European Journal Transformation Studies Vol 2 No 1

EUROPEAN JOURNAL
TRANSFORMATION STUDIES
U k r a i n e 2 0 1 4
P r o f . Te t y a na Na g o r ny a k
Donetsk National University, Ukraine

EUROPEAN JOURNAL
OF

201
!o". 2# No. 1

U k r a i n e 2 0 1 4 a t e s t o f n a t i o n a l s p i r i t

$% e & t e ' ( t o r
P r o f . Te t y a na Na g o r ny a k

by Europe Our House, Tbilisi
e)ISSN 22*+)0**,
EUROPEAN JOURNAL
s t o f n a t i o n a l s p i r i t

Europe Our House
Medi

E D I T O R I A L A D V I S O R Y B O A R D

Prof. Jakub Potulski, University of Gdansk, Poland

Prof. Tadeusz Dmo!o"ski, University of Gdansk, Poland
Prof. #ar"an $l%$bsi, University of &onstantine t!e P!ilosop!er in 'itra,
Prof. (lavom)r G*lik, University of ss. &yril and #et!odius in Trnava,
Prof. (tefan E"erto"ski, University of +armia and #azury in Olsztyn, Poland
Prof. +o,ie! -orysinski, Eastern #editerranean University, -aman.usta,
Prof. /ranislav -ridri!, &omenius University in /ratislava, (lovakia
Prof. Danuta 0arno"ska, 'iola &opernius University in Torun, Poland
Prof. $natoliy 0ru.las!ov, &!ernivtsi 'ational University, Ukraine
Prof. Du1an 2e1ka, &omenius University in /ratisla
Prof. #alk!az #atsaberidze, 3vane Javakas!vili Tbilisi (tate University
Prof. 4uizan #ekvabidze, Gori (tate Tea!in. University, Geor.ia
Prof. 2uia #okr*, &omenius University in /ratislava, (lovakia
Prof. Tatiana Papias!vili, /lak (ee Unive
Prof. $ndras /ozoki, &entral European University in /udapest, Hun.ary
Prof. Tereza%/r5ndu6a Palade, 'ational University of Politial and Publi $dministration in /u!arest, 4omania
Prof. Dana Petranov*, University of ss. &yril an
Prof. Elif 7olako8lu, $tat9rk University in Erzurum, Turkey
Prof. Petr Jemelka, #asaryk University in /rno, &ze! 4epubli
Prof. Hana Pravdov*, University of ss. &yril and #et!odius in Trnava, (lovakia
Prof. Josef Dolista, &E:4O 3nstitut &olle.e in Pra.ue, &ze! 4epubli
Prof. :aleriu #osnea.a, #oldova (tate University in &!i6in;u, 4epubli of #oldova
Prof. $le< (kovikov, #oso" University for t!e Humanities, 4ussia
Prof. $ndrei Taranu, 'ational University of Politial (ien
Prof. Tetyana 'a.ornyak, Donetsk 'ational University, Ukraine
Dr. $ntonio #omo, University of /u!arest, 4omania
Dr. Przemys=a" (ieradzan, University of Gdansk, Poland
Dr. Justyna (!ulz, University of /remen, Germany
Dr. (ab)na G*likov* Tolnaiov*, University of &onstantine t!e P!ilosop!er in 'itra,

Prof. Arka'(%&- Mo'r-e.e/&k(
University of Gdansk, Poland
modrze,e"ski>u..edu.pl

Eitor)(n)01(ef

Ta2ar $a2kre"('-e
Europe Our House, Tbilisi, Georgia
tamuna>!otmail.o.uk

0o)e'(tor&
0o3y e'(tor
Mag'a 4ar-o51a# MA
Medical University of Gdansk, Poland

E D I T O R I A L A D V I S O R Y B O A R D
Prof. Jakub Potulski, University of Gdansk, Poland ? !"airperson
Prof. Tadeusz Dmo!o"ski, University of Gdansk, Poland
$bsi, University of &onstantine t!e P!ilosop!er in 'itra, (lovakia
Prof. (lavom)r G*lik, University of ss. &yril and #et!odius in Trnava, (lovakia
Prof. (tefan E"erto"ski, University of +armia and #azury in Olsztyn, Poland
Prof. +o,ie! -orysinski, Eastern #editerranean University, -aman.usta, 'ort!ern &yprus
rof. /ranislav -ridri!, &omenius University in /ratislava, (lovakia
Prof. Danuta 0arno"ska, 'iola &opernius University in Torun, Poland
Prof. $natoliy 0ru.las!ov, &!ernivtsi 'ational University, Ukraine
Prof. Du1an 2e1ka, &omenius University in /ratislava, (lovakia
Prof. #alk!az #atsaberidze, 3vane Javakas!vili Tbilisi (tate University
Prof. 4uizan #ekvabidze, Gori (tate Tea!in. University, Geor.ia
2uia #okr*, &omenius University in /ratislava, (lovakia
Prof. Tatiana Papias!vili, /lak (ee University in Tbilisi, Geor.ia
Prof. $ndras /ozoki, &entral European University in /udapest, Hun.ary
/r5ndu6a Palade, 'ational University of Politial and Publi $dministration in /u!arest, 4omania
Prof. Dana Petranov*, University of ss. &yril and #et!odius in Trnava, (lovakia
Prof. Elif 7olako8lu, $tat9rk University in Erzurum, Turkey
Prof. Petr Jemelka, #asaryk University in /rno, &ze! 4epubli
Prof. Hana Pravdov*, University of ss. &yril and #et!odius in Trnava, (lovakia
E:4O 3nstitut &olle.e in Pra.ue, &ze! 4epubli
Prof. :aleriu #osnea.a, #oldova (tate University in &!i6in;u, 4epubli of #oldova
Prof. $le< (kovikov, #oso" University for t!e Humanities, 4ussia
Prof. $ndrei Taranu, 'ational University of Politial (iene and Publi $dministration in /u!arest, 4omania
Prof. Tetyana 'a.ornyak, Donetsk 'ational University, Ukraine
Dr. $ntonio #omo, University of /u!arest, 4omania
Dr. Przemys=a" (ieradzan, University of Gdansk, Poland
emen, Germany
University of &onstantine t!e P!ilosop!er in 'itra, (lovakia

. Arka'(%&- Mo'r-e.e/&k(
Poland
Dr. Tat(ana T6k6"yo78
University ollege of !nternational and
Public "ffairs in #ratislava
tokolyova.ba>.mail.om

'ort!ern &yprus
/r5ndu6a Palade, 'ational University of Politial and Publi $dministration in /u!arest, 4omania
e and Publi $dministration in /u!arest, 4omania

Dr. Tat(ana T6k6"yo78
University ollege of !nternational and
Public "ffairs in #ratislava, $lovakia
tokolyova.ba>.mail.om

Tetyana Nagornyak Ukraine %&'() *+y Maydan rebelled

$a"yna 9%t& Postco,,unist Ukraine- fro,

Anato"(y 9r%g"a&1o7 Et+nopolitics of Ukraine-

Iryna De2(&1e7a : Ana&ta&(ya 9o"o2oyet&
onte.t of $igning t+e "gree,ent
%'

/ebruary %&'( 0%12

O"ga 9okor&ka : !a"ent(n 9okor&ky
Transfor,ing Ukrainian $

!(ra ;aro&1enko T+e 3ole
in Ukraine 0end of %&'4 5

Serg(( <on'arenko Eurointegration
!nfor,ation "spect 0162

O"ena Taranenko Myt+ologi7ation of t+e
for Ukraine8 in t+e Modern European Political and M

M(ko=a. S-e"e&t 3ussian
EuroMaydan 0612

4o.5(e51 Fory&(n&k( Ukraine v
and !,plications for !nternational 9a:

0ONTENTS
Ukraine %&'() *+y Maydan rebelled; 0(2
Postco,,unist Ukraine- fro, Maydan to Maydan
Et+nopolitics of Ukraine- +allenges and
Iryna De2(&1e7a : Ana&ta&(ya 9o"o2oyet& onstruction of
"gree,ent about 3egulation of t+e risis
O"ga 9okor&ka : !a"ent(n 9okor&ky 9egiti,acy of Po:er and Trust in
Transfor,ing Ukrainian $ociety 04<2
3ole of Moral Default in Political Nation /or,ing Process
5 beginning of %&'( years2 0(62
Eurointegration Policy risis in t+e Donetsk "rea-

Myt+ologi7ation of t+e Metap+or =t+e door to Europe
for Ukraine8 in t+e Modern European Political and Media Ddiscourse 0>6
3ussian?Ukrainian !nfor,ation *ar in t+e onte.t of
Ukraine vs) t+e 3ussian /ederation- +allenges
and !,plications for !nternational 9a: 0@>2

0(2
Maydan 0'&2
+allenges and +ances 0'62
onstruction of 3eality in t+e
risis in Ukraine on
Po:er and Trust in
Political Nation /or,ing Process
Policy risis in t+e Donetsk "rea-
door to Europe open
discourse 0>62
Ukrainian !nfor,ation *ar in t+e onte.t of
) t+e 3ussian /ederation- +allenges "+ead

4

FORE4ORD

Ukra(ne 201. 41y May'an re>e""e'?

Tetyana 'a.ornyak


Havin. .ained independene in @AA@ as a result of t!e dissolution of t!e
U((4, Ukraine beame a soverei.n state "it! a lon. !istory of state establis!ment.
T!e soures of Ukrainian state!ood date bak to 0ievan 4us, 0in.dom of Galiia%
:ol!ynia, &ossak 4epubli, Baporiz!ian Host, +est Ukrainian PeopleCs 4epubli,
et. -or some itizens Delaration of 3ndependene of Ukraine on DE $u.ust @AA@
"as an at of ,ustie t!at t!ey !ad fou.!t and died for. -or ot!ers it "as a politial
F.iftG "!i! t!ey did not kno" !o" to treat. T!e &onstitution of Ukraine delares it
a demorati and la"%based state, but soial praties s!o" a totally different
reality.
Durin. t"o deades of independene t!e key aents of Ukrainian soio%
politial disourse "ere made on t!e issue of demorati transit and its institutional
basis modernization. $ordin. to t!e t!eory of soial%politial yle proesses, t!e
period of UkraineCs independene !as t"o full yles A%@H years ea! Is!eme by
J.JakovetsK. Every yle is !araterized by a onflit esalation bet"een t!e state
and soiety by similar riteria. Ea! of t!e t"o yles ends "it! mass soial
protests a.ainst double standards of state po"er IsoietyCs total disapproval of
mismat! bet"een "!at "as delared to !appen and "!at "as really !appenin.K.
T!e first yle of UkraineCs independene development I@AA@%DLLEK finis!ed "it!
t!e Oran.e revolution and vitory of t!e opposition at t!e Presidential eletions. T!e
seond yle IDLLEK finis!ed "it! t!e #aydan and early Presidential eletions.
T!ese proesses boosted t!e development of Ukrainian folk mind. T!e soiety
.radually beame a politial entity.
3n fat, every yle formed t!e .rounds for t!e onflit bet"een soiety and
t!e state po"er, alon. "it! soietyCs self%or.anizin. Inot for et!nial, but for
politial nation and state affiliationK. T!e main .rounds areM

For2a"(-e' 3"%ra"(&2

Parliamentary eletions @AAE laun!ed mass formation of politial parties. 3n times
of eonomi risis and lak of a mature politial ulture, pro%president parties
I(DPU, PeopleCs Demorati Party, Party of Greens of Ukraine, 2abour Party
UkraineK played key roles in Ukraine "it!in t!e first deade of independene. T!ey
"ere formed to fit t!e e<at politial persons and "ere aimed at e<eutin.
PresidentCs "ill at t!e parliament and loally. 2eft and left%of%enter politial parties
I&PU, (PU, P(PUK en,oyed priority in (out!%East re.ions and often e<!an.ed t!eir
priniples for Fpolitial privile.esG Ie... Fpaka.e votin.G in Deember DLLEK. 4i.!t
politial parties I&on.ress of Ukrainian 'ationalists, Ukrainian PeopleCs Party,
PeopleCs #ovement of UkraineK !ad no stable eletoral address, did not aim at
beomin. all%Ukrainian and promoted nationalist ideas, at t!at time e<epted by
+estern Ukraine only. T!e period after t!e Presidential eletions @AAA, "!en all 2.
0u!maCs main opponents "ere destroyed I:.&!ornovil, P.2azarenkoK, "as a period
of bifuration of demoray buildin.. T!is "as t!e time "!en ri.!t and ri.!t%of%
enter parties piked up momentum, !eld FUkraine, 4ebelNG protest ation, roused
5

t!e people, transformin. atomized party system I@AAE%DLLDK into a pluralisti one
IDLLD%DL@LK. $fter :. Jus!enkoCs omin. into po"er multi%party system "as in
pluralisti p!ase ? opposition bet"een Ft!e "!ite%blueG and Ft!e oran.eG in different
onfi.urations lasted until t!e Presidential eletions DL@L and ended "it! an atual
monopoly of Party of 4e.ions in UkraineCs party environment DL@L.
T!e Party of 4e.ions pro.ram definitely delared UkraineCs Euronte.ration
line, but t!e President refused to si.n t!e UE%Ukraine $ssoiation $.reement on
Eastern Partners!ip (ummit on DO%DA 'ovember DL@E. T!is resulted in t!e start of
Euromaydan first in +estern re.ions and t!en all over Ukraine.

Pre&('ent@& "eg(t(2a5y 5r(&(& an' 3r(n5(3"e& of go7ern2ent
(n&t(t%te& for2at(on.

$ll Presidential eletions in Ukraine "ere losely monitored by Fe<ternal observersG.
'eit!er of t!ose "!o beame t!e President "as an independent player and, t!at is
"!y, ould not make any soverei.n deisions due to bein. ontrolled by t!e eletion
ampai.ns FinvestorsG represented by Ukrainian bi. businesses and interested
international ators IPresidents and speial servies of ot!er states and
international assoiationsK. -inanial and politial .ro"t! inside t!e ountry "as
t!e a!ievement of t!e t"o yles of independene. T!is enoura.ed t!e formation
of tyoon%lan politial re.ime in Ukraine allo"in. Ukrainian tyoons to .et deputy
immunity. Presidential and loal .overnment eletions DL@L boosted stren.t!enin.
of Ft!e DonetskG top%do"n operation in t!e apital and loally. T(' referrin. to
0orespondent I!ttpMPPru.tsn.uaPukrayinaPpo%urovnyu%kumovstva%vo%vlasti%
yanukovi!%prevzos!el%yus!enko.!tmlK states t!at by t!e nepotism level in politis
Janukovi! by far surpassed :. Jus!enko. $t t!e be.innin. of DL@@ t!e notion of
Ft!e familyG It!e President and !is palae .uardK appears in voabulary of
UkrainiansC, alon. "it! an anedote in "!i! t!e p!rase F3 ome from DonetskG
sounds like a t!reat and assertin. serious laims. T!e reven.e of t!e Party of
4e.ions Iafter t!e failure in DLLEK "as "ide%ran.in.. $t t!e be.innin. of DL@@
Ukraine !as already been transformed into a pyramid "it! a sin.le mana.in.
enter "!ere t!e Floyalty to t!e party leaderG and Fparty e<pedienyG "as t!e main
riteria for ,oinin. t!e team of t!e ne" president. #i.ration of Ft!e DonetskG to 0yiv
alon. "it! demoray indiators in DL@@ deprived Donetsk of t!e status of a multi%
million ity and beame anot!er reason for misunderstandin. bet"een +estern and
Eastern Ukraine. /y t!e end of DL@H QR per ent of t!e key positions "ere taken by
people of Ft!e familyG. Even under t!ese irumstanes t!e PresidentCs le.itimay
and t!e level of trust for t!e ourts, polie, .overnors and mayors varied from D to
QS.
non)tran&3aren5y of 3o"(t(5a" 'e5(&(on)2ak(ng 3ro5e&&e&.

+it!in t!e above mentioned me!anisms of po"er institutes formation and
funtionin. t!e fat of non%transpareny of politial deision%makin. proesses
beomes obvious. Durin. t!e first yle of independene I@AA@%DLLEK transpareny
of politial deisions "as provided by mutual understandin. bet"een t!e po"er and
bi. businesses, formalized demorati eletion proedure, reasonable terms for
medium and bi. business development and e<ternal poliy ompromises. (oio%
politial and eonomi development of Ukraine after DL@L is !araterized by
serious onflits bet"een t!e po"er and t!e business, forible takeover of land and
real estate, assi.nin. Ft!e "at!ersG at t!e loal level and in separate profitable
fields Ioal%minin., fuel and ener.y, bankin., et.K T!is resulted in usin. t!e le.al
system IT!e 'e" Ta< &ode, lan.ua.e bills, T!e 'e" Proedural &odeK for personal
orruption plans implementation of a small number of people, i.norin. t!e la",
ne.letin. basi !uman ri.!ts, rulin. personsC ille.al ations, dramati soial
6

differentiation of t!e population, le.al and finanial inseurity of t!e people
I:radiyivskyi #aydanK.

&e"f)organ(-at(on of "o5a" 5o22%n(t(e& an' Ukra(n(an &o5(ety (n
genera".

T!e !istory of Ukrainian people kno"s many e<amples of despair "!en people
rebelled to protet t!eir families and t!eir !ildrensC future realizin. t!at no one
else "ould do t!at. T!e Prime minister $zarovCs announement of t!e suspension
of t!e EU%Ukraine $ssoiation $.reement on D@ 'ovember DL@H and intension to
onsult t!e EU ommissioners and 4- representatives as to t!e forei.n poliy line
of Ukraine enlar.ed Euromaydan "it! people "!o took to streets to defend
independene and transpareny of makin. deisions. $nd t!e rakdo"n of
Euromaydan by t!e riot polie F/erkutG on HL 'ovember DL@H laun!ed t!e !istory
of Ukrainian di.nity at t!e ost of FHeavenly HundredCsG deat! and loss of territorial
inte.rity of Ukraine. T!is "as t!e Test in Humaneness and in sub,etivity of t!e
(oiety "!i! does not !ave to be taken into aount no".
T!is edition inludes alternative opinions of e<perts "!o live in Ukraine and
t!ose from outside "!o are interested in UkraineTs development. +e believe t!at it
is our professional and moral duty % to tell t!e "orld about !o" "as it.

