, later
research has begun to accept childrens views, labelling them childrens ideas (Osborne and
Freyberg, 1985). Children come into a learning context with their own views and it is important
for teachers to identify these views and to take them seriously (Harlen, 2001).
The conceptual language that children encounter may initially provide them with unscientific
understandings. A typical example of this would be the consumption model of the electricity,
where it uses electricity is a popular phrase that encourages alternative conceptions. According
to Crabtree (1982) it is important for the learner to experience these alternative views, as they
will be more able, through the teachers supportive role, and through testing their ideas, to alter
and modify their ideas to reach a more scientific understanding.
Richards (1996) believes that children can only take one point of view at a time, their own view.
Crabtree (1982) suggests that the childs view is different to that of the adult. However, there are
adults, particularly qualified early childhood teachers, who may have the same views as children,
or their own alternative views. Harlen (2001) contends teachers may not know when to introduce
the scientific view of things or be able to do so in a way that the children will understand. She
believes that some teachers also are reluctant to attempt scientific explanations, fearing that the
children will not understand and will be left more confused. Consequently, children may be left
with their own alternative ideas when they could actually be exploring and experimenting natural
phenomena to develop their understanding. Harlen (2001) believes that other children are one of
the most readily available sources of alternative ideas. In a context of play and collaboration,
children may take on other childrens suggestions, understandings and ideas.
Dunlop (1997) refers to Vosniadous premise that it is important for children to understand why
the scientific explanation is better than the common misconceptions that are encountered in
every day experiences. The example Dunlop gives is of science teaching that the sun is a star, but
in childrens every day experiences the sun is associated with day and heat, whereas the stars are
associated with night and cold. Contrary to this idea, Crabtree (1982) suggests never correcting a
childs misconception and giving them the correct answers, but instead providing activities and
learning experiences that will add to the childs understanding and development of the concept.
Explain only when they are ready. Under-explain rather than over-explain. A concept may take
years to develop there is no hurry. In fact, their thinking cant be accelerated, only encouraged
(p. 10).
Henriques (2000) looking at childrens understandings of the weather in California found that the
misconceptions held by the children were often very close to the truth. She cites as an example
childrens belief that water left out in a container changes into air. Technically, this
misconception is correct as water vapour is a legitimate component of air. Henriques expressed
concern with the fact that most of the research of childrens scientific ideas was concentrated in
the physical sciences and not in the earth sciences. She observes that children have their own
understanding of how the world works prior to receiving science instruction. Henriques stresses
that these views need to be understood by the teacher in order to provide activities that may lead
children to the correct scientific understanding. This is a valid point as long as the activities are
appropriate. The children need to be at the level where their ideas can be challenged and their
interest sustained. For younger children, some activities may remain an activity of exploration
and scientific enquiry.
Teachers professional knowledge
Te Whaariki (Ministry of Education, 1996) was developed as a woven mat for all to stand on,
with the principles, strands and goals forming the framework. (Carr & May, 2000). It recognises
the diversity of early childhood education in New Zealand, and allows for the various
philosophies and cultures. It stresses that Children learn through responsive and reciprocal
relationships with people, places, and things. (Ministry of Education, 1996, p. 43). The holistic
approach of Te Whaariki contrasts strongly with the subject-based approach of the New Zealand
Curriculum Framework
(Ministry of Education, 1993). Some concern has been expressed that focusing on an individual
learning area like science may create a trickle down effect and disrupt the holistic and
integrated approach with which Te Whaariki is meant to be delivered (Carr & May, 2000).
However, right from the time Te Whaariki was introduced there have been claims that teachers
need to have teaching strategies and subject knowledge which allows them to extend childrens
foundational knowledge (Cullen, 1996, p. 119). This view was endorsed in Farquhars (2003)
report on quality teaching in early childhood, which identified one of the seven characteristics of
effective pedagogy that effective teachers use content knowledge confidently to support and
extend childrens learning in interactive and play-based situations (p 2).
A number of studies have addressed the need to develop teacher science knowledge. Haynes
(2000) research describes how the Auckland College of Education addressed the problem of
insufficient subject knowledge for teachers through a dual-curricular approach and design of
teacher programmes. Her study revealed that staff and students alike found that the dual-
curricular approach enhanced the holistic nature of early childhood curriculum and the subject-
based curriculum documents did not give prescription, but rather substance to the curriculum.
Dunlop (1997) also addresses the lack of teachers subject knowledge, using evidence from a
study in Finland in which 86 primary school teachers were asked to write an essay about factors
affecting temperature differences on the earth. Only five teachers could give an accurate
explanation. He suggests that this could be one of the critical factors of childrens
misconceptions, and stresses the importance of adults as student teachers acquiring the scientific
knowledge, in order to plan and implement learning experiences that will lead children to an
understanding of science concepts. As a result, Dunlop suggests a strategic plan to provide
teachers with training in order to upskill their knowledge, and suggests various strategies for
these to be achieved.
Hedges (2004) also argues that beginning teachers cannot be expected to have all the knowledge,
and that it is only through ongoing professional development that confidence in subject
knowledge can be attained. Hedges (2004) also argues that in order to extend childrens learning
and knowledge, student teachers and teachers need to know the importance of, and how to
access accurate science content, in order to promote knowledge and thinking of children.
Garbett (2003) puts forward a case of the importance of teachers science content knowledge in
order to provide stimulating and exciting science experiences for young children. Her study of
students teachers science knowledge highlights that students are not aware of how little they
know, and her collection of results reveal that students scored the lowest in the Astronomy
section. Garbett (2003) cites Alton-Lee & Praats (2000) point that attitudes to science are
generally stereotyped as a male subject and science was ranked as the subject in which they felt
least confident. This supports the likelihood that the calibre of the student attracted to the early
childhood sector is scientifically less knowledgeable than those attracted to primary and
secondary teaching, where subjects are traditionally emphasised (Garbett, 2003).
Garbett stresses the importance of subject content knowledge of science as well as pedagogical
content knowledge of how children may learn and develop sciencific concepts and phenomena,
where the one is dependent on the other (Garbett, 2003).
This implies that the teacher may know how to interact with the young child in gaining an
understanding of a science concept, but a limitation of the understanding of the science concept
at hand will restrict the teacher from asking meaningful questions and extending the childs
thoughts. Davis (2003) also believes that subject knowledge in itself is not sufficient for effective
teaching. She advocates for science content knowledge that joins pedagogical content
knowledge. In her study, she describes the knowledge integration model as an attempt to
strengthen student teachers subject and pedagogical content base for effective teaching in the
United States.
The move away from a Piagetian developmental based pedagogy to a more pro-active
Vygotskian based socio-cultural approach has seen a change in the role of the teacher to one of
providing guidance, support, direction, challenge and impetus (New, 1998). As a result it has
become imperative that teachers have the subject knowledge to deal with the knowledge that
children bring to a learning environment.
Science in the assessment, planning and evaluation of the program
Hadzigeorgiou (2001) argues that scientific experiences need to be designed in order to
stimulate wonder, as wonder gives things their meaning and reveals their significance. He terms
this, intellectual curiosity (p.2), and argues that scientific knowledge cannot only be built
through pedagogically appropriate activities, but needs to have the element of intellectual
curiosity. Water, light, sound and force are topics that incite wonder and amazement through
hands-on activities, but it requires informed use of teachers subject knowledge to bring about
learning of scientific concepts. This scientific attitude is also highlighted in the early childhood
curriculum, Te Whaariki as the disposition of curiosity in the strand of Belonging.
This approach can be contrasted with a content orientated adult-initiated curriculum
which ignores learning and developmental processes (Tinworth, 1997). Tinworth points out that
themes chosen by teachers may not allow for childrens interests to be followed and that this
makes teachers less responsive to the depth and pace of learning of individual children. She
argues for a child-initiated curriculum in which children are empowered and take responsibility
for their own learning when their ideas, interests and enthusiasm are shared and valued by
teachers (p. 28).
Much of the research literature on teaching and learning of science in early childhood
settings reinforces the need for a socio-constructive pedagogy. Fleers (1991) study focussed on
the childrens knowledge of an electrical circuit, their knowledge of how a torch operates and
how electricity flowed through a circuit. Through factual books and modelling, the children were
moved towards scientific understandings. The close collaborative relationship of teacher and
child that developed led Fleer to science learning in early childhood is better placed within a
paradigm in which learning is viewed as being socially constructed (p.97). Smith (1996) also
found that the child can be moved forward to another level by working in the childs ZPD.
French (2004) speaks of an adults guidance to enrich childrens learning in a way that
paces activities, creates a language-rich environment, and scaffolds childrens learning. She
attests to the fact that science fits well into early childhood programmes as it is a soundboard to
childrens inherent curiosity and natural enquiring minds.
Ordinary activities can become scientific events for children by engaging with mixing paints,
pressing a boat into water or watching a worm crawl through the mud. These experiences
provide opportunities for hands-on, practical interaction, accompanied by the use of language,
which aids intellectual development and language acquisition. French also mentions that children
construct knowledge through observing, predicting, planning, asking questions and reflecting on
the experiences.
After careful assessment of childrens authentic interests, the project approach is an
appropriate way to introduce and encourage extended learning on a science topic. Stegelin
(2003) attests to the fact that project work should be mostly initiated by the childrens interests
with the role of the teacher being one of facilitator and guide. She emphasises the importance of
documentation both as an evaluation tool and a means of developing the emerging ideas of the
children.
Educational trips can extend on childrens learning about a topic, allowing them to
experience scientific phenomena first-hand, and revisit concepts, thereby strengthening their
knowledge base. Hedges (2004) describes a visit related to childrens interest in marine biology.
She illustrates how childrens authentic interests can be taken seriously and reflected in an
integrated curriculum. Prior to the visit to the acquarium, the programme included story books
and non-fiction books about the ocean, children drawing different ocean creatures and viewing a
real diving suit and its accessories. Following the excursion, more follow-up activities were
available, including a shark video and a dramatic play corner. Water play with plastic ocean
animals was availavle for children to re-enact their experiences.
Conclusion
This review has highlighted the importance of teachers subject knowledge in science in order to
ascertain, add to and alter childrens foundational science knowledge. The importance of a socio-
culturally based pedagogy is also clear. Research has shown how childrens thinking can be
moved a step forward, through the help of a more skilful partner. This can only be attained if the
more skilful partner is armoured with the knowledge. Using and building on childrens interest,
curiosity and exploration, allows the teacher to enhance their understanding of scientific
concepts within a play-based curriculum.
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Teaching Science During the Early Childhood Years
by Dr. Kathy Cabe Trundle

