Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
What is Computer?
Computer is an electronic device. It accepts raw data from us, process it and
gives meaningful information as required by user as per given instruction.
Characteristics of a Computer
(a) Computer is very fast.
(b) Computer is accurate.
(c) They can process millions of instructions per second.
(d) Computer is very versatile.
(e) Computer works at constant efficiency.
(f) Perform repetitive tasks very well without error.
(g) Computer can store information for future retrieval or use.
(h) Computer can communicate with other computer systems.
History of Computers
450 BC - ABACUS
The Egyptians developed it and Improvements made by Chinese & Japanese.
All the above were based on mechanical precision and since mechanical precision
was not that accurate during those days the reliability of the machines was rather
questionable.
This basic principle of one or other of the two states is the fundamental basis of
the binary coding system used in computers.
For example,
Compute the Squares of first 6 natural numbers
Computer Fundamental By BALJEET SINGHSINWAR/2
Number Square
1 1
2 4
3 9
4 16
5 25
6 36
Similarly, if we work out the cubes, the third level difference will be equal. Based
on this principle Charles Babbage developed ANALYTICAL ENGINE which could calculate
up to 20 decimals at about 60 additions per minute. However, financial constraints and
inadequate technological advancements (electricity was discovered only in 1840's), his
devices remained unfinished. But for his pioneering work he is called the FATHER OF
COMPUTER.
Similarly, Lady Ada Lovelace is famous as the First Programmer, for having
devised a suitable use of Binary Number system for programs and data to be fed into the
Analytical Computer.
The BUGS
There is a well known fable about Mark I which indication to the adoption of the
word "BUG" for use in computers.
Once Mark I developed a certain fault and no amount of effort was spared to locate the
same. Every portion of the huge Mark I, computers of those days used to be monstrously
big machines occupying several rooms, was thoroughly searched for the fault. After
spending considerable time and effort it was found that on one of the electrical
connections of the "Back-Plane Panel" of the machine a "MOTH" had got struck bringing
the machine to a grinding halt. The moth was removed when Mark-I started functioning.
It was then stated that "Mark I was 'Debugged'."
Computer Fundamental By BALJEET SINGHSINWAR/3
Bug was incorporated into the computer vocabulary to mean all kinds of errors
and like-wise debugging meant removing those errors. These two words are commonly
used words now in relation to both the hardware and software of computer.
1946 AD - ENIAC
Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator were developed for World War II
use. After this the progress in the Digital Computers has been simply stupendous
(amazing).
Generation of computers
First Generation -:
(1946 - 1954) Use Vacuum Tubes
Use Assemble language for programming
large in size
slow processing
Example : IBM 704, IBM 709, EDVAC, UNIVAC etc.
Second Generation -:
(1955-1964) Use of transistors instead of vacuum tube
Increased Operating speeds & improved Storage devices
High speed card readers
Used high-level languages such as FORTRAN (1956),
COBOL (1960),
Line printers and magnetic tape transport units.
Reduction in size, improved reliability, reduction in operating cost.
Example : IBM 1400, IBM 7040, CDC 3600, GE635, B300
Third Generation -:
(1965-1974) Use of IC (Integrated Circuit)
Starting use of Semiconductor Memory (RAM or ROM)
More miniaturization Reliability and Accuracy
Example : IBM 370, Honeywell 200, B2000
Fourth Generation -:
(1975-up till now) Use of VLSIC (Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit) and
Magnetic Oxide Semiconductor
Operating system speed in nano & pico sec.
Refinement of I/O units.
Reduction in size.
Refinement of HLL and software packages for DBMS
Reduced operating cost, recording of errors.
Classification of Computer
Computer can be classified into four part :-
1. MicroComputer -: There are two types of Microcomputer -
(a) Home Computer : Use TV for Output
Use Cassette/floppy as backing storage
Low Cost (A few thousand of rupees)
Use for Home education, Home games etc.