T1e fo%n'at(on of ana"yt(5a" art(5"e& (& &3e5(f(e' key e7ent&A

#an$ar% 201&
T!e ooperation plan bet"een 4ussian and Ukrainian #inisters of
forei.n affairs "as si.ned.
'e(r$ar% 201&
@@%DR -ebruary &abinet of #inistersC approves a number of
douments aimed at aeleratin. of UkraineCs Eurointe.ration.
)ar*" 201&
1 Mar51 B $tion FUkraine, .et upNG started.
April 201&
1* A3r(" $n effort to dismiss T!e &abinet of #inisters of Ukraine "as
made.
)a% 201&
1C May Personnel replaements in t!e (eurity (ervie of Ukraine
3nitiated by t!e President took plae.
D0 May Publi Proseution offie of (!ev!enko distrit in 0yiv
started a riminal ase onernin. t!e violent rakdo"n of t!e protesters by riot
polie F/erkutG on (ofiyska (Uuare.
#$ne 201&
20 J%ne T!e draft translation of European Union%Ukraine $ssoiation
$.reement "as aired.
#$l% 201&
2)22 J%"yA V:radiyivskyi #aydanV.
11 J%"y 4ussianCs (anitary (ervie Uuestioned t!e Uuality of t!e
onfetionery imported from Ukraine and banned F4os!enG onfetionary import to
4ussia I&onfetionary &orporation 4os!en is o"ned by Petro Poros!enko, a present
andidate for Presideny of UkraineK.
Septe+(er 201&
7

Se3te2>er T!e Party of 4e.ions !eld a (peial losed meetin.
"!ere t!e President Janukovi! partiipated. T!e meetin. onerned t!e las! of
opinions as to Euroine.ration initiatives.
1+ Se3te2>er T!e &abinet of #inisters of Ukraine approved t!e te<t
of European Union%Ukraine $ssoiation $.reement.
,o-e+(er 201&
21 No7e2>er T!e .overnment of Ukraine pronouned suspension of
Ukraine%EU $ssoiation $.reement. Euromaydan be.an.
2+)2* No7e2>er Eastern Partners!ip (ummit "as !eld. T!e
president of Ukraine refused to si.n Ukraine%EU $ssoiation $.reement.
D0 No7e2>er 4iot polie /erkut broke up Euromaydan.
De*e+(er 201&
01 De5e2>er $dministrative buildin.s in 0yiv "ere seized.
1, De5e2>er 4ussia ut t!e .as prie for Ukraine do"n on one t!ird
for a period of five years.
20 De5e2>er T!e President of Ukraine :iktor Janukovi! si.ned an
eletion improvement la" t!at "as obli.atory for EU%Ukraine assoiation.
#an$ar% 2014
1E Jan%ary T!e Parliament adopted t!e outra.eous la"s.
1+ Jan%ary % (. 2yovo!kin "as dismissed from t!e post of t!e !ead
of t!e Presidential $dministration and appointed a Presidential adviser.
2 Jan%ary :. Janukovi! dismissed 3. $kimova, t!e first deputy
!ief of !is administration.
2+ Jan%ary T!e Parliament repealed nine of its @@ la"s from @W
January. #. $zarovCs resi.ned.
'e(r$ar% 2014
+ Fe>r%ary D. /ulatov, $utomaydanCs leader, disappeared.
1* Fe>r%ary $ true bet"een t!e President Janukovi! and t!e
opposition leaders "as si.ned.
1* Fe>r%ary (eretary of (tate for Home $ffairs :.Bak!ar!enko
ordered to use firearm a.ainst t!e protesters.
1+)20 Fe>r%ary $tive p!ase of violent las!es on #aydan.
20 Fe>r%ary 'ebesna (otnya IHeavenly HundredK is bein. FformedG.
21 Fe>r%ary :.Janukovi!, :. 0ly!ko, $. Jaenyuk and O.
Tya.nybok in t!e presene of EU and 4ussian representatives si.ned t!e a.reement
about overomin. t!e risis.
21 Fe>r%ary (otnik :. ParasukCs delivered a spee! t!at started t!e
ne" riot p!ase on #aydan.
22 Fe>r%ary T!e !ead of t!e .overnment 4ybak resi.ned. Tur!inov
"as eleted t!e ne" Head of :er!ovna 4ada.
22 Fe>r%ary T!ere "as first information of :.Janukovi!Cs
disappearane.
22 Fe>r%ary :. Janukovi! "as removed from t!e Presideny. T!e
snap Presidential eletions "ere set on DR #ay DL@E.
22 Fe>r%ary :er!ovna 4ada deided to release Julia Timos!enko
22 Fe>r%ary #aydanCs ativists entered t!e Presidential resideny,
#ez!y.irya
2D Fe>r%ary UkraineTs parliament assi.ned presidential po"ers to
Oleksandr Tur!ynov.
2D Fe>r%ary Ole<andr Jefremov, t!e !ead of t!e Party of 4e.ions
fration, publily ensured Janukovi!Cs esape and treason.
8

2D Fe>r%ary 4ussian a..ression a.ainst Ukraine started Ievents in
&rimeaK.
2D Fe>r%ary T!ere "as a Pro%4ussian rally in (evastopol "!ere t!e
funtionin. mer :. Jauba "as prolaimed ille.itimate.
2C Fe>r%ary T!e omposition of t!e ne" .overnment "as approved by
#aydan.
2E Fe>r%ary T!ere "as a lar.e rally opposite t!e Parliament of &rimea
"!ere pro%4ussian and pro%Ukrainian fores took part.
2, Fe>r%ary T!e ne" .overnment of Ukraine "as approved.
2, Fe>r%ary Janukovi! .ave a press%onferene in 4ostov%on%Don.
2, Fe>r%ary #asked .unmen seized re.ional parliament and t!e
&abinet &ounsil in &rimea. 4ussian military invasion to &rimea started.
2, Fe>r%ary T!e .overnment of &rimea deides to !old a referendum
on DR #ay DL@E onernin. aretion of po"ers of t!e autonomy.
2+ Fe>r%ary Undefined .unmen made blok posts at t!e entrane to
&rimean peninsula.
2+ Fe>r%ary (o%alled F4ussian (prin.G started in t!e (out!%East of
Ukraine I0!arkiv, 2u.ansk, Donetsk, #ykolayiv, Odesa, Dnipropetrovsk,
Baporiz!z!yaK.
2+ Fe>r%ary U' (eurity &ounil t!e meetin. onernin. t!e
situation in Ukraine.

)ar*" 2014
01 Mar51 U' (eurity &ounil meetin..
01 Mar51 T1e a5t(7e 31a&e of FR%&&(an S3r(ngG &tarte' (n t1e
So%t1)Ea&t of Ukra(ne I0!arkiv, 2u.ansk, Donetsk, #ykolayiv, Odesa,
Dnipropetrovsk, Baporiz!z!yaK. #ass rallies took plae, efforts to seize
administrative "ere made I0!arkiv, 2u.ansk, DonetskK.
01 Mar51 $ksyonov moved t!e referundom on HL #ar!.
0D Mar51 U' (eurity &ounil speial meetin. Ialled by 4-K.
0 Mar51 Putin .ives a press%onferene I4ussian is not lookin. to
anne< &rimeaX t!e army in &rimea !as not!in. to do "it! t!e eventsX F.reen menGK
0E Mar51 &rimean self%appointed .overnment moved t!e referendum
from HL #ar! to @W #ar!.
11 Mar51 Janukovi! .ave t!e seond press%onferene.
11 Mar51 T!e Parliament of &rimea and t!e ity ounil of (evastopol
approved t!e Delaration of 3ndependene of $4& and (evastopol.
1D Mar51 U' (eurity &ounil enlar.ed meetin. "as !eld "!ere
UkraineCs prime minister $. Jatsenuk spoke.
1 Mar51 'ational Guard of Ukraine "as reated IrereatedK
1C Mar51 4- bloked U' (eurity &ounil resolution as to Ukraine
and &rimea.
1E Mar51 T!e referendum in &rimea "as !eld.
1, Mar51 Partial mobilization to t!e $rmed fores of Ukraine and
ot!er military fores "as announed.
1+ Mar51 T!e President of 4- :ladimir Putin to.et!er "it!
representatives of $4& .overnment I$4& and (evastopolK si.ned t!e 2a" On
$dmittin. to t!e 4ussian -ederation t!e 4epubli of &rimea.
1* Mar51 U' (eurity &ounil meetin..
21 Mar51 T!e 4ussian -ederation &ounil ratified t!e treaty on
admittin. to t!e 4ussian -ederation t!e 4epubli of &rimea.
9

21 Mar51 Ukraine and t!e EU si.ned t!e politial part of assoiation
a.reement.
22 Mar51 $ksyonov baked pro%4ussian protests and told t!at
&rimean (elf%defense fores "ould !elp t!e protesters.
2, Mar51 General $ssembly of t!e U' supported t!e territorial
inte.rity of Ukraine.
2+ Mar51 3T$4 T$(( publis!ed :.Janukovi!Cs appeal to people of
Ukraine. 3n !is appeal Janukovi! enoura.ed to split t!e ountry.

10

Po&t5o22%n(&t Ukra(neA fro2 May'an to May'an

Galyna 0uts

H)$) $kovoroda A+arkiv National Pedagogical University, Ukraine

A>&tra5t

$fter t!e deay of t!e (oviet Union, Ukraine !as delared its aspiration to
stren.t!en demoray. Ho"ever, oli.ar!i%lan model of t!e politial re.ime "as
reated instead of demoray in Ukraine. T!is !ybrid model is !araterized by
lose oalesene of politis and eonomis. T!e oli.ar!i%lan model formed
.radually, aUuirin. speifi features, in t!e time of all t!e four presidents of
independent Ukraine. Disrepany bet"een front I delared K aims of Ukrainian
.overnment and t!e real politial proess eventually !as started to .ain t!reatenin.
dimensions, "!i! aused t!e appearane in t"o po"erful #aydans % t!e Oran.e
4evolution IDLLEK and Euro#aydan I-all %+inter DL@H%DL@E K.
T!e reason for t!e first #aydan % Oran.e 4evolution of DLLE % "as t!e
falsifiation of t!e presidential eletions in Ukraine. T!e main ause of t!e seond
area % Euro#aydan I-all%+inter DL@H%DL@EK % "as t!e refusal of t!e si.nin. t!e
V$ssoiation $.reement bet"een Ukraine and t!e EUV by t!e urrent Ukrainian
President :iktor Janukovy!.
3n .eneral, t!e main ause of t!e seond #aydan IEuro#aydanK "as t!e
same as t!e reason for t!e first #aydan It!e Oran.e 4evolutionK % ate.orial
re,etion of politial double standards.

.e% /ors0 Ukraine, Orange revolution, Ukrainian political syste,

Met1o'o"ogy

$ "ide variety of met!ods is used in t!e artile. Problem%!ronolo.ial
met!od provided an opportunity to desribe t!e struture of t!e resear!. T!is
ontributed to t!e identifiation of speifi aspets of t!e resear! ob,et, "!i! in
aordane !ave been monitored in seUuene%temporal development Imental
determinants, t!e proess of onstitutionalismK.T!e retrospetive met!od "as used
for evolutionCs monitorin. of t!e onstitutional proess in Ukraine. /y dint of t!e
omparative met!od t!e omparative analysis of t"o #aydans in Ukraine IOran.e
4evolution and Euro#aydanK "as made. 3nstitutional met!od .ave an opportunity
to find out t!e effiieny of t!e politial institutionCs funtionin. in Ukraine durin.
t!e period bet"een t"o #aydans. Histori%situational met!od "as laimed in
analysis of t!e Ukrainian mentality.

Intro'%5t(on

Ukraine, "!i! beame an independent soverei.n state in @AA@ due to t!e
deay IdissolutionK of t!e U((4, !as a lon. !istory of state proesses. T!e ori.in of
Ukrainian state!ood rea!es a dept! of enturiesM 0ievan 4yus, Galiia%:ol!ynia,
&ossak republi, Hetmanate, et.
$fter t!e deay of t!e (oviet Union, Ukraine !as delared its aspiration to
stren.t!en demoray. Durin. t"o deades t!e primary emp!asis "as foused on
t!e issue of demorati transit in Ukrainian soial and politial disourse. $t t!e
same time, t!e .ap bet"een politial t!eory and politial pratie is impressed "it!
11

its sale in Ukraine. -or a lon. time transit lo.ial onepts e<euted stritly
instrumental role. T!ey "ere used only in order to simulate t!e proess of
demoratization in front of t!e European &ommunity. -aade of demoray "as
emp!asized by funtionin. politial institutions in Ukraine. /e!ind t!e senes of
its ation t!ere is atually !idden opaity of po"er, orruption s!emes, la"
i.norin., ne.letin. of basi !uman ri.!ts, et.
-inally, in Ukraine, "!i! is alle.edly embarked on demorati reforms,
oli.ar!i%lan model of t!e politial re.ime "as reated instead of demoray. T!is
!ybrid model is !araterized by lose oalesene of politis and eonomis. T!e
oli.ar!i%lan model formed .radually, aUuirin. speifi features, in t!e time of all
t!e four presidents of independent Ukraine.
T!e first President of Ukraine 2eonid 0rav!uk I@AA@%@AAEK demonstrated
some non%onformism in politis. Of t!ose days Vpolitial re.ime in Ukraine "as
non%onformist ? ontroversial, politial "ill of t!e Ukrainian President !ad a "eak
refletion in ativities of politial institutions, sear!in. for politial and eonomi
ompromises turned into politial maneuverin. "it!out ertain purposeY
Z#ik!al!enko DL@L "as OW%OQ[.Even durin. t!e presideny of 2eonid 0u!ma
I@AAE%DLLRK, Ukraine "as onsidered to be a orrupt and oli.ar!i state in t!e
"orldCs si.!t. Durin. t!e presideny of :iktor Jus!!enko IDLLR%DL@LK % t!rou.!
its ativity and inativity % stateCs orruption and oli.ar!ization aUuired ompleted
forms. T!ese trends "ere fi<ed and substantially stren.t!ened durin. t!e
presideny of :iktor Janukovy! IDL@L%DL@EK.Durin. t!e presideny of Janukovy!
demoray performed as amoufla.e nettin. of re.ent oli.ar!i%lan re.ime, t!at
obtained ne" speifi features a.ain. 3n t!e end, it transformed in riminal%
oli.ar!i re.ime. T!at is, in t!e formation of lan%oli.ar!i politial re.ime, I"!i!
ourred durin. t!e presideny of 2eonid 0u!ma and Jus!!enkoK, t!ere "as a
lose oalesene of t"o domains % politis and eonomis. Durin. t!e presideny of
:iktor Janukovy! t!e riminalization beame a si.nifiant element, "!i!
!an.ed t!e substane of t!e oli.ar!i%lan re.ime.
T!e perspetive of transformation to"ards demorati standards e<isted in
oli.ar!i%lan re.ime. T!ere are several oli.ar!i lans, "!i! onstantly !ave
ompetition for some resoures in Ukraine. T!e e<istene of multiple influene
enters on t!e aut!orities an promote demorati development, but only "it! t!eir
"illin.ness. #. #y!al!enka defines t!is form of t!e term as Vsemi%demorati
oli.ar!yV.
Due to t!e multiple oli.ar!i lans e<istene t!ere are several enters of
po"er and influene on t!e .overnment, "!i! do not allo" t!e dominane of t!e
one oli.ar!i lan and respetively Vrollin.V to t!e totalitarian re.ime
Z#ik!al!enko DL@L "as A@[. 3n .eneral, t!is situation is positive for soiety, as far
as it ontains t!e potential of demoray.
$t t!e same time, durin. t!e presideny of :iktor Janukovy!, t!e
oalesene of t!ree elements Ipolitis, eonomis and riminalK transformed lan%
oli.ar!i re.ime in a riminal%oli.ar!i re.ime. T!e riminalization of re.ime
rossed out all Ukrainians !opes about need for !an.es to"ards t!e demorati
reforms inside t!e oli.ar!i lans.

)a%an 1 an )a%an 20 t"e +ain *a$ses

&onseUuently, it appears t!at demoray does not F"orkG in Ukraine. T!at is,
t!e model of demorati transit e<isted only in t!eory but in pratie t!ere "as
ne.let of fundamental demorati priniples. Disrepany bet"een front I delared
K aims of Ukrainian .overnment and t!e real politial proess eventually !as started
12

to .ain t!reatenin. dimensions, "!i! aused t!e appearane in t"o po"erful
#aydan % t!e Oran.e 4evolution IDLLEK and Euro#aydan I-all %+inter DL@H%DL@E K.
falsifiation of t!e presidential eletions in Ukraine, "!en e<it%polls demonstrated
an obvious vitory of opposition presidential andidate :iktor Jus!!enko and t!e
Ukrainian .overnment announed t!e "inner of t!e rae pro%.overnment andidate
:iktor Janukovy!. T!e "ave of nationCs indi.nation "as proved in re,etion of
sreamin. fraud from t!e .overnment side in mass onsiousness. T!e Oran.e
4evolution "as peaeful. T!is is proved by partiular .eneti paifism of
Ukrainians. -inally, t!e aut!orities deided to make ertain onessions by
appointin. an additional tour of UkraineTs presidential eletion. :iktor Jus!!enko
beame t!e "inner.
3t s!ould be mentioned t!at by t!e time of t!e Oran.e 4evolution Ukrainians
!ave already used to live in a ountry "it! double%standardCs poliy, "!en t!e
.overnment delared Ifor t!e "ide onsumptionK ertain priniples, but in fat, it
!as used radially different priniples pratially. T!e Oran.e 4evolution proved
t!at a stron. reUuest for a lear and fair .ame rules revealed in Ukraine.
T!e main ause of t!e seond #aydan % Euro#aydan I-all%+inter DL@H%
DL@EK % "as t!e refusal of t!e si.nin. t!e V$ssoiation $.reement bet"een Ukraine
and t!e EUV by t!e urrent Ukrainian President :iktor Janukovy!. T!ou.! !e
onstantly delared propensity to t!e European inte.ration ourse of Ukraine.
UkraineTs ourse to"ards t!e EU Iin t!e mass onsiousness of t!e avera.e
UkrainianK meant t!e atual Irat!er t!an faadeK developin. demorati institutions
and t!e dismantlin. of lan%oli.ar!i model of politial relations. T!e EU is learly
assoiated "it! t!e rule of la", respet to t!e personality, transpire rules of t!e
politial system funtionin. for most residents of Ukraine. T!is means t!at
Ukrainians e<peted for a peaeful "ay of buildin. demoray in t!eir ountry,
.ettin. involved into t!e family of European nations. T!at is "!y Ukrainians losed
t!eir eye on t!e po"erCs orruption, oppression of free spee!, lak of lear rules in
all areas of publi life. Ukrainians antiipated t!at t!e European inte.ration ourse,
"!i! "as delared by aut!orities, "ill appro<imate t!e ountry to demorati
standards.
Euro#aydan united people re.ardless of t!eir plaes of residene, a.es,
soial status, et!niity, reli.ious preferenes and ideolo.ial vie"s. #any
Ukrainians Uualify #aydan as a 4evolution of Di.nity. T!ey onsider t!at #aydan
demonstrated t!e e<amination of !umanity. T!e reUuest for politiians, "!o are
sinere in t!eir ations, !onest and deent emer.ed in Ukraine. Populism "as not
pereived.
Euro#aydan outlined t!e prospets of formin. a ne" net"ork%orporate
identity. Everyone, "!o !as been t!ere one, noted t!e presene of unity, kindness,
sinerity, and !i.! self%or.anization. Ea! individual ould produe t!eir o"n
interestin. ideas fittin. into in t!e .eneral struture of diverse #aydanCs pro,ets,
"!i! "ere or.anized by t!e partiipants. T!is synt!esis of multilevel net"ork%
orporate relations ontributed to t!e emer.ene of plet!ora self%initiatives.
(eond #aydan % Euro#aydan % "as not peaeful. T!e .overnment
periodially tried to suppress nationCs protests, "!i! led to bloods!ed and deat! of
many people. -inally, t!e "ave of popular indi.nation reformatted t!e po"er in
Ukraine. Euro#aydan as t!e Oran.e 4evolution proved, t!at stron. reUuest for a
lear and fair rules !as already formed in Ukraine.
&onseUuently, t!e main ause of t!e seond #aydan IEuro#aydanK "as t!e
same as t!e reason for t!e first #aydan It!e Oran.e 4evolutionK % ate.orial
re,etion of politial double standards.