IF YOU HAVE EVER WATCHED A YOUNG CHILD collect rocks or dig in the soil
looking for worms you probably recognize that children have a natural tendency to enjoy
experiences in nature. Young children actively engage with their environment to develop
fundamental understandings of the phenomena they are observing and experiencing. They also
build essential science process skills such as observing, classifying, and sorting (Eshach & Fried,
2005; Platz, 2004).
These basic scientific concepts and science process skills begin to develop as early as
infancy, with the sophistication of childrens competency developing with age (Meyer, Wardrop
& Hastings, 1992; Piaget & Inhelder, 2000).
The Importance of Science in Early Childhood Education
Research studies in developmental and cognitive psychology indicate that environmental
effects are important during the early years of development, and the lack of needed stimuli may
result in a childs development not reaching its full potential (Hadzigeorgiou, 2002). Thus,
science education in early childhood is of great importance to many aspects of a childs
development, and researchers suggest that science education should begin during the early years
of schooling (Eshach & Fried, 2005; Watters, Diezmann, Grieshaber, & Davis, 2000).
There are several reasons to start teaching science during the early childhood period.
First, children have a natural tendency to enjoy observing and thinking about nature (Eshach &
Fried, 2005; Ramey-Gassert, 1997). Young children are motivated to explore the world around
them, and early science experiences can capitalize on this inclination (French, 2004).
Developmentally appropriate engagement with quality science learning experiences is
vital to help children understand the world, collect and organize information, apply and test
ideas, and develop positive attitudes toward science (Eshach & Fried, 2005). Quality science
learning experiences provide a solid foundation for the subsequent development of scientific
concepts that children will encounter throughout their academic lives (Eshach & Fried, 2005;
Gilbert, Osborne, & Fenshama, 1982). This foundation helps students to construct understanding
of key science concepts and allows for future learning of more abstract ideas (Reynolds &
Walberg, 1991).
Engaging science experiences allow for the development of scientific thinking (Eshach &
Fried, 2005; Ravanis & Bagakis, 1998). Supporting children as they develop scientific thinking
during the early childhood years can lead children to easily transfer their thinking skills to other
academic domains which may support their academic achievement and their sense of self-
efficacy (Kuhn & Pearsall, 2000; Kuhn & Schauble, & Garcia- Milla, 1992).
Early childhood science learning also is important in addressing achievement gaps in
science performance. Although achievement gaps in science have slowly narrowed, they still
persist across grade levels and time with respect to race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status (SES),
and gender (Campbell, Hombo, & Mazzeo, 2000; Lee, 2005; OSullivan, Lauko, Grigg, Qian, &
Zhang, 2003; Rodriguez, 1998). Lee (2005) describes achievement gaps in science as
alarmingly congruent over time and across studies (p 435), and these achievement gaps are
evident at the very start of school. Gaps in enrollment for science courses, college majors, and
career choices also persist across racial/ethnic groups, SES, and gender (National Science
Foundation, 2001, 2002). Scholars have linked early difficulties in school science with students
decisions to not pursue advanced degrees and careers in science (Mbamalu, 2001) Science
education reform efforts call for science for all students to bridge the science achievement
gaps. Yet attainment of this goal has been impeded by a lack of systematic instructional
frameworks in early childhood science, insufficient curricula that are not linked to standards, and
inadequate teacher resources (Oakes, 1990). Poor science instruction in early childhood
contributes to negative student attitudes and performance, and these problems persist into the
middle and high school years (Mullis & Jenkins, 1988). Eshach and Fried (2005) suggest that
positive early science experiences help children develop scientific concepts and reasoning,
positive attitudes toward science, and a better foundation for scientific concepts to be studied
later in their education.
Young Childrens Early Ideas about Science In order to help children learn and
understand science concepts, we must first understand the nature of their ideas about the world
around them. A number of factors influence childrens conceptions of natural phenomena. Duit
and Treagust (1995) suggest that childrens conceptions stem from and are deeply rooted in daily
experiences, which are helpful and valuable in the childs daily life context. However, childrens
conceptions often are not scientific and these nonscientific ideas are called alternative
conceptions. Duit and Treagust proposed six possible sources for alternative conceptions:
sensory experience, language experience, cultural background, peer groups, mass media, and
even science instruction.
The nature of childrens ideas, the way they think about the natural world, also influences
their understanding of scientific concepts. Children tend to view things from a self-centered or
human-centered point of view. Thus, they often attribute human characteristics, such as feelings,
will or purpose, to objects and phenomena (Piaget, 1972; Bell, 1993). For example, some
children believe that the moon phases change because the moon gets tired. When the moon is not
tired, we see a full moon. Then, as the moon tires, we see less of the moon. Childrens thinking
seems to be perceptually dominated and limited in focus. For example, children usually focus on
change rather than steady-state situations, which make it difficult for them to recognize patterns
on their own without the help of an adult or more knowledgeable peer (Driver, Guesne, &
Tiberghien, 1985; Inagaki, 1992). For example, when children observe mealworms over time
they easily recognize how the mealworms bodies change from worm-like, to alien-like, to bug-
like (larva to pupa to adult beetle). However, they have difficulty noticing that the population
count remains constant throughout the weeks of observation.
Childrens concepts are mostly undifferentiated. That is, children sometimes use labels
for concepts in broader or narrower ways that have different meanings than those used by
scientists (Driver et al, 1985; Inagaki, 1992). Children may slip from one meaning to another
without being aware of the differences in meaning, i.e., children use the concept labels of living
and non-living differently than do adults or scientists. For example, plants are not living things
to some young children because they do not move. However, the same children consider some
non-living things, such as clouds, to be living things because they appear to move in the sky.
Finally, childrens ideas and the applications of their ideas may depend on the context in which
they are used (Bar & Galili, 1994; Driver et al., 1985).
Childrens ideas are mostly stable. Even after being formally taught in classrooms,
children often do not change their ideas despite a teachers attempts to challenge the ideas by
offering counter-evidence. Children may ignore counter-evidence or interpret the evidence in
terms of their prior ideas (Russell & (Watt, 1990; Schneps & Sadler, 2003).
Effectively Teaching Children Science
Contemporary instructional approaches described in science education literature draw
heavily on the constructivist philosophy. Although there are many forms of constructivism, all of
the instructional applications of constructivism view children as active agents in their personal
construction of new knowledge (Fosnot, 1996; Gunstone, 2000). Further, these instructional
approaches aim to promote active learning through the use hands-on activities with small groups
and with sense-making discussions. A common expectation is that learners are more likely to
construct an understanding of science content in this type of inquiry-based learning environment
(Trundle, Atwood, Christopher, & Sackes, in press). However, minimally guided instructional
approaches, which place a heavy burden on learners cognitive processing, tend to not be
effective with young children. A heavy cognitive burden leaves little capacity for the child to
process novel information, thus hindering learning (Kirschner, Sweller & 2006; Mayer, 2004).
As educators consider young childrens limited cognitive processing capacities, inquiry-based
instructional approaches, which are guided by the teacher, seem to offer the most effective way
for young children to engage with and learn science concepts.
A guided inquiry-based approach allows for scaffolding of new scientific concepts with the
learners existing mental models (Trundle et al., in press). In a guided inquiry approach, children
are expected to be active agents in the learning activities, which strengthens childrens sense of
ownership in their work and enhances their motivation. With this approach, children usually
work in small groups, which promotes their collaboration skills and provides opportunities to
scaffold their peers understandings.
Meaningful science activities, which are relevant to childrens daily lives, allow children to make
connections between what they already know and what they are learning. Sense-making
discussions promote childrens awareness of the learning and concept development and facilitate
the restructuring of alternative ideas into scientific mental models. As teachers work with
children to develop their inquiry skills, the instructional strategies should move toward more
open inquiry where children are posing their own questions and designing their own
investigations (Banchi & Bell, 2008). Integrating Text with Inquiry Learning Traditional science
instruction has unsuccessfully relied heavily on didactic textbook-based approaches. A
growing body of literature suggests that traditional, text-based instruction is not effective for
teaching science because children are usually involved in limited ways as passive recipients of
knowledge. However, nonfiction, expository text can be integrated effectively into inquiry-based
instruction. Researchers suggest that the use of expository text should be accompanied with
appropriate instructional strategies (Norris et al., 2008). Teachers should ask questions that
activate students prior knowledge, focus their attention, and invite them to make predictions,
before, during, and after reading the expository text. These types of questions promote childrens
comprehension of the text and improve science learning (Kinniburgh, & Shaw, 2009).
The structure of the text can affect science learning. The main ideas in the text should be
supported with several examples, and these examples serve as cognitive support for the
children. Examples should be highly relevant to the main idea so that children can
establish connections between the text content and their own personal experiences
(Beishuizen et al., 2003).
Diagrams also support science learning. Effective, clear diagrams that represent causal
relationships in the text support childrens comprehension of causal mechanisms
(McCrudden, Schraw, & Lehman, 2009).
Illustrations and images in textbooks can be effectively integrated into inquiry-based
instruction. Learning by inquiry involves, among other skills, observation in nature over
time. However, teachers are presented with several challenges when they try to teach
science concepts through actual observations in nature. For example, some phenomena
are not observable during school hours. Weather conditions and tall buildings or trees can
make the observations of the sky difficult and frustrating, especially for young children.
Also, observations in nature can be time consuming for classroom teachers who want to
teach science more effectively through an inquiry approach. Images can be used to allow
children to make observations and inferences. Teachers also can have children compare
observations in nature to illustrations and images in books. While many science educators
might argue that observing phenomena in nature is important, the use of illustrations and
images in the classroom offers a practical and effective way to introduce and teach
science concepts with young children (Trundle & Sackes, 2008).

Conclusion
Young children need quality science experiences during their early childhood years.
Science and Literacy provides a systematic instructional framework, a standards-based
curriculum, and high quality teacher resources. This program also effectively integrates text,
illustrations, and diagrams into inquiry-based instruction.

