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INTRODUCTION
Measurement of flow is made for determining the proportion and the amount of materials
flowing in or out of a process. Without flow measurement, plant material balancing, quality
control, and even the operation of any continuous process would be almost impossible.
A flow meter is an instrument used to measure linear, nonlinear, mass or
volumetric flow rate of a liquid or a gas.

When choosing flow meters, one should consider such intangible factors as familiarity of
plant personnel, their experience with calibration and maintenance, spare parts availability, and
mean time between failure history, etc., at the particular plant site. It is also recommended that
the cost of the installation be computed only after taking these steps. One of the most common
flow measurement mistakes is the reversal of this sequence: instead of selecting a sensor which
will perform properly, an attempt is made to justify the use of a device because it is less
expensive. Those "inexpensive" purchases can be the most costly installations.
The basis of good flow meter selection is a clear understanding of the requirements of
the particular application. Therefore, time should be invested in fully evaluating the nature of
the process fluid and of the overall installation.







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BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PROJECT

In our Project we have mounted two RTDs at both ends of a pipe. The pipe is wounded by a coil
which can heat up the fluid passing through the pipe. The heating coil is between the two
RTDs.
At first water at room temperature is passed through the pipe, by this time the two
RTDs senses similar temperature and the DeSauty bridge remains in a balanced condition. This
condition is taken as the initial condition and is calibrated accordingly. Now when current
passes through the coil it gets heated up and correspondingly it heats up the water inside the
tube. At this condition the former RTD senses the ambient temperature of the water but the
RTD that is installed after the coil senses the rise in temperature of the water and gives out a
different reading and thus the bridge becomes unbalanced and this signal is calibrated in terms
of flow. The bridge forwards the signal to the signal conditioner where the signal is modified
and amplified accordingly. The amplified signal from the signal conditioner is then rectified by a
rectifier and then the analog signal is converted into a digital signal by a ADC which serves as an
input device for a microcontroller. The microcontroller is given so as we can use it as an
automated device later on. The microcontroller gives the direct display of the flow rate.
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CLASSIFICATION OF FLOWMETERS

1. Mechanical Flow Meters :-

Mechanical type flow meters can be broadly classified into two parts which are the fixed
restriction variable head type flow meters and the quantity meters.

In variable head type flow meters, a restriction of known dimension is introduced into the
pipeline; consequently there occurs a head loss or pressure drop at the restriction with
increase in flow velocity. Measurement of this pressure drop is an indication of the flow
rate. The types of fixed restriction variable head type flow meters are


i. Orifice flow meter- An orifice meter is a device used for measuring the rate of fluid
flow. It uses the same principle as a Venturi nozzle, namely Bernoulli's principle

This says that there is a relationship between the pressure of the fluid and the velocity
of the fluid. When the velocity increases, the pressure decreases and vice versa. An
orifice plate is basically a thin plate with a hole in the middle. It is usually placed in a
pipe in which fluid flows. As fluid flows through the pipe, it has a certain velocity and a
certain pressure. When the fluid reaches the orifice plate, with the hole in the middle,
the fluid is forced to converge to go through the small hole; the point of maximum
convergence actually occurs shortly downstream of the physical orifice, at the so-called
vena contracta point.
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ii. Venture flow meter-The Venturi effect is the reduction in fluid pressure that results
when a fluid flows through a constricted section of pipe. The Venturi effect is named
after Giovanni Battista Venturi, (17461822), an Italian physicist.



The fluid velocity must increase through the constriction to satisfy the equation of
continuity, while its pressure must decrease due to conservation of energy: the gain in
kinetic energy is balanced by a drop in pressure or a pressure gradient force. An
equation for the drop in pressure due to the Venturi effect may be derived from a
combination of Bernoulli's principle and the equation of continuity.

iii. Pitot tube - The Pitot tube is a simple and convenient instrument to measure the
difference between static, dynamic and total pressure (and head).

The head - h - (or pressure difference - dp) can be measured and calculated with u-tube
manometers, electronic pressure transmitters or similar instrumentation.
Quantity meters are used for the measurement of low flow rates in industries. These meters
operate by passing the fluid to be measured through the meter in separate and distinct
increments of alternating filling and emptying containers of known capacity. The number of
times the container is emptied gives the quantity of flow. The types of quantity flow meters are

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i. Positive displacement flow meters- Positive displacement flow meters measure the
volumetric flow of fluids in pipes, such as water, hydrocarbons, cryogenic liquids, and
chemicals. Some designs can measure gas flow. In liquid service, increasing viscosity
decreases slippage and increases the pressure drop across the flow meter. A large
pressure drop across the flow meter can prematurely wear and/or damage bearings
and/or seals. The flow meter size may increase to reduce the pressure drop in these
applications.