(b) Business Computer :Use a Separate VDU for output
Floppy or Hard disk for backing storage
Used by Small business and company department
More powerful Micros have Mini like Capacities
called Super Computer
Types of Business Computer :- PC
PC - AT
PC - XT
PC - AT 286
PC - AT 386
PC - AT 486
Pentium I/II/III/IV
Application of Computer
Today computer is going to be an essential part of our life. In many part of life, we
can think life without computer. It is useful at so many places among someone are:-
(a) Education (b) Library
(c) Medical Science (d) Engineering
(e) Agriculture (f) Industry
(g) Scientific Research (h) Traffic Control
(i) Design (j) Checking of Examination Paper
(k) Media (l) Airways & Railways Ticket Reservations
Computer System
HARDWARE
Hardware may be classified as :-
1. CPU (Central Processing Unit)
2. Peripherals
REPRESENTATION OF INFORMATION :
Modern computers are based on Binary system. Binary devices works only on two
stages - "ON" and "OFF". The stages are represented as "0" and "1" which is known as
"Binary Digits". Programs and instructions is handle by computer as string of bits.
Microcomputer and some other computer as well handle 8 bits at a time.
A set of 8 bits is known as a "Byte".
4 bits or a half of a byte is known as "Nibble".
So,
8 Bit = 1 Byte
1024 Byte = 1 KB (Kilobyte)
1024 KB = 1 MB (Megabyte), i.e. 10,48,576 Bytes.
1024 MB = 1 GB (Gigabyte), i.e. 1,07,37,41,824 Bytes.
TYPES OF SOFTWARE
(c) It carries out the input/output management and coordinates and assigns
different input and output devices while one or more programs are being
executed.
(d) It manages files on various storage devices and the transfer of these files
from one storage device to another. It also allows all files to be easily
changed and modified through the use of text editors or some other file
manipulation software packages.
(e) It establishes and enforces the job priority. That is, it determines and
maintains the order in which jobs are to be executed in the computer system.
(f) It automatically transits from job to job as directed by special control
statements.
(g) It is able to interpret commands and instructions.
(h) It co-ordinates and assigns compilers, assemblers, utility programs, and other
software packages to various users working on the computer system.
(i) It establishes data security and integrity. That is, it keeps different programs
and data in such a manner that they do not interfere with each other.
Moreover, it also protects data from being destroyed by and other user.
(j) It also produces traces, error messages, and other debugging and error
detecting codes.
(k) It maintains internal time clock and log of system usage for all users.
(l) It facilitates easy communication between the computer system and the
computer operator (human).
CUSTOM MADE SOFTWARE - Custom made software is the package that is designed
and programmed for a particular customer, in contrast with software packages that are
available off-the-shelf for a particular industry, such as insurance or banking. Software
packages, such as spreadsheets and database management systems, although canned,
off-the-shelf packages themselves, are designed to create customized solutions to a
user's problem as well.
GENERATION OF LANGUAGES
The term "Generation" of computer language is used to categories the generic
enhancements in the various computer languages that have evolved over the last 50
years. Each generation indicates significant progress in making computers easier to use.
In the early days of computing, it was assumed that only a few elite technical specialists
would learn to use computers, but now their use by a larger proportion of population is
taken for granted.
Computer languages by generation are classified as follows :
(a) First Generation (Late 1940s) Machine Code.
(b) Second Generation (early 1950s) Assembly language
(c) Third Generation (Late 1950s
to 1970s) High Level Language
(d) Forth Generation (Late 1970s
onwards) including a whole range of
structured query languages and
other tools.
development and maintenance time. Some, such as ORACLE, offer a number of tools
(SQL*CALC, SQL*FORMS, SQL*REPORT) suitable for an end user.
program written in a high-level language will run on any computer, which has a
compiler for that language. In other words a high-level language is portable.
Software : Software is the program who instructs the hardware to perform any
specific tasks in a certain way.
Firmware : Firmware is the programs stored in read-only memory (ROM). Unlike
random access memory (RAM), read-only memory stays intact even in the absence
of electrical power. Start-up routines (bootstraps programs) and low-level
input/output instructions are stored in firmware. It falls between software and
hardware in ease of modifications.
Liveware : Liveware is the human beings employed to handle hardware and
software. It is a slang for computer trained people.
Q. what is Cache Memory?
Ans. Cache memory, a small buffer storage, smaller and faster than main storage
(often made of Static RAM), that is used to hold a copy of instructions and data in
main storage that are likely to be needed next by the processor and that have been
obtained automatically from main storage such as hard disk. Cache memory is used
to increase the speed of processing by making current programs and data available
to the CPU at a rapid rate.