13

)ental fo$nation

#aydans in Ukraine beame peuliar form of e<pression of diret demoray,
"!i! is not ne" for t!e Ukrainian mentality. 3n t!e days of t!e &ossak republi
F'ationCs :e!eG "as .at!ered oasionally I.eneral meetin. of urban populationK,
"!i! establis!ed t!e elements of demoray in t!e Ukrainian peopleCs mentality.
$fter t!e Oran.e 4evolution t!ere "as a notieable eletoral struturin.
soiety in Ukraine. On t!e one side of t!e barriades % "as Voran.eV amp
Isupporters of Jus!!enkoK, on t!e ot!er % Vblue and "!iteV Isupporters of
Janukovy!K./ot! t!e Voran.eV and Vblue%"!iteV amps !ad t!eir o"n values ? not
ideolo.ial % priorities. 3n publi onsiousness su! priorities an be identified
even at superfiial observation of t!e supporters "it! various values. $ typial
Voran.eV adept sinerely does not understand t!e reason for European valueCs
depreation. 3n fat t!ese priniples mean reatin. t!e onditions for ensurin.
freedom of every person, t!e establis!ment of self%"ort! and individual uniUueness.
Ho" an you oppose t!e openness and transpareny in .overnment, t!e
establis!ment of national ideals\ 3nstead, !e believes t!at "it! t!e advent of t!e
V"!ite%blueV, Ukraine .ets into 4ussian IimperialK yoke, in orruption and po"er
serey, in ne.let of national interests, "!i! t!reatens to t!e stateCs split.
T!e V"!ite% blueV amp !ad absolutely diametrial vie"s. T!ey sinerely did
not understand t!e reason for supportin. t!e so%alled European values, "!i!
"ere interpreted by eletion ampai.n leaders, as a UkraineCs enslavement by
forei.n fores !eaded by '$TO. Ho" is it possible not to love and turn a"ay from
native nei.!bor 4ussia, "!i! is .ood%natured and ready to take paternal are of
us\ +!y do "e need t!is transpareny in .overnment ations I"!i! is supported
by t!e VOran.eVK, if it leads only to politial instability\ T!ey believed, if every offiial
be.ins e<press its o"n vie" on t!e nature of politial and eonomi proesses in
Ukraine, it "ill only lead to t!e po"er imbalane. Politial deisions !ave to be
made by t!e !i.!est aut!orities and e<euted unUuestionin.ly. (u! reasonin.s, of
ourse, are refletion of t!e (oviet past, "!en t!e only ri.!t deisions "ere made
some"!ere in t!e mysterious po"er orridors by "ise and .rave person. $ordin.
to t!is lo.i, e<tremely dan.erous ould be madeM t!e less observin. of politial
deision%makin., t!e more onfidene in t!e stability and preditability of
.overnment. &onseUuently, politial ations and proesses, "!i! "ere defined by
t!e Voran.eV as demoratization and openness, V"!ite%blueV alled populism, !aos
and instability, and % vie versa.
3f you advane interior into t!e problem of value onflit, "e "ill make out in
front of us anient differenes bet"een 2atin and /yzantine values. &lassial 2atin
values are stron. family, reli.ious norms and perseverane ZBakaria DLLEM EQ y[.
/yzantine values are most typially assoiated "it! paternalism and seretive
solvin. problems. +!ile 2atin values mean t!e personCs reliane in its o"n fores in
solvin. different problems, /yzantine !uman believes, t!at t!e state s!ould take
are of it. People impose all t!eir !opes on t!e !i.!est "isdom of t!e ruler.
&onseUuently, individuals, "!o ame to t!e #aydan, believe mostly in 2atin values,
"!ile people "!o stron.ly pereive #aydan support /yzantine values .
T!e oe<istene of t"o ultural traditions % t!e V"esternV and V easternV is
observed in Ukraine no"adays. #oreover, t!e +estern ultural tradition is t!e
foundation of soial and politial interations, "!ile t!e eastern tradition is
&!ristian%spiritual at its ore ZJevropeysTka ta ukrayinsTka kulTtura v narysa! DLLH
M p. DOQ [. 3t is neessary to emp!asize on t!e fat, t!at Vt!e easternV ultural
tradition e<tended mainly on spiritual level of Ukrainian ulture. Talkin. about t!e
soio%politial level, t!e re,etion of /yzantine traditions, t!eir e<lusion "as often
observed. 3n partiular, t!is "as about re,etion t!e idea of t!e limitation of
14

individual freedom, t!e idea of autorati despotism, e<pansionism, et. -inally, t!e
FeasternVI/yzantine%Ort!odo<K and V"estern VIdemoratiK ultural traditions Iby
intert"inin. and interatin.K, defined t!e !arater and development ourse of
Ukrainian soial and politial t!ou.!tV ZJevropeysTka ta ukrayinsTka kulTtura v
narysa! DLLH p. DOO [.
3n .eneral, Ukrainian mentality is !araterized by individualism, freedom,
re,etion of aut!oritarian priniples. T!ese values orrelate "it! t!e values of
liberalism in some "ay. On t!e ot!er !and, t!ere is also some orrelation "it! t!e
priniples of onservatism. VT!e speifiity of Ukrainian ulture type is aused by
t!e Ukrainian territory belon.in. to t!e area of t!e anient tiller sedentary ulture.
T!is areal found its reliane of e<istene in traditionalism for many enturiesV
ZJevropeysTka ta ukrayinsTka kulTtura v narysa! DLLH M p. DQQ [.

!onstit$tional (a*k1ro$n

T!e DLLE beame symboli for t!e politial system of Ukraine not only
beause of t!e Oran.e 4evolution, but t!rou.! t!e adoption of so%alled politial
reform Ila" number DDDDK, "!i! amended t!e &onstitution of Ukraine. T!e
adoption of politial reforms !ave not only !an.ed t!e stateCs form of .overnane
from t!e presidential%parliamentary to parliamentary%presidential, but led to t!e
imbalane of po"er in ertain "ay. 3n ot!er "ords, t!e problem of politial
instability t!at befell Ukraine in Fpostpomaran!evyyG period "as primarily
determined by onstitutional amendments. T!is problem onsisted from t!e
imbalane of po"er institutions, t!at refleted in va.ue po"ers and funtional
unertainties, "!i! politial institutions of t!e e<eutive bran! !ad.
On t!e one !and, parado<ially is t!e fat t!at many people in Ukraine
believe t!at t!e Oran.e 4evolution led to !aos in t!e .overnment. strutures. On
t!e ot!er !and, point of vie" of many e<perts in +estern ountries seems eUually
parado<ial. T!ey believe t!at main problem, "!i! led to politial instability in
Fpostpomaran!evyyG period, "as only personal relations!ips bet"een t!e President
and Prime #inister of Ukraine, "!i!, indeed, seemed to be very onfrontational.
Ho"ever, some fats are dropped out of si.!t due to su! a simple e<planation of
politial instability.
-irst of all, t!e po"er imbalane "as not primarily aused by t!e Oran.e
4evolution, but t!e 2a" V$bout t!e amendments to t!e &onstitution of Ukraine V,
"!i! "as adopted Deember O, DLLE. (ine t!e la" "as adopted by t!e Parliament
of Ukraine in t!e paka.e alon. "it! t!e deision of t!e t!ird presidential eletion
round in DLLE, it "as not perfet. T!e reason for its adoption "as politial
e<pedieny. $depts of Jus!!enko % t!e andidate for t!e President of Ukraine %
"ere fored to a.ree to adoption of t!e 2a" I"!i! si.nifiantly limited t!e president
po"ersK in e<!an.e for a seond vote due to peaeful settlement of t!e
revolutionary situation. T!is means t!at t!ese t"o events % t!e Oran.e 4evolution
and &onstitutional 4eform are onneted only by a ommon date of resolvin. its
destinies. &onseUuently, t!e Oran.e 4evolution ould not ause t!e !aos in po"er
system.
(eondly, onfrontational relations!ips bet"een t!e president and Prime
#inister "ere observed not only bet"een Jus!!enko It!e PresidentK and Julia
Tymos!enko IPrime #inisterK.$ similar situation "as in t!e times, "!en :iktor
Jus!!enko "as t!e President and :iktor Janukovy! "as t!e Prime #inister.
3t is neessary to note t!at t!ere "ere reasons for personal animosity
bet"een :iktor Jus!!enko and :iktor Janukovy!. Ho"ever, t!ese permanent
demonstrative%onfrontational relations!ips bet"een t!e leaders of t!e ountry !ad
to tou! up at identifyin. t!e deeper reasons of onflits, "!i! "ere aused not
only by t!e personal ambitions of politiians, but t!e mine of institutional ation
15

t!at "as laid by amendments to t!e &onstitution.
4e.ardin. t!e @AAW &onstitution Z0onstytutsiya Ukrainy @AAW[ it is
neessary to note t!at it is based on liberal priniples. Ho"ever, t!e e<istene of
fundamental liberal priniples did not seure t!e &onstitution of Ukraine a.ainst
substantial defets. T!ese defets "ere related to primarily basi liberal position
re.ardin. t!e separation of po"ers into t!ree bran!es % le.islative, e<eutive and
,udiial bran!es, "!i! is refleted in $rt. W. /ut t!e problem is t!at ot!er artiles
of t!e &onstitution nullified $rt. W. +it! t!e o!erent pereption of t!e
&onstitution, it appeared t!at t!e e<eutive bran! of .overnment !as atually
beame Vdouble%!eadedG t!rou.! t!e e<essive po"ers "!i! "ere provided to t!e
institution of t!e presideny. Despite of t!e fat t!at $rt. W presribed e<istene of
t!ree bran!es, it seemed t!at t!e /asi 2a" foundered t!e e<istene of four
bran!es in Ukraine.
T!is problem "as not raised durin. t!e presideny of 2eonid 0u!ma. T!e
ontradition, I"!i! "as benefiial for 2eonid 0u!maK, "as founded in t!e
&onstitution e<atly in t!at time. T!is problem !as been atively disussed I"it!
t!e filin. of t!e PresidentK by t!e end of t!e seond term of 2eonid 0u!ma
presideny. $t t!e time, 2eonid 0u!ma understood t!at !e !as no ri.!t to be
president t!rie, it "as benefiial to urtail presidential po"ers and transform
Ukraine into a parliamentary% presidential republi. 2. 0u!ma probably !oped to
oupy t!e post of Prime #inister of Ukraine "it! t!e !elp of su! onstitutional
!an.es. T!is ould seure !is furt!er stayin. at t!e Po"er Olympus. Ho"ever, due
to t!e Oran.e 4evolution 2eonid 0u!ma "as unable to use t!e results of t!e
reform. T!is onstitutional reform "as used by surroundin. of presidential
andidate :iktor Janukovy! in order to limit t!e presidentTs po"ers, realizin. t!at
t!e Jus!!enko presideny "as inevitable.
T!erefore, t!e problem of t!e imbalane of t!e e<eutive bran! aused t!e
birt! of t!e 2a" V$bout t!e amendments to t!e &onstitution of UkraineV, "!i! "as
adopted on O Deember DLLE. 3t "as dubbed t!e la" V-our DeuesV beause of its
speifi serial number % DDDD. /asi !an.es t!at made t!is la" "as empo"erin.
t!e Parliament to determine struture of t!e &abinet of #inisters, as defined in $rt.
OH ZBakon Ukrainy DLLE[.T!e prero.ative of introdution andidates on prime
minister position belon.ed to president in t!e @AAW &onstitution.
&onseUuently, it seemed t!at urtailed presidential po"ers "ould
automatially lead to a !armonious balane bet"een po"er institutions. 3t seemed
t!at t!e priniple of !eks and balanes is ensured. Ho"ever, t!e priniple of
!eks and balanes did not led to t!e result. #oreover, t!e la" V-our DeuesV
ontributed even more !aos and instability at t!e level of politial institutions in
Ukraine. T!is "as aused, on t!e one !and, by t!e rus! of adoptin. t!e 2a" V-our
DeuesV in t!e turbulent period of t!e Oran.e 4evolution in Ukraine. On t!e ot!er
!and, t!e Parliament, "!i! played t!e role of first violin in t!e po"er system,
failed in furt!er development and adoptin. a le.al frame"ork aimed at defetCs
elimination re.ardin. t!e separation of po"ers.
T!e @AAW &onstitution re%entered into fore after t!e vitory of :iktor
Janukovy! in t!e presidential eletions IHL (eptember DL@LK. T!e deision % made
by t!e &onstitutional &ourt of Ukraine?led to t!e fat t!at more t!an forty la"s and
lar.e number of re.ulations "ere unonstitutional It!ey "ere adopted on t!e basis
of t!e &onstitution, "!i! "as amended by DLLEK.3n addition, t!e system of !eks
and balanes "as unbalaned a.ain. T!e revived &onstitution transformed Ukraine
from t!e parliamentary%presidential to a presidential%parliamentary republi a.ain.
T!e po"ers of parliament "ere trunated, "!ile t!e po"ers of president "ere
.enerously endo"ed. Havin. reeived t!e lon.%a"aited presideny of Ukraine in
DL@L, :iktor Janukovy! started to build unified po"er vertial. T!erefore, re%
enterin. t!e @AAW &onstitution "as one of t!e elements of t!e onentration po"er
16

in t!e president !ands. #ost of Ukrainians believe t!at demoray is a supreme
value. T!e proesses of lottin. demoray "ere ativated after beomin. :iktor
Janukovy! t!e president.
President of Ukraine :iktor Janukovy! left t!e ountry after t!e seond
#aydan % Euro#aydan I-all and +inter DL@H%DL@EK. 'e" presidential eletions
s!eduled for LRPDRPDL@E. T!e transformation of onstitutional rules of t!e .ame
beame one of t!e essential .overnment steps after t!e overt!ro" of t!e ditatorial
re.ime of Janukovy!. Parliament of Ukraine adopted t!e 4esolution LDPDDPDL@E
ZPostanova DL@E[ about t!e returnin. to onstitutional reform of DLLE and,
onseUuently, to a parliamentary%presidential model of .overnment.
Today % after Euro#aydan % all itizens of Ukraine understood t!at makin.
!istory is !appenin. before t!eir eyes. T!is proess is bot! e<itin. Iinvolvement in
.lobal !an.esK and terrible Ia"areness of inevitably rupture "it! t!e past and t!e
unertain futureK.

0on5"%&(onA

Postommunist Ukraine al"ays delared its aspirations of demoray
buildin.. Ho"ever, oli.ar!i%lan model of t!e politial re.ime "as reated instead
of demoray in Ukraine. Disrepany bet"een front I delared K aims of Ukrainian
.overnment and t!e real politial proess eventually !as started to .ain t!reatenin.
dimensions, "!i! aused t!e appearane in t"o po"erful #aydans % t!e Oran.e
4evolution IDLLEK and Euro#aydan I-all %+inter DL@H%DL@E K.
falsifiation of t!e presidential eletions in Ukraine. T!e main ause of t!e seond
area % Euro#aydan I-all%+inter DL@H%DL@EK % "as t!e refusin. of t!e si.nin. t!e
V$ssoiation $.reement bet"een Ukraine and t!e EUV by urrent Ukrainian
President :iktor Janukovy!. 3n .eneral, t!e main ause of t!e seond #aydan
IEuro#aydanK "as t!e same as t!e reason for t!e first #aydan It!e Oran.e
4evolutionK % ate.orial re,etion of politial double standards.
Ukraine is situated on t!e ed.e of t"o ulturesM bet"een East and +est. T!is
VmidpointV oasionally leads to various forms of onfrontation Ipolitial, reli.ious,
eletoral, et.K.Ho"ever, t!e mentality of t!e Ukrainians % bot! in t!e East and in
t!e +est % is deeply individualisti. E<atly t!is individualism, "!i! is t!e basi
installation of t!e Ukrainian mentality, may be a prereUuisite of demoratial
politial ulture establis!ment.

<I<LIO$RAPH;

@. #ik!al!enko #., DL@L, 0lanovo%oli.ar!i!ny,re,ymM ne.atyvy 3 pozytyvy
funktsionuvannia PP 'aukovi zapysky 3nstytutu polity!ny! i etnonatsionalTny!
doslid,enT imeni 3. -. 0urasa '$' Ukrainy. ? 'o. R IEAK. ? (. OH?AE,
!ttpMPP""".ipiend..ov.uaPim.Ps!olarlyPfilePnz]EA]RH.pdf.
D. Bakaria -., DLLE. /udus!!ee svobodyM neliberalTnaya demokratia v U($ i za i!
predelami. ? #oskvaM 2adomir. ? HOH p.
H. JevropeysTka ta ukrayinsTka kulTtura v narysa!, DLLH P zared.3.Tse!mistro. ?
0yivM Tsentrna v!alTnoy iliteratury. ? HDL p.
E. 0onstytutsiya Ukrainy, @AAW ? DO.LW.@AAW. ?
!ttpMPPzakonH.rada..ov.uaPla"sPs!o"PDRESDLS/$PAW%SDLS/DSD@SOLP
R. Bakon Ukrainy, DLLE vid LO.@D.DLLE ^ DDDD%3: _Pro vnesennya zmin do
0onstytutsiyi UkrainyG ? !ttpMPPzakonD.rada..ov.uaPla"sPs!o"PDDDD%@R.
W. Postanova :er!ovnoyi 4ady Ukrainy, DL@E vid DD.LD.DL@E ^ QRL%:33. ?
!ttpMPPzakonE.rada..ov.uaPla"sPs!o"PQRL%@O.
17

Et1no3o"(t(5& of Ukra(neA 01a""enge& an' 01an5e&

$natoliy 0ru.las!ov

+ernivtsi Bury /edkovyc+ National University, Ukraine

A>&tra5t

T!e artile onsiders key issues of Ukrainian et!no%politis evolution sine @AA@.
T!e aut!or outlines mains sta.es of its foundations and development as "ell as
institutional !arateristis. &!allen.es of in t!e%et!ni tensions and onflit !as
been re.arded and some prinipal onlusion dra"n up. (ome aents are made
on t!e t!reats of et!no%separatism. 3n t!e same time, t!e aut!or onsiders a ase of
t!e one from t!e almest re.ion of Ukraine ? &!ernivtsi oblast IUkrainian
/ukovynaK, "!ere t!e tradition of tolerane "ent bak to t!e $ustrian time. T!ere
are bot! positive and ne.ative trends to be taken into aount. -inally, some
su..estions and proposals of makin. inter%et!ni relations in Ukraine more stable
and positive are put for"ard.
9ey /or'&A Ukraine8s et+no?politics, regional separatis,, inter?et+nic relations,
c+allenges of stability

Intro'%5t(on

Geopolitial risis in Europe provoked by t!e une<peted anne<ation of &rimea
by 4ussia makes t!e onsideration of UkraineCs domesti stability and furt!er
perspetive a very important and ur.ent task. $mon. t!e most important fators
determinin. t!e o!esion of Ukrainian soiety is inter%et!ni relations in t!e
ountry and et!no%politial dimensions of t!e (tate poliy. (urely, Ukraine is a
multiet!ni ountry "it! a relatively brief !istory of its (tate!ood. /eause of t!at
many of its itizens remain in t!e sta.e of unfinis!ed sear! for t!eir identity,
movin. apart from evaporatin. (oviet model of identity to"ards more omple<
mi<ture of ivi and et!ni identifiations.
Despite some obvious re.ional, onfessional and et!ni diversity t!e ountry
!ave been safely passin. t!rou.! t!e first t"o deades of its 3ndependene,
avoidin. ma,or interet!ni onflit and open onfrontation. T!is positive and
inspirin. under reent dramati onditions fat does not mean !o"ever t!at
Ukraine !as faed no !allen.es of interet!ni relations and state et!nopolitis at
"!ole. 3n fat, t!ere are plenty of t!em t!ere. T!ey need to be taken into areful
onsideration as t!e sub,et of ompre!ensive analyses by aademi soiety and
poliy%makers.
T!e artile reflets t!e aut!orCs personal vision and reveals some ritial issues
of et!nopolitial evolution of UkraineCs soiety sine @AA@. -irst of all, t!ey are
analyzed from t!e all%national point of vie", and later, in more detailed manner,
from t!e re.ional standpoint, re.ardin. t!e peuliar situation of &!ernivtsi re.ion
peuliarities as a sample. $nd, finally, t!e paper approa!es some .eneral
onlusions and su..estions evaluatin. t!e positive and ne.ative aspets of
Ukrainian stateCs et!nopoliy and its ability of onstrutin. stable and suffiient
inter%et!ni balane in t!e ountry.

