LameSlides2-Coeficientes de Lame

Introduction
Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates

Tangent Vectors, Lame Coecients, Coordinate Surface Normals
Dierential Calculus in Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates
General Curvilinear Coordinates
The Lame and Metric Coecients for Curvilinear
Coordinates in R
3
.
Victor I. Piercey
Department of Mathematics
University of Arizona
November 21, 2007
Victor I. Piercey The Lame and Metric Coecients for Curvilinear Coordinates in R
3
.
Introduction
In spherical coordinates, there are formulae for the gradient,
divergence, curl and Laplacian given as follows:
f =r
f
r
+

1
r
f
1
r sin
f
A =
1
r
2
r
(r
2
A
r
) +
1
r sin
(sin A
) +
1
r sin
A
A =
r
r sin
_

(sin A
)
A
_
+
r
_
1
sin
A
r

r
(rA
)
_
+

r
_

r
(rA
)
A
r
2
f =
1
r
2
r
_
r
2
f
r
_
+
1
r
2
sin
_
sin
f
_
+
1
r
2
sin
2
2
f
2
.
Where do they come from?
3
.
Introduction
f =r
f
r
+

1
r
f
1
r sin
f
A =
1
r
2
r
(r
2
A
r
) +
1
r sin
(sin A
) +
1
r sin
A
A =
r
r sin
_

(sin A
)
A
_
+
r
_
1
sin
A
r

r
(rA
)
_
+

r
_

r
(rA
)
A
r
2
f =
1
r
2
r
_
r
2
f
r
_
+
1
r
2
sin
_
sin
f
_
+
1
r
2
sin
2
2
f
2
.
3
.
Introduction
f =r
f
r
+

1
r
f
1
r sin
f
A =
1
r
2
r
(r
2
A
r
) +
1
r sin
(sin A
) +
1
r sin
A
A =
r
r sin
_

(sin A
)
A
_
+
r
_
1
sin
A
r

r
(rA
)
_
+

r
_

r
(rA
)
A
r
2
f =
1
r
2
r
_
r
2
f
r
_
+
1
r
2
sin
_
sin
f
_
+
1
r
2
sin
2
2
f
2
.
3
.
Introduction
f =r
f
r
+

1
r
f
1
r sin
f
A =
1
r
2
r
(r
2
A
r
) +
1
r sin
(sin A
) +
1
r sin
A
A =
r
r sin
_