Constructivist Teaching and Learning Models
Constructivism is an approach to teaching and learning based on the premise that
cognition (learning) is the result of "mental construction." In other words, students
learn by fitting new information together with what they already know.
Constructivists believe that learning is affected by the context in which an idea is
taught as well as by students' beliefs and attitudes.
Constructivist teaching is based on recent research about the human brain and what is
known about how learning occurs. Caine and Caine (1991) suggest that brain-
compatible teaching is based on 12 principles:
1. "The brain is a parallel processor" (p. 80). It simultaneously processes many
different types of information, including thoughts, emotions, and cultural
knowledge. Effective teaching employs a variety of learning strategies.
2. "Learning engages the entire physiology" (p. 80). Teachers can't address just
the intellect.
3. "The search for meaning is innate" (p. 81). Effective teaching recognizes that
meaning is personal and unique, and that students' understandings are based on
their own unique experiences.
4. "The search for meaning occurs through 'patterning' " (p. 81). Effective
teaching connects isolated ideas and information with global concepts and
themes.
5. "Emotions are critical to patterning" (p. 82). Learning is influenced by
emotions, feelings, and attitudes.
6. "The brain processes parts and wholes simultaneously" (p. 83). People have
difficulty learning when either parts or wholes are overlooked.
7. "Learning involves both focused attention and peripheral perception" (p. 83).
Learning is influenced by the environment, culture, and climate.
8. "Learning always involves conscious and unconscious processes" (p. 84).
Students need time to process 'how' as well as 'what' they've learned.
9. "We have at least two different types of memory: a spatial memory system, and
a set of systems for rote learning" (p. 85). Teaching that heavily emphasizes
rote learning does not promote spatial, experienced learning and can inhibit
understanding.
10. "We understand and remember best when facts and skills are embedded in
natural, spatial memory" (p. 86). Experiential learning is most effective.
11. "Learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by threat" (p. 86). The
classroom climate should be challenging but not threatening to students.
12. "Each brain is unique" (p. 87). Teaching must be multifaceted to allow students
to express preferences.
How should early childhood science be taught and how is it different from
elementary/middle/secondary science?
Foster inquiry by building on childrens spontaneous exploration and gradually guide
them to become more focused and systematic in their observations and investigations.
Give children many and varied opportunities to use inquiry skills, but not isolated from
interesting topics and ideas and childrens ongoing play (Worms, Shadows, and
Whirlpools)
Science for early childhood MUST be experiential, hands-on activities and materials that
children can explore. Science should be integrated into other content areas and used in
songs, finger plays, and other daily activities and pointed out in everyday life.

What are the skills of inquiry?
Raise questions about objects and events around them
Explore objects, materials, and events by acting upon them and noticing what happens
Make careful observations of objects, organisms, and events using all of their senses
Describe, compare, sort, classify, and order in terms of observable characteristics and
properties
Use a variety of simple tools to extend their observations (e.g., hand lenses, measuring
tools, eyedroppers, a balance)
Engage in simple investigations including making predictions, gathering and interpreting
data, recognizing simple patterns, and drawing conclusions
Record observations, explanations, and ideas through multiple forms of representation
including drawings, simple graphs, writing, and movement
Work collaboratively with others
Share and discuss ideas and listen to new perspectives (Worms, Shadows, and
Whirlpools)

What are some ideas to get me started?
Cooking:
o Measuring
o Mixing
Water table:
o Colored ice cubes
o Objects frozen inside ice cubes
o Sinking/floating
o Different sized containers
o Tubes and funnels
Blocks:
o Bridges
o How tall can you build a tower?
o Ramps/cars
Literacy:
o Resource books at a wide range of abilities
o Picture books
o Magazines
o Computers Peep and the Big Wide World, PBS, see resources
o Journals/Writing/Recording
o Science word wall
Colors:
o Coffee filters/eye droppers/food coloring
o Paper chromatography
o Carnation/celery and food coloring
o Knox gelatin in sensory table to explore texture/add different colors/mixing colors
Magnets
o What is magnetic in our classroom?
o Magnet painting
Nature Walks
o What sounds do I hear?
o Classification of objects found outside
o How do animals hear/see/use camouflage
Observation Stations
o Tree cookies
o Insects
o Plant growth in classroom or pick a tree outside and observe over the course of
the year
Planting seeds
o What makes a plant grow big and strong?
Feely box
o Write predictions/observations on a chart (with assistance if necessary)
Smelling jars
Old mechanical objects (radios, telephones, etc.)
o Make sure they are safe (remove any hazardous or potentially hazardous
materials) and allow children to explore how they are put together
Bubbles:
o How can you make a really big bubble?
Textures:
o Variety of materials could be used in the sensory table
Scientific literacy and supporting children's
scientific learning in ECE
How to include scientific literacy in an early childhood program
I believe supporting children's own understanding of scientific ideas, and promoting the skills
that help them to develop these further, are teaching strategies that are used by teachers who see
science as a way of explaining, and re-explaining, the world. Engaging in these teaching
strategies will foster shared learning and increase teachers' scientific knowledge as well as the
children's. It will also model a positive attitude toward science and an understanding of the
Nature of Science (NOS). Teachers who use scientific knowledge in their everyday teaching
practice, will model a vision of what scientific literacy is and how it might be used in today's
rapidly changing world to enhance children's future.
Reflective questions:

are your views on current scientific debates in the news?
don't know much about?


http://www.justsciencenow.com/images/inquiryheadline.gif

What is Inquiry?
Inquiry means that students are handling science; they are manipulating it, working it into new
shapes and formats, integrating it into every corner of their world, and playing with it in
unknown ways. Inquiry implies that students are in control of an important part of their own
learning where they can manipulate ideas to increase understanding. As students learn to think
through the designs and developments of their own inquiry, they also develop a sense of self-
responsibility that transcends all subject areas.
Many science textbooks portray science as a collection of facts or a body of knowledge for
students to learn. Unfortunately, the impression this may leave with students is that studying
science is nothing more than memorizing facts and mastering theories. On the contrary, there is
much room in science for intuitive, hypothetical, playful, and imaginative forms of learning. In
other words, there is room for inquiry.
"Scientific inquiry refers to the diverse ways in which scientists study the natural world and
propose explanations based on the evidence derived from their work. Inquiry also refers to the
activities of students in which they develop knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, as
well as an understanding of how scientists study the natural world."

National Science Education Standards
The National Science Education Standards state that "inquiry is central to science learning."
These standards point out that students engaging in science inquiry will demonstrate the
following behaviors:
"Describe objects and events."

"Ask questions."

Construct explanations."

"Test explanations against current scientific knowledge."

"Communicate their ideas to others."

"Identify their assumptions."

"Use critical and logical thinking."

"Consider alternative explanations."

Approaches to Inquiry
Alan Colburn, in "An Inquiry Primer," defines inquiry as "the creation of a classroom where
student are engaged in essentially open-ended, student-centered, hands-on activities."
Colburn supports that the inquiry-based classroom encompasses several approaches to inquiry-
based instruction. These approaches include Structured Inquiry, Guided Inquiry, Open Inquiry,
and Learning Cycle.
Structured Inquiry

The teacher establishes parameters and procedures for inquiry. Students are provided
with a hands-on problem to investigate as well as the procedures and materials necessary
to complete the investigation. Students discover relationships between variables or
generalize from data collected, which in essence leads to the discovery of expected
outcomes. The value in using structured inquiry is it allows the instructor to teach
students the basics of investigating as well as techniques of using various equipment and
procedures that can be used in later more complicated investigations. In other words,
structured inquiries provide students with common learning experiences that can be used
in guided or open inquiry.
Guided Inquiry

The teacher provides the problem for investigation as well as the necessary materials.
Students are expected to devise their own procedure to solve the problem.
Open Inquiry

Open Inquiry has been defined as student-driven. Similar to Guided Inquiry, students
formulate their own problem to solve as well as the procedure. Open Inquiry is analogous
to doing science. Science fair projects are often examples of Open Inquiry.
Learning Cycle
Students are involved in an activity that introduces a new concept. Afterwards, the
teacher informs the students of the formal name of the concept. Students transfer
knowledge of the concept through application in a different context.

Colburn's Inquiry Approaches in Action
The figure below provides a comparison of Colburn's four approaches to inquiry-based
instruction as applied to one of Florida's Sunshine State Standards that addresses motion
(SS.C.1.2.1 The student understands that the motion of an object can be described and
measured).
Approaches to Inquiry-Based Instruction
Structured Inquiry

Students are given a step-by-step procedure, including
visual displays and diagrams for constructing an exhibit
demonstrating different kinds of motion (for example,
straight, circular, back and forth). Questions prompt
students to measure and describe motion of various
objects.
Guided Inquiry

Students are provided with various objects, measuring
tools, and other materials. Procedures instruct them to
demonstrate different kinds of motion using the provided
materials. Later, they are required to demonstrate two
kinds of motion using objects not yet used. Finally,
students make record of their observations.
Open Inquiry

Students are given various objects, tools for measuring,
and other necessary materials. They are instructed to
investigate different kinds of motion.
Learning Cycle

Students follow guided inquiry procedures followed by
teacher-lead discussion of their findings. Concepts such as
force and other variables are introduced. The idea is that
students are exposed to the concepts prior to their
introduction. The students eventually return to the inquiry
setting and apply the newly acquired knowledge to a new
situation. For example, they could be given additional
objects to observe and measure the motion of and be asked
to analyze the variables that influence the motion.
Adapted from an example provided by Alan Colburn, An Inquiry Primer, March 2000.