18

T1e 01a""enge of >%("'(ng a ne/ Po"(t(5a" Nat(on (n Ukra(ne

T!e startin. point for t!e .eneral outline of t!e soiety in Ukraine is a
statement t!at t!e latter is no "ay a !omo.eneous one. 3t is divided by many of
politial fations and re.ional omponentsX some of t!em are not very mu! loyal
to"ards Ukrainian state!ood and its itizens!ip. /eside diverse politial
preferenes, opposin. .eopolitial orientations, onfessional domains of sometimes
ompetin. if not rivalin. &!ur!es, Ukraine !as been fain. "it! pressin. !allen.e
of its et!ni stability and t!e .ro"in. demand to maintain interet!ni relations in a
proper ivilized order. T!us, takin. into aount so many entrifu.al fores and
pressure from outside Ukrainian border, t!e ountry !as a lot of reasons to be
preoupied "it! its territorial inte.rity and soial peae.
Takin. into onsideration t!is .eneral situation, 3 !ave to stress t!at Ukraine
!as possessed some parado<ial features "it! re.ard to its et!nopoliy and inter%
et!ni relations. On t!e one !and, nobody else but Ukrainians ompose t!ere a
solid ma,ority of ountries in!abitants. T!e only re.ion "!ere Ukrainians are t!e
minority is &rimea. /ut, on t!e ot!er !and, Ukrainians t!emselves are drastially
different and still are not onsolidated as t!e leadin. and over"!elmin. et!ni
ommunity. -irst and foremost, t!ey are not united by t!e system of ommon
values, s!ared !istorial memory and inte.rated vision on t!e state and soiety
future.
(uperfiially a key problem inside t!e Ukrainian et!ni ommunity laid in t!eir
lin.uisti preferenes only. T!is point reUuires some in%dept! analysis.
-irst of all, ma,or part of Ukrainians "!o leave in +estern and &entral re.ions
of t!e ountry is Ukrainian%speakers, "!ile Eastern and (out!ern re.ions of t!e
ountry are dominated "it! 4usso%p!ones. 3t is "ort! remindin. !ereby t!at t!e
only re.ion of Ukraine "!ere et!ni Ukrainians are in minority is &rimea. T!ere
4ussians are t!e ma,ority for a lon. period of ontemporary !istory, namely after
++33 and it !appened as a diret result of t!e et!ni leansin. or.anized by t!e
order of Josep! (talin a.ainst &rimean Tatars and some ot!er et!ni .roups t!ere
under t!e falsified prete<t of t!eir ollaboration "it! 'azi administration.
'onet!eless, t!is most lear differene amidst Ukrainians is not limited "it! t!e
et!no%ultural diversity only and leads to several open and !idden politial and
soial onseUuenes. T!e latter "ere masterly ImisKused by some domesti and
forei.n ators sine t!e very dubious Presidential ampai.n of DLLE in order to
mobilize and onfront voters in different re.ions of Ukraine, manipulatin. t!eir
emotions and stereotypes t!at survived t!e breakdo"n of t!e U((4 to a very
e<tend.
(eondly, outside of a not%onsolidated ommunity of t!e titular nation,
anot!er and possibly lo.ial ontinuation of t!e previously stated parado< of
Ukraine is t!at Ukrainians in t!e reent years .radually lost t!eir presumably
dominant position even in politial and publi sp!ere, "!ile t!ey did not .et a
leadin. role in t!e national eonomy for t!e entire period of t!e (tate independene.
3t makes t!em .ro" unertain, frustrated and unomfortable in t!e native state.
T!ird and most !arateristi parado< of Ukraine is a vast influene of t!e
4ussian et!ni ommunity in t!e ountry, "!i! is "ell%represented into national
politial and business elite and in addition to t!at !as been supported by t!e mu!
bi..er nei.!borin. ountry, namely 4ussia. T!is ommunity itself is not "ell%
or.anized, but some politiians "ere and are ea.er to speulate about et!ni
disrimination of 4ussians in Ukraine, lookin. for t!e best remedy in offiial
reo.nition of 4ussian lan.ua.e as t!e seond offiial one of Ukraine. 4ussian
offiials started to openly support t!is laim last year, usin. t!eir a.ents of
influene in Ukraine in order to promote t!is laim to.et!er "it! t!e .oal of
UkraineCs federalization. Till t!e end of -ebruary, DL@E t!e pressure did not rea!
19

momentum of 0remlin or!estrated ampai.n , "!ile after :. Janukovy! esape
from Ukraine t!e 0remlin !as deided to use t!e "eakness of ne" UkraineCs
.overnment at full fled.e and oupied and anne<ed &rimea, t!us violatin. all t!e
international and bilateral a.reements. T!e offiial reason of su! unpreedented
a..ression !as been invented as t!e defense of 4ussian%speakin. population in
Ukraine. 'o real ar.uments in favor of t!at ausation !ave been proposed till no".
T!e ne<t and orrespondin. to t!is abovementioned issue is a parado< t!at it
is 4ussian lan.ua.e not Ukrainian dominates in fat upon t!e most part of
Ukraine, not to mention all%national and even re.ional media. /ut intri.uin.ly and
symptomatially, "!atever and "!enever attempt to unite politially 4ussians in
Ukraine under pro%4ussian and anti%Ukrainian slo.ans "ere made, t!ey !ave not
been suessful in all parts of Ukraine Ifor instane, t!e reation of 4ussian /lok
etK and failed t!ere, any"!ere but &rimean $utonomy, !o"ever. 3n &rimea, for
instane, t!e pro%4ussian party led by (er!ey $ksenov "on only E S of voters
support. T!at does not prevent !is appointment to t!e Prime%minister of
seessionist &rimea in time of reent 4ussian operation on t!e peninsula !o"ever.
3t is important to state t!at alon.side "it! all%national demo.rap!i risis
4ussians in Ukraine seemed to be one of t!e rapidly diminis!in. ommunities.
T!ere are a lot of ar.uments about omparison of @AOA and DLL@ ensus results
"it! re.ards to numbers of 4ussians in Ukraine. One of t!e key reasons of t!is
onsiderable demise of 4ussians refleted in absolute and relative fi.ures is t!e
follo"in.. T!ese fi.ures !ave to be interpreted !ere. #any of t!em, bein. born in
mi<ed families under (oviet re.ime preferred to !oose 4ussian nationality as t!e
best option. +!en Ukraine .ot 3ndependene t!is part of itizens !as started
makin. t!e opposite !oie, no" in favor of identifyin. t!emselves as Ukrainians.
Unfortunately, t!e ne" ensus !as been t"ie postponed by t!e #ykola $zarov
.overnment "it! no aeptable e<use. 3t seems to be onspiuous move of t!em,
as for no".
T!erefore, as a result of t!ose mi<ed and ontroversial trends, a very important
fat ould be stated. 'o"adays Ukraine is plaed under .ro"in. pressure from t"o
representatives of opposin. visions of "!at is t!e ma,or t!reat of t!e et!no%politial
instability as far as t!e ountry perspetive is onerned. T!e first vision, omes
from unertainty and frustration of many of Ukrainians, "!o are feelin. deprived of
t!e reently attributed status of so%alled titular nation. T!ese feelin.s are enflamed
for instane "it! notorious (tate 2a" on lan.ua.e poliy, initiated "it! Party of
re.ions leadin. members Ole<andr 0olesni!enko and Ole<andr 0ivalov. Despite
many protests and "ell%.rounded aademi ritis t!e dubious 2a" !as been
si.ned by t!e President :iktor Janukovy! and made ne" onessions to t!e le.al
status of 4ussian lan.ua.e entren!ment first of all. $nd t!e seond one is
provoked "it! persistent laims on be!alf of t!e most numerous minority namely
4ussians of UkraineCs a.ainst t!e so%alled foreful Ukrainianization proess takin.
plae in t!e ountry. $lon.side "it! t!is !i.!ly debatable and to a very e<tent
e<a..erated issue, some ot!er et!niities, su! as &rimean Tatars, Hun.arians in
Transarpat!ia and 4omanians in &!ernivtsi and Odessa re.ions !ave .ot t!eir
peuliar vision "!at "ent "ron. "it! national et!nopolitis and et!nopoliy too. 3n
t!e same time it is "ort! addin. t!at t!e votin. of :erk!ovna 4ada a.ainst
0olesni!enko and 0ivalov 2a" after :. Janukovy! run a"ay from 0yiv provoked
speulations about nationalisti trends in Ukrainian Parliament and paved a "ay to
0remlin propa.anda about 4ussian%speakin. population disrimination. Ho"ever,
t!e anti%Ukrainian propa.anda did not stop "!en t!e abandonin. of t!e 2a" did
ome into fore beause of atin. t!e veto of t!e President of Ukraine Ole<ander
Tur!inov.
#ost dynami and troublesome situation "it! interet!ni relations in Ukraine
"as persistent in &rimea even prior to DL@E anne<ation. 4ussians livin. t!ere
20

re.ard t!emselves as a dominant ommunity "it! no reservations and onessions
made to ot!er et!ni .roupsC laims and demands. (ome of t!em are totally
oriented to"ards F!istori 4ussiaG "!en t!e peninsula belon.ed sine @QOH to
Tsarist and later on to (oviet Empire. T!is dominant numerially part of t!e
re.ional soiety is mostly unfriendly if not an openly !ostile to Ukrainian state and
Ukrainian ulture. WL years of leavin. apart off 4ussia does not !an.e t!eir belief
t!at &rimea is F4ussian landG. 3n fat, t!at statement is !i.!ly debatable if to
re.ard t!e !istory of t!e peninsula more arefully and in t!e "ide retrospet. T!eir
identity and demand onfronts "it! t"o ot!er ommunities e<petations and vital
needs. Primarily, "it! t!e .ro"in. dissatisfation of &rimean Tatars, "!o are in t!e
final sta.e of t!eir return to"ards !istori mot!erland proess. T!is ommunity
.ro"s up demo.rap!ially faster t!an any ot!er et!ni .roups on t!e peninsula,
and simultaneously laks adeUuate material resoures and aess to po"er
distribution t!ere. 3t provokes tensions and dissatisfation of &rimean Tatars,
leads to"ards .ro"t! of unfriendly attitudes and deeds amon. t!em and ot!er
loals. Ukrainians are in t!e position of t!e t!ird party t!ere. $s a part of .reater
ommunity in Ukraine t!ey feel t!emselves pretty affeted "it! t!eir minor role on
t!e peninsulaCs soiety itself, in omparison "it! t!e loal 4ussians. $nd,
furt!ermore t!ey are t!reatened "it! some perpetuated separatists tendenies of
t!em. $t t!e same time, t!ey are .ettin. more and more unertain and "orryin.
about t!e future of Ukrainians vis%`%vis &rimean Tatars laim to restore t!eir
state!ood upon &rimea. &rimean Tatars in t!eir turn onsider t!e territory of t!e
peninsula as t!eir only !omeland, "!i! s!ould be reo.nized as t!e 'ational
$utonomy of loal Tatars and later maybe a fully 3ndependent (tate of t!em. (o, t!e
"!ole piture of et!ni relations on t!e peninsula seems to be very ompliated and
after 4ussia intrusion ould be undermined rapidly by t!at ation or t!e
onseUuenes of t!em.
$not!er re.ion "it! a distint et!nopolitial situation in Ukraine is
Transarpat!ia. Here several et!ni ommunities live and !ave peaefully oe<isted
for a.es. 'onet!eless t!ere are ertain problems for all%national and re.ional et!no%
politis no" pose t"o key problems t!ere. One of t!em is status and aspirations of
Hun.arian et!ni ommunity, split amon. t"o prinipal orientations and ultural
soieties t!ere. #oreover, Hun.ary supported loal Hun.arians in t!eir lams to
Ukrainian aut!orities for bi..er autonomy and .reater politial influene. +!ile
t!ese demands are not balaned "it! t!e inlusive be!avior of loal Hun.arians
"!o do not invest ener.y and time into more adaptive model of olletive ations
"it! re.ard to Ukrainian lan.ua.e and ulture. (o, some features of self%isolation of
loal Hun.arians must not be omitted in t!e re.ion. $nd t!e seond re.ional
problem onerns t!e so%alled 4ut!enianCs identity Uuestion. T!is reli identity
!as possessed some politial meanin. and onnotations beause of t!e ative
interferene of some forei.n sponsors "!o invest into t!e 4ut!enianCs pro,et and
movement in order to .et ertain profit of t!em. -or t!e last deades t!is movement
does not !an.e t!e .eneral et!ni situation in Transarpat!ia but remains !ot
topi for some aademi and publi disussion. /ot! issues are makin. ertain
ne.ative influene on t!e et!ni stability and interet!ni relations in t!e .iven
re.ion. (till, t!ey do not make t!e re.ional stability t!reatened or undermined.
3f to tou! upon an et!nopolitial situation in Eastern and (out!ern
UkraineCs re.ions, t!ey !ave some flavor of poly%et!niity too. /ut t!e ma,or
problem of t!eir et!ni relations is stane of t!e 4ussian ommunity t!ere and pro%
4ussian trends t!ey reveal. /ein. mainly 4ussian%speakin. territories t!ey s!ould
not be attributed !o"ever as anti%Ukrainian ones, "!i! is no "ay true. 4e.ional
ultural and et!ni mosai !ere is Uuite mu! ompliated. /ut t!ese territories
seem to be unlike t!e &rimea and t!e dominant part of re.ional elite and soiety do
not onsider t!e future of t!emselves outside of Ukraine.
21

T!e important issue need to be resear!ed furt!er is as "!et!er Ukraine as
t!e (tate and (oiety !ave been advanin. "it! onstrutin. politial nation for
more t!an t"enty years of 3ndependene\ To a very e<tend t!e ountry is still far
a"ay of bein. a sample of suess%story "it! re.ard to buildin. up t!e politial
nation of all UkraineCs itizens. 3f t!e aut!ority laked even t!e appropriate
understandin. of t!e very onept and importane of t!e tar.eted poliy to"ards
ne" polity buildin., some ne.ative remarks "ould deserve ivi soiety as "ell.
-ain. t!e lak of t!e vertial inte.ration of Ukrainian (oiety, ivi soiety
institutes !ad to try t!eir best in order to ompensate t!is fault. Unfortunately, it
!as !ardly been a priority of Ukrainian 'GO nation%"ide.
T!eoretially and pratially important issue remains t!e meanin. of Politial
nation definition under Ukrainian peuliar onditions\ Ho" far s!ould and mi.!t
Ukrainian .overnment move t!is proess of onstrutin. ne" polity outside et!ni
and ultural !arateristis of Ukrainians t!emselves\ $re Ukrainians as t!e et!ni
ma,ority t!e ommunity "!i! defines t!e interet!ni relations in Ukraine\ $re
t!ey no" olletively in position of t!e key ator, or rat!er a politial ob,et of
manipulations and misuse of t!eir trust and sometimes naivety bot! "it! domesti
and forei.n masters\
T!us, a ma,or Uuestion of Ukrainian soiety and state!ood remains open and
itCs t!e same one as far as t!e latest period of t!e ountyCs !istory is onerned. Has
Ukraine sueeded in buildin. up effetive Polity of Ukrainian itizens of different
ton.ues, beliefs, .eopolitial and ideolo.ial orientations\ $ny kind of proposed
replay to t!ese Uuestions is far a"ay of no ambi.uity.

Reg(ona" &a23"e of (nteret1n(5 to"eran5eA a 5a&e of <%ko7yna

$fter !avin. outlined some .eneral problems and trends of et!nopolitis in
Ukraine letCs .o on "it! t!e re.ional ase study of t!e smallest piee of UkraineCs
land, namely /ukovyna. &!ernivtsi oblast of Ukraine Iformer 'ort!%"estern part of
/ukovinaK is praised to be a kind of et!i tolerane paradise, not only in t!e
frame"ork of Ukraine but probably in t!e "!ole re.ion of &entral and Eastern
Europe as "ell. To a ertain e<tend t!is re.ional brand orresponds "it! t!e loal
traditions and ulture of interet!ni relations. +!ile Ukrainians are t!e ma,ority in
t!is re.ion too Ias all over Ukraine but &rimeaK and t!ey are a of t!e loals, t!e
seond lar.e et!ni ommunity !ere is not 4ussians but 4omanians Imore t!an @D
S of loal in!abitantsK. $nd if to ombine t!em "it! t!e loal #oldavians, t!ey are
around DL S of t!e re.ional population.
2atest resear! and soiolo.ial pools prove t!e stable positive attitudes of t!e
et!ni .roups to"ards ea! ot!er in &!ernivtsi and t!e re.ion. $nd t!ese
onlusions are "ell%.rounded in t!e past e<periene of t!e re.ion. T!e ulture of
permanent interultural dialo.ue, as "ell as t!e re.ional et!i tolerant be!avior
traes "ell bak to t!e period of Habsbur. Empire upon t!e land I@QQE ? @A@OK.
T!at period ontributed a lot in t!e makin. /ukovynians tolerant to"ards ot!ers.
T!is p!enomenon is due beause t!e very omposition of t!en%time et!ni
struture of /ukovina, "!ere no et!ni or reli.ious ommunity posses a position
and status of t!e dominant ma,ority. $ordin.ly t!ey "ere not in position of
laimin. le.itimate a superior position upon t!e !istori re.ion itself. T!at
!appened also beause of re.ional elite values and patterns of politial ondut,
omposed of different et!ni .roups. T!ey !ad .radually elaborated t!e adaptive
model of politial be!avior to t!eir o%nationals e<petations and needs of t!e
re.ional ommunity in .eneral. $nd finally, t!e very p!enomenon of /ukovynian
et!ni tolerane mi.!t be e<plained also beause lon.%lastin. ontribution of t!e
entral .overnment in :ienna poliy and et!no%poliy in partiular. 3t !ad been
nouris!ed "ell%balaned ombination of t!e different et!ni .roups and
22