(sin A
)
A
_
+
r
_
1
sin
A
r

r
(rA
)
_
+

r
_

r
(rA
)
A
r
2
f =
1
r
2
r
_
r
2
f
r
_
+
1
r
2
sin
_
sin
f
_
+
1
r
2
sin
2
2
f
2
.
3
.
Introduction
Expressions for the gradient, divergence, curl and Laplacian in
curvilinear coordinates on R
3
come from a set of coecient
functions that are inherent in the coordinate system.
For orthogonal coordinates, we have Lame coecients.
In the general case, we have metric coecients.
3
.
Introduction
Expressions for the gradient, divergence, curl and Laplacian in
curvilinear coordinates on R
3
come from a set of coecient
functions that are inherent in the coordinate system.
For orthogonal coordinates, we have Lame coecients.
In the general case, we have metric coecients.
3
.
Introduction
We will explore how this works. The plan is as follows:
1
Orthogonal curvilinear coordinates
2
Tangent vectors, coordinate surface normals, and Lame
coecients
3
Dierential calculus of vectors in orthogonal curvilinear
coordinates
4
Brief tour of dierential calculus of vectors in general
curvilinear coordinates.
In the last portion of the talk, we will see the birth of modern
notions such as contravariance and covariance, duality, Riemannian
metrics, and Christoel symbols.
3
.
Introduction
1
2
coecients
3
coordinates
4
3
.
Introduction
1
2
coecients
3
coordinates
4
3
.
Introduction
1
2
coecients
3
coordinates
4
3
.
Introduction
We make the following conventions:
1
If f (x, y, z) = c is a level surface, f is smooth and has
nonvanishing gradient.
2
The triple scalar product u (v w) will be denoted [u, v, w].
3
Given a coordinate system, we are always working on an open
subset of R
3
where all the coordinates are dened.
3
.
Introduction
1
2
3
subset of R
3
3
.
Introduction
1
2
3
subset of R
3
3
.
Introduction
Terminology
Examples
Vector Field of Position
We begin with the basic denitions. We start with three level
surfaces:
w
1
= f (x, y, z) = c
1
w
2
= g(x, y, z) = c
2
w
3
= h(x, y, z) = c
3
.
3
.
Introduction
Terminology
Examples
Denition
Three level surfaces, as above, are called orthogonal coordinate
surfaces if they satisfy the following two conditions:
w
1
w
2
= w
1
w
3
= w
2
w
3
= 0
[w
1
, w
2
, w
3
] > 0
We consider families of such level surfaces allowing the constants
c
1
, c
2
and c
3
to vary within the range of f , g and h respectively.
3
.
Introduction
Terminology
Examples
The level surface w
i
= c
i
is called the w
i
-coordinate surface for c
i
.
Two level surfaces intersect in a curve. If i , j , k are distinct, the w
i
coordinate surface for (c
j
, c
k
) is the intersection of the
w
j
j
and the w
k
k
.
3
.
Introduction
Terminology
Examples
All three orthogonal coordinate surfaces and all three orthogonal
coordinate curves intersect in a single point P. The point P is
uniquely specied by the constants c
1
, c
2
and c
3
. Therefore, the
point P is uniquely specied by the values of w
1
, w
2
and w
3
.
3
.
Introduction
Terminology
Examples
Denition
If w
1
= f (x, y, z), w
2
= g(x, y, z) and w
3
= h(x, y, z) are
functions whose level sets are orthogonal coordinate surfaces, then
for a point P R
3
we say that the triple (w
1
, w
2
, w
3
) that uniquely
species P represents P in orthogonal curvilinear coordinates.
As an example, for spherical coordinates the coordinate surfaces
are spheres centered at the origin, planes containing the z-axis and
planes containing the x-axis.
Note that at each point P, the orthogonal coordinate curves form
a set of orthogonal coordinate axes emanating from P.
3
.
Introduction
Terminology
Examples
The triple of functions f , g, h dening orthogonal coordinates
surfaces can be inverted. Therefore we have three smooth
functions given by:
x = k
1
(w
1
, w
2
, w
3
)
y = k
2
(w
1
, w
2
, w
3
)
z = k
3
(w
1
, w
2
, w
3
).
This is how our coordinates are usually presented.
3
.
Introduction
Terminology
Examples
Besides the usual Euclidean coordinate system, we are all familiar
with two orthogonal coordinate systems:
Cylindrical coordinates are given by
x = cos
y = sin
z = z
where > 0 and 0 < < 2.
Spherical coordinates are given by
x = r sin cos
y = r sin sin
z = r cos
where r > 0, 0 < < and 0 < < 2.
3
.
Introduction
Terminology
Examples
Besides the usual Euclidean coordinate system, we are all familiar
with two orthogonal coordinate systems:
Cylindrical coordinates are given by
x = cos
y = sin
z = z
where > 0 and 0 < < 2.
Spherical coordinates are given by
x = r sin cos
y = r sin sin
z = r cos
where r > 0, 0 < < and 0 < < 2.
3
.
Introduction
Terminology
Examples
Here are a few more exotic examples.
Paraboloidal coordinates are given by:
x = uv cos
y = uv sin
z =
1
2
u
2
1
2
v
2
where u, v 0 and 0 < < 2.
Prolate spheroidal coordinates are given by:
x = sinh sin cos
y = sinh sin sin
z = cosh cos
where 0, 0 < < and 0 < < 2.
3
.
Introduction
Terminology
Examples
Here are a few more exotic examples.
Paraboloidal coordinates are given by:
x = uv cos
y = uv sin
z =
1
2
u
2
1
2
v
2
where u, v 0 and 0 < < 2.
Prolate spheroidal coordinates are given by:
x = sinh sin cos
y = sinh sin sin
z = cosh cos
where 0, 0 < < and 0 < < 2.
3
.
Introduction
Terminology
Examples
Bispherical coordinates are given by:
x =
sin cos
cosh cos
y =
sin sin
cosh cos
z =
sinh
cosh cos
.
Toroidal coordinates are given by:
x =
sinh v cos
cosh v cos u
y =
sinh v sin
cosh v cos u
z =
sin u
cosh v cos u
where v 0 and 0 < , u < 2.
3
.
Introduction
Terminology
Examples
Bispherical coordinates are given by:
x =
sin cos
cosh cos
y =
sin sin
cosh cos
z =
sinh
cosh cos
.
Toroidal coordinates are given by:
x =
sinh v cos
cosh v cos u
y =
sinh v sin
cosh v cos u
z =
sin u
cosh v cos u
where v 0 and 0 < , u < 2.
3
.
Introduction
Terminology
Examples
Recall the vector eld of position in Euclidean coordinates:
Denition
The vector eld of position R in R
3
is dened with respect to the
standard basis {, ,
k} by
R = x + y + z
k.
3
.
Introduction
Terminology
Examples
We can rewrite the vector eld of position in given orthogonal
curvilinear coordinates as
R = k
1
(w
1
, w
2
, w
3
) + k
2
(w
1
, w
2
, w
3
) + k
3
(w
1
, w
2
, w
3
)
k.
Thus R is a vector-valued function given by
R = K(w
1
, w
2
, w
3
).
3
.
Introduction
Terminology
Examples
For example, in spherical coordinates, the vector eld of position is
given by
R = r sin cos + r sin sin + r cos
k.
3
.
Introduction
Terminology
Examples
If we write
R = K(w
1
, w
2
, w
3
)
then the w
1
-coordinate curve for (c
2
, c
3
) is given by
S
1
(w
1
) = K(w
1
, c
2
, c
3
)
the w
2
1
, c
3
) is given by
S
2
(w
2
) = K(c
1
, w
2
, c
3
)
and the w
3
1
, c
2
) is given by
S
3
(w
3
) = K(c
1
, c
2
, w
3
).
3
.
Introduction
Tangent Vectors
Lame Coecients
Coordinate Surface Normals
The vector
S
1
(w
1
) =
d
dw
1
(K(w
1
, c
2
, c
3
))
is tangent to the curve S
1
(w
1
), but does not necessarily have unit
length. This is because S
1
is not necessarily parameterized by arc
length.
For each i = 1, 2, 3:
w
i
K(w
1
, w
2
, w
3
) =
R
w
1
is a vector tangent to any w
i
-coordinate curve, but may not
necessarily have unit length.
3
.
Introduction
Tangent Vectors
Lame Coecients
For each i = 1, 2, 3, dene the following:
h
i
=
R
w
i
These are the coordinate tangent vectors.
For spherical coordinates:
h
1
= sin cos + sin sin + cos
k
h
2
= r cos cos + r cos sin r sin
k
h
3
= r sin sin + r sin cos .
3
.
Introduction
Tangent Vectors
Lame Coecients
h
i
=
R
w
i
h
1
k
h
2
k
h
3
3
.
Introduction
Tangent Vectors
Lame Coecients
h
i
=
R
w
i
h
1
k
h
2
k
h
3
3
.
Introduction
Tangent Vectors
Lame Coecients
For each i = 1, 2, 3 dene
h
i
= |h
i
| =
R
w
i
.
Denition
The quantities h
1
, h
2
and h
3
above are called the Lame coecients
for the orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system with coordinates
(w
1
, w
2
, w
3
).
Note that since h
1
, h
2
and h
3
do not necessarily have unit or even
constant length, the Lame coecients are generally functions on
R
3
.
3
.
Introduction
Tangent Vectors
Lame Coecients
The Lame coecients for spherical coordinates are
h
1
= 1
h
2
= r
h
3
= r sin .
3
.
Introduction
Tangent Vectors
Lame Coecients
Notice that if we dene a function changing from Euclidean
coordinates to another orthogonal curvilinear coordinate
system, the determinant of the Jacobian is the product of the
Lame coecients.
Therefore, when integrating in orthogonal curvilinear
coordinates, by the change of variables formula:
_
f (x, y, z) dxdydz =
_
f (w
1
, w
2
, w
3
)h
1
h
2
h
3
dw
1
dw
2
dw
3
.
For example, to integrate in spherical coordinates we have
_
_
f (r , , )r
2
sin dr dd.
3
.
Introduction
Tangent Vectors
Lame Coecients
Lame coecients.
_
_
f (w
1
, w
2
, w
3
)h
1
h
2
h
3
dw
1
dw
2
dw
3
.
_
_
f (r , , )r
2
sin dr dd.
3
.
Introduction
Tangent Vectors
Lame Coecients
Lame coecients.
_
_
f (w
1
, w
2
, w
3
)h
1
h
2
h
3
dw
1
dw
2
dw
3
.
_
_
f (r , , )r
2
sin dr dd.
3
.
Introduction
Tangent Vectors
Lame Coecients
We can use the Lame coecients to obtain unit tangent
vectors by dening for each i = 1, 2, 3:
h
i
=
h
i
h
i
.
The set {
h
1
,