The IDEAL Model
Bransford and Stein (1984) suggest using the IDEAL model for solving problems in science.
This approach to inquiry-based learning employs logical sequencing of procedures that begin
with problem identification and concluding with a reflection of an attempted plan of action.
'I' for Identify the problem
'D' for Define and represent the problem
'E' for Explore alternative approaches
'A' for Act on a plan
'L' for Look at the effects
Implementing Inquiry
Implementing inquiry does not have to be intimidating or inconvenient. It should be a natural
process of teaching that supports the nature of science and employs the natural curiosity of
students. The examples provided above demonstrate how teachers use inquiry as a continuum
beginning with structured inquiry and progressing through guided inquiry to finally encouraging
open inquiry.
Phases of Inquiry
According to Nancy T. Davis, Associate Professor of Science Education at Florida State
University (personal interview, 2002), there are four phases within each of the inquiry
approaches. Each phase is characterized by questions that guide students to make their own
discoveries. Each phase is briefly discussed below. Possible starter questions and video
demonstrations are included for support.
View the "Take A Meal Worm To Lunch" lesson
plan used in the following examples.
1. Initiation Phase

The Initiation Phase is the first phase in all levels of inquiry. It is primarily designed to
stimulate and motivate students' curiosity through questioning. This phase provides
students with an opportunity to experience a phenomenon or something new that
challenges a previous belief or assumption.
Have you ever seen?
Did you notice?
What did you observe?
Exploration Phase

The Exploration Phase is the second phase of inquiry. In this phase, questions are eliminated or
narrowed down to those types of questions students can actually physically answer through
experimentation or research.
What happened when?
What did you?
What could we do to find out?
What questions do you have?
Experimentation Phase

The third phase of inquiry is the Experimentation Phase. This is where students form into groups
to conduct an experiment. Students collect data and information, and then formulate a method of
presentation.
What did you find out about?
How is it the same as or different from?
What do you know about the characteristics of?
Presentation Phase

The last phase of inquiry is the Presentation Phase. Groups or individuals take the information
gathered in the experiment and put it into some form of presentation.PowerPoint presentations or
project display boards are types of presentations that may be used. The group or individual will
share the data with an audience and allow time for questions concerning procedures, data,
information, etc.
Can you explain why?
Why do you think?
What other factors may be included in?
Can you find a way to?
How did you arrive at a solution to?
Avoiding Problems
The secret to successful teaching utilizing inquiry is to anticipate possible problems and to
execute strategies that support the inquiry process. Included in this section are some situations
that have been encountered while using the inquiry process and some strategies that have proven
successful in supporting inquiry learning.
Provide students enough time to complete an investigation. It is important to schedule
enough time for any activity in the classroom. Generally this is not a very serious
problem with structured inquiry since the procedures are already prescribed and the time
to complete the investigation is predetermined by the procedures. However, guided and
open inquiry, by their very nature, requires a more flexible schedule.

Suggestions:
Design a schedule of days and exactly what should be completed within that time
period. Set a realistic time frame.
Allow students time out side of class to complete procedures.
Stagger presentations as students complete investigations.
Manipulate various types of equipment prior to designing investigations.
Be aware that often students have difficulty identifying a problem to investigate.

Suggestions:
Expose students to multiple environments or events to stimulate curiosity.
Ask seed questions to stimulate student observations. For example, "Did you see
that?" "Why do you suppose this happened?" "What do you notice?"
Students may be disinterested, apathetic, or will not engage in the inquiry.

Suggestions:
Design structured, and guided investigations with interesting and pertinent
questions.
Allow students to be grouped in open inquiry by the questions they wish to
pursue.
Design peer evaluation as a part of the grading system for the final presentation or
for participation.
Value the project. Indicate to students the investigation will represent a substantial
grade for the grading period.
Involve parents. Notify through a direct phone call from the classroom or email.
This usually has a positive effect for all students including those who are
reluctant.
Be aware that students may have difficulty mastering or designing procedures.

Suggestions:
Use simple structured inquiry as a first step towards building skills and
confidence in designing guided and open inquiry.
Ask students questions that will lead them to proper or efficient designs. For
example, "What do you think if.?" "How could you do this?"
Allow students to practice accepted scientific procedures or propose questions
they choose to investigate.
Concepts and Processes
Scientists utilize specific tools such as observation, experimentation, and communication for
observing and explaining natural phenomena. They follow a logical order, starting with
observations, identifying questions, implementing a set of procedures, and usually, finishing with
formulating conclusions. Inquiry methods introduce students to these same skills. These
instructional strategies teach students to do science as well as study the results of science.
Inquiry means dealing with concepts and concerns that confront humans every day. These
concepts are not independent but are intertwined and multidisciplinary, providing students with a
multitude of opportunities to become involved with science. Each concept includes one or more
process that teachers must consider in the development of an effective science curriculum.
These concepts and their accompanying process(es) are as follows:

To be effective, science teachers must incorporate a healthy dose of each of the three concepts
into every aspect of the curriculum, which requires attention to the processes that promote those
concepts. These processes ensure that any science lesson or unit appeals to the curiosity of
students and addresses the goals of the curriculum.
Concept of Discovery
Concept of Value
Concept of Exploration
Science is for all students and learning science should be an active process. Inquiry is "hands-on"
and "minds-on."
Science instruction must involve students in inquiry-based investigations. Students
collaboratively interact with peers, teachers, and content through the concepts and processes of
inquiry. During inquiry, students make connections between prior knowledge and new
information gleaned from a variety of sources and experiences.
Granted, inquiry is recognized as a highly effective method for learning, no single approach is
appropriate for all classroom situations. Teachers must select strategies and activities that
consider the learning styles and needs of students as well as the content of instruction.
Students engage in problem solving, planning, decision making, discussions, and questioning.
Additionally, they experience assessments consistent with an active approach to learning.
Assessment Inquiry Connection
What is Assessment?
Assessment is a process. Its purpose is to improve student learning through effective feedback.
Assessment provides an effective tool for communicating educational expectations and progress
toward accomplishing those expectations. Assessment involves the ongoing process of collecting
and interpreting data for the purpose of improving understanding and adjusting teaching.
In essence, assessment and learning are two sides of the same coin. As students engage in an
assessment exercise, they should learn from it as well.
The challenge is for teachers to shift the assessment paradigm to embrace the concept of
assessment as more than a terminal event.
The focus of assessment is student learning and understanding.
Types of Assessment
There are three types of assessment. These are diagnostic, formative, and summative.
1. Diagnostic assessment provides a way for teachers to chart a course of action, or map
out a route, using existing knowledge to build upon. It also allows for identification of
gaps or misconceptions in prior learning. These assessments are used to gather
information about what students already know and are able to do.
Examples of diagnostic assessments include but are not limited to:
Graphic organizers
Journal Entries
KWLs
Pre-tests
Formative assessments occur throughout the learning process. They provide multiple
opportunities for students to demonstrate attainment of identified targeted goals without concerns
about grading. Formative assessments should vary to accommodate students' abilities to
demonstrate knowledge.
Examples of formative assessments include but are not limited to:
Conferences
Observations
Question and Answer Sessions
First Drafts / Quizzes
Journals
Formative assessment provides ongoing direction for improvement and/or adjustment in
learning and instruction. It is non-graded and considered low-stakes. An important
element of formative assessment is feedback. Feedback makes the biggest impact when it
occurs during the learning process.
Research shows that most assessments should be formative in nature.
Summative assessment is a high-stakes type of assessment for the purpose of making
final judgments about student achievement and instructional effectiveness.
By the time summative assessment occurs, students have typically exited the learning
mode. Summative assessment forms an end point that sums up the performance or
learning level of achievement.
The evaluation of summative assessments provides a look at student performance as well
as an opportunity to evaluate instructional practices.
Examples of summative assessment include but are not limited to:
Chapter/Unit tests
Projects
Performances
Final copies
How Does Assessment Fit with Inquiry?
The assessment process includes gathering and interpreting information over a period of time,
much like the process of inquiry. Expected academic outcomes regarding scientific inquiry and
investigation should be apparent in assessment practices.
As students begin the inquiry process, the teacher can diagnose prior knowledge and skills and
identify misconceptions. This can be done using a variety of methods or tools.
During the investigation, the teacher can use a variety of formative assessments and/or tools to
guide student learning (i.e., observations, checklists, journals, logs, data, self-assessment, etc.)
The reinforcement of previously learned skills and inclusion of ample practice for new skills are
incorporated within the feedback given and received as a result of formative assessment.
Feedback as a result of formative assessment . . .
Informs students of their progress
Encourages students to continue or extend learning
Offers students an opportunity to improve
Provides students redirection
Summative assessment is also a necessary component of the process of inquiry. This type of
assessment serves to evaluate students understanding of content as well as processes.
What does Assessment of Inquiry Look Like?
Assessment of active knowledge can take many forms, some of which are indistinguishable from
the learning process. Assessments can be individual or group, or a combination of both. It is
important to note, however, that assessments must generate evidence of individual achievement
in order to be useful. Assessment of inquiry should smoothly link content with process.
Assessment should mirror what is most highly valued - scientific understanding, reasoning, and
knowledge. As with instruction, the student should be central to assessment.
Assessment of inquiry can take on many forms. Some include . . .
Interviews
Projects
Formal performance tasks
Portfolios
Checklists
Written reports
Multiple choice
Short answer
Essay examinations
Assessment Considerations
What is the purpose(s) for assessment? Assessment should provide information needed to
improve instruction and learning. This information is shared through feedback. Feedback
informs the teacher as well as helps students improve learning strategies and study habits in
order to become independent, successful learners.
What criteria will students use to assess how well they have communicated their
findings? Students may use a rubric for the purpose of assessing progress throughout inquiry.
This tool may be teacher generated, but is best if students and teacher generate collectively.
Sometimes a checklist or a criteria list is sufficient to guide students' progress. Regardless of the
type of tool used to measure student achievement, criteria should be shared with students early-
on during the inquiry process.
When and how will students present what they have learned?Who will be the audience? This
should be established well in advance and the students should be informed. Who your audience
will be plays a determining factor in how you choose to present your findings. Possibilities
include multimedia presentations, diorama, written report, play, oral report, model, poster,
pamphlet, etc. Ongoing assessment should occur during the entire inquiry process and students
should be asked to reflect on the process as well as the results.
Evaluation and Inquiry
What is Evaluation?
Like assessment, evaluation is a process set in motion for the purpose of improving student
achievement. Judgments are made about the quality of overall student performance. The process
of evaluation provides a means for communicating student performance.
Evaluation of Inquiry in the Classroom
At some point, it becomes necessary to apply a score, grade, or value to student work.
Determining what best reflects a student's performance goes well beyond the scoring issue.
Evaluation is the process of determining the score or grade. Evaluation is defined as determining
the worth of or assigning a value to student achievement in relation to the targeted goal on the
basis of careful examination and judgment.
Tools for Evaluation
Rubrics are very useful tools and can play three roles in supporting the inquiry process through
evaluation. First, a rubric informs the student of clear expectations for the successful completion
of the project. Well designed rubrics lay out the descriptors of quality that represent a well
designed and completed project. Secondly, rubrics inform both the learner and instructor of the
progress made during inquiry. The various categories in the rubric can act as benchmarks of
progress and can pace students through the investigation. Finally, rubrics help students to
formulate understandings of the characteristics of inquiry and how those characteristics fit
together in a completed investigation.
Evaluating student inquiry can fall into three categories with corresponding rubrics.
Individual Investigationswhere students work alone and are evaluated throughout the
process.
Group Investigationswhere a group is evaluated, which may include peer assessment.
Presentationwhere only the complete project is evaluated.