Avoid liquids with gas bubbles unless the bubbles can be effectively removed. As viscosity
increases, be sure to ensure that the pressure drop across the flow meter is acceptable.
Make sure that the viscosity of the operating fluid is similar to that of the calibrated fluid,
because the different amounts of slip exhibited by different fluids can cause measurement
error.

ii. Mass flow meter- A mass flow meter, also known as an inertial flow meter or a coriolis
flow meter, is a device that measures mass flow rate of a fluid traveling through a tube.
The mass flow rate is the mass of the fluid traveling past a fixed point per unit time. The
mass flow meter does not measure the volume per unit time (e.g., cubic meters per
second) passing through the device; it measures the mass per unit time (e.g., kilograms
per second) flowing through the device. Volumetric flow rate is the mass flow rate
divided by the fluid density. If the density is constant, then the relationship is simple. If
the fluid has varying density, then the relationship is not simple. The density of the fluid
may change with temperature, pressure, or composition, for example. The fluid may
also be a combination of phases such as a fluid with entrained bubbles.

2. Variable Area Flow Meter:-

The variable area type flow meter can be classified into three main categories which are
rotameter, turbine flow meter and target flow meter.

In variable area flow meter there is a variable orifice and the pressure drop is relatively
constant. Thus in the area meter flow is indicated as a function of the area of the annular
opening through which the fluid must pass. The area is generally readout as the position of the
float or the obstruction in the orifice.

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3. Electrical type flow meter:-

In this category there are mainly two types of flow meter mainly electromagnetic flow meter
ultrasonic flow meter and laser dopler anemometer.

i. Electromagnetic flow meter- Electromagnetic flow meter is a kind of
inductional instrument designed by Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction
to measure inner-tube conductive media's flow of volume. It adopts the
technology of insertion of single chip to realize digital excitation and employs
CAN current main line. It is the first invention of China and its technology
amounts to the leading level at home. Electromagnetic flow meter can realize
site indication and output electrical current signal of 4-20mA which can be used
to record, regulate and control. Besides measuring the flow of general
conductive liquid electromagnetic flow meter can measure the flow of volume of
liquid-solid mixed fluid, high-viscosity fluid and salt, strong acid and strong alkali.

ii. Ultrasonic flow meter- The basic principle of operation employs the frequency
shift (Doppler Effect) of an ultrasonic signal when it is reflected by suspended
particles or gas bubbles (discontinuities) in motion. This metering technique
utilizes the physical phenomenon of a sound wave that changes frequency when
it is reflected by moving discontinuities in a flowing liquid. Ultrasonic sound is
transmitted into a pipe with flowing liquids, and the discontinuities reflect the
ultrasonic wave with a slightly different frequency that is directly proportional to
the rate of flow of the liquid (Figure 1).








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iii. Laser dopler anemometer- Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA) is a technology
used to measure velocities of flows or more specifically of small particles in
flows. The technique is based on the measurement of laser light scattered by
particles that pass through a series of interference fringes (a pattern of light and
dark surfaces). The scattered laser light oscillates with a specific frequency that is
related to the velocity of the particles. If the flow is perpendicular to the fringes
the relation between this frequency f
d
, and the velocity v
x
is determined by the
angle 2q between the two intersecting laser beams and the wavelength l
0
of the
laser

The technology has numerous advantages over other techniques. There is for
instance no need for physical contact with the flow, so no disturbances occur
and the technique can be applied to flows of highly reactive or extremely hot
fluids and the like. Furthermore a relatively high spatial resolution can be
obtained by focusing the two laser beams. These characteristics make LDA a
valuable measuring technique with many applications. For example airflow
measurements within combustion engines and airplane engines to improve fuel
efficiency, reduce pollution and airplane noise.

4.Other Flow Meters:-

In this category there includes purge flow regulators, vortex shedding flow meters flow
switches and cross correlation flow meters.