h
2
,
h
3
} is a right-handed set of mutually
orthogonal unit vectors and thus at each point P form a
right-handed orthonormal basis for a copy of R
3
footed at P.
In modern terminology, these vectors form an orthonormal
frame for the tangent bundle of R
3
.
3
.
Introduction
Tangent Vectors
Lame Coecients
h
i
=
h
i
h
i
.
The set {
h
1
,

h
2
,
h
3
3
footed at P.
3
.
3
.
Introduction
Tangent Vectors
Lame Coecients
h
i
=
h
i
h
i
.
The set {
h
1
,

h
2
,
h
3
3
footed at P.
3
.
3
.
Introduction
Tangent Vectors
Lame Coecients
Sometimes we use the notation e
w
i
for

h
i
. We will do so with the
example of spherical coordinates:
e
r
k,
e
= cos cos + cos sin sin
k and
e
= sin + cos .
3
.
Introduction
Tangent Vectors
Lame Coecients
w
i
for

h
i
e
r
k,
e
k and
e
= sin + cos .
3
.
Introduction
Tangent Vectors
Lame Coecients
w
i
for

h
i
e
r
k,
e
k and
e
= sin + cos .
3
.
Introduction
Tangent Vectors
Lame Coecients
Since the vectors {
h
1
,
h
2
,
h
3
} form a basis for R
3
footed at each
point P, we can write any vector eld in terms of this basis.
A word of caution is in order. The vectors

h
i
are not xed, they
vary over the points of R
3
. So a vector eld given by
V =
i
v
i
h
i
that is constant in the frame