A cache is useful when RAM accesses are slow compared with the microprocessor
speed because cache memory is always faster than main RAM memory.
A disk cache is a portion of a computer's RAM set aside for temporally holding
information read from disk. A disk cache does not hold entire files, as does a RAM
disk. Instead, a disk cache is used to hold information that either has recently been
requested from disk or has previously been written to disk. For example, a program
might need to read in repeatedly from disk either a portion of itself or the same
portions of a data file. If the required information remains in a disk cache, access
time is considerably faster than if the program must wait for the disk-drive
mechanism to fetch the information from disk.
Q. What is Mnemonic?
Ans. Any kind of mental trick we use to help us remember. For example, a computer
may be designed to interpret the machine code of 1111 (binary) as the subtract
operation, but it is easier for a human being to remember it is SUB. The SUB is
known as mnemonic code for subtraction.
Q. Give the reason for using binary digits to code data stored in a computer.
Ans. A bit is a single digit in a binary number (1 or 0). Within the computer, a bit is
physically a memory cell, a magnetic spot on disk or tape or a pulse of high or low
voltage travelling through a circuit. Computers, which are in use today, are digital
computers. They manipulate numbers. They operate on binary digits 0 and 1. The
main reason for operating on binary digits is that it is much easier for the computer
to distinguish 1 or 0 because either the voltage is present or not present. Thus a
digital computer operating on the binary digit is more accurate as it can distinguish
between the presence and the absence of a voltage.
Q. Write short notes on TSR Programs.
Ans. TSR (Terminate and Stay Resident) programs are RAM resident programs that
remain in memory at all times whenever a computer is switched on so that they
can be instantly activated. In IBM compatible PCs running under DOS, desktop
accessory TSR programs have become popular in order to have instant access to a
calculator or calendar. However, these TSR programs often conflict with each other,
each one fighting for the right to exist within the computer, and various
combinations of programs will not work together. Windows environments for DOS
such as Windows 3.11 or Windows 98 etc. provide the ability to switch back and
forth quickly between multiple applications.
Advantages: -
Computer Fundamental By BALJEET SINGHSINWAR/12
Disadvantages: -
(a) If wrong programmed then it produces wrong answers.
(b) If it gets down then so many working hours wasted.
(c) It brings unemployment because one computer can handle work of many
people.
(d) Stealing of information through computer is become too much easy.
(e) Computer on Internet is not safe due to Virus or other attacks.
HARDWARE
Hardware may be classified as :-
1. CPU (Central Processing Unit)
2. Peripherals
can be written onto the ROM. There are also some kind of ROM:-
a) PROM
b) EPROM
c) EEPROM
Q. What are the five basic operations performed by any computer system?
Ans. All computer systems perform the following five basic operations: -
1. Inputting - Fetching data as well as instructions in the computer's memory so
that it can be process by the CPU. It may be fetching character one by one
through keyboard or it may be capturing data through any optical device like
scanner, OCR etc.
2. Storing - Inputted data first stored in the computer's memory because
capacity of the CPU register is not so much that it can receive and process all
the data at a time. CPU receives data and instructions one by one. The
intermediate results should also be remaining in the computer's memory for
Computer Fundamental By BALJEET SINGHSINWAR/14
next operation. After all, if we not completed or completed the today's task
then also it may require in future. So, storing of data and instruction
temporarily or permanently is must.
3. Processing - It is the most vital task of computer system. It can compute the
data as per given instructions in form of programs or software and then gives
meaningful information. As soon as we change the instruction, the output may
differ.
4. Outputting - After processing user demands for a result, which is given by
computer in form of output through printer, or on screen.
5. Controlling - A computer system have so many additional devices attached
with them to perform various tasks. One major task of a computer system is
controlling its devices and minimizes the collision between them.
Q. How many types of memory a computer has? Justify the need for each
type?
or
The ROM contains the essential information and the hard disk contains all
relevant programs. What purpose does the RAM serve?