denominations keepin. t!is re.ional eUuilibrium out of dan.erous onflit senarios
and t!reats to"ards re.ional stability. Due to t!e seurity reason, :ienna !as been
takin. into its aount t!e strate.i position of /ukovyna on t!e Eastern forefront
of Danube Empire vis%a%vis 4ussian Empire.
/ein. bot! sop!istiated and rumbled, t!is system of t!e re.ional
et!nopolitis is obviously marked "it! t!e proess of t!e $ustrian%styled re.ional
model of inter%et!ni relations !eks and balanes .raduate and steady orrosion.
T"o +orld +ars, different rulin. re.imes et!no%poliies, startin. from t!e 0in.dom
of 4omania and onludin. "it! t!e U((4 ne.ative attitude to"ards re.ional
peuliarities of /ukovina undermined and e<!austed t!e main resoures of loal
tolerant ulture to an e<tend "!i! ould not be i.nored.
'o"adays not only politial and .eo.rap!ial omposition of t!e .iven re.ion
!as been passed t!rou.! radial and profound !an.es. Demo.rap!y s!o"s t!at
t!e previous !istorially onstruted et!ni balane, based on t!e absene of
dominant .roup re.ional eUuilibrium is left far a"ay in t!e past. 'o" aut!orities
and et!ni ommunities !ave to deal "it! s!arply distintive realities in t!e re.ion.
(ome of t!em .radually !allen.e tolerane of t!e loals. T!ere are numerous
fators provokin. intolerane. -or instane, in a first plae it is ative mi.ratory
proess, "!i! starts to res!ape radially t!e landsape of /ukovina et!niity sine
++3 and makes it even more different up to day. -irst of all, it is a .radual esape
of Je"s and Germans from t!e re.ion, "!ere t!ey to.et!er "ere a bulk of t!e urban
populae till @AEL
t!.
. (ystemati soial and politial !an.es !ave ontributed
to"ards t!e ne" dynami and omposition of some positive and ne.ative aspets of
interet!ni relations in t!e re.ion to a very e<tend too. Opposin. to Habsbur. rule
t!ere is a domination of reative poliy of 0yiv and &!ernivtsi publi bodies "it!
re.ard to inter%et!ni issues and problems t!ere. -or instane, re.ional et!nopoliy
is marked "it! lobbyism of ative minorities rat!er t!en is .rounded on t!orou.!ly
elaborated aademi approa!es and effetive mana.erial me!anism of its
realization.
3 "ould like to address to"ards t"o fats in order to sustain t!ese statements.
-irst one is about t!e lak of elaborated re.ional et!nopoliy as "ell as all around
Ukraine, "!i! is .rounded for no" pratially on t!e only re.ional Pro.ram aimed
at support to et!ni ultural soieties and Ukrainian Diaspora. T!e pro.ram
ombines t"o different aspets of t!e re.ional aut!ority ativity. T!e first one is
addressed to satisfyin. ur.ent needs and some e<petations of t!e et!ni
ommunities Iminorities onlyK via t!eir et!no%ultural soieties, and t!e seond ?
to"ards Ukrainians "!o leave outside t!e ountry, namely in 4omania and
#oldova re.ions alon.side t!e state border "it! Ukraine. T!is stran.e ombination
of distant politial .oals is ounterprodutive, tendin. to disperse limited finanial
resoures to Uuite different tar.ets. 3t !as an inner defet also of onvertin. et!ni
minorities needs satisfation in Ukraine indiretly linked "it! t!e status and
prospet of Ukrainians in t!e nei.!borin. ountries. -inally, despite sare
reourses envisa.ed for t!e Pro.ram, it produes affet of plain. et!no%ultural
soiety in line of Uueuin. for t!em and even ompetin. for t!e aut!orities support.
Unfortunately, riteria and indiators of t!ese support distribution are not outlined
uneUuivoally neit!er in t!e Pro.ram itself nor in any ot!er related offiial
doument. #oreover, t!at doument does not imply any kind of pro.rammin. set of
priorities and me!anisms of t!e re.ional et!nopoliy as su!. T!is prinipal
omission mi.!t be ompensated by t!e re.ional me!anism of et!ni soieties ?
re.ional aut!oritiesC onsultation and ooperation.
T!is me!anism e<ists for several years represented by t!e advisory 4e.ional
&ounil in !ar.e of et!nopolitial issues. T!is is a body of t!e 4e.ional (tate
administration Ire.ional e<eutive body subordinated to t!e President of UkraineK,
omposed of et!ni ultural soietyCs leaders and some loal e<perts in t!e field of
23

et!nopolitis. +!ile it is a positive step of makin. su! a &ounil establis!ed in t!e
re.ion, openin. t!e floor for all parties onerned to address "it! t!eir proposals
and omplaints to"ards ea! ot!er and be understood "it! re.ional aut!orities.
/ut t!e rest of t!e story looks less !appy as far as t!is &ounil for t!e last t!ree
years "as alled to seat to.et!er only t"o times "it! a very limited a.enda. 3 am not
sure t!at t!is fat about result and effet of t!e &ounil ativity deserves makin.
.oin. in%dept! omments.
(o, in t!e re.ion as "ell as in t!e ountry t!e "!ole proess of settin. up and
elaboration of state et!no%poliy and funtions of t!e institutions in !ar.e of t!em
is undervalued and sometimes plaed as t!e very lo" priority by entral aut!orities.
3t makes t!is part of domesti poliy irre.ular, reative and finally ineffetive one.
&ivi soiety institutes are partly involved into t!e pratie of makin. t!e inter%
et!ni poliy but t!ey lak a me!anism of steady ooperation and re.ularity of
onsultation "it! .overnin. bodies, bot! national and re.ional ones. Of ourse, t!is
diretion of t!e domesti poliy is not finanially supported "ell and t!is !as a
ne.ative effet on t!em.

0on5"%&(on&

$fter !avin. t!is revie" of t!e interet!ni relation and et!nopolitis ompleted,
itCs time to .o to some .eneralization and onludin. remarks. T!e .reat fortune as
for Ukraine up to DL@E "as t!at t!e ne" born 3ndependent (tate overomes ma,or
t!reats of t!e domesti onflit, "!i! !ave been enflamed by interet!ni tensions
in t!e onstituent period of (tate%buildin.. 3t !appens beause prinipal but
predominantly informal onessions made by t!e Ukrainian ma,ority and politial
elite to"ards ot!er et!ni .roups. $ ontribution of more or less autious
.overnmental et!ni poliy s!ould be admitted eit!er. -or instane, Ukraine !as
"orked out suessfully a set of t!e le.islation on t!e et!ni monitories "!i! !as
to be re.arded as a ompatible one bot! "it! European standards as "ell as
e<petations of t!e Ukrainian itizens of different et!ni ori.in. $ll of t!ese fats
are t!e positive part of Ukrainian domesti interet!ni balane and t!ey s!ould be
appreiated.
(tatin. t!em "it! ertain satisfation, 3 !ave to add some more ritiism.
'onet!eless, "!at !as been made earlier is not enou.! and .oes to be
unsatisfatory as for no". /eside open 4ussian a..ression sine @ #ar!, DL@E and
fuelin. interet!ni tensions in Ukraine, mainly in (out!ern and Eastern parts of
t!e ountry, under t!e prete<t of 4ussian%speakin. ompatriotsC defense !ere are
some more "orryin. si.nals of some .ro"in. demands and disappointments of
ertain et!ni .roups to"ards Ukraine (tate, as "ell as disturbin. interferene in
t!ose domesti relations from outside politial players. Ukrainians t!emselves are
.ettin. more and more nervous about t!eir formal and informal, lan.ua.e and
ulture protetion under urrent ontraditory trends in bot! domesti and forei.n
poliy. $ll of t!em s!ould not be i.nored or omitted by t!e (tate .overnin. bodies,
espeially no" "!en t!e old aut!orities move out and ne" one are very mu!
unertain "it! politial and administrative ontrol . $nd to make t!ese enounters
safer, a ontribution of Ukrainian s!olars and ivi ativists into resolution of t!e
interet!ni relations problems ould not be underestimated. 4eently t!eir voies
and onerns arenCt attained by statesC aut!orities respetfully.
/ot! 'ational and 4e.ional aut!orities !ave to be ready to fae t!ese
!allen.es "ell prepared. Poly%et!ni re.ions need mu! more attention from 0yiv.
Even t!e most tolerant re.ions like &!ernivtsi oblast itself reUuires a lot of
investments into re%onstrutin. and onstrutin. a.ain on t!e ne" and different
.round its !istori asset of a famous ulture of interet!ni tolerane and mutual
ompre!ension. 'e" and balaned interet!ni stability is bot! not%so%easy
24

attainable and in t!e same time of vital importane for t!e sake of Ukraine safety,
stability and furt!er prospet. 3t reUuires stable, trust"ort!y and inte.rated by
ommon values and beliefs ooperation of leadin. et!ni ommunities, national and
re.ional politial elite and all of t!e .overnin. institutes to.et!er. 3tCs e<tremely
important to .et friendlier politial environment around Ukraine, "!i! t!e ountry
laks no" dramatially.

25

0on&tr%5t(on of Rea"(ty (n t1e 0onteIt of S(gn(ng
t1e Agree2ent a>o%t Reg%"at(on of t1e 0r(&(&
(n Ukra(ne on 21

Fe>r%ary 201

3ryna Demis!eva b $nastasiya 0olomoyets

Aiev, Ukraine

A>&tra5t

(oial and politial reality is semioti, i.e. it is a ombination of si.ns in t!e
politial te<t of t!e soiety. $ si.n is an assoiative ate.ory t!at makes a
onnetion bet"een a sub,et and its ima.e in a personCs pereption. $ si.n al"ays
!as an interpretant ? its diret meanin. and a variety of additional ? onnotative ?
interpretants t!at in every sin.le ase are defined by a readerCs pereption, and
depend on partiular onditions Iplae, time, ultural traditions et.K "!ere !ePs!e
e<ists.
$s t!e reality is onstruted from si.ns, it an be denotative and onnotative.
$ut!ors represent onnotative realities not only as interpretation of events but also
as a real denotative reality, and t!erefrom make politial deisions I:.Janukovi!Cs
absene in t!e ountry ? O. Tur!ynovCs eletion as t!e atin. PresidentX not votin.
for :.Janukovi!Cs impea!ment ? !is statements about t!e le.itimay of !is
PresidenyK. -ats no lon.er e<ist, one onnotative reality beats t!e ot!er, and some
interpetants beat t!e ot!er ones.
(oial and politial proesses in Ukraine in t!e period of autumn%"inter
onfrontation bet"een t!e soiety and t!e po"er I'ovember DL@H ? -ebruary DL@EK
.ained a si.n alled F#aydanG. Durin. t!e development of #aydanCs politial te<t
different realities "ere desi.ned. T!eir aut!ors onsidered t!em to be denotative.
(o, after t!e protests in Ukraine t!e aut!ors of t"o realities endued t!e si.n
FbanderovtsyG "it! different meanin.sM FfasistsG in :.Janukovi!Cs reality,
FpatriotsG ? in t!e reality of t!e protests partiipants. $t t!at point, t!e more
:.Janukovi! intensified t!e meanin. of FfasistsG t!e more t!e supporters of t!e
protests propa.ated t!is si.n "it! t!e meanin. FpatriotsG. Denotative meanin. ?
(./anderaCs person ? "as lost in bot! realities.
T!e real "ar of realities started and resulted in t!e split of t!e ountry and
t!e intervention of t!e 4ussian -ederation to t!e territory of Ukraine. One of t!e
si.ns around "!i! t!e aut!ors desi.ned different realities "as t!e $.reement
about t!e re.ulation of t!e risis in Ukraine si.ned bet"een t!e President of
Ukraine :.Janukovi! and t!e opposition leaders :.0li!ko, $.Jatsenyuk and
O.Tya.nybok.

9ey /or'& denotative reality, connotative reality, interpretant, sign, ,etap+or, te.t

Met1o'o"ogy
T!e resear! is based on t!e aut!orsC met!odolo.ial approa! based on
"orks by 4./art!es Z/art!es @AWO, @AQR[, J.Derrida ZDerrida @AOL, @AAO[,
J.0risteva Z0risteva @AOL[, J.2yotard Z2yotard @AOE[. 3n partiular, relyin. on t!eir
onept of t!e te<t and ate.ory IFsi.nG, FonnotationG, FonstrutionG and
26

FdeonstrutionG, Faut!orG, FreaderGK t!e aut!ors !ave developed t!e resear!
met!odolo.y of realities onstrution in a ommon politial te<t.
4eality models are onstruted o"in. to t!e te<t t!at is a ombination of all
si.ns, stereotypes, myt!s, attitudes typial for a ertain soiety in t!e !osen period
of time. T!ere is no ommon FstorylineG or Faut!orG in t!e te<tM all realities are
fra.mentary, all aut!ors try to Fover"riteG it, make o"n variant of reality dominant.
T!e .oal of t!is resear! is to find out differenes of realities and fators t!at
preonditioned t!ese differenes as a onseUuene of si.nin. t!e $.reement about
re.ulation of t!e risis in Ukraine. T!e resear! sub,et is a proess of onstrutin.
onnotative realities of t!e $.reement by t!e President of Ukraine :.Janukovi!X
t!e leaders of t!e opposition :.0li!ko, $.Jatsenyuk, O.Tya.nybokX t!e partiipants
of t!e mass protests.

Rea"(t(e&

Denotat(7e# i.e. t!e most atual reality of D@

-ebruary DL@E "as t!e fat of
si.nin. of t!e $.reement about resolution of t!e risis in Ukraine Ias "ell as t!e
te<t of t!e $.reementK ZT!e $.reement DL@E[ by t!e President of Ukraine :itor
Janukovi!, t!e leaders of t!e opposition $resniy Jatsenyuk, :italiy 0li!ko and
Ole. Tya.nybok. T!us bot! parties, t!e po"er and t!e opposition, "ere t!e aut!ors
of t!e reality. T!e -ederal #inister of -orei.n $ffairs of t!e German -ederal
4epubli -rank%+alter (teinmeier, #initer of -orei.n $ffairs of t!e 4epubli of
Poland 4adosla" (ikorski and Diretor of t!e Department of &ontinental Europe of
t!e #inistry of -orei.n $ffairs of t!e -ren! 4epubli Eri -ournier ated as t!e
.uarantors of t!e $.reement.
T!e te<t of t!e $.reement "as not aorded "it! t!e partiipants of t!e
protests on #aydan 'ezalez!nosti t!us t!is "as t!e PresidentCs and t!e opposition
leadersC reality only.
T!e si.nin. of t!e $.reement took plae under t!e follo"in. onditions of t!e
denotative realityM
#ass protests demandin. t!e President :itor Janukovi! to resi.n, all t!e
pre%term presidential and parliamentary eletions !ad been lastin. for t!ree
mont!s already and rea!ed t!e esalation of t!e onflit, in partiular ? t!e
armed stand%off bet"een t!e protestors and fore strutures "!i! resulted
in !avin. more t!an a !undred of dead and a t!ousand of in,ured people.
#ass murders durin. @O%DL -ebruary Iaordin. to t!e #inistry of Publi
Healt! of Ukraine durin. t!e stand%off OD persons died IQ@ protestors and @@
la" enforement offiersK, WDD persons "ere in,ured Z3nformation about
vitims DL@E[K, .uilty persons "ere not found but t!e protesters "ere a"are
of "!om to blame It!e President, seurity a.enies, t!e po"erKX
(eizure of publi offies by protestants, paralyzation of 0yiv ity enterX
Dismissal of t!e .overnment alon. "it! t!e ministers still bein. atually in
po"er Ie<ept t!e Prime%#inister #ykola $zarovK inludin. t!e #inister of
Home $ffairs :italiy Bak!ar!enko "!o "as aused by t!e protesters of t!e
arran.ement of military ationsX
3nfluene of e<ternal fators Iprinipal offiers of EU, U($ and 4ussiaK on t!e
situation in 0yiv inludin. imposin. santions a.ainst t!e po"ers by EU and
t!e U($X
:itor Janukovi! on t!e post of t!e President of Ukraine "!o flatly refused
to all pre%term presidential eletion durin. all protestsX
&arryin. out a number of rounds of ne.otiations bet"een t!e po"er and t!e
opposition at t!at t!e relutane of t!e po"er to make prinipal onessions.
27

T!e fulfillment of t!e $.reement provided a !an.e of t!e denotative reality,
in partiular t!e rene"al of t!e &onstitution DLLE "it! t!e redution of t!e
presidential po"ers durin. t"o daysX reation of t!e oalition and formin. of t!e
.overnment of t!e national solidarity durin. @L daysX onstitutional reform t!at
s!ould be ompleted in (eptember DL@EX arryin. out presidential eletions after
t!e adoption of t!e ne" &onstitution but not later t!an in Deember DL@E.
One of t!e main suppositions t!at made t!e po"er si.n t!e $.reement "as
mass murder on @O%DL -ebruary DL@E. T!us, alt!ou.! t!e te<t of t!e $.reement
presented a plan of ations from t!e po"er and t!e opposition, most metap!ors in
it "ere related to violene. $t t!at t!ere "as no metap!or of murder in it. (o
murders of people "ere desribed "it! t!e si.n Ftra.i ourrenes of life losses in
UkraineG Imetap!or of deat!K. T!ere is also a si.n of Fbloods!edG from t!is
metap!or in t!e onte<t Fto stop bloods!edG. /esides t!e si.ns of t!e metap!or of
violene "ere usedM FvioleneG, Ftou.! ationsG, Fpo"erG, FonfrontationG, FarmsG.
T!e po"er and t!e opposition obli.ated to keep from Ftou.! ationsG and to stop
FonfrontationG. $t t!at t!e po"er promised not to impose state of emer.eny, to
use fores of la" and order for p!ysial protetion of publi offies only. 3n
e<!an.e, it demanded from protesters to lay do"n arms.
(top of t!e onfrontation "as e<pressed "it! t!e metap!ors of releaseM si.ns
of Funblokin.G, FreleaseGX of t!e "ay F"ay of politial re.ulation of t!e risisGX of
ne.otiationsM Fa.reementsG. T!e !arater of t!e a.reements is represented "it! t!e
si.nsM FonernedG, Faspirin.G, Fstron.ly ommitted toG, Fto make serious effortsG.
T!e .oal of t!e a.reements s!ould beomeM FreleaseG, Fstop of onfrontationG,
Fnormalization of lifeG.
3t is important to note t!at t!ere are a fe" unitin. si.ns in t!e te<t of t!e
$.reement. T!e follo"in. ould be referred to t!emM Ft!e .overnment of t!e national
solidarityG. $t t!e same time t!ere is a strife bet"een t!e po"er and t!e oppositionM
Fbot! partiesG, Ft!e po"er and oppositionG. T!us t!e reality of t!e $.reement is as
follo"sM durin. t!e protests t!ere "as bloods!edX bot! t!e po"er and t!e opposition
"ere partiipants of t!e onfrontation Ibot! parties s!ould !ave stopped t!e
onfrontationKX none of t!e parties took t!e responsibilities for t!e deat!s IFtra.i
ourrenes of life lossesGKX t!e t!ird party ? partiipants of t!e protest ? "as not
onsidered in t!e $.reementX t!e opposition "as able to ontrol t!e partiipants of
t!e protestX t!e po"er respetively ould !ave ontrolled seurity offiialsX t!e
$.reement "as able to !an.e t!e reality IFstop bloods!edGK.