h
i
is not, in general, a constant
vector eld.
3
.
Introduction
Tangent Vectors
Lame Coecients
Since the vectors {
h
1
,
h
2
,
h
3
} are orthonormal at each point P, it
follows that the dot product of arbitrary vectors written as
v =
i
v
i
h
i
w =
i
w
i
h
i
is still given by
v w =
i
v
i
w
i
.
3
.
Introduction
Tangent Vectors
Lame Coecients
Since {
h
1
,
h
2
,
h
3
} is a right-handed system of orthonormal basis
vectors, as in the Cartesian case:
v w =
ijk
v
i
w
j
h
k
where
ijk
is the Levi-Cevita tensor:
ijk
=
_
_
_
1 : if i , j , k is a cyclic permutation of 1,2,3
1 : if i , j , k is an acyclic permutation 1,2,3
0 : otherwise
3
.
Introduction
Tangent Vectors
Lame Coecients
Since our coordinate surfaces were dened by scalar functions
w
i
for i = 1, 2, 3, we can compute their gradient. This will be
normal to its corresponding coordinate surface.
It turns out, using the formula for the gradient derived below,
that for each i :
w
i
=
h
i
h
i
.
These vectors are called the coordinate surface normals.
3
.
Introduction
Tangent Vectors
Lame Coecients
w
i
that for each i :
w
i
=
h
i
h
i
.
3
.
Introduction
Tangent Vectors
Lame Coecients
w
i
that for each i :
w
i
=
h
i
h
i
.
3
.
Introduction
Tangent Vectors
Lame Coecients
Note that the coordinate surface normals point in the same
direction as the coordinate tangent vectors, and have
magnitude 1/h
i
.
If the coordinate surfaces were not orthogonal, this would not
be true. This is one of the most fundamental distinctions
between orthogonal and general curvilinear coordinate
systems.
3
.
Introduction
Tangent Vectors
Lame Coecients
Note that the coordinate surface normals point in the same
direction as the coordinate tangent vectors, and have
magnitude 1/h
i
.
If the coordinate surfaces were not orthogonal, this would not
be true. This is one of the most fundamental distinctions
between orthogonal and general curvilinear coordinate
systems.
3
.
Introduction
Derivatives of the Unit Tangent Vectors
Del Operator
Gradient of Scalar Functions
Divergence and Curl of Vector Fields
Laplacian of a Scalar Function
In order to gure out how to do dierential vector calculus in
orthogonal curvilinear coordinates, we need to know how to
dierentiate the Lame coecients and the unit tangent
vectors.
To do so, it turns out we need to know how to write the
Euclidean basis vectors in terms of the unit tangent vectors.
In order to facilitate the computations, I will write the
Euclidean basis vectors as {
1
,

2
,

3
} with the obvious
correspondence with {, ,
k}.
3
.
Introduction
Del Operator
vectors.
1
,

2
,

3
} with the obvious
k}.
3
.
Introduction
Del Operator
vectors.
1
,

2
,

3
} with the obvious
k}.
3
.
Introduction
Del Operator
We write the Euclidean basis vectors in terms of unit tangent
vectors to coordinate curves using the following proposition:
Proposition
The Cartesian basis vectors are written in the basis {
h
1
,
h
2
,
h
3
} as
i
=
j
1
h
j
x
i
w
j
h
j
.
3
.
Introduction
Del Operator
The derivatives of the Lame coecients are given by the next
proposition:
Proposition
Suppose {h
1
, h
2
, h
3
} are Lam e coecients for orthogonal
curvilinear coordinates {w
1
, w
2
, w
3
} in R
3
where {x
1
, x
2
, x
3
} are
the usual Cartesian coordinates. Then
h
i
w
j
=
k
1
h
i
_
x
k
w
i
_

2
x
k
w
j
w
i
.
3
.
Introduction
Del Operator
Finally, this allows us to obtain the partial derivatives of the unit
tangent vectors only in terms of the unit tangent vectors
themselves and the Lame coecients.
Proposition
For each i , j = 1, 2, 3:
h
i
w
j
=
1
h
i
h
j
w
i
h
j

ij
k
1
h
k
h
i
w
k
h
k
.
This is what allows us to do dierential calculus without any
reference to the underlying Euclidean coordinates.
3
.
Introduction
Del Operator
We rst translate the Del operator into orthogonal curvilinear
coordinates, then we can translate the gradient, Laplacian,
divergence and curl.
In Cartesian coordinates, we have
=
x
i
.
3
.
Introduction
Del Operator
We can use a previous proposition to rewrite this to obtain:
=
i
_
_
j
1
h
j
x
i
w
j
h
j
_
_