Ans. A computer system has mainly two types of memory: -
1. Main Memory/Primary memory - This type of memory have very few storage
capacity and it contains generally small amount of essential data. This have also
two major type, i.e.
a) ROM - Read only memory contains firmware given by the manufacturer
of the relevant device. This firmware is very useful whenever we start the
computer or attach a new device to computer. Due to this firmware
computer can easily identify the attached device. It is Non-Volatile Memory.
b) RAM - Random Access Memory is a volatile memory. Initially it has no
any data when computer system boots up. Sequentially it stores operating
system's kernel, application system's data etc. However it is volatile in
nature, but CPU can access any information from here very quick. Its speed
is too much greater than hard disk. During processing, CPU also uses it as
intermediate device to keep intermediate results of any process. Without
RAM there is no any difference between a computer and calculator. When a
user work on any file then it first saves in computer's memory and then
after receiving Save command it transfer the data to hard disk.
2. Secondary Memory/Backing Storage - It is generally Non-volatile in nature,
which is used to store data permanently for future uses. It has a large size, so it
actually stores all the programs like Operating system, application software etc.
During processing if the computer needs more RAM than available, then it works as
virtual RAM, known as Virtual memory. To share information from one to another
computer we also need some backing storage device.
Q. What are the main components of a PC system unit? Explain each
component?
Ans. A PC system unit has following components: -
1. CPU Cabinet - It stands for Central Processing Unit cabinet. Actually it is a
container in which different components like Processor, RAM chip, Sound card,
Mother board, hard disk, floppy drive, CD-ROM etc. are fitted by computer
assembler. This box is the most important because it contains most expensive
and useful parts of computer. It has so many output and input ports mostly at
back side of it through which we can connect several devices like - printer,
keyboard, monitor etc. In front it exists power switch and reset button to
start/restart computer. CD-ROM/Floppy drive can only be accessed from front
side.
2. VDU - Visual Display Unit is also known as standard output device. This
produces soft copy of entered data and processed results. A user can interact
through VDU mostly. Major component of VDU is CRT (Cathode Rays Tube).
Another type of VDU used LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) which consumes too less
power and generally used with Mobile computer like Laptop, Palmtop etc.
What type of keys, other than alphabetic and digits, are available
Computer Fundamental By BALJEET SINGHSINWAR/15
4. Printer - This peripheral device is used to take hard copy of the report. If we
want to keep copy for future use then we must take print out through printer.
There are mainly three types of printer: -
a) Dot Matrix Printer - An Impact printer who uses 9 or 24 pin to hammer on
a ribbon so that the character or picture appears at another side of ribbon
on paper.
b) Inkjet Printer - This printer uses one or two ink cartridge, first one contains
black ink and another contains three colours (Red, Green, and Blue).
Combination of these colours produces millions of colours. This is a Non-
Impact printer, which generally prints one line at a time.
c) Laser Printer - This Non-Impact printer uses Toner to print on paper. It
uses Laser light to print. Printing quality of laser printer is Superior than
other printers. Its main uses are at Printing press and offices where required
fine and heavy printing.
5. UPS/CVT - Uninterrupted Power Supply/ Constant Voltage Transformer is used
to supply required level of electric supply to all computer components. The
computer components are very sensitive in term of electric supply, so it needs
constant voltage. Some operating system or application software also need to
close it in proper way (Shut Down), so, we must keep UPS in case of such an OS
or Application Software.
Q. Write short notes on ASCII?
Ans. ASCII is a binary code for data that is used extensively in communications, in most
minicomputers and in all PCs. It stands for American Standard Code for Information
Interchange. ASCII that was originally a 7-bit code allowing 128 possible character
combinations, the first 32 of which is used for communications and printing control
purposes. Since today's common unit of storage is an 8-bit byte and ASCII is only 7
bits, the extra bit has been as a parity bit or for a variety of different symbols. For
example, the IBM PC uses the additional 128 characters, called extended ASCII for
Computer Fundamental By BALJEET SINGHSINWAR/16
NETWORKING CONCEPTS
Networking is a form of computer communications generally used for the transfer
of data and information within an organization. Networking in this context refers
to the confines of an office, a group of offices, a building or a closely spaced group
of two or more PCs connected together by some type communication media (wire
or cable) to form a data path between the computers. Once the PCs are physically
connected, software designed specifically for network. This software also allows
any user to access shared data storage and output devices connected to the
network. Examples of shared devices are printers, plotters, imaging devices, hard
disks and tape drives.