T1e 3rote&ter&@ rea"(ty

3n t!e evenin. after t!e $.reement "as si.ned t!e leaders of t!e opposition
s!ould !ave presented it on #aydan 'ezalez!nosti and started t!e stoppin.cs
proess of t!e onfrontation Ibuildin.sc release, streetsc unblokin., lay do"n of
armsK. T!e protestersC reality "as preonditioned by t!e follo"in.M
-unerals of people killed several days before "ere !eld on #aydan
'ezalez!nosti. T!ere is a video on t!e 3nternet t!at s!o"s !o" people !ad
been s!otX
Hundreds of in,ured as a result of t!e onfrontation. 3nformation about
people "!o "ere burnt alive in t!e !ouse of Trade UnionsX
Opposition leaders unable to ontrol protesters. T!eir rat!er lo" aut!ority
amon. t!e partiipants of t!e protestsX
Publi leaders of #aydan, in partiular Dmytro Jaros!, t!e leader of t!e
radial or.anization F4i.!t setorGX
28

'one of publi persons partiipated in si.nin. of t!e $.reement. T!e
opposition leaders did not onsult "it! #aydan before si.nin.. $t t!at t!e
partiipants of t!e protest learnt t!e te<t of t!e $.reement from ne"s.
$s a result, t!e partiipants of #aydan did not aept t!e si.ned $.reement
bet"een t!e opposition leaders and t!e President of Ukraine :. Janukovi!.
T!e sub,ets of resear! "ere t!e protestersC spee!es on #aydan 'ezalez!nosti on
D@ -ebruary DL@EM of :olodymyr Parasyuk, t!e member of a F!undredG Z:ideo of
:.ParasyukCs spee! DL@E[, Dmytro Jaros!, t!e leader of t!e 4i.!t setor Z:ideo of
D.Jaros!Cs spee! DL@E[, Dmytro Gnap, ,ournalist, publi ativist Z:ideo of
D.GnapCs spee! DL@E[.
T!e reality of t!e protest partiipants "as in a stru..le of all people in
Ukraine a.ainst t!e F.an.s of t!e po"erG. Desribin. t!emselves t!ey used t!e
metap!ors of unity IF"eG, FourG, Fall peopleG, FallG, F!undreds of t!ousands of
peopleG, Fall over all t!e ities in UkraineG, Funity of insur.ent movementG, Fommon
stru..leGKX of family IFfat!erG, Ffriends and brot!ersG, Fbrot!ers and sistersG, Fa "ife
and a small !ild "ere leftGKX of Home ountry IFpeople of UkraineG, FompatriotsG,
FUkrainiansG, F#ot!erlandGK.
$t t!at t!e protests partiipants dissoiated t!emselves from politiians
I"!i! defines t!em as an independent party of t!e protestsKM F"e are not from any
or.anizationsG, Fplain folksGX Fin all ities of Ukraine people protet t!eir lives from
t!is .an. by t!eir o"n, "it!out opposition leadersG Z:ideo of D.GnapCs spee!
DL@E[.
Protests partiipants in 0yiv did not onsider t!em as t!e protest in t!e
apital onlyX #aydan beame a synonym of protests all over t!e ountry. Typial
"as a si.n Fpeople of #aydanG. Talkin. about t!e protests sale people based
t!emselves on t!e si.nsM F!undreds of t!ousands of people all over UkraineG,
Fmillions of people all over t!e ountryG, Fin all ities of UkraineG. (o t!e protest "as
all%Ukrainian not ,ust in 0yiv.
T!e .oal of t!e protests "as t!e defense of ri.!ts and not only t!e !an.e of
t!e po"erM FHundreds of t!ousands of people all over Ukraine took to t!e street
defendin. t!eir ri.!ts, t!eir ri.!t for a deent life, t!eir ri.!t for livin. in t!e
ountry "!ere t!ere is la", no orruption, "!ere !onor and ,ustie are
akno"led.edG Z:ideo of D.GnapCs spee! DL@E[.
+e see a metap!or of defenseM people took to t!e street not for .ainin. ne"
ri.!ts Idemand !i.!er salaries, soial reforms et.K, or for UkraineCs ,oinin. t!e EU ?
t!is demand "as never !eard. T!e protest partiipants ame to .et t!e t!in.s t!ey
!ad been deprived of. T!e key si.ns and values of t!e protest partiipants areM
Fup!oldG, FdefendG. -or ? Fri.!tsG, FlifeG, Fdeent lifeG, FfreedomG, Fla"G, F!onorG,
F,ustieG, F"ell%bein.G. 3tCs note"ort!y t!at it "as about advoay of deent life as
"ell as p!ysial defense of people beause, as "e kno", people "ere killed durin.
t!ose days. 3n t!is onte<t t!e FsotnikG :olodymyr ParasyukCs spee! "as
illustrativeM F#y blood brot!er from Javorivs!!yna "as s!ot. His "ife and a small
!ild "ere left "it!out a !usband and a fat!er Z:ideo :.ParasyukCs spee! DL@E[G.
(o, t"o most important values "ere life t!at "as taken, and t!e family t!at "as
deprived of a member.
#etap!ors of revolution IFrevolutionG, FbarriadesG, FassaultG, FUkraine !as
rebelledG, Fstru..le a.ainst t!e re.imeGK, of "ar IFfi.!tG, FOL boys laid do"n t!eir
livesG, FkillerG, FdieGK prove it to be a stru..le, not ,ust a protest.
T!ese metap!ors from t!e .roup of violene "ere mostly presented durin.
t!e protests. 3t "as determined by denotative reality. People "!o died durin. t!e
protests "ere alled only !eroes, and t!e symbolization F$ll !onor to UkraineN $ll
!onor to HeroesG beame one of t!e stron.est durin. t!e protests. $ll spee!es
started and ended "it! t!ese si.ns, t!ey beame speial .reetin. of protesters.
29

T!e po"er beame an embodiment of all ne.ative events in t!e ountry, t!us t!e
defense of ri.!ts meant for people t!e removal of t!e atin. .overnment on all
!ands. People took to t!e street a.ainst ForruptionG, Fre.ime of internal
oupationG Z:ideo of D.Jaros!Cs spee! DL@E[, F.an.G. T!e attitude to"ard t!e
po"er "as e<pressed purely "it! t!e metap!or of rimeM FkillerG, FzekG, Fre.ime of
internal oupationG, F.an.G, F"!eels of state !un.G. Janukovi! "as not!in. but
FzekG for protestin. people. He "as also desribed as a Fbad e..G and t!e destiny of
Gaddafi "as predited to !im. T!e si.n of t!e re.ime beame #ez!y.irya It!e
resideny of Janukovi! t!at beame in Ukraine one of t!e stron.est si.ns of
orruptionK.
$s :. Janukovi! "as pereived merely as a riminal, t!e main and simple
.oal of t!e protests "as !is ouster, in si.n measurement ? from FdismissalG to
FtribunalG. FBek, .et a"ayNG is one of t!e stron.est si.n ombinations of t!e protests
t!at stuk to :. Janukovi!. 3n t!e desribed period FtribunalG beame anot!er
most ommon si.n. Dmytro Gnap interpreted peopleCs moods on #aydanM FEit!er
!e "ill resi.n in t!e nearest time, nearest days, or !e "ill be ,ailed, or !e "ill see
#ez!y.irya burnd T!ree options "ere .iven to Janukovi!M resi.nation,
imprisonment, or publi tribunal and GaddafiCs destinyG Z:ideo of D.GnapCs spee!
DL@E[.
(o, in si.n measurement t!e result of t!e protest ould be FdismissalG,
FprisonG, Fpubli tribunalG, FGaddafiCs destinyG ImurderK, Ffire in #ez!y.iryaG
Idestrution of orruption si.nK. 3n spite of a..ressive si.ns, t!e result e<peted by
t!e protesters "as t!e resi.nation of :. Janukovi!M Ftomorro" till @L oClok !e
must .et a"ayG, Fresi.nation of t!e PresidentG. #ore radial ations for t!ose
responsible for murders "ere proposed by Dmytro Jaros!M F$ll .uilty ?
Bak!ar!enko, /erkut ommandin. offiers, t!ose "!o delivered t!e order,
s!arps!ooters must be ,ailedG. /ut even !ere "e do not see appeals to lyn! la".
$s a result, t!e $.reement bet"een t!e opposition leaders and t!e President of
Ukraine absolutely did not meet t!e e<petations of t!e protesters as it provided :.
Janukovi!Cs furt!er !eadin. t!e state. T!us t!is $.reement beame a betrayal for
protesters, and t!e leaders of t!e opposition ? betrayers.
T!e attitude to ne.otiations and t!e $.reement looked like t!isM
'e.otiations ? Fstupid talks t!at "e !ave been fed "it! for D.R mont!sG.
Distrust to any ne.otiations as t!e protests !ave been lastin. for t!e t!ird
mont!, several rounds of ne.otiations "ere arried out but t!e po"er did not
"ant to make onessions. (i.nsM FdonCt believeG, Ffed "it! stupid talksG,
F"!ite"as!G.
/y si.nin. t!e $.reement t!e protestersC position "as i.noredM F$.reement
from ne"sG, Fsi.ned on t!e UuietG, Fdid not a.ree "it! #aydanG.
$.reements did not meet t!e protestersC .oalsM FT!e a.reements t!at "ere
a!ieved did not meet our aspirationsG Z:ideo of D.Jaros!Cs spee! DL@E[.
T!e main metap!or t!at t!e protesters used for desription of si.nin. t!e
$.reement "as a betrayal. Ot!er si.nsM FdisappointmentG, FontemptG,
FirresponsibilityG. $s a result, t!e protesters distaned t!emselves from t!e
oppositional leaders even moreM FT!ey are onsidered to be t!e leaders of t!e
opposition but t!ey are not t!e leaders of Ukrainian peopleG Z:ideo of D.GnapCs
spee! DL@E[. #etap!or of betrayal beame t!e main one for !arateristi of :.
0li!ko, $. Jatsenyuk and O. Tya.nybokM FbetrayersG, Fstandin. be!ind my bakG,
Four leaders s!ake !ands "it! t!is killerG Z:ideo of :.ParasyukCs spee! DL@E[,
Fs!ameG. T!e disappointment "as e<pressed by t!e si.n Ftypial Ukrainian
politiiansG t!at basially proved peopleCs distrust to politiians.
T!us in t!e protestersC reality t!e si.ned $.reement "as a betrayal of t!e
opposition leaders. T!e partiipants of t!e protests did not akno"led.e t!e
$.reement, t!ey delivered an ultimatumM :. Janukovi! !ad to resi.n before @L
30

oClok ne<t mornin.. 3n denotative reality t!e protesters akno"led.ed neit!er $.
Jatsenyuk, :. 0li!ko or O. Tya.nybok as t!eir leaders, nor t!e $.reement.

Rea"(ty of t1e o33o&(t(on

Havin. si.ned t!e $.reement t!e leaders of t!e opposition found t!emselves
in t!e follo"in. realityM
T!e main .oal of si.nin. t!e $.reement for t!e leaders of t!e opposition "as
to stop bloods!ed t!at from t!eir point of vie" depended on :. Janukovi!.
T!at is "!y t!e $.reement "as supposed to .uarantee t!at durin. t!e
protests people "ould not die any more.
3n fat, t!e $.reement took into aount all laims of t!e opposition Inot of
#aydanK, in partiularM return to t!e &onstitution DLLE Iidea of t!e peopleCs
deputy D. B!vaniyaK. Opposition leaders kept tryin. to onvine t!e
partiipants t!at t!is returnin. "ould !ave positive results. &onstitution%
DLLE deprives t!e President of Ukraine of si.nifiant po"ers. T!us, from t!e
very be.innin., t!e politiians did not believe in pre%term termination of
aut!orities of t!e President of Ukraine :. Janukovi!, ot!er"ise t!ey "ould
not !an.e t!e distribution of aut!orities ,ust before t!e pre%term
presidential eletion IJu. Timos!enko spoke out a.ainst t!isK. T!e politiians
,ust "anted to FutG :. Janukovi!Cs po"ers.
T!e $.reement provided !oldin. t!e pre%term presidential eletions before
Deember DL@E. 3t means ontinuin. :. Janukovi!Cs Presideny for one
more year. T!is "as t!e main problem of t!e leaders of t!e oppositionM to
onvine t!e protesters t!at t!eir .oal, t!e reeletion of t!e President, "as
really ar!ived. T!e reality of t!e oppositionists "as t!at t!ey did not believe
in t!eir o"n po"er, and t!ey let :.Janukovi!Cs determine t!e ne.otiations
results.
3n fat $.Jatsenyuk reserved t!e post of t!e Prime%#inister t!at
:.Janukovi! offered to !im, as t!e $.reement provided reation of t!e
.overnment of national solidarity.
T!us, t!e $.reement served t!e interests of t!e opposition leaders but t!ey
s!ould !ave onvined t!e protesters t!at t!ey !ad disputed a vitory, and s!ould
!ave started ations to p!ase do"n t!e protests.
-or t!e analysis of $.JatsenyukCs spee! on t!e briefin. after si.nin. t!e
$.reement Z:ideo of $.JatsenyukCs spee! DL@E, @E[, :.0li!koCs spee!es Z:ideo of
f :.0li!koCs spee! DL@E[, O.Tya.nybok Z:ideo of O.Tya.nybokCs spee! DL@E[,
$.Jatsenyuk Z:ideo of $.JatsenyukCs spee! DL@E, @Q[, P.Poros!enko Z:ideo of
P.Poros!enkoCs spee! DL@E[ on #aydan 'ezalez!nosti on D@

-ebruary DL@E "ere
!osen. Durin. t!e spee!es on #aydan one of t!e main fators t!at s!aped t!e
$.reementCs future and !an.e of denotative reality "as vitimsC funeral. T!e
leaders of t!e opposition tried to onvine people in t!eir vitory, but t!ey atually
meant to onvine t!at :.Janukovi! "ould remain on t!e presidential post till t!e
end of t!e year "!en offins "ere brou.!t to #aydan. T!is fator influened all
spee!es.
T!ose "!o spoke tried to onvine t!e protesters t!at t!e main .oal "as
a!ieved ? Fstop of bloods!edG "!i! meant FvitoryG. (o, "!ile for protesters a
vitory meant t!e resi.nation of :.Janukovi!, for t!e oppositionists it meant t!e
stop of bloods!ed.
T!e leaders of t!e oppositions tried to all on t!e metap!or of vitory. On t!e
day after si.nin. t!e doument, $. Jatsenyuk said t!at t!e $.reementM Fprovides
some most important artiles t!at Ukrainian people demandedGX Fis a first step to
re.ulation of t!e situationGX Ft!e eletion of t!e president of Ukraine "ill be arried
31

out before time t!is yearG. He tried to avoid speifis "!en e<atly t!e presidential
eletions "ould be arried out and "!et!er :.Janukovi! "ould remain on !is
post. :.0li!ko alled t!e $.reement a Fsmall vitoryG on #aydan.
Durin. spee!es on #aydan almost all politiians turned to t!e metap!or of
vitoryM FvitoriesG, Fto "inG. 3t "as t!e first onflit of realities as t!e main .oal of
t!e protesters "as t!e immediate dismissal of :.Janukovi!.
$t t!e same time P.Poros!enko "!o appeared after ne.ative reation on :.
0li!koCs and O.Tya.nybokCs "ords res!aped t!e spee! aordin. to peopleCs
mood. He said t!at no" Ft!ere is no vitoryG, F"e made one step to a!ieve t!e .oalG
and t!e vitory "ould ome "it! a Fne" presidentG and a Fne" ountryG.
T!e spee!es of t!e leaders of t!e opposition "ere built on t!e metap!ors of
violeneM Fbloods!edG, Fbrot!er fi.!ts a.ainst brot!er, Ukrainian a.ainst
UkrainianG, Fblood "as s!edG, FarmsG, FbulletsG Imetap!ors of "arK. 3n all spee!es
t!ere "as a metap!or of deat! as t!e spee!es "ere made durin. funeralsM FdiedG,
Flaid to rest t!e sotnik "!o died to.et!er "it! youG, Flaid do"n t!eir livesG, Fdied
yesterdayG, Fare dyin.G, FommemorationG. T!e si.n of deat! of onfrontation
realities "as 3nstytutska street "!ere most people "ere s!ot.
3n t!e spee!es t!e politiians paid most attention to dead people. T!e same
as for protesters t!e dead are merely !eroes. T!e key si.n F$ll !onor to UkraineN $ll
!onor to !eroesNG, Ffeel sorro" for our !eroesG. Takin. into aount t!e day of
funeral t!e leaders of t!e opposition used t!e metap!or of reli.ion as "ellM FGod
bless t!eir soulsG, Fnever for.et t!e !eroesG, Fmay t!e peae of God be "it! t!emG,
Fmay t!e eart! lie li.!t upon t!emG, Fundyin. .lory to HeroesG.
T!e protesters distaned t!emselves from t!e politiians and alled t!em
betrayers. T!e politiians tried to improve t!e situation inludin. "it! t!e
metap!ors of unity and familyM Four unityG, F"e are unitedG, Fbrot!ers and sistersG,
F"eG, Fs!oulder to s!oulderG.
:.0li!ko addressin. people on #aydan tried to onvine t!at si.nin. of t!e
$.reement "as t!eir desert and t!eir vitoryM FT!anks to every one of you today "e
!ave small vitoriesG Z:ideo of :.0li!koCs spee! DL@E[.
O.Ty.nybok tried to speak "it! t!e protesters as an eUual appealin. to t!e fat t!at
!e also lost peopleM F@W members of our or.anization died !ere on 3nstytutskaG,
Fsvobodivtsi "!o died !ere yesterday on 3nstytutskaNG Z:ideo of O.Tya.nybokCs
spee! DL@E[.
4espondin. to t!e reation of people !e said t!at Fit is not t!e ri.!t time to
UuarrelG and alled on people to unityM F3t is not t!e ri.!t time to Uuarrel, "e s!ould
stand s!oulder to s!oulderG Z:ideo of O.Tya.nybokCs spee! DL@E[.
3n t!e spee!es of t!e politiians t!ere "as not a metap!or of revolution t!at day,
instead t!ere "as a metap!or of stru..leM Four stru..leG, Ffi.!t a.ainst t!e po"erG,
Ffi.!t a.ainst t!e re.imeG, Ft!e one "!oCs fi.!tin. "ill be able to "inG, Ffi.!t for t!e
-utureG.
$t t!e same time t!e leaders of t!e opposition emp!asized ne.otiations
rat!er t!an revolutionary dealin. "it! t!e risisM FmeetG, FonvineG, FGa.reeG, FdoG.
Talkin. about t!e protests .oal, t!e reality of t!e leaders mat! t!e protestersC
realityM Fassertin. t!e ri.!t to live in a free ountryG, Ffi.!tin. for our futureG, Ffor
future of t!e ountryG, Ft!at "e live in a free ountryG, Fbuild a ne" ountryG,
Fvitory of UkraineG, Fmodern ountry "!ere 3 "ant to liveG, Ft!e .an. !as leftG. 3tCs
note"ort!y t!at t!e politiians talked about t!e future of Ukraine more in t!e
abstrat "!ile t!e protesters emp!asized t!at t!ey ame to defend t!eir ri.!ts.
T!e po"er in t!e reality of t!e opposition "as desribed "it! t!e metap!ors of
ditators!ipM FditatorsG IFT!ere "ill be no ditators in Ukraine any moreGK, of
Fre.imeG and rimeM Ft!e po"er laun!ed bloods!edG, F.an.G, FzekG. $t t!at, itCs
note"ort!y t!at t!e politiians tried to avoid mentionin. :.Janukovi!. 3t "as
supposedly done in order not to tou! upon a painful topi of reeletion. Only
32

:.0li!ko mentioned Janukovi! "!en !e "as apolo.izin. for F!avin. to s!ake
Janukovi!Cs !andG. :.0li!ko "as t!e only one allin. :.Janukovi! a FzekG.
T!e politiians also aused t!e po"er of laun!in. t!e onfrontationM
FToday t!e po"er does everyt!in. to make people fi.!t ea! ot!er, usin. t!e
lan.ua.e, !istory, !ur!, reli.ion or any ot!er issues. $nd found t!e "ays. +est
and East. T!e po"er use any possibilities to strike people to.et!er. 0ey si.nsM
FonfrontationG, Fbrot!er fi.!ts a.ainst brot!erG, FUkrainian a.ainst UkrainianG
Z:ideo of :.0li!koCs spee! DL@E[.
T!us, on #aydan 'ezalez!nosti t!e leaders of t!e opposition tried to make
people aept t!e reality of t!e $.reement. T!ey noted t!at t!ey !ad already
a!ieved a vitory Ieven if FsmallGK ? stopped bloods!ed. 'one of t!em told about t!e
resi.nation of t!e President :.Janukovi!, only P.Poros!enko said t!at t!ere "ould
be a vitory Fafter eletin. a ne" PresidentG Z:ideo of P.Poros!enkoCs spee! DL@E[[.