x
i
=
h
j
h
j
x
i
w
j
x
i
=
h
j
h
j
_
i
x
i
w
j
x
i
_
.
3
.
Introduction
Del Operator
By the chain rule:
w
j
=
i
x
i
w
j
x
i
and therefore, changing indices from j to i we get
=
h
i
h
i
w
i
.
3
.
Introduction
Del Operator
Now we can nd the gradient of a scalar function f : R
3
R.
Using the expression for in orthogonal curvilinear coordinates:
f =
_
h
i
h
i
w
i
_
f =
i
1
h
i
f
w
i
h
i
.
3
.
Introduction
Del Operator
In spherical coordinates, this gives us
f =
f
r
e
r
+
1
r
f
+
1
r sin
f
.
This is the same expression given in the introduction.
3
.
Introduction
Del Operator
The derivation of the expressions for the divergence and curl of a
vector eld are a bit involved, so we will simply state the results.
The divergence of a vector eld in orthogonal curvilinear
coordinates is given by:
V =
1
h
1
h
2
h
3
_
(v
1
h
2
h
3
)
w
1
+
(v
2
h
3
h
1
)
w
2
+
(v
3
h
1
h
2
)
w
3
_
.
3
.
Introduction
Del Operator
We can compute this in spherical coordinates to obtain:
V =
1
r
2
r
(r
2
v
r
) +
1
r sin
(sin v
) +
1
r sin
v
.
This is the same expression stated in the introduction.
3
.
Introduction
Del Operator
The curl of a vector eld in orthogonal curvilinear coordinates is
given by:
V =
ijk
1
h
i
h
j
h
k
(v
j
h
j
)
w
i
h
k
h
k
.
Writing this out explicitly gives:
V =
1
h
1
h
2
h
3
__
(v
3
h
3
)
w
2
(v
w
h
2
)
w
3
_
h
1
h
1
+
_
(v
1
h
1
)
w
3
(v
3
h
3
)
w
1
_
h
2
h
2
+
_
(v
2
h
2
)
w
1
(v
1
h
1
)
w
2
_
h
3
h
3
_
.
3
.
Introduction
Del Operator
Inserting the Lame coecients for spherical coordinates yields:
V =
1
r sin
_

(sin v
)
v
_
e
r
+
1
r
_
1
sin
v
r

r
(rv
)
_
e
+
1
r
_

r
(rv
)
v
r
_
e
.
This is the same result stated in the introduction.
3
.
Introduction
Del Operator
Finally, we consider the Laplacian of a scalar function
f : R
3
R.
The Laplacian is the divergence of the gradient, thus we
compute
2
f = f
=
1
h
1
h
2
h
3
_
((f )
1
h
2
h
3
)
w
1
+
((f )
2
h
3
h
1
)
w
2
+
((f )
3
h
1
h
2
)
w
3
_
.
3
.
Introduction
Del Operator
Finally, we consider the Laplacian of a scalar function
f : R
3
R.
The Laplacian is the divergence of the gradient, thus we
compute
2
f = f
=
1
h
1
h
2
h
3
_
((f )
1
h
2
h
3
)
w
1
+
((f )
2
h
3
h
1
)
w
2
+
((f )
3
h
1
h
2
)
w
3
_
.
3
.
Introduction
Del Operator
Therefore the Laplacian of f is given by:
2
f =
1
h
1
h
2
h
3
_