What is Inquiry?
Inquiry-based learning is a constructivist approach, in which students have
ownership of their learning. It starts with exploration and questioning and
leads to investigation into a worthy question, issue, problem or idea. It
involves asking questions, gathering and analyzing information,
generating solutions, making decisions, justifying conclusions and
taking action.

Why Inquiry?
Inquiry-based learning approaches when correctly implemented can
help develop higher-order, information literacy and critical thinking
skills. They can also develop problem-solving abilities and develop
skills for lifelong learning. My experience has shown this approach to
engage and motivate students. Students in my classes worked co-
operatively and collaboratively to solve problems and I found the depth
of understanding to be greater than with other teaching approaches.
Teachers Role
The teacher's role in inquiry-based learning is one of 'Guide on the side'
rather than 'Sage on the stage". The teacher scaffolds learning for
students, gradually removing the scaffolding as students develop their
skills. With young children or students new to inquiry it is usually
necessary to use a form of guided inquiry.

Questions

At the heart of inquiry is a good question. It is often open-ended (has no
right or wrong answer) and is higher-order, rich, worthy and/or fertile.
Check out the Question page for more on this aspect.
Inquiry Models

Shared Guided and Independent Inquiry

So what is the answer to this? Mark Treadwells poke at a regional ICTPD
cluster meeting of resourcing difficulties and the use of guided inquiry where
students discuss a topic and are guided into an investigation. In his
article Education in the 21st Century Part
1www.teachers.work.co.nz/archive_Nov_2004.htm Mark talks about Teacher
Initiated Learning Experiences, Shared Teacher-Student Initiated Learning
Experiences and Student Initiated Learning Experiences. Barbara Reid
clarified this further for me by referring to Shared, Guided and Independent
Inquiry. We use this model when teaching reading and written language, why
not inquiry? Herron's Four Levels of Inquiry provides an excellent model of
how this can be carried out.
In a guided inquiry for instance the teacher may present an activity, display
thought-provoking photos or provide some other motivation and then, when
discussion ensues, guide the students to develop a rich question arising from
that discussion. Because the teacher has provided the initial motivation they
will have already been able to provide some suitable resources. Students will
of course also be able to find some of their own resources in addition to those
supplied by the teacher, but they will have a good resource base to start
from. Eventually students would have sufficient skills to complete
independent inquiries and this should be the aim.
One way I have approached this is by starting a discussion on a broad topic
that my knowledge of my students tells me they have an interest in, and is one
I know I can resource. This is the immersion or knowledge bomb stage of
inquiry. I then encourage students to come up with their own question(s) for
inquiry, with help from me to guide them in framing a rich question.
Students also often need some background in the topic before they can frame
a rich question. I have often started with a teacher guided inquiry then
branched off onto a more student-directed inquiry which arose from that topic.
For example, we were talking about Antarctica and the discussion, guided by
me, got round to what there is to do and see in Antarctica. The students
investigated this and came up with their ideas on what a tourist visiting
Antarctica should go and see. While doing this some students started to have
doubts about whether tourists should be allowed to go to Antarctica at all and
this led into a separate inquiry topic of which they had full ownership.

Methods of Teaching Science

In early childhood education, there are different types of activities applied from teachers in the
classroom. Some of them are math, science, literacy, visual art, and music. The aim of these
activities is not only providing good time for children, but also supporting their developmental
areas. Unquestionably, teachers and parents can give more importance to some activities
because of the contribution of cognitive development. Science activity is one of the essential
content areas in early childhood education. Although children are affected by outer factors in
their science learning process, the role of the teachers can be considered as the most important
factors in this process (Wylie & Thomson, 2003).
How many times science activities were applied in classrooms?
All of the participant teachers applied science activities at least once a week in their
classes. While implementing science activities, all of the participants stated that they preferred to
use different types of science materials in their classroom practices. They pointed out that
different types of materials could be used in science activities. For instance:
Children like playing in the garden and use magnifiers. They like investigating different things
with magnifiers. In addition, they like playing with buckets, shovels , and sand (P1).
Three participant teachers mentioned that they generally organized science activities in
both the classroom and the school garden. The explanation of in-service early childhood teacher
was as follows:
I prefer to apply science activities in the garden where children are able to do
observations. As well as the garden, I sometimes implement some activities in the
classroom. For example, we look out of the window to check the weather
I used observation method in my science activities because my children are too young. For
example, we had done observed birds last year. For two months, we examined the life of birds
and tried to prepare documents about them including where they live, where they come from,
what they eat, etc. In this project, children watched a video related to birds and they investigated
different bird pictures
Teaching Methods Used
1. Concept maps
2. Project Approach
3. Experimentation
4. Field-Trip & Investigation
5. Analogy
6. Drama
7. Cooperative Work
8. Computer-based Instruction

Bas i c s of mi nd/ c onc e pt mappi ng
How do I map?
First reject the idea of an outline, or of paragraphs using sentences.
Think in terms of key words or symbols that represent ideas and words:
Other options for mind-mapping:
a pencil (you'll be erasing!) and a blank (non-lined) big piece of paper
a blackboard and (colored) chalk
"post-it" notes

Write down the most important word or short phrase or symbol for the center.
Think about it; circle it.
Post other important concepts and their words outside the circle



Edit this first phase
Think about the relation of outside items to the center item
Erase, edit, and/or shorten words to key ideas
Relocate important items closer to each other for better organization
If possible, use color to organize information
Link concepts with words to clarify their relationships

Continue working outward
Freely and quickly add other key words and ideas (you can always erase!)
Think weird: combine concepts to expand your map or; break boundaries
Develop in directions the topic takes you--not limited by how you are doing the map
As you expand your map, tend to become more specific or detailed
Set the map aside
Later, continue development and revision
Stop and think about relationships you are developing
Expand the map over time (right up to an exam if necessary!)
This map is your personal learning document
It combines what you knew with what you are learning
and what you may need to complete your "picture"

Note the descriptive links for the arrows
for "evapotranspiration" and "condensation"
Concept maps have their origin in the work of David Ausubel
(advanced organizers). The technique of concept mapping was developed by Joseph D Novak at
Cornell. "Concept maps have their origin in the learning movement called constructivism. In
particular, constructivists hold that prior knowledge is used as a framework to learn new
knowledge. In essence, how we think influences how and what we learn. Concept maps identify
the way we think, the way we see relationships between knowledge."
How to Make a Concept Map
The Hierarchy Concept MapThe Spider Concept MapThe Flowchart Concept Map
Edited by Osten, Twilighter12, Tarek.abouelazm, Eric and 11 others
A concept map can help you organize your thoughts and brainstorm stellar ideas for any creative project. Concept
maps are also perfect as a study aid for visual learners, as they allow you to see how a variety of topics and
processes are connected. Concept maps are typically made by placing a word in a box or oval and using arrows or
lines to link it to other words, showing the relationship between these subjects. The most common concept maps are
the hierarchy concept map, the spider concept map, and the flow chart concept map.
Method 1 of 3: The Hierarchy Concept Map
1.
1
Brainstorm a list of important topics. Before you choose the subject at the top of your hierarchy map, you should
write down a list of important subjects related to your project or assignment. If you know that your project should be
about trees, for example, then that word would go at the top of your concept map. But if you just know that you have
to write or think about objects in nature, or materials made from nature, then your task is a bit harder.
[1]
First, write out
all of the concepts related to your general subject:
Trees
Oxygen
Wood
Humans
Plants
Animals
Houses
Paper

1. 2
Choose the most important concept. Once you've brainstormed a list of concepts related to your project, you can
choose the concept that is most essential to all of the others -- the one from which all of the others stem. This may be
obvious, or it may require a little thought. Remember, if it's a hierarchical map, then the central word should be the
one that connects all of the others. In this case, the word is "Trees."
This word will appear in a box or oval at the top of your map.
Note that in some cases, you can skip the first step. If you already know that you have to write a paper or give a
presentation on "Trees," for example, you can write that word at the top of the hierarchical map right away.
2.
3
Link the key word to the second most important words from your list. Once you've found your keys word, draw
arrows extending downward to the left and right that connect the word to the next two or three most important words.
These next words should be able to connect to the other words you've brainstormed, which will appear below them.
In this case, the hierarchical term is "Trees," and it will be linked to the two next most important terms, "Oxygen," and
"Wood."
3.
4
Link the second key words to less important words. Now that you've found your key word and the next most
important words, you can write the words that relate to the second key words below these. These terms will become
more specific, and should relate back to the words above them, "Oxygen" and "Wood," as well as the most central
word, "Trees." Here are the terms that you'll list below these more central terms:
Humans
Plants
Animals
Houses
Paper
Furniture
4.
5
Explain the relationship between the terms. Add lines to connect the terms, and explain the relationship between
the terms in a word or two. The relationships can vary; one concept can be part of another, it can be crucial to
another concept, it can be used to produce another concept, or there can be a variety of other relationships. Here are
the relationships between the concepts on this map:
Trees give oxygen and wood
Oxygen is important to humans, plants, and animals
Wood is used to make houses, paper, furniture
Method 2 of 3: The Spider Concept Map
1. 1
Write the main topic in the center. The spider concept map is organized with a main topic in the center, sub-topics
branching from the main topic, and supporting details branching off the sub-topics. This format will actually make the
map resemble a spider. This type of map is also ideal for writing an essay, because it can help you generate
supporting evidence and understand the primary and secondary details of the subject.
[2]