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BRIDGE CIRCUIT

Bridges are the some of the most accurate measuring devices for measuring impedance,
capacitance, resistance etc. For our purpose using a de Sautys bridge is best. They are based on
the principle of Wheatstone bridge that they have two arms. One of which has the unknown
parameter. By getting the bridge balanced using the Null detector we can find this value. The de
Sautys bridge is a direct carryover of the Wheatstone bridge with the DC source replaced by an
AC source. The null detector we will be using also has an amplifier where the gain can be
adjusted. This is connected to DMM which is used for getting the null point. The bridge is as
follows. We can use the principle of wheat stone bridge to calculate
.
From De Sauty bridge RTD1*C1 = RTD2*C2




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RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS (RTD)
In our project we use RTD for measurement of temperature of water which is flow through the
pipe. These electrical temperature instruments provide highly accurate temperature readings:
simple industrial RTDs used within a manufacturing process are accurate to 0.1C, while
Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometers (SPRTs) are accurate to 0.0001C.
The electric resistance of certain metals changes in a known and predictable manner,
depending on the rise or fall in temperature. As temperature rises, the electric resistance of the
metal increases. As temperatures drop, electric resistance decreases. RTDs use this
characteristic as a basis for measuring temperature.
Platinum is a common choice for RTD sensors because it is known for its long-term
stability over time at high temperatures. Platinum is a better choice than copper or nickel
because it is chemically inert, it withstands oxidation well, and works in a higher temperature
range as well.
In operation, the measuring instrument applies a constant current through the RTD. As
the temperature changes, the resistance changes and the corresponding change in voltage is
measured.

Resistance of Metals:-

Whether an RTDs element is constructed of platinum, copper, or nickel, each type of metal has
a different sensitivity, accuracy, and temperature range. Sensitivity is defined as the amount of
resistance change of the sensor per degree of temperature change. Figure 1 shows the
sensitivity for the most common metals used to build RTDs.



FIGURE 1

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Platinum, a noble metal, has the most stable resistance-to-temperature relationship over the
largest temperature range 184.44C (300F) to 648.88C (1200F). Nickel elements have a
limited temperature range because the amount of change in resistance per degree of change in
temperature becomes very nonlinear at temperatures above 300C (572F). Copper has a very
linear resistance-to-temperature relationship. However, copper oxidizes at moderate
temperatures and cannot be used above 150C (302F).
Construction:-

These elements nearly always require insulated leads attached. At low temperatures PVC,
silicon rubber or PTFE insulators are common to 250C. Above this, glass fibre or ceramic are
used. The measuring point and usually most of the leads require a housing or protection sleeve.
This is often a metal alloy which is inert to a particular process. Often more consideration goes
in to selecting and designing protection sheaths than sensors as this is the layer that must
withstand chemical or physical attack and offer convenient process attachment points.
Two-wire configuration:-

The simplest resistance thermometer configuration uses two wires. It is only used when high
accuracy is not required as the resistance of the connecting wires is always included with that
of the sensor leading to errors in the signal. Using this configuration you will be able to use 100
meters of cable. This applies equally to balanced bridge and fixed bridge system.



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Resistance to Temperature Conversion:-
The RTD is a more linear device than the thermocouple, but it still requires curve-
fitting. The Callendar-Van Dusen equation has been used for years to approximate the
RTD curve:



Where:
RT = Resistance at Temperature T
Ro = Resistance at T = 0C
= Temperature coefficient at T = 0C ((typically +0.00392//C))
= 1.49 (typical value for .00392 platinum)
= 0 T > 0
0. 11 (typical) T < 0


The exact values for coefficients , , and are determined by testing the RTD at four
temperatures and solving the resultant equations. This familiar equation was replaced
in 1968 by a 20th order polynomial in order to provide a more accurate curve fit. The
plot of this equation shows the RTD to be a more linear device than the
thermocouple.

Advantages of RTD:-

The accuracy of an RTD is significantly better than that of a thermocouple within an RTDs
normal temperature range of 184.44C (300F) to 648.88C (1200F). RTDs are also known for
high stability and repeatability. They can be removed from service and recalibrated for
verifiable accuracy and checked for any possible drift.
Platinum is the best metal for RTD elements for three reasons. It follows a very linear
resistance to temperature relationship; it follows its resistance-to-temperature relationship in a
highly repeatable manner over its temperature range; and it has the widest temperature range
among the metals used to make RTDs. Platinum is not the most sensitive metal; however, it is
the metal that offers the best long-term stability.