w
1
_
h
2
h
3
h
1
f
w
1
_
+

w
2
_
h
3
h
1
h
2
f
w
2
_
+

w
3
_
h
1
h
2
h
3
f
w
3
__
.
3
.
Introduction
Del Operator
Plugging in the Lame coecients for spherical coordinates we get
2
f =
1
r
2
r
_
r
2
f
r
_
+
1
r
2
sin
_
sin
f
_
+
1
r
2
sin
2
as in the introduction.
3
.
Introduction
Del Operator
We can compute the gradient or Laplacian of a scalar function or
the divergence or curl of a vector eld in any orthogonal coordinate
system (such as cylindrical coordinates, paraboloidal coordinates,
prolate spheroidal coordinates, bispherical coordinates, or toroidal
coordinates). All we need are the Lame coecients.
3
.
Introduction
Vectors in General Curvilinear Coordinates
The Metric Coecients and the Metric Tensor
Christoel Symbols
Dierential Calculus in General Curvilinear Coordinates
We are now about to leave Candyland and pass to general
curvilinear coordinates. A few comments are in order.
Some indexed quantities will start carrying subscripts and
some will carry superscripts. The reason will become apparent
as we proceed.
I do not have any specic examples of non-orthogonal
coordinate systems. However, I believe that this setting is
used in general relativity theory.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
We are now about to leave Candyland and pass to general
curvilinear coordinates. A few comments are in order.
Some indexed quantities will start carrying subscripts and
some will carry superscripts. The reason will become apparent
as we proceed.
I do not have any specic examples of non-orthogonal
coordinate systems. However, I believe that this setting is
used in general relativity theory.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
For the general case, we start with three level surfaces
q
i
= f
i
(x, y, z) = c
i
for each i such that that
[q
1
, q
2
, q
3
] > 0.
As before, we say that these level surfaces are coordinate surfaces.
The dierence from the orthogonal case is that the surfaces do not
necessarily intersect orthogonally.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
Any two coordinate surfaces intersect in a coordinate curve.
All three coordinate curves intersect in a single point P.
Since P is uniquely specied by (c
1
, c
2
, c
3
), then a point P is
uniquely specied by prescribing values for (q
1
, q
2
, q
3
). Thus
(q
1
, q
2
, q
3
) represents P in curvilinear coordinates.
All the ancillary denitions that were made for orthogonal
curvilinear coordinates apply to the general case.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
1
, c
2
, c
3
1
, q
2
, q
3
). Thus
(q
1
, q
2
, q
3
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
1
, c
2
, c
3
1
, q
2
, q
3
). Thus
(q
1
, q
2
, q
3
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
1
, c
2
, c
3
1
, q
2
, q
3
). Thus
(q
1
, q
2
, q
3
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
We also assume that each function can be inverted. Hence we can
assume that we can write
x = k
1
(q
1
, q
2
, q
3
)
y = k
2
(q
1
, q
2
, q
3
)
z = k
3
(q
1
, q
2
, q
3
).
In particular, then, we can write the vector eld of position R in
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
As in the orthogonal case,
R
q
i
is a vector tangent to any q
i
coordinate curve.
Therefore we dene
g
i
=
R
q
i
as the coordinate tangent vectors.
Note that if (q
1
, q
2
, q
3
) are orthogonal curvilinear coordinates,
g
i
= h
i
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
R
q
i
i
coordinate curve.
Therefore we dene
g
i
=
R
q
i
Note that if (q
1
, q
2
, q
3
g
i
= h
i
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
R
q
i
i
coordinate curve.
Therefore we dene
g
i
=
R
q
i
Note that if (q
1
, q
2
, q
3
g
i
= h
i
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
For each i we dene
g
i
= q
i
.
These are the coordinate surface normals. In general, g
i
is not
proportional to g
i
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
We can expand both sets of vectors in the Cartesian basis. We end
up with the following:
g
i
=
j
x
j
q
i
j
and
g
i
=
j
q
i
x
j
j
.
It turns out that each triplet of vectors is linearly independent and
hence at each point P forms a basis for R
3
footed at P.
Since g
i
and g
j
(respectively g
i
, g
j
) are not orthogonal, there is no
point in normalizing them.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
Since {g
1
, g
2
, g
3
} form a basis for R
3
, we can expand any vector v
in this basis:
v =
i
v
i
g
i
.
It turns out that v
i
= v g
i
.
Since the vectors g
i
are not unit vectors, the numbers v
i
are not
physical components of the vector. They are called the covariant
components of v.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
Similarly we can expand v in the basis {g
1
, g
2
, g
3
}:
v =
i
v
i
g
i
.
It also turns out that v
i
= v g
i
.
Since the vectors g
i
do not have unit length, the real numbers v
i
are not physical components of v. They are called the
contravariant components of v.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
Tensors can also be written in each of these bases (or in mixed
bases) and components may be contravariant, covariant, or mixed.
We have thus arrived at the classical origins of covariant,
contravariant and mixed tensors.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
The sets of vectors {g
1
, g
2
, g
3
} and {g
1
, g
2
, g
3
} are reciprocal
sets of vectors.
This means that for all i and j ,
g
i
g
j
=
j
i
.
Since these reciprocal sets of vectors are both bases for R
3
,
we say that the sets are dual bases.
We have now arrived at the classical origin of dualization.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
1
, g
2
, g
3
} and {g
1
, g
2
, g
3
} are reciprocal
sets of vectors.
g
i
g
j
=
j
i
.
3
,
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
1
, g
2
, g
3
} and {g
1
, g
2
, g
3
} are reciprocal
sets of vectors.
g
i
g
j
=
j
i
.
3
,
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
1
, g
2
, g
3
} and {g
1
, g
2
, g
3
} are reciprocal
sets of vectors.
g
i
g
j
=
j
i
.
3
,
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
The metric coecients {g
ij
} (for i , j = 1, 2, 3) are dened by
g
ij
= g
i
g
j
.
We can also dene reciprocal metric coecients {g
ij
}. These
are the quantities given by
g
ij
= g
i
g
j
.
Observe that commutativity of the dot product implies that
for all i and j , g
ij
= g
ji
and g
ij
= g
ji
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
ij
g
ij
= g
i
g
j
.
ij
}. These
g
ij
= g
i
g
j
.
for all i and j , g
ij
= g
ji
and g
ij
= g
ji
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
ij
g
ij
= g
i
g
j
.
ij
}. These
g
ij
= g
i
g
j
.
for all i and j , g
ij
= g
ji
and g
ij
= g
ji
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
Using the metric coecients and the reciprocal metric coecients,
we can determine the contravariant components of g
i
and the
covariant components of g
i
:
g
i
=
j
g
ij
g
j
g
i
=
j
g
ij
g
j
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
We can use these relations to determine how to transform between
covariant and contravariant components of a vector:
v
i
=
j
g
ij
v
j
v
i
=
j
g
ij
v
j
.
Similar rules dene how contravariant and covariant components of
tensors can be transformed.
This is the germ of the notion that a tensor can be dened as a
collection of quantities that transform according to certain rules.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
Arrange the metric coecients in a matrix G in the obvious way.
Denote
g = det G.
We can similarly arrange the reciprocal metric coecients in a
matrix, and the result is the inverse G
1
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
[g
1
, g
2
, g
3
] =
g.
Since the triple scalar product is the determinant of the
Jacobian of the map changing from Euclidean to curvilinear
coordinates, an integrand must be multiplied by

g in order
to integrate in general curvilinear coordinates.
Since the coordinate surface normals are reciprocal to the
coordinate tangent vectors, we get
[g
1
, g
2
, g
3
] =
1
g
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
[g
1
, g
2
, g
3
] =
g.