Advantages Disadvantages
Economic
• Shared peripherals such as printers • Less computer memory available
• Technological flexibility • High Cost
• Incremental growth • Greater complexity
• Less user control
• Prone to Security loss
Organizational
• Improved communications
• Improved standardization
• Better control
• Controlled Security
• Data sharing
Wide Area Network is a network that spans large geographical distances. WANs
usually operate at lower speed than LANs. Wide area network (WAN) is a network that
spans large geographical distances. WANs usually operate at lower speed than LANs.
WANs are typically created using specially conditioned telephone lines,
microwaves, or satellite data transmission.
NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Topology is the way networks are physically connected together. Topology
determines the complexity and therefore the cost of network cables installation.
Topology also determines the strategy for physically expanding the network. There is
several type of topology but mainly three type are :-
1. STAR TOPOLOGY - Each node is connected to a single, centrally located file
server, using its own dedicated segment of cable. This topology has the
advantage of minimum data traffic along the cables (node to server only), thus
providing optimum performance. But because a single machine must co-ordinate
Computer Fundamental By BALJEET SINGHSINWAR/18
all the data communications, this requires an extremely powerful and expensive
file server.
2. RING OR CIRCULAR TOPOLOGY - In this layout, each node is physically
connected to only two others. Each node passes information along to the next,
until it arrives at its intended destination. Performance is faster on this system
because each portion of the cabling system is handling only the data flow
between two machines.
3. LINEAR BUS TOPOLOGY - In this layout, a single main cable connects each
node, in what amounts to a single line of computers accessing it from end to end.
Each node is connected to two others except the machines at either end of the
cable, which are connected only to one other node. The network operating system
keeps track of a unique electronic address for each node and manages the flow of
data based on this addressing scheme.
4. TREE TOPOLOGY - This is a network topology containing zero or more nodes that
are linked together in a hierarchical fashion. The topmost node is called the root.
The root may have zero or more child nodes, connected by edges (links); the root
is the parent node to its children. Each node can in turn have zero or more
children of its own. Nodes sharing the same parents are called siblings. Every
node is a tree has exactly one parent node (except for the root, which has none)
and all nodes in the tree are descendants of the node. These relationships ensure
that there is always one and only one path from one node to any other node in
the tree.
5. GRAPH TOPOLOGY - In this method of connection, zero or more nodes are linked
together in an arbitrary fashion. Any two nodes in a graph may (or may not) be
connected by a link. Not all the nodes in a graph need to be connected, but if a
path can be traced between any two nodes, the graph is a connected one.
COMPUTER VIRUS
(a) TROJANS HORSE - A Trojans Horse is a program that invades a computer system
by secretly attaching itself to a valid program downloaded into the computer. It
may be used to locate password information or it may alter an existing program to
make it easier to gain access to it.
(b) Time and Logic Bombs - A time and logic bomb is a program that destroys data;
for example it may reformat the Harddisk or randomly insert garbage into data
files.
A time bomb formats the Harddisk on a given date or slows down computer every
Friday.
(c) Melissa and SKA virus - Melissa virus attacks MS-WORD or MS-EXCEL files and
spread very fast. This virus changes the Normal.Doc, disabling the macro
protection message and inflects all the Word files opened or created subsequently.
Sometimes Melissa virus spread around the world rapidly infecting many
computers and bringing down networks.
SKA increases the size of the file and change the extension of the files to .SKA.
These virus delete the Microsoft Document files or change their contents.
Virus Scanner and Remover - Virus scanners are products designed to help identify
viruses within files, boot sectors, master boot sector, memory and other hiding
Computer Fundamental By BALJEET SINGHSINWAR/19
places, name them and eventually remove them. The capability to detect and
identify a virus is probably the most important feature of a scanner.
In most cases scanner comes with remover. Remover detects the quality of virus
and removes it.
Vaccine Program is a program that watches for typical things that viruses
do, halts them and warns the computer operator about the computer security being
threatened.
INTERNET
INTRODUCTION
The Internet is a loose connection of thousands and thousands of computer
networks scattered all over the globe. The only thing all the networks have in common is
the use of the same transmission language, known as TCP/IP. However, you need not
know anything about TCP/IP to use the Internet.