The spider concept map is also very useful for helping you see which topics are richer than others, because you'll see
that you can "branch off" more concepts from larger topics.
Let's say the main topic is "Health." Write this topic in the center of a piece of paper and circle it. This circle should be
larger and more prominent than the others to emphasize that this is the most important topic.
2. 2
Write the subtopics around the main topic. Now that you've written your main topic, you can write down the
subtopics around it. You can write them in smaller circles and connect the circles to the main topic, "Health." You can
first brainstorm a list of subtopics before you choose a few of them -- let's say three. These subtopics should be large
enough for you to write at least three supporting details about each of them.
Let's say you've brainstormed the following concepts related to health: lifestyle, relaxation, no stress, sleep, healthy
relationships, happiness, diet, fruits and vegetables, exercise, avocado, massage, walking, running, stretching, bike
riding, three balanced meals, and proteins.
Pick the three most important subtopics, which can encompass many of these terms and are broad enough to
incorporate a number of concepts. From this list, the most productive terms are: exercise, lifestyle, and diet. Write
these terms in circles around the main topic and connect them with lines. They should be somewhat evenly spaced
around the central topic, "Health."
3. 3
Write the supporting topics around their the subtopics. Now that you've chosen three supporting topics, you can
write the supporting topics around them. Just do the same thing you did in the last step: brainstorm a list of
supporting topics around the subtopics. Once you've chosen your supporting topics, you can just connect them with
the subtopics with a line or even draw a circle around them to connect them. They should appear smaller than the
subtopics.
Around the subtopic "exercise," you can write the following terms: walking, yoga, variety, how often, how much, and
biking instead of driving.
Around the subtopic "lifestyle," you can write the following terms: sleep, healthy relationships, relaxation, massage,
routine, variety, and love.
Around the subtopic "diet," you can write the following terms: fruits, vegetables, proteins, balance, carbs, and
hydration.
4. 4
Keep going (optional). If you'd like to make your spider concept map really specific, then you could even take it a
step further and write some supporting topics around the supporting topics. This can be useful if you're dissecting a
particularly difficult topic that has many layers. It also depends on how long your paper, assignment, or project should
be -- if it requires more words or time, then you can expand your concept map a bit.
Around the supporting topic "sleep," you can write, "8 hours a night," "don't drink caffeine before bed," and "the same
amount every night"
Around the supporting topic "yoga," you can write "yoga for meditation," "power yoga," or "vinyasa yoga".
Around the supporting topic "balance," you can write "three meals a day," "protein with every meal" and "healthy
snacks."

Basic Science Process Skills
1. Observing
2. Comparing
3. Classifying
4. Measuring
5. Communicating
Scientific concepts

In early childhood, children may not readily understand some of the scientific concepts. So,
some problems may arise from these difficult science concepts. It is important to help childrens
understanding of these scientific concepts. Participant teachers mentioned different concepts that
were most difficult for children to learn early childhood science:

Children have difficulty in understanding the concept of sky. However, you can easily teach
them the general characteristics of sky. That is, you can organize a simple science activity
including the terms related to sky such as the planet. Teaching sky to children is also difficult for
me because the nature of this concept is too complicated. However, as I said before, if we
organize the activity according to childrens developmental level, there is no problem in the
classroom
Project Method of Teaching Science
This method of teaching gives more importance and recognition to the group activity. Before discussing about this method, it is first
important to understand the meaning of concept of Project. According to an expert, a project is a problematic act which is carried
out to completion in its natural and immediate settings. Another expert is of the view that a project is a whole hearted activity which
is done with a specific purpose in a social environment.
Thus it can be said that a project is a special kind of experience which is outcome of a desire of the students. Therefore, teaching by
this method is based upon the use of desire of the students. Project method can be best explained through the phrase learning by
Living.
This phrase clearly explains the fact that human beings are social animals who cannot learn gain any kind of information by living in
isolation. They always learn better in a group or society in which they are being placed. If any human beings intend to live
harmoniously in society then he should be provided with well balanced opportunities in schools and educational institutions to solve
out similar kind of problems which he usually face in his real or actual life.
Human life is full of projects, and all of us make different kinds of attempts to carry out these projects successfully. This method is
designed on the idea that gap between social life and home life of the students should be bridged down. Such kind of atmosphere
should be created in the schools in which students feel themselves in a small society. Under this method, around a central theme,
connected facts are being developed, which can be in the form of scientific principles or facts.
Under this method, a suitable project is being picked up by the students, which they are required to complete in a cooperative and
natural way. Generally such projects are inspired by needs and problems which students encounter in their day to day life. Students
try to solve these problems through advice and guidance of the teacher.
Students are required to perform various kinds of activities while planning and executing the project in reality. As a result of felt
needs of the students, what they learn through this method comes in a natural way. Thus it can be said that teaching conducted
through this method is a kind of incidental learning where teaching is undertaken as a result of mere coincidence in a very informal
v/ay.
Steps taken in Project Method
For a project, one has to take some definite and planned steps, mention of which are as follows:
- In the first step, teacher provides a situation for the project to the teachers. Under this step, teacher should create such conditions
in which students can make various kinds of scientific enquiries from the him. Usually it is found that there is a spontaneous
upsurge of such situations while at the same time, teacher has to plan for the creation of such conditions. Students can spot out such
problems at any place, i.e., laboratory, classroom etc.
- Once the students become interested in picking up and solving a problem, teacher should provide them with number of alternative
suggestions out of which they can make a selection of suitable project in accordance with their mental abilities. To make choice of
appropriate alternative, proper suggestion and advice should be provided to the students by the teacher. While doing so, it is
necessary for teacher as well as students to keep in mind the available facilities in the school.
- In the third step, proper planning relating to project is made out. Teachers take certain steps by which students can be made to
hold lively discussion. For this purpose, teacher can also arrange expert from the other institutions or schools. Students should carry
out all the efforts for chalking out a detailed strategy in accordance with which chosen project will be carried out. In this stage,
teacher should play an active role. It is only he who can provide the students with suggestions as how to choose the most practical
plan of action. At this stage, teacher should assign duties and responsibilities among the students and they should be informed about
their area of functions.
- While keeping interest and mental capabilities of the students, teacher assigns work to the various students by which they can
execute the project in reality. For proper execution of the project, it is necessary that all the students should be provided with equal
opportunities. Teachers also provide the students with the authority by which they can sub-divide the responsibility provided to
them. Such arrangements and conditions are created by the teacher that all the students of the group can work whole heartedly with
a sole purpose of executing the project successfully. Through various sources, important informations are being collected by the
students. For this purpose, they also visit various places and keep timely accounts of the project. Teacher provides the students with
proper guidance if any kind of difficulty get arise. In this process, students can acquire valuable theoretical understanding and
practical application of various scientific ideas and facts in their life.
- It is the responsibility of both teacher and students to review the success and failure of project frequently. This step is taken to
ensure that set objectives of conducting project have been realised properly. Such conditions are created by teacher in which
students can assess their level of performance themselves. Some of the important aspects of execution step are discussions for
improving the execution activities of the project and seeking changes in the procedure. For overall assessment, project is being
evaluated at the end, once it is fully executed to determine the achievement, difficulties and lessons which are learnt by students
during execution of project.
- Students keep a complete record of work performed by them during execution of project. Every step taken by them should be
recorded in proper manner. They should note down the difficulties which they face during their work properly.
All the above mentioned steps should be taken by the students while executing the project. Nature and kind of project should be
selected by the students however, teacher should provide them with proper guidance and directions.

Field-Trip & Investigation
Overview: Children go outdoors to explore a local habitat. They see, feel, and think about the living and nonliving things in the water. Science
notebooks are used to gather information about what they find. Students use their background knowledge from prior classroom experiences, the initial
field trip, classroom investigations, and other observations to notice and observe the living and nonliving things in their environment. Students have
plenty of time to explore and discover before being asked to write and draw in their science notebooks.
Focus Questions:
What can we find in the water?
What are the characteristics of living and nonliving things?
How can we discover what is in the water?

Engagement (30 minutes):
Create a scavenger hunt checklist (Sample scavenger hunt list#1, Sample scavenger hunt list #2 ) to organize a hunt that will prepare children for
the aquatic field trip. This scavenger hunt is an important experience so that expectations for the aquatic field trip are clear and understood. It can be
inside or outside, and specific to your local environment and/or classroom. This is an enjoyable way for students to learn to make careful observations,
to stay in one place to "find" living and nonliving things, and to zoom in on small and not as obvious characteristics. During a scavenger hunt debriefing
session, support students to use vocabulary they will need for the aquatic field session. Using a properties chart to note colors, shapes, sizes, and
other characteristics can provide scaffolding for this experience.

Exploration (1-2 hours or more):
Discuss field trip etiquette with students prior to the field trip. Helpful sources:
In the field
Beachwalk brochure
Video for purchase:Life on the Beach: Among Friends and Anemones
On the field trip, students will work in small groups along with a parent volunteer to discover living and nonliving things in the water. Children will have
an opportunity to discover and explore for the first 30 minutes, and then have time to explore, draw, write, and label the living and nonliving things that
they find in one small area.
Gather students together, explain the boundaries, and remind the students of field trip etiquette. Agree on a signal
for gathering (such as a whistle) and let students know they will have 30 minutes to explore before they take part in a more focused activity. Be sure
that each volunteer has a list of the children in their group and all of the possible tools they will need (nets, pencils, rulers, magnifiers). Students will
explore the freshwater or saltwater habitat, using skills of observation, documentation, and connecting the information they have had in the classroom
investigations to these outdoor experiences. Allow students to use the first 30 minutes to explore freely and notice animals and/or plants, rocks, sand,
mud, etc. (living and nonliving) that are in the area. After 30 minutes, bring students back together with a signal.
Next, each group of students will choose one area in which to gather data, make observations, and record information in their science notebooks.
Move between groups to support students by asking questions such as "Can you take a closer look?" "What kinds of colors can you see?" "What is
bigger?" "What are the living things you see?" "What is not living?"
Afterward, gather the students to share their data with each other. With the help of the adults, be sure that each child shares something from their
exploration. Compare and contrast information from each observation. Later, graphs can be made to organize these data and make connections to
what is living and what is nonliving.
After the sharing time, encourage students to return to a different area to focus more closely. Students will be instructed to once again choose one
small area in which to draw, write, and describe specific animals, rocks, plants, and other things they can see. Encourage them to label, include
descriptions, and note the weather, time, and other observations of what is around them. Let the children know they will be sharing their information
with other children and adults, to help them understand their audience and purpose. Visit each student and take a digital photo to assist with the
documentation of what they see. Be sure to keep track of the photos taken, so that students can access their own photo back in the classroom.