g in order
[g
1
, g
2
, g
3
] =
1
g
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
[g
1
, g
2
, g
3
] =
g.

g in order
[g
1
, g
2
, g
3
] =
1
g
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
One condition that is equivalent to a collection {v
1
, v
2
, v
3
} and
{w
1
, w
2
, w
3
} being reciprocal sets of vectors is that
v
i
=
w
j
w
k
[w
1
, w
2
, w
3
]
whenever i , j , k are a cyclic permutation of 1, 2 and 3.
Accordingly, when i , j , k are cyclic permutations of 1, 2, 3 we get:
g
i
=
g
j
g
k
g
and
g
i
=
g(g
j
g
k
).
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
This gives us cross-product relationships:
g
i
g
j
=
ijk
gg
k
and
g
i
g
j
=
ijk
g
g
k
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
Sometimes the following notation is used:
E
ijk
=
ijk
g and E
ijk
=

ijk
g
.
This allows us to write
g
i
g
j
=
k
E
ijk
g
k
and
g
i
g
j
=
k
E
ijk
g
k
.
This also makes the Levi-Cevita symbol into a tensor.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
Using the metric coecients, we can dene a special dyadic tensor.
In order to make sense of this concept, I will give a brief
description of dyadic tensors in Cartesian coordinates.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
Suppose you have two vectors in R
3
given by:
v = 3 4
k, w = + 2 .
Suppose, moreover, you are teaching vector calculus and a
student asks why you cant multiply v and w by writing
vw = (3 4
k)( + 2 )
and using FOIL.
The answer is that you can, but what you get back is no
longer a vector. Rather it is a quantity that looks like
vw = 3 + 6 + 4
k 8
k .
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
3
given by:
v = 3 4
k, w = + 2 .
vw = (3 4
k)( + 2 )
and using FOIL.
vw = 3 + 6 + 4
k 8
k .
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
3
given by:
v = 3 4
k, w = + 2 .
vw = (3 4
k)( + 2 )
and using FOIL.
vw = 3 + 6 + 4
k 8
k .
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
This quantity is a dyadic tensor, and the symbols such as
represent new basis vectors for a nine-dimensional vector space.
They are called the unit dyads, and the product vw is called the
dyadic product.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
In modern terminology, if we view R
3
as a three dimensional
vector space V over R, the nine-dimensional vector space vw
lives in is the tensor product V V.
A quantity such as is now denoted e
1
e
1
, and the dyadic
product is denoted v w.
The fact that not every element of a tensor product can be
written as a simple tensor v w corresponds to the notion
that not every dyadic tensor can be decomposed into the
dyadic product of two vectors.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
3
1
e
1
, and the dyadic
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
3
1
e
1
, and the dyadic
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
The dyadic product can be rewritten in orthogonal or general
curvilinear coordinates. Accordingly, we can consider the dyadic
tensor
g
i
g
j
.
These vectors also form a basis for the tensor product.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
We can use the basis {g
i
g
j
} and the metric coecients to
construct a dyadic tensor:
G =
j
g
ij
g
i
g
j
.
This is called the metric tensor.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
In modern language, this is a Riemannian metric.
The action on pairs of vectors would be obtained using vector and
tensor operations that I will not discuss.
This action corresponds to the ordinary inner product when
g
ij
=
ij
and the coordinates correspond to the Cartesian
coordinates.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
If we dene the change of coordinates map from curvilinear
coordinates to Cartesian coordinates, the metric G acts as the
pull-back of the usual inner product.
Hence, in modern language, R
3
with curvilinear coordinates and
the metric G is isometric to E
3
.
One should pause and note at this point that we have arrived at
the foundation of Riemannian geometry, using only basic vector
calculus and linear algebra!
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
Just as in the orthogonal curvilinear case, {g
1
, g
2
, g
3
} and
{g
1
, g
2
, g
3
} vary from point to point.
Consequently, we need to understand how these change from point
to point in order to do dierential operations.
As a matter of notation, when we dierentiate a vector eld V with
respect to q
j
, we will write a subscript /j . For example, g
i
= R
/i
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
As horric as the derivations are for the orthogonal curvilinear
case, orthogonality helps great deal.
In the general case, some symbols are used to pack up the
ugliness into something more compact.
These symbols are the Christoel symbols.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
We dene Chirstoel symbols of the rst kind by
[ij , k] = g
i /j
g
k
.
Then we can write
g
i /j
=
k
[ij , k]g
k
.
This gives the covariant components of g
i /j
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
[ij , k] = g
i /j
g
k
.
Then we can write
g
i /j
=
k
[ij , k]g
k
.
i /j
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
[ij , k] = g
i /j
g
k
.
Then we can write
g
i /j
=
k
[ij , k]g
k
.
i /j
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
Similarly, we dene Christoel symbols of the second kind by
_
k
ij
_
= g
i /j
g
k
.
Then we can write:
g
i /j
=
k
_
k
ij
_
g
k
.
This gives the contravariant components of g
i /j
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
_
k
ij
_
= g
i /j
g
k
.
Then we can write:
g
i /j
=
k
_
k
ij
_
g
k
.
i /j
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
_
k
ij
_
= g
i /j
g
k
.
Then we can write:
g
i /j
=
k
_
k
ij
_
g
k
.
i /j
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
Note that by equality of mixed partial derivatives, since we have
sucient smoothness:
g
i /j
= R
/i /j
= R
/j /i
= g
j /i
.
Hence
[ij , k] = [ji , k] and
_
k
ij
_
=
_
k
ji
_
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
All of this begs the question, how on earth do we compute the
Christoel symbols?
It turns out that one can prove that the Christoel symbols can be
computed using the metric coecients.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
For Christoel symbols of the rst kind:
[ij , k] =
1
2
(g
ki /j
+ g
jk/i
g
ij /k
).
For the Christoel symbols of the second kind:
_
k
ij
_
=
1
2
l
g
kl
(g
il /j
+ g
jl /i
g
ij /l
).
This shows that the Christoel symbols of the second kind are
precisely the same as the modern notion of the Christoel
symbols
k
ij
used in dening the Levi-Civita connection with
respect to the Riemannian metric G dened above.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
[ij , k] =
1
2
(g
ki /j
+ g
jk/i
g
ij /k
).
_
k
ij
_
=
1
2
l
g
kl
(g
il /j
+ g
jl /i
g
ij /l
).
symbols
k
ij
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
[ij , k] =
1
2
(g
ki /j
+ g
jk/i
g
ij /k
).
_
k
ij
_
=
1
2
l
g
kl
(g
il /j
+ g
jl /i
g
ij /l
).
symbols
k
ij
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
Last, we can use the Christoel symbols of the second kind to
describe the partial derivatives of the coordinate surface normals:
g
i
/j
=
k
_
i
kj
_
g
k
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
Now that we know how to dierentiate our basis vectors without
reference to Cartesian coordinates, we are prepared to make the
last step in our journey and do dierential calculus in general
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
The Del operator in curvilinear coordinates is given by
=
j
g
i