Rea"(ty of !.;an%ko7(51

3n t!e evenin. on D@

-ebruary after si.nin. t!e $.reement "it! t!e
representatives of t!e opposition t!at "as verified by t!e international mediators :.
Janukovi! left for 0!arkiv to partiipate in t!e on.ress of deputies of all levels in
sout!%eastern oblasts and $utonomous 4epubli of &rimea. T!e on.ress !ad been
initiated by $ll%Ukrainian publi union FUkrainian frontG. /ut :.Janukovi! did not
visit it, as !e firstly "ent to 2u.ansk, t!en after a failed effort to ross t!e 4ussian
-ederation border by !eliopter !ad to return to Donetsk from "!ere !e left for
&rimea by ar. 3n a fe" days after t!ese events t!ere "as information in mass
media t!at :.Janukovi! "as on t!e territory of 4ussia and "as .oin. to .ive a
press onferene in 4ostov%on%Don.
T!e reality of :.Janukovi! "as preonditioned by t!e follo"in.M
$.reement "it! t!e representatives of t!e opposition about re.ulation of t!e
risis in Ukraine si.ned on D@ -ebruary DL@E X
Dissent of protesters and publi members from t!e te<t of t!e $.reement and
open statement about t!is from t!e sta.e of #ayday to.et!er "it! t!e
impea!ment of representatives of t!e opposition "!o si.ned t!is $.reement.
$s a resultX t!e ultimatum to :.Janukovi!M to abne.ate po"ers till @L.LL
oClok DD -ebruary DL@EX
#a,ority votin. in :erk!ovna 4ada on DD -ebruary DL@E for dismissal of t!e
:4 speaker :.4ybak and eletion of t!e ne" speaker O.Tur!ynov, for
rene"al of validity of t!e &onstitution DLLE as "ell as for removal of
:.Janukovi! from t!e offie of t!e President of Ukraine by virtue of !is self%
dismissal from e<eution of onstitutional aut!orities. T!e last bill draft
provided s!edulin. t!e pre%term eletion of t!e President of Ukraine on DR
$pril DL@E. 'e<t day t!e deputies of :4 eleted O.Tur!ynov as atin.
President of Ukraine for t!e period before definin. t!e results of t!e
reeletion of t!e president in #ay DL@E t!at "as stipulated by t!e
&onstitution DLLEX
#ass departure of deputies from t!e fration of t!e Party of re.ions in
:erk!ovna 4ada Ias of DH -ebruary DL@E ? QD deputiesKX
Pro%4ussian separative meetin.s and oupation of re.ional state
administrations under 4ussian and soviet fla.s in eastern and sout!ern
oblasts of Ukraine. T!e main slo.ansM F-ederalization of UkraineG, FDefense
of Ukraine from banderovtsyGX
Entry of 4ussian militaries in $4 &rimea on DQ -ebruary DL@E "it!out
identifiation marks of 4- armed fores.
33

T!e resear! sub,et "as :.Janukovi!Cs intervie" to ,ournalists in 0!arkiv
on DD -ebruary DLL@ Z:ideo of :.Janukovi!Cs intervie" DL@E[, :.Janukovi!Cs
statement broadast by 4ussian mass media on DQ -ebruary DL@E, t!e day before
t!e press onferene in 4ostov%on%Don Z:iktor Janukovi!Ts statement DL@E[ and
t!e s!ort!and report of t!e press onferene from DO -ebruary DL@E ZTransript of
:.Janukovi!Cs press onferene DL@E[.
:.Janukovi!Cs reality lied in non reo.nition of t!e deisions made by t!e
parliament re.ardin. !is dismissal from t!e post of t!e President of Ukraine and
insistin. t!at !e "as t!e only le.itimate President. Desribin. !imself, !e used only
t!e onstrution F3 am a le.ally eleted PresidentG, Fle.al Head of Ukrainian (tateG.
-or intensifiation !e used t!e metap!ors of la" in frames of "!i! !e ited le.al
provisions of Ukraine IFT!e President did not resi.nG, F3f t!e President is aliveG, Ft!e
President "as not impea!edG ZTransript of :.Janukovi!Cs press onferene of
DL@E[ and emp!asized t!at t!e la"s adopted in :erk!ovna 4ada at t!e end of
-ebruary DL@E "ere not si.ned by !im, and t!us, t!ey "ere not akno"led.ed IF3
donCt akno"led.e t!emG, F3 am not si.nin. anyt!in.G, F3 did not si.n t!emG Z:ideo
of :.Janukovi!Cs intervie" DL@E[K.
:.Janukovi!Cs pereption of t!e $.reement si.ned "it! t!e representatives
of t!e opposition "as ontroversial and !an.ed dependin. on t!e !ronolo.y of !is
publi statements. (o, durin. private intervie" to ,ournalists in 0!arkiv on DD
-ebruary DL@E !e alled t!e ne.otiations FultimatumsG. $nd at t!e press onferene
in 4ostov%on%Don it "as Ft!e $.reement t!at s!ould !ave re.ulated t!e risisG, it
F"as rat!er disputable and diffiultG but Faimed at stop of bloods!ed and sear! for
peaeful settlementG ZTransript of :.Janukovi!Cs press onferene DL@E[.
/ut :.Janukovi! did not take responsibility for any of events in Ukraine
durin. -ebruary DL@E. Just in t!is onte<t !e tried to arry on r!etori usin. t!e
metap!or of vitim IF3 "as ynially deeivedGK and identifyin. self "it! Ukrainian
people Ionly in t!is sin.le aseM Fall Ukrainian people "ere deeivedGK. Guilty e<ept
FradialsG and t!e Foffiial oppositionG "ere t!e +est, international mediators IFt!e
result of irresponsible poliy of t!e +estGK, F3 believed in deeny of t!e international
mediatorsG ZTransript of :.Janukovi!Cs press onferene DL@E[K. /ut peuliarities
of :.Janukovi!Cs r!etori in t!e first by date intervie" to ,ournalists "ere different
and marked by embarrassment of t!eir aut!or. He e<peted t!e reation of t!e
international ommunity, in partiular, t!e .uarantee of !is seurity and !is
reo.nition as a le.itimate President from t!eir sideM Fall international mediators
.ave me .uaranteesd 3 "ill see !o" t!ey are .oin. to fulfill t!eir roleG Z:ideo of
:.Janukovi!Cs intervie" DL@E[. T!e !an.e of key si.ns of opinions about t!e
international mediators after :.Janukovi! ame to t!e territory of 4- most likely
prove t!e fat t!at !e adopted t!e opinion of t!e President of 4- :.Putin as for
re.ulation of t!e risis, beause t!e representatives of t!e international ommunity
already openly supported t!e po"er in 0yiv.
$s early as at t!e press onferene in 4ostov :.Janukovi! insisted t!at t!e
$.reement si.ned bet"een !im and t!e representatives of t!e opposition and
verified by t!e international mediators "as not fulfilled, t!us t!e main "ay out of
t!e situation "as to fulfill t!is $.reement and t!us to reo.nize !im t!e le.itimate
President of Ukraine. $ordin. to !im, it "ould be a le.al proess of settlement of
t!e politial risis in Ukraine.
T!e key reUuirements of :.Janukovi! as for fulfillment of $.reement
provisions "ere t!e follo"in.M
3mmediate start and ompletion of t!e onstitutional reform by (eptember
DL@EX
Unpre,udied investi.ation of ats of violene under t!e total monitorin. of
t!e .overnment, opposition and t!e &ounil of EuropeX
34

(eurin. normal life of Ukrainian itizens t!rou.! removin. armed people
from streetsX
4ekonin. "it! t!e interests of all re.ions of Ukraine and as a onseUuene,
!oldin. t!e national referendum.
T!e speifiity of adoption by t!e parliament of all la"s after t!e D@ -ebruary
DL@E t!at :.Janukovi! identified as Fille.alG !e desribed by means of si.ns of t!e
metap!or of violene and t!e metap!or of intimidation IFinfluened by seurity and
militants of #aydanG ZTransript of :.Janukovi!Cs press onferene DL@E[K.
:.Janukovi! !ad some"!at ontroversial attitude to t!e aut!orities set up in 0yiv.
Durin. one of t!e spee!es !e firstly used t!e "ord F.overnmentG and t!en applied
t!e onstrution Fso alled .overnmentG. $t t!at, "it!out akno"led.in. t!e
le.itimay of t!e !arater of its formation, !e akno"led.ed t!e fat of e<istene of
ne" .overnment IFtoday ne" .overnment is bein. formedG, F"!o omes to po"erG
ZTransript of :.Janukovi!Cs press onferene DL@E[K.
T!e situation t!at arose in Ukraine after D@ -ebruary DL@E :.Janukovi!
desribed by means of t!e metap!ors of ille.ality and !aos emp!asizin. t!em "it!
t!e si.ns of violeneM FterrorG, FmilitantsG, Fbloody senarioG, Fsaturnalia of
e<tremismG. $s a result, t!e parliament took Fune<ampled deisionsG by fore of
Fviolene over deputiesG t!at led Ukraine into FdeadlokG, Fanar!yG, F!aosG.
$t t!e same time, desribin. t!e events i t!at made !im leave Ukraine
:.Janukovi! used t!e metap!or of overturn intensified by t!e metap!ors of
violene and fear. $s for t!e metap!or of overturn, t!e same as in ase of
identifiation of t!e .overnment t!ere "ere some"!at ontrast si.ns in !is r!etoriM
Fe<ample of oup dCetatG, Ft!e po"er "as seizedG, Fusurpation of po"erG, but
Fnobody overt!re" meG.
T!e mentioned above metap!ors of violene and fearPintimidation ran
t!rou.! all spee!es and statements of :.Janukovi!. T!ey "ere used as "idely as
possible, and t!eir key si.ns "ere used to intensify ot!er metap!ors. 3n t!is ase
t!e metap!or of violene "as used to illustrate t!e protesters and t!eir leaders
IGarmed peopleG, FradialsG, FmilitantsG, FbanditsG, F!a"ksGK, t!eir ations
IFbloods!edG, FterrorG, Fbri.andismG, FvandalismG, Fs!otG, F!itG, Fs!o"er stonesG,
FterrorG, FburnG, FrobGK t!at "ere aimed to deputies, :.Janukovi! and !is
surroundin.s IFbloods!ed of my near and dearG, Ft!ey s!ot at my arG, Fs!o"er
stones on deputiesGK, as "ell as tools t!at t!ey used IFille.al armsG, Fautomati
armsG, FstonesG, F#olotov oktailsG, Frifled "eaponG, Fautomati riflesGK.
T!e metap!or of violene .enerated t!e metap!or of fearPintimidation t!at
"as used in t"o diretions. On one !and, it "as intimidatin. deputies, publi
offiers and ordinary people IFpaniG, Ft!reatsG, FpursuitGK. On t!e ot!er !and, it "as
intimidatin. Janukovi! !imself and !is family. $nd t!at is "!en t!e metap!ors of
fear s!o"ed up in spite of :.Janukovi!Cs numerous denials of bein. sared. T!ey
additionally su..est about t!e ontrary IFto seure my safetyG, F.oin. t!rou.!
(out!%East of t!e ountry t!at is still saferG Z:ideo of :.Janukovi!Cs intervie"
DL@E[, Fin su! irumstanes 3 anCt risk my familyC, Fp!ysial intimidationG, Fask
t!e .overnment of 4- to seure my safetyG Z:iktor Janukovi!Ts statement DL@E[, F3
!ave no fearG ZTransript of :.Janukovi!Cs press onferene DL@E[K.
+it!in t!ese t"o metap!ors Iof violene and fearK :.Janukovi! learly
desribed !is key enemies "!o, in !is opinion, "ere .uilty in F!aosG, FterrorG and
Fbloods!edG in Ukraine. $t t!e very be.innin. !e identified t!e leaders of t!e
opposition as FbanditsG F"!o are terrorizin. all ountry and Ukrainian people
todayG. /ut later :.Janukovi! used t!e onstrution Fleaders of t!e oppositionG,
"!i! is neutral, !avin. s"it!ed a..ressive namin. to FJaros!, Ty.nybok,
ParubiyG "!o Farouse fear in 3sraelG and Fpromote violeneG. (o, for desribin.
enemies :.Janukovi! used invetive voabulary and identified t!em "it! t!e
follo"in. si.nsM Fnationalist, pro%fasist ro.uesG, Fradial fores presented on
35

maydan,d and in ot!er re.ionsG, F!a"ks and militants of maydanG, Fnationalists
and banderovtsyG, FriffraffsG alon. "it! FbetrayersG in t!e Party of re.ions.
:.Janukovi! sa" !is o"n role in t!ese events differently dependin. on t!e
ourse of events. (o, durin. t!e intervie" to ,ournalists in 0!arkiv !e took t!e role
of a defender of Ft!ose people "!o are bein. perseuted by banditsG emp!asizin.
t!is "it! t!e story about t!e neessity to afford protetion of :.4ybak and $.0lyuev
IF3 took !im "it! me and t!en sent to Donetsk by arG Z:ideo of :.Janukovi!Cs
intervie" DL@E[K. He identified !imself as a defender of people in international
ne.otiations as "ell IF3 "ill all on all forei.n observers, mediatorsG Z:ideo of
:.Janukovi!Cs intervie" DL@E[K.
/ut in !is furt!er statements t!e defender role transformed into a
peaemaker role. (o, :.Janukovi! said t!at Fno po"er is "ort! a drop of bloodG,
t!at !e Fdoes not aept any ot!er "ays of settlin. Uuestions but peaefulG, and
t!at Ft!ere is no ot!er person more interestedG t!an !e t!at Feveryt!in. ends in a
peaeful "ayG ZTransript of :.Janukovi!Cs press onferene of DL@E[.
$lso !is r!etori some"!at varies in different by dates statements as for tasks t!at
:.Janukovi! set for !imself and t!e main "ays of solvin.. (o, durin. t!e intervie"
to t!e ,ournalists in 0!arkiv !e outlined t!e follo"in. tasks for !imself in t!e
situation reatedM
To do everyt!in. possible in order not to allo" furt!er bloods!edX
To do everyt!in. possible to defend t!e ountry from breakupX
Do not resi.n and do not leave t!e ountryX
To ontinue stru..le for future of UkraineX
To do everyt!in. possible till t!e end of !is life, to stay "it! people of
Ukraine.
/ut t!e r!etori of t!e first publi spee! on DD -ebruary DL@E proved t!at
!e did not realize !o" e<atly to at in t!e publi field in t!e nearest time for
solvin. t!ese tasks. He did not !ave any speifi plan for overomin. t!e risis and
t!e onfrontation IF3 donCt kno" yet "!at 3 am .oin. to doG, F3 met people,
onsultedG, F3 am .oin. to ontinue meetin. peopleG, F"ill seek for "aysG, F3 !ope 3
"ill arry out ne.otiations t!ese daysG Z:ideo of :.Janukovi!Cs intervie" DL@E[.
/ut at t!e press onferene on DO -ebruary DL@E in 4ostov :.Janukovi!
announed !is speifi perspetive of t!e "ay out of t!e risis in Ukraine ? it "as
fulfillment of t!e provisions of t!e $.reement si.ned "it! t!e representatives of t!e
opposition. 3n t!is onte<t t!e metap!or of stru..le "as almost not peuliar to !im
Iits sin.le si.ns "it!out identifiation of "ays of stru..le ? F3 "ill stru..leGK as t!e
"ays of ompletin. t!e task of overomin. t!e onfrontation transformed into
demands to t!e opposition IF$bandon t!e po"erNG, F(top t!is ille.alityG, FPull
yourself to.et!erNG, F2eave and do not allo" more ille.ality and distress of Ukrainian
peopleG ZTransript of :.Janukovi!Cs press onferene DL@E[K.
3t is interestin. t!at t!e metap!or of apolo.izin. "as also peuliar to
:.Janukovi!. 3ts addressees "ere FveteransG, FUkrainian peopleG, t!ose F"!o
suffered and are sufferin.G, Fsoldiers of /erkutG. He first of all apolo.ized for not
been able to keep t!e stability in t!e ountry and allo"ed ille.ality establis! after
t!e events on D@ of -ebruary DL@E. :.Jnukovi! also apolo.ized to soldiers of
/erkut t!at t!ey Finnoently in,uredG. He desribed t!em usin. t!e si.ns of t!e
metap!or of !eroes IFoura.eous peopleG, F!eld out unarmedGK !avin. denied t!at
t!e polie !ad arms but assumin. t!at t!ey appeared for self%defense F"!en t!ey
"ere s!ot atG and F"!en t!ere "as a life t!reatG durin. t!e attaks of Fmass
!araterG ZTransript of :.Janukovi!Cs press onferene DL@E[.
T!us in :.Janukovi!Cs reality !e remains a le.ally eleted and le.itimate
President of Ukraine "!o did not akno"led.e any la"s adopted by t!e parliament
after D@

-ebruary DL@E, demanded t!e return to fulfillin. t!e provisions of t!e
36

$.reement si.ned "it! t!e representatives of t!e opposition, !e onsidered t!e
situation in t!e ountry as !aos and ille.ality t!at "as aused by radialsC,
nationalistsC, banditsC ations t!rou.! applyin. violene, intimidation and t!reats.

0on5"%&(onA

(i.nin. of t!e $.reement about re.ulation of t!e risis in Ukraine "as not
only t!e basis for onstrution of different realities. :.Janukovi!Cs reality and t!e
realities of protests partiipants disa.ree ompletely. T!e protesters did not
akno"led.e t!e $.reementX t!e leaders of t!e opposition si.ned t!e $.reement
"it!out !avin. a.reed "it! #aydanX t!e key .oal ? dismissal of :.Janukovi! ? "as
not a!ieved. 2ater on t!e leaders of t!e oppositions tried to avoid t!e si.nin. of t!e
$.reement.
-or :.Janukovi! t!e $.reement beame t!e si.n around "!i! !e
onstruted t!e reality of t!e oup dCetat "!i! si.ns in many t!in.s refleted t!e
protestersC reality. 'o" :.Janukovi! alled t!em bandits, blamed for blood
senario and laimed for fulfillment of t!e valid $.reement.
T!e President of 4- :olodymyr Putin took t!e $.reement as a basis of !is
reality as "ell. $ppealin. to it !e onstruted t!e reality of puts! in Ukraine, non%
reo.nition of ne" .overnment, le.itimay of :.Janukovi!Cs aut!orities "!o
remained t!e President of Ukraine. On t!e basis of t!is reality !e started
intervention into Ukraine.
-urt!er events t!at !appened in Ukraine e<panded t!ese realities even more,
!avin. filled t!em "it! ne" si.ns and fastened already e<istin. onesM Fpseudo
referendumG, Fpubli .overnorG, FrepressionsG, FoupantsG and ot!er. Politial
deisions taken on basis of t!ese onstruted realities resulted in anne<ation of t!e
$4 &rimea, a possibility of anne<ation of eastern oblasts of Ukraine or
federalization and breakdo"n of t!e state, as in bot! realities t!ere are t!eir
readers "!o stron.ly believe t!eir aut!ors.
(ubstitution of realities "!en onnotation displaes denotation beame
possible o"in. to i.norin. durin. all !istory of independene of Ukraine by all
aut!ors t!e need of onstrutin. t!e enter of sin.le Ukrainian te<t struture "!ere
si.ns lose and lear all over t!e territory of Ukraine "ould be inluded. On t!e
ontrary, "it!in all period t!e aut!ors played "it! t!eir readers intensifyin. si.ns
t!at split t!e soiety and unite only t!eir readers as for e<ample t!e Fseond state
lan.ua.eG.
Today all aut!ors !ave a super .oal to unite all readers of Ukraine re.ardless
of t!e result of t!e furt!er onfrontation, t!e ountry is already split. 3t is neessary
to fill in t!e te<t "it! t!e si.ns unitin. people to Ukraine. T!ese mi.!t be
metap!ors of family and land I!ere parents are buried, !ere !ildren "ere bornKX of
unity and possession I"e, our landP!omePountryK, of "ealt! and variety I"e are
"iser as "e an speak more lan.ua.esX ountry of ri! ulturesKX of !ome I!ere "e
build life ? !ome ? UkraineKX love Iyour love is a part of !istory of our ountryX it is a
ountry of people "!o you loveKX of peae Iountry of peaeX "e are for lifeKX of ,ustie
IUkraine of eUual peopleK et.