The Internet started as a US government project in the 1960s called the
ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) which was initially Network of
Security Department of US. At its initial period scientists and engineers used it only. After
more government and educational institutions got involved, it grew into an internetwork.
Since 1993, the internet has been a hot topic - with more and more people getting to use
it at a current rate of about a million new connections a month all over the month.
BROWSER
These are a software who organizes the information of the Internet and then
systematically produce it to you. Netscape Navigator was the first popular browser but
now-a-days Internet Explorer has been using widely.
HOMEPAGE
Homepage is the main page of any Web Site. Generally a Homepage have all
possible links of that Web Site. It may be understood as Contents of that Web Site.
SURFING
Surfing means without any planning wandering on different Web-sites to either
search any type of information or answer of any question.
Computer Fundamental By BALJEET SINGHSINWAR/20
SEARCH ENGINE
This is an utility provided by different portal to search any information on World
Wide Web. After giving some word in search dialog box and requesting for search, the
search engine searches and returns a list and links of similar Web Sites containing given
words. After it user can search his information on that sites.
INSTANT MESSANGER
Through the Internet and suitable software if someone talks with any other
person, then this talking is known as CHATTING. Generally chatting has been done
through Host site, where user select desired room and then desired person for chatting.
But in this system there is a problem that a user has to choose any person from a long
list of known or unknown persons.
But through the Instant Messenger a user creates list of those persons from whom
he wants to chat. After it when any person among that list become online, indicator
shows that person's name through blinking or through any sound etc. Through this
Instant Messenger a user can talk to their limited persons.
E-MAIL
Full form of e-mail is Electronic Mail. In this system a user has a unique name.
This name can be hire from any ISP or some Portal provides free facility to create an e-
mail address through that portal. After gaining an e-mail address user can send any
letter in electronic form to someone other or can receive any mail, which was sent by any
other person to him.
ATTACHMENT
Additional data, which will be send through e-mail, is known as Attachment. This
attachment may be any text, audio, video or photo file.
DOMAIN NAMES
Most organizations use domain names that are easy to remember. Each domain
name ends with an identifier that tells what type of web site it is. Following is the
commonly used identifiers :
INTERNET EXPLORER
Internet Explorer is a browser developed by Microsoft Corporation and a freeware.
When we open it then following items come on the screen :-
Computer Fundamental By BALJEET SINGHSINWAR/21
Title Bar - On the left the title bar displays the name of the web page currently
open and on the right side the maximize/minimize, restore and close button.
Menu Bar - It is located just below the title bar, same as other application.
Toolbars - It is located just below the Menu bar and generally it has following
buttons :-
Back- Displays a page in the list of previously viewed
pages.
Forward - Displays a page in the list next to viewed pages.
Stop - Stops downloading the current page.
Refresh - Downloads the current page again, ensuring that the
latest version of the web page is displayed.
Home - Displays the home page.
Search (Toggle) - Displays (or hides) the Search Explorer Bar in left
pane, which provides access to Internet Search
Engines.(Default through MSN search).
Favorites - Displays (or hides) the Favorites Explorer Bar in left
pane Which provides access to our favorite sites.
Using Favorites commands, we can create a list of
favorite pages and organize them into folders. Then
to go to a favorite page we simply select the page we
want from the Favorites menu.
To add the Web pages to our Favorites list
either we have to choose Add to Favorites from
Favorite menu or click Add to Favorites on the
Favorites Explorer Bar at left pane. In the coming
dialog box, Type the name of the page against the
Name and then select the location of the favorite
page through Create In box. We can also use drag or
drop feature to add any pages to Favorites.
If we choose Organize Favorites
option from Favorites menu then we can easily view,
organize and return to favorite page as much as
similar to Windows Explorer.
History (Toggle) - Displays (or hides) the History Explorer Bar at left
pane that provides access to sites we have visited
recently.
Full Screen (Tgl)- Switches to (or from) full screen view, which provides
maximum viewing space for Internet Explorer's
document area.
Mail - Launches your mail or newsreader program
(by default - Outlook Express) and lets you send links
and pages to others via e-mail.
Print - Prints the current page, if the printer is online.