q
i
.
We then get the gradient of a smooth function f : R
3
R by
f =
i
f
/i
g
i
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
The Del operator in curvilinear coordinates is given by
=
j
g
i

q
i
.
We then get the gradient of a smooth function f : R
3
R by
f =
i
f
/i
g
i
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
The divergence of a vector eld V is given by
V =
i
_
_
v
i
/i
+
j
v
j
_
i
ji
_
_
_
.
This can be simplied, using various vector identities, to
V =
1
i
(v
i
g)
/i
.
As an amusing corollary, we get
j
_
j
ij
_
= (ln
g)
/i
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
V =
i
_
_
v
i
/i
+
j
v
j
_
i
ji
_
_
_
.
V =
1
i
(v
i
g)
/i
.
j
_
j
ij
_
= (ln
g)
/i
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
V =
i
_
_
v
i
/i
+
j
v
j
_
i
ji
_
_
_
.
V =
1
i
(v
i
g)
/i
.
j
_
j
ij
_
= (ln
g)
/i
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
The curl of a vector eld is given by
V =
ijk
g
_
v
j /i

l
_
l
ji
_
v
l
_
g
k
.
A simpler form of the curl of a vector eld is given by
V =
1
ijk
v
i /j
g
k
.
This can be arranged as the determinant of a matrix:
V =
1
g
1
g
2
g
3
q
1
q
2
q
3
v
1
v
2
v
3
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
V =
ijk
g
_
v
j /i

l
_
l
ji
_
v
l
_
g
k
.
V =
1
ijk
v
i /j
g
k
.
V =
1
g
1
g
2
g
3
q
1
q
2
q
3
v
1
v
2
v
3
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
V =
ijk
g
_
v
j /i

l
_
l
ji
_
v
l
_
g
k
.
V =
1
ijk
v
i /j
g
k
.
V =
1
g
1
g
2
g
3
q
1
q
2
q
3
v
1
v
2
v
3
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
Finally, the Laplacian of a scalar function is given by
2
f =
1
j
(
gg
ij
f
/j
)
/i
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
After a long road, we have learned how to handle dierential
vector calculus in general curvilinear coordinates in R
3
.
The operations depend on the metric coecients, which in
the orthogonal case are known as the Lame coecients.
Along the road, we have witnessed the birth of modern
concepts such as covariant/contravariant tensors, dual bases,
Riemannian metrics and Christoel symbols.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
3
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
3
.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
One can proceed to dene covariant dierentiation, the
curvature tensor and other such players from dierential
geometry using the tools we have constructed.
One can proceed in a dierent direction and dene dierential
calculus with tensors, starting with dyadic tensors. This gets
complicated very quickly, since the number of components
and indices as well as the types of operations one can perform
get out of control.
At the level of vectors (one-tensors), however, the classical
background adds depth to the formalities one encounters
using the modern notions.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
get out of control.
3
.
Introduction
Christoel Symbols
get out of control.
3
.

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Introduction

Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates

= cos cos + cos sin sin

= cos cos + cos sin sin

= cos cos + cos sin sin

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