Explanation (30-40 minutes):
When students gather during the aquatic field trip, have them pair-share their notebooks with a partner from another group. As a child from one area
describes different characteristics, children can compare and notice differences. Guiding questions from adults can include: "What is the same?" "What
is different?" "Why do you think so?" This supports students to use vocabulary and share evidence from their observations. Students should also be
supported to ask questions: What else do they wonder about from this observation? See sample questions to encourage scientific thinking.
After returning to the classroom, provide time for additional discussion and explanation. Gather students to share their information and debrief the field
session. Ask them: "What went well?" "What else do you wonder now?" "What kinds of questions can we answer in the classroom?" "What could we
answer if we had another opportunity for a field session?" Guide the students to ask more questions: what else do they now wonder about? How will
they find out more information?

Elaboration:
This activity provides students with opportunities to use vocabulary, ideas, and skills that they learned and practiced during the initial exploration of
living and nonliving things in earlier parts of this unit. Students document learning in the science notebooks to reflect their understanding.
As homework, children may take home information from the field trip and compare to the environment around their home. What is the same? What is
different?

Evaluation:
If desired, use a checklist during and/or after the field trip to document childrens skills and accomplishments. During the classroom debriefing, have
students share their science notebooks, showing and discussing the general as well as specific information of the day.
This may be a good time to complete the OWL chart (refer to Investigation 1 charts). First brainstorm about living and nonliving things. What did we
notice? What characteristics did we observe? What didnt we see? What could we see if we were able to go to a different area? Then, "What did we
find out about living and nonliving things?" "Did we see any living things that were moving?" "How do you know?" "What other questions do we have?"
Note how students connect book and classroom learning with the field session experiences.
For formative assessment, use science notebooks for specific information from the field session. Have children draw and write about their new
understanding from the experience, adding labels and information. Additional questions and "wonderings" can be added either by students writing
and/or teacher taking dictation, with the objective of getting students thinking into the science notebook. Use a rubric to assess depth of
understanding, creating the rubric with students if possible (see rubric ideas).
Teaching with Analogies Model

Teachers use analogies to build conceptual bridges for students
between what is familiar (an analog concept) and what is new (a
target concept). The Teaching With Analogies Model (e.g., see
Glynn, 1995, p. 27) includes these 6 steps: (1) Introduce the target
concept, (2) Review the analog concept, (3) Identify relevant
features of the target and analog, (4) Map similarities, (5) Indicate
where the analogy breaks down, and (6) Draw conclusions. The
steps are described and illustrated in the publications below.
The Teaching With Analogies Model is used extensively in science
education to introduce students to concepts that represent complex,
hard-to-visualize systems with interacting parts (e.g., an atom, a
cell, photosynthesis, an electric circuit, an ecosystem). The model
guides teachers, textbook authors, and website designers in their
use of analogies. Research has shown that using the model
increases students learning and interest.
Teaching with Analogies
Teachers use analogies throughout their lessons, especially when responding to student questions. When a teacher uses phrases
such as similarly, likewise, in the same way as, in comparison to, and just like, they are generally using analogies to help
students grasp a concept. If, however, the analogies are not well chosen or applied systematically, they may be ineffective or cause
confusion.
To maximize the benefit of analogies while minimizing the dangers, we suggest that educators employ the Teaching with Analogies
(TWA) strategy introduced by Glynn, Duit, & Thiele . This strategy models what expert teachers and authors employ when using
analogies. In the TWA strategy, shared attributes between the analogue and target are known as mappings. The goal is to transfer
ideas from a familiar concept (the analogue) to an unfamiliar one (the target) by mapping their relationship. The TWA model consists
of the following six operations:
1. Introduce the target concept
2. Review the analogue concept
3. Identify the relevant features of target and analogue
4. Map similarities between the target and analogue
5. Indicate the limitations of the analogy
6. Draw conclusions
Example
The following example illustrates the use of the TWA strategy when introducing the concept of a pulsar by analogizing it to the
rotating lamp in a lighthouse.
1. Introduce target concept: A pulsar is a rotating neutron start that emits radio waves in a narrow beam at regular intervals.
2. Review analogue concept: A lighthouse contains a lamp that rotates on an axis and emits light beams to viewers at regular
intervals.
3. Identify relevant features of target and analogue: The relevant features are the source of electromagnetic radiation, the axis of
rotation, the rotating source, the distant observer, and the appearance of pulsating energy.
4. Map similarities: The neutron star at the core of the pulsar is analogous to the lamp in a lighthouse since both emit
electromagnetic radiation. The spinning of the pulsar is analogous to rotation of the lamp. The earthbound astronomer who
observes pulsating energy from a pulsar is analogous to the seafarer who observes pulsating light from the lighthouse.
5. Indicate the limitations of the analogy. The pulsar rotates at a rate of perhaps 30 times per second, while the lighthouse light
rotates much slower. The energy emitted from the pulsar is primarily in the form of radio waves, while the energy from the
lighthouse is primarily in the form of visible light. While the beam of light from a lighthouse is at right angles to the lamps axis of
rotation, the beam of energy from the pulsar may be at various angles depending on the alignment of the magnetic pole relative to
the axis of rotation.
6. Draw conclusions. The student develops a basic understanding of the pulsar by analogy to the lamp in a lighthouse.
The drama of science
Do you enjoy the drama of science? The colour, the smells,
the intricacies? Why not follow science teacher Bernhard
Sturms suggestions: let your students bring yet more drama
into the classroom by (re-)enacting science, to help them
visualise and remember the lesson.
Using drama to understand science

Dorions research, exploring the use of drama in science teaching, puts forth the concept of mime and role-play to help students to explore abstract
scientific models. In addition, drama may support visualization of complex models. Drama can also change the dynamics within classroom talk and
support a sense of community amongst students fostered by collaboration, social interaction, and fun
Dorions verdicts stem from his observation of lessons and interviews with teachers and students aged between 11 and 18. He discovered that the
teachers had opted to use drama as a result of a prior positive experience of drama in science. Their expressed intention was to create situations that
were atypical to a normal science lesson and relate it with students own lives. Such experiences were invariably associated with fun by both teachers
and students. The activities involved the use of eccentric objects and novel imagery to train student attention; the use of humor, including puns,
innuendo, and self-deprecation; physical portrayals by students of phenomena; and anthropomorphic analogies (such as using students to act out ion
exchange in chemical bonding).
Perhaps surprisingly, the students were not affected by the anthropomorphic nature of analogies or simulations. They thought them to be easier or
better than diagrams on the board. Dorion suggests that the explicitly anthropomorphic nature of the activity meant that students understood it to be a
representation of reality, whilst they didnt realize that diagrams were models too
In using drama, teachers diverted from their traditional noninteractive and authoritative patterns of talk to more interactive methods. They also
encouraged more group work. While staged performances lead to limited dialogue between students, the preparation of the piece was more dialogic,
and the performance itself got a potentially powerful affective impact in terms of applause and laughter. In enhancing role-plays, students were
observed to take greater ownership of their learnings and appeared to be more equipped as a result of personal expression
Students ease in using gesture and body language points to the value of drama for facilitating their metacognitive abilities as they concentrate on the
main and related features within particular analogies or mental models. Such studies have implications for all educational practitioners. As Dorion
argues, more use should be made of physical sensations to promote cognitive learning. In short, drama-based activities should be taken as a
potentially rich resource for interactive and creative learning

..

Three Main Types of Cooperative Learning in Science
Cooperative learning is the most commonly used group work teaching strategy by all
science teachers. Johnson & Johnson, two well-known pioneers in modern methods of
cooperative learning have identified the three main types of cooperative learning:
cooperative base groups, informal cooperative learning groups and formal cooperative
learning groups (Johnson, Johnson, 1994). Definitions for these three types of
cooperative learning are stated below coupled with illustrations with examples chosen
from the seminar. Other science teachers may use these as their guidelines for forming
cooperative learning groups in their classes.
I. Cooperative Base Groups
Cooperative base groups are long-term, heterogeneous cooperative learning groups
(lasting for at least one semester or year) with a stable membership, whose primary
responsibility is to give each member the support, encouragement, and assistance he
or she needs to progress academically and develop cognitively and socially in healthy
ways. The following example, which is a French nationwide compulsory project
applicable to different subjects including science, illustrates the use of this type of
setting for cooperative learning.
Recently, French high schools have included compulsory group work projects in their
curriculum. TPE (Travaux Personnels Encadres - translated into Supervised Personal
Work) is a compulsory project assignment for all Grade Eleven students in France.
Each student needs to spend a semester on a research project worked out in groups.
The final products of the project consist of a group component and an individual
student component. This research project also includes an oral report. Each student is
assessed for his/her collaboration effort among the group as well as his/her personal
production. In the twelfth grade of the French curriculum, this research project
becomes optional but can be included as part of the Baccalaureat (Final Examination
for High School). Although it is not specified in the seminar whether or not the project
is related to science, but the project organization may well be suited for all science
subjects such as conducting science investigation and scientific research study.
II. Informal Cooperative Learning Groups
An informal cooperative learning group is one in which students work together in
temporary, ad hoc groups that last for only one discussion or class period to achieve
joint learning goals. Informal cooperative learning groups are used to focus student
attention on the material to be learned, create an expectation set and mood conducive
to learning, ensure students cognitively process the material being taught, and provide
closure to an instructional session. The one-period long group work activity designed
for conducting any laboratory work in small groups (usually of 3-4 students) is an
example of an informal cooperative learning group.
Group work is appropriate for laboratory work in science lessons because it is not
always possible to provide material for individual manipulation.
III. Formal Cooperative Learning Groups
The formal cooperative learning group is the most widely used method as almost all
teaching examples provided in the on-line seminar were classified under this method.
A formal cooperative learning group is when students work together for one or several
class sessions to achieve shared learning goals and jointly complete specific tasks and
assignments. These groups provide the foundation for all other cooperative learning
procedures. They are structured through pre-instructional decisions, setting the task
and the cooperative structure, monitoring the groups while they work, intervening to
improve task-work and teamwork, evaluating student learning, and processing group
functioning.
In order to ensure that all students have individual accountability (one of the Johnson
& Johnson five basic elements of cooperative teams) and are actively involved in the
groups, it is typical for teachers to assign a specific task/role for each group member.
Teachers may assign roles to students according to their strengths and abilities, or
teachers may allow students to choose their roles once they have gained a certain level
of comfort and independence. Some typical tasks for formal cooperative learning in
science are principal investigator, material manager, recorder, spokesperson,
timekeeper, gatekeeper, checker, encourager/praiser (Sherman, 1994). Teachers in the
seminar suggested that, when forming small formal cooperative learning groups for
students conducting experimental activity, the roles may include organizer, record
writer, assistant, observer. The goals of the teacher are to maximize interdependence
and active learning among students.
Although assigning roles to group members can facilitate group work, French teachers
have noted that as more mature students become accustomed to doing group work, it
is less necessary for teachers to define and fix the different functions/roles within the
group. Students become capable of organizing themselves as they gain experience.