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SIGNAL CONDITIONING
Signal Conditioning Processes:-
Signal conditioning can include amplification, filtering, converting, range matching, isolation
and any other processes required to make sensor output suitable for processing after
conditioning.

Filtering:-
Filtering is the most common signal conditioning function, as usually not all the signal frequency
spectrum contains valid data. The common example is 60Hz AC power lines, present in most
environments, which will produce noise if amplified.
Amplifying:-
Signal amplification performs two important functions: increases the resolution of the inputted
signal, and increases its signal-to-noise ratio. For example, the output of an electronic
temperature sensor, which is probably in the mill volts range is probably too low for an Analog-
to-digital converter (ADC) to process directly. In this case it is necessary to bring the voltage
level up to that required by the ADC.
Commonly used amplifiers on signal conditioning include Sample and hold amplifiers, Peak
Detectors, Log amplifiers, Antilog amplifiers, Instrumentation amplifiers or programmable gain
amplifiers.
Instrumentation Amplifier:-
A special-purpose linear amplifier, used for the accurate amplification of the difference
between two (often small) voltages, often in the presence of much larger common-mode
voltages, and having a pair of differential (usually high-impedance) input terminals, connected
to sources V
in1
and V
in2
; a well-defined differential-mode gain A
DM
; and a voltage output V
out
,
satisfying the relationship given in the equation below. It
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differs from an operational amplifier (op-amp), which
ideally has infinite open-loop gain and must be used in conjunction with external elements to
define the closed-loop transfer function. At one time built in discrete or hybrid form using
operational amplifier and resistor networks, instrumentation amplifiers are readily available as
inexpensive monolithic integrated circuits. Typical commercial amplifiers provide present gains
of 1, 10, 100, and 1000. In some cases, the gain may be set to a special value by one or more
external resistors. The frequency response invariably is flat, extending from 0 (dc) to an upper
frequency of about 1 kHz to 1 MHz See also Integrated circuits; Operational amplifier; Resistor.
Instrumentation amplifiers are used to interface low-level devices, such as strain gages,
pressure transducers, and Hall-effect magnetic sensors, into a subsequent high-level process,
such as analog-to-digital conversion. See also Amplifier; Differential amplifier; Hall Effect;
Pressure transducer; Strain gage.


An instrumentation (or instrumentational) amplifier is a type of differential amplifier that has
been outfitted with input buffers, which eliminate the need for input impedance matching and
thus make the amplifier particularly suitable for use in measurement and test equipment.
Additional characteristics include very low DC offset, low drift, low noise, very high open-loop
gain, very high common-mode rejection ratio, and very high input impedances. Instrumentation
amplifiers are used where great accuracy and stability of the circuit both short- and long-term
are required.
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Isolation:-
Signal isolation must be used in order to pass the signal from the source to the measurement
device without a physical connection: it is often used to isolate possible sources of signal
perturbations. Also notable is that's it is important to isolate the potentially expensive
equipment used to process the signal after conditioning from the sensor.
Magnetic or optic isolation can be used. Magnetic isolation transforms the signal from voltage
to frequency, transmitting it without a physical connection (for example, using a transformer).
Optic isolation takes an electronic signal and modulates it to a signal coded by light
transmission (optical encoding), which is then used for input for the next stage of processing.
Buffer:-
We calculate gain for a non-inverting amplifier with the following formula:

Gain = 1 + (R2/R1)
So, if we make R2 zero, and R1 infinity, we'll have an amp with a gain of exactly 1. How can we
do this? The circuit is surprisingly simple.

Op-Amp Buffer
Here, R2 is a plain wire, which has effectively zero resistance. We can think of R1 as an infinite
resistor -- we don't have any connection to ground at all. This arrangement is called an Op-Amp
Follower, or Buffer. The buffer has an output that exactly mirrors the input (assuming it's within
range of the voltage rails), so it looks kind of useless at first.
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However, the buffer is an extremely useful circuit, since it helps to solve many
impedance issues. The input impedance of the op-amp buffer is very high: close to infinity. And
the output impedance is very low: just a few ohms. This means we can use buffers to help chain
together sub-circuits in stages without worrying about impedance problems. The buffer gives
benefits similar to those of the emitter follower.
There are some more circuits that commonly used in Electronic circuits these are as follows
Linearizor Circuit.
Integrator Circuit.
Differentiator Circuit etc.



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EXPERIMENTAL CIRCUIT