Concept Mapping

Concept mapping is a drawing/diagram with a brief description of how someone or some group
thinks certain concepts are related--there is no right or wrong approach. It serves as a conceptual
structure pertaining to a subject and is developed by using any kinds of shapes to represent
concepts plus segments to represent linking and the relationships between concepts.
Dogan-Dunlap, H. and de Smet, Juana R. Greater El Paso Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Fall Conference, 2002.

This article explains the definition, purpose, advantage, and application of the concept mapping
technique. Concept Mapping: A Graphical System for Understanding the Relationship Between
Concepts a synopsis by Eric Plotnick
http://www.ericdigests.org/1998-1/concept.htm

Concept Mapping, by Steven Hale at Georgia Perimeter College, describes the steps of
constructing concept maps and give some examples as illustration.
http://www.gpc.edu/~shale/humanities/composition/handouts/concept.html

Concept maps can be developed on paper, on the chalkboard, or on a computer. The software
company Inspiration offers the following observation about the use of visual learning techniques:
"Concept maps are ideal for measuring the growth of student learning. As students create
concept maps, they reiterate ideas using their own words. Misdirected links or wrong
connections alert educators to what students do not understand, providing an accurate, objective
way to evaluate areas in which students do not yet grasp concepts fully." A free 30-day trial of
Inspiration software, which students can use to develop concept maps, can be downloaded from:

Lecture
Teaching with Excellence, a UC-Berkeley compendium of best teaching practices by Barbara
Gross Davis, Lynn Wood, and Robert C. Wilson, contains several sections relevant to
developing and delivering lectures as a teaching technique.
http://teaching.berkeley.edu/compendium/

Lectures play a vital role in teaching. Here are twenty ways to make lectures more participatory.
Adapted from Participatory Lectures, Derek Bok Center for Teaching and Learning, 1992.
http://isites.harvard.edu/fs/html/icb.topic58474/TFTlectures.html

This article, "What Constitutes a Good Lecture?" offers an inside look at how students view
lectures.
Jann Lacoss, Faculty Consultant, UVA Teaching Resource Center and Jennifer Chylack,
Graduate Student Associate, TC_Fall_1998_Lacoss_Chylack.htm

The Muddiest Point in the Lecture as a Feedback Devicediscusses the three questions that can
be asked at the end of class as feedback.
Frederick Mosteller, Derek Bok Center for Teaching and Learning, 1989.
Role Playing/Simulation
"Role-play is the name given to one particular type of simulation that focuses attention on the
interaction of people with one another. It emphasizes the functions performed by different people
under various circumstances. The idea of role-play, in its simplest form, is that of asking
someone to imagine that they are either themselves or another person in a particular situation.
They are then asked to behave exactly as they feel that person would. As a result of doing this
they, or the rest of the class, or both, will learn something about the person and/or situation. In
essence, each player acts as a part of the social environment of the others and provides a
framework in which they can test out their repertoire of behaviours or study the interacting
behaviour of the group."
van Ments, M., The Effective Use of Role Play: A Handbook for Teachers & Trainers. Revised
ed. 1989, New York: Nichols Publishing. 186.

In role playing, students assume the roles of various characters, such as historical or literary
figures, scientists, political theorists, employees, etc. The role players may practice particular
behaviors or skills while the other students observe and then critique the performance and the
outcome.
Reed, John H. (2002). A guide to classroom instruction for adjunct faculty. Washington, D.C:
American Chemical Society.

In this article by Patricia J. Tomkins, the role playing/simulation method is analyzed using the
formats of approach, design, and procedure.
http://iteslj.org/Techniques/Tompkins-RolePlaying.html

The Educational Simulation Website describes three broad types of simulations and gives related
links:
Group or Meeting--No props, no costumes, (but lots of preparation) pretend to be a group
you're not
Facility Simulation--require a special facility or maybe a few props -- from the modest to the
sophisticated
Virtual Reality--You need a computer...or computers... but these simulations can be amazing!
http://www.creativeteachingsite.com/simtypes.htm

With the popularity of computer gaming, it was only natural that real-life role play games would
be translated to virtual reality. "Pedagogical Foundations of Web-based Simulations in Political
Science" outlines and discusses some of the pedagogical foundations of an innovative "learning
architecture" which combines the power of goal-based learning, role playing, the capabilities of
the World Wide Web and the traditional method of lectures and tutorials.
Linser, R., Naidu, S., & Ip,A., "Pedagogical Foundations of Web-based Simulations in Political
Science." in Winn, J. (ed) "Conference Proceedings: ASCILITE 99 Responding to Diversity",
pp. 191-198
Questioning Strategies
Questions should play an important role in every classroom both students questions and
teachers questions. Teachers can create an active learning environment by encouraging students
to ask and answer questions. This excerpt from the TA Handbook on the University of
Delawares Center for Teaching Excellence website discusses how teachers should ask questions
and how to encourage students to ask questions.
http://www.udel.edu/cte/TAbook/question.html

The article "Questioning Techniques for Active Learning" by C. M. Wang and Grace Ong
provides tips on asking good questions as well as links to other issues of the online journal Ideas
on Teaching, Center for the Development of Teaching and Learning, National University of
Singapore, 2000.
http://www.cdtl.nus.edu.sg/Ideas/iot2.htm

In the paper Wait Time: Slowing Down May Be A Way of Speeding Up, Professor Mary Budd
Rowe discusses the concepts of wait time 1 (pausing after asking a question) and wait time 2
(pausing after a student response). Based on her research, the conclusion is that the quality of
discussion can be markedly improved by increasing up to 3 seconds or longer the average wait
times used by teachers after a question and after a response.
Group Discussion
"If students are going to feel that discussion invites them to develop and express their ideas in an
unpressured way, then the discussion leader must find a way to teach that is neither too dominant
nor too reserved." Chapter 10 from Discussion as a Way of Teaching: Tools and Techniques for
Democratic Classrooms by Brookfield, Stephen and Stephen Preskill. (San Francisco: Jossey-
Bass Publishers, 1999) discusses at length the roles, responsibilities and actions of a discussion
leader. It also provides a checklist of questions that a teacher can use to maintain the balance
between "saying too much" and "saying too little."

Play and Work, A Meeting Place: the Classroom

The dichotomy between work and play has long been a signifier of western culture. It is
generally considered that value resides in the former while the latter is most often characterized
as frivolous and unproductive. The separation of the two in education finds our children
working while in the classroom and only playing outside of the classroom walls. To the
education community---and the community at large---children are expected to spend their hours
in school busily working to prepare themselves for the world of work. Seriousness must
define their efforts while in school and seriousness is equated with the concept of work. Play, on
the other hand, denotes time that is free, lacking direction and given over to freedom lacking
discipline.
There has been an on-going discussion in the early childhood field about play vs instruction
since the 1960s. This discussion has relevance for more than the early learning years. In fact, a
concept of play as a basis for learning can be applied throughout all schooling. Deweys ideas on
the difference between play and work can be informative in our examination of the role of play
in learning: In their intrinsic meanings, play and industry are by no means so antithetical to one
another as is often assumed.. . .
Persons who play are not just doing something (pure physical movement); they are trying to do
or effect something. (Dewey, 1916, pp. 237-38) Deweys distinction has to do with the level of
persistence which moves play to industry, when seeking a definite external outcome. The
teachers in Deweys lab school did not make an arbitrary distinction between work and play.
And Dewey himself was willing to extend the relationship he identified between work and play
into the realm of art: Work which remains permeated with the play attitude is art---in quality if
not in conventional designation. (p.242) permeated with the play attitude is art---in quality if not
in conventional designation. (p.242)
Many educational psychologists and philosophers of education have recognized the critical
relationship between play and learning. Vygotsky isolates the language of play, particularly
dramatic play, when children not only engage in content learning but also the mediation
necessary to get on with play, a key foundational element in developing interactive social skills.
Play for Piaget is the means by which children develop understandings about how the world
works. Through symbolic play and imitation of what goes on around them, children make sense
of the world. And according to David Elkind, play is a basic, vital human disposition. Citing
Friedrich Schiller who viewed play as critical to the human experience, Elkind cites authorities
who note that play is a major dynamic in linguistics, literature and game theory. He concludes
that play is a crucial dynamic of healthy physical, intellectual, and socio-emotional
development at all levels. (Elkind, 2007; p. 4) Those who study the physiology of play like Dr.
Stuart Brown, M.D. view human beings as the biggest players of all. He and co-author
Christopher Vaughan aver that when we play, we are engaged in the purest expression of our
humanity, the truest expression of our individuality. Is it any wonder that often the times we feel
most alive, those that make up our best memories, are moments of play? (Brown with
Vaughan,2009; p. 5)
It is my contention that play needs to become a primary medium for the delivery of learning at
all levels of schooling. It must be done properly which requires intentionality, keen observation
skills and the opportunity to mess around. It needs to be built around the Dewey model of
purposeful activity and not just where the day took a particular class. It requires a commitment to
view play as being both structured and unstructured and it requires that teachers assume roles
different from those defined by tradition. The meaning of work must be transformed to be
viewed as an extension of play, part of a continuum of persistence and purpose. Rather than
viewing work and play as diametrically opposed, we need to see it much as Mihaly
Csikszentmihalyi describes his concept of flow---the integration of play and work.