<I<LIO$RAPH;

@. /art!es 4oland. Deat! of t!e $ut!or PP 3ma.e%#usi%Te<t P publ. Hill and +an.M
'e" Jork, @AQO, DDL p. ? p. @ED%@EO.
D. /art!es 4oland. Elements of (emiolo.y P publ. Hill and +an.M 'e" Jork, @AWO,
@@@ p.
37

H. /art!es 4oland. T!e Pleasure of t!e Te<t P publ. Hill and +an.M 'e" Jork, @AQR,
OE p.
E. Derrida JaUues. Of Grammatolo.y P /altimore b 2ondonM Jo!ns Hopkins
University Press, @AAO, ERW p.
R. Derrida JaUues. +ritin. and Differene P &!ia.oM University of &!ia.o Press,
@AOL, p. HWD.
W. 0risteva Julia. Desire in 2an.ua.eM $ (emioti $pproa! to 2iterature and $rt P
O<fordM /lak"ell, @AOL, p. HLR.
Q. 0risteva Julia. 4evolution in Poeti 2an.ua.e IEuropean Perspetives (eriesK P
'e" JorkM &olumbia University Press, @AOE, p. DQ@.
O. 2yotard Jean%-raneois. T!e Postmodern &onditionM $ 4eport on 0no"led.e.
Trans. Geoffrey /ennin.ton and /rian #assumi P #inneapolisM University of
#innesota Press, @AOE, @EE p.
A. T!e $.reement about re.ulation of t!e risis in Ukraine dd. D@.LD.DL@E.
!ttpMPP""".pravda.om.uaPartilesPDL@EPLDPD@PQL@RRHHP, DL@E%LH%D@.
@L. 3nformation about vitims durin. ollisions in t!e enter of 0iev at t!e time of
W.LL $# DHt! -ebruary DL@E.
!ttpMPP""".moz..ov.uaPuaPportalPpre]DL@ELDDH]b.!tml. DL@E%LH%D@.
@@. :ideo of :olodymyr ParasyukCs spee! on #aydan 'ezalez!nosti dd.
D@.LD.DL@E.
!ttpMPP""".youtube.omP"at!\featurefplayer]embeddedbvfWGRi.P#gAOo.
DL@E%LH%D@.
@D. :ideo of Dmytro Jaros!cs spee! on #aydan 'ezalez!nosti dd. D@.LD.DL@E.
!ttpsMPP""".youtube.omP"at!\vfU%e(rUEJy]Ehtf@RH. DL@E%LH%D@.
@H. :ideo of Dmytro Gnapcs spee! on #aydan 'ezalez!nosti dd. D@.LD.DL@E.
!ttpsMPP""".youtube.omP"at!\vf.AUAdmE<JuL. DL@E%LH%D@.
@E. :ideo of $rseniy Jatsenyukcs spee! durin. a briefin. after si.nin. T!e
$.reement on endin. t!e ountryTs politial risis dd. D@.LD.DL@E.
!ttpsMPP""".youtube.omP"at!\featurefplayer]embeddedbvfb(vya"oPfvE.
DL@E%LH%D@.
@R. :ideo of :italiy 0li!kocs spee! on #aydan 'ezalez!nosti dd. D@.LD.DL@E.
!ttpMPP""".youtube.omP"at!\featurefplayer]embeddedbvfWGRi.P#gAOo,
!ttpMPP""".youtube.omP"at!\vf4rebsmpWylO. DL@E%LH%D@.
@W. :ideo of Ole. Tya.nybokcs spee! on #aydan 'ezalez!nosti dd. D@.LD.DL@E.
DL@E%LH%D@.
@Q. :ideo of $rseniy Jatsenyukcs spee! on #aydan 'ezalez!nosti dd. D@.LD.DL@E.
DL@E%LH%D@.
@O. :ideo of Petro Poros!enkocs spee! on #aydan 'ezalez!nosti dd. D@.LD.DL@E.
DL@E%LH%D@.
@A. :ideo of :iktor Janukovi!cs intervie" to t!e ,ournalists in 0!arkov dd.
DD.LD.DL@E. !ttpMPP""".youtube.omP"at!\vfnOk%HWybuyi. DL@E%LH%D@.
DL. :iktor Janukovi!Ts statement for t!e 4ussian mass media dd. DQ.LD.DL@E.
!ttpMPPzn.uaPPO23T3&(Pyanukovi!%s!itaet%sebya%zakonnym%prezidentom%a%
res!eniya%rady%nele.itimnymi%polnyy%tekst%zayavleniya%@HAOA@].!tml. DL@E%LH%D@.
D@. Transript of :iktor Janukovi!cs t!e press onferene in 4ostov%na%Donu dd.
DQ.LD.DL@E. !ttpMPPkp.uaPdailyPDOLD@EPEE@ELOP. DL@E%LH%D@.

38

Anne2 13

T1e rea"(ty of &(gn(ng t1e Agree2ent a>o%t reg%"at(on of t1e 5r(&(& (n Ukra(ne
on 21 Fe>r%ary 201.
<a&(5 5on5e3t&
Rea"(ty of
Agree2ent
Rea"(ty of
!.;an%ko7(51
Rea"(ty of
o33o&(t(on
Rea"(ty of
3art(5(3ant& of t1e
3rote&t& J May'an
T!e protests onfrontation fi.!tin. Ia.ainst t!e
po"er, a.ainst t!e
re.imeK
revolution, stru..le
a.ainst t!e re.ime
T!e .oal of t!e
protests
oup dTetat build a ne" ountry,
a free ountry
defense of ri.!tsX
stru..le a.ainst t!e
re.ime, orruption
T!e partiipants
of t!e protests
armed peopleX
radialsX !a"ks
and militants of
maydanX
nationalist, pro%
fasist ro.ues
"eX brot!ers and
sisters, ea! of you
"eX
all peopleX !undreds of
t!ousands of people,
all over all ities in
Ukraine
T!e murders of
people durin. t!e
protests
tra.i ourrenes
of life losses in
UkraineX
bloods!ed
bloody senarioX
saturnalia of
e<tremism
blood "as s!edX are
dyin.X
laid do"n t!eir lives
To s!oot, to kill
T!e $.reement t!e re.ulation of
t!e risis
ultimatumX
t!e re.ulation of
t!e risis
small vitory stupid talksX
$.reement from ne"s,
"!ite"as!
T!e end of t!e
risis
stop of
bloods!ed, stop of
onfrontation
to fulfill t!e
onditions of t!is
$.reementX
everyt!in. ends in
a peaeful "ay
stop of bloods!ed resi.nation of
Janukovi!X prison,
tribunal
T!e Opposition it isnTt definedX try to
s!o" t!ey to.et!er
"it! protestersM F@W
members of our
or.anization died
!ereG
betrayersX
t!e leaders of t!e
opposition, but t!ey
are not t!e leaders of
people
:.Janukovi! a le.ally eleted
PresidentX le.al
Head of Ukrainian
(tate
avoid to defineX one
time % zek
zek
T!e po"er ditators, re.ime,
band
band, re.ime of
internal oupation

39

Leg(t(2a5y of Po/er an' Tr%&t (n Tran&for2(ng
Ukra(n(an So5(ety

Ol.a 0okorska b :alentin 0okorsky

Donetsk National Tec+nical University C Donetsk National University, Ukraine

A>&tra5t

T!is artile aims at ontributin. to t!e understandin. t!e onnetion bet"een trust
in politial leaders and institutions and le.itimay of po"er under onditions of
soietal transformation. /asin. on t!e soiolo.ial monitorin. data of t!e 3nstitute
of (oiolo.y of t!e 'ational $ademy of (iene I'$(K of Ukraine FUkrainian soiety
@AAD%DL@DG and European (oial (urvey DLLR%DL@@ t!e aut!ors !ave ome to
onlusion onernin. t!e neessity of reatin. a model "!i! "ould onsider t!e
speifi soial and politial features of post%(oviet ountries and all fators
influenin. t!e proess of le.itimay. T!e aut!ors !ave also onluded t!at t!e
level of onfidene in politial leaders and state%politial institutions is one of t!e
ruial indiators of le.itimay.

9ey /or'& legiti,acy, trust, transfor,ing society

Intro'%5t(on

2e.itimay of po"er "as one of t!e burnin. issues faed by Ukraine after t!e
delaration of its independene and its "ay to demorati reform. #ovin. from one
type of re.ime to anot!er ould destabilize soial life in situation "!en t!e old
institutions do not "ork and ne" institutions are "eak. +e define le.itimay as t!e
"idespread publi belief t!at t!e soietyTs .overnin. institutions and politial
aut!orities are "ort!y of support. David /eet!am ar.ues t!at V"!ere po"er is
aUuired and e<erised aordin. to ,ustifiable rules and "it! evidene of onsent,
"e all it ri.!tful or le.itimateV Z/eet!am @AA@MH[.
3n times of ommunism all t!e le.itimay talk laked produtivity, beause
people "ere not soverei.n. (ome aut!ors ar.ue t!at Fle.itimatin. from t!e topG
appeared in ommunist re.ime "!en rulers applied to an ideolo.y t!at ould
interpret reality and indeed .uide and reorder it in its o"n ima.e ZDi Palma @AA@M
RW[. $fter t!e ollapse of t!e (oviet Union t!e Ukrainian parliament delared
independene on DE $u.ust @AA@, over"!elmin.ly approved by t!e referendum and
reo.nized internationally. T!ese events reated fundamentals for le.itimay of a
ne" po"er. 3ndependent Ukraine needed to form ne" politial institutions,
introdue eonomi reforms and a ne" format of relations bet"een people in t!e
soiety. 3t is evident t!at in situation of profound transformation of soiety t!e
bi..est !an.e possible is a s!ift in t!e politial or soial order. T!is is not only a
t!reat to t!e le.itimay of po"er, but also to t!e stability of t!e ne" state. T!e state
does not need t!e le.itimay to funtion or even to survive, but it does need it "!en
faed "it! a serious politial failure or !allen.e.
T!is artile sets out to s!o" t!at t!e tra,etories of support for a ne" re.ime
and state%politial institutions, politial leaders !ave been varied. -or our analyses
"e !ave used data olleted from soiolo.ial monitorin. of t!e 3nstitute of
(oiolo.y of t!e '$( of Ukraine FUkrainian soiety @AAD%DL@DG jand Europeans
(oial (urvey DLLR%DL@@jj.
40

Leg(t(2a5y an' tr%&tA 0on5e3t%a" I&&%e&

(!olars !ave ontributed to t!e understandin. of t!e p!enomenon of
le.itimay by dra"in. on lassi studies su! as #a< +eber. (. #. 2ipset defines
le.itimay as t!e Fapaity of t!e system to en.ender and maintain t!e belief t!at
t!e e<istin. politial institutions are t!e most appropriate ones for t!e soietyG
Z2ipset @AO@[. Trust in t!e .overnment and in politiians is part of t!e onept of
le.itimay and politial le.itimay is a prereUuisite of demorati politis and
.overnin. apaity Z/eet!am, @AA@[.
T!e problem of trust beame t!e ob,et for study by "estern sientists as far
bak as at t!e be.innin. of t!e gg entury, but broad disussions broke out only at
t!e end of t!e QLT. 3n @AQA t!e book VTrust and Po"erV by '.2u!mannTs "as
publis!ed Z2u!mann @AQA[. T!ere !e analyzed trust as a soial p!enomenon of
.reat importane under t!e onditions of .ro"in. une<petedness and risk of
modern soiety. 3n t!e OLTs t!e problem of trust "as disussed by /ernard /arber
Z/arber @AOH[, (.R and 2.4onin.er ZEisenstadt , 4oni.er @AOE[ as "ell as by
D.Gambetta "!o !eaded t!e .roup of analysts for studyin. manifestations of trust
and distrust in different sp!eres of soiety ZGambetta @AOO[. 4.3n.le!art in !is
artile VT!e 4enaissane of Politial &ultureV Z3n.le!art @AOO[ omes to a onlusion
t!at interpersonal trust is an indispensable prereUuisite for stable demoray.
3n t!e ALTs t!e problem of trust .ets its furt!er t!eoretial substantiation in
publiations by /.#isztal Z#isztal @AAR[, $.(eli.man Z(eli.man @AAQ[, -.-ukuyama
Z-ukuyama @AAR[ and ot!ers. $n important ontribution to its understandin. "as
made by P.(ztompkaTs study VTrustM a soiolo.ial t!eoryV in "!i! !e tried to
ompre!ensively analyze and sort out trust as a soial p!enomenon and su..ested
a model e<plainin. t!e rise and fall of trust ulture Z(ztompka @AAA[.
$lt!ou.! t!ere are different definitions of trust in t!e literature, and
a.reement on an e<at definition is seldom found, most aut!ors seem to a.ree t!at
positive e<petations and t!e "illin.ness to beome too vulnerable are ritial
elements to define trust. 3n .eneral, t"o types of trust an be distin.uis!ed in t!e
literatureM interpersonal trust, "!i! refers to trust bet"een people, and
institutional trust, "!i! refers to trust in t!e funtionin. of institutional system.
+e apply to t!e institutional trust.

Tr%&t to/ar' 3o"(t(5(an& an' &tate)3o"(t(5a" (n&t(t%t(on&

3n ontrast to "estern politial siene Ukraine addressed t!e above
mentioned p!enomenon only at t!e end of t!e OLTs and be.innin. of t!e ALTsX sine
durin. t!e (oviet era t!e analysis of it did not !ave any sense due to "ell%kno"n
reasons. /ut even at present "e !ave to state t!e fat t!at trust study is still in its
initial sta.e. T!is fat may seem to be surprisin., sine t!e di!otomy Vtrust %
distrustV "it!out any e<a..eration !as beome one of t!e most freUuently used so
far in publiations on politial siene and soiolo.yX it !as been monitored on a
onstant basis sine @AA@. +it!in t!is, soiolo.ists stated t!e basi !arater of
t!is ate.ory for understandin. t!e proesses of modernization in urrent Ukraine.
#oreover, determined mass peopleCs distrust in po"er is as a Vmain politial t!reat
for future implementation of t!e strate.y for soiety transformationV ZGolovak!a
@AAQM OL%O@[.
Data from soiolo.ial monitorin. of t!e 3nstitute of (oiolo.y of t!e '$( of
Ukraine FUkrainian soiety @AAD%DL@DG "ill !elp us to analyze popular attitudes
to"ard politiians and state%politial institutions.
41

4e.rettably, t!e above mentioned dominant tendeny of distrust in po"er
and its leaders as "ell as po"er institutes "as not overome durin. t!e first deade
of independene. Durin. t!e presidential eletions, "!en 2.0u!ma "as eleted,
only DLS of t!e population of Ukraine a.reed t!at t!ere "ere politiians able to
.overn t!e state I@AAE % @O,RSX DLLL % DL, WSK, "!ile in t!e ne<t years t!e number
of optimists redued up to @L%@@,RS. T!e similar situation "as "it! politial parties
"!en appro<imately DPH of fello" ountrymen e<pressed t!eir absolute or relative
distrust in t!em in t!e presene of not more t!an H,RS of t!ose "!o s!o"ed at
least any trust at all. T!ou.! eletions some"!at inrease positive !opes for
e<istene of su! parties and movements "!i! ould be entrusted in po"er I@AAE %
@H,ASX DLLL % @W,QSK, yet rat!er a bi. s!are of population does not kno" about
t!em.
(u! situation reflets indiators of trust in all politial institutions. -or
e<ample, t!e number of t!ose "!o do not trust :er!ovna 4ada IUkrainian
parliamentK !as never been more t!an WLS Iout of Q% @LS of t!ose "!o e<pressed
t!eir trustK. Trust in .overnment is not !i.!er eit!erX in @AAE%DLLL t!e number of
respondents "!o s!o"ed full trust "as @,WS % H,WS. T!erefore, it an !ardly be
surprisin. t!at by June DLLL fe"er t!an HS of itizens !ad resorted eit!er
:er!ovna 4ada or t!e .overnment. (ine t!e years of independene did not add to
t!eir onfidene in t!e fat t!at po"er serves t!eir needs and interests and
t!erefore it an be trusted. T!e number of t!ose "!o t!ink t!at a deputy to
:er!ovna 4ada eleted from t!eir distrit is not able to e<press t!eir interests I@AAE
% @D,WSX @AAQ % E@,OSX t!e drop of t!e number in optimists from DD,AS to H,OS
respetivelyK s!o"s t!at t!ere is a lak of leaders in Ukraine able to .overn t!e state
I@AAQ %QH,RSK.
3f ompared "it! trust in parliament and .overnment, president en,oyed t!e
.reater de.ree of trust from population. Here, "e an trak an interestin. re.ularity
% t!e redution of distrust and inrease of trust in t!e ne<t year after eletions. 3t
looks like t!e tendeny "!en people .iven redit to President but !e lost it very
Uuikly.
Ultimately, t!e e<petation of soiety for deisive steps on t!e part of
politiians and president in partiular, an e<plain t!e steadily !i.! ? RO,QS in
DLLL perenta.e of t!ose "!o a.reed "it! t!e t!esis t!at a number of stron.
leaders an benefit t!e ountry more t!an all t!e la"s and disussions ombinedX
t!is t!esis is .enerally interpreted as a manifestation of soietyTs nostal.ia for a
Vstron. !andV. T!is onlusion at least makes it easier to understand an e<istin.
situation by referrin. to speifi !arater of its !istorial past, "!ile t!e above%
mentioned indiators rat!er s!o" t!e un"illin.ness of itizens of Ukraine to live
under onditions of Uuasi%demoray and Uuasi%market. $nd it is probably not
"ort! lookin. for t!e ori.in of aut!oritarian moods inside t!e soiety only.
#ore si.nifiantly, t!e delared transition to demoray is impossible "it!out
reatin. an adeUuate system of values and standards. T!e proess of reatin. t!is
system takes plae in different time and spae re.imes I"e !ave to admit t!at
values !an.e mu! slo"er t!an standardsK and is appre!ended differently by
different layers of soiety. Elite Ipolitial, eonomi and ot!ersK !ave a .reater
tendeny for bein. a standard omponent of t!is proess and bear responsibility for
its rene"al and initialization in t!e interests of an individual and soiety. /ut po"er
elite in Ukraine, losed on its o"n interests and standin. apart from soiety, is
buildin. normative basis for t!e ative life of t!is soiety rat!er unoordinated,
poorly and in an unUualified manner. T!is ativity leads to t!e lak of speifiity of
rules of aess to restrited publi resoures Isu! as po"er, property, presti.eK, or
su! rules an be missin. at allX or t!ey an be interpreted in favor of po"er or
t!ose !oldin. po"er. T!is situation "idens t!e .ap bet"een t!e po"er and people
and deepens opposition bet"een V"e % t!eyV. T!e .reatest onern in soiety is
42

aused by a steady derease of livin. standards and "ell%bein., s!arp polarization
and deep stratifiationX permanent opposition of po"er bran!es "it! s!iftin. off
responsibility from one to anot!er, alon. "it! onstant opposition amon. elite bot!
!orizontal and vertialX as "ell as non%strate.i soial and eonomi development
ations of po"er to.et!er "it! rat!er effetive measures of operational ontrol over
urrent situation, use of demorati proedures, and stron. peopleCs orientation to
!oosin. Vless evilV in partiular.
T!e bi..est t!reat is onsidered to be presented by t!e orruption of po"er
and related to it elite. T!is t!reat means substitution of nation%"ide poliy .oals by
lan interests, deformation of politial and eonomi elite formin. me!anisms,
redution of politial ompetition. $ordin. to Je.Golovak!a, t!e po"er !as
reated a speifi VUkrainian modelV of development usin. totalitarian e<periene of
.overnin. soiety under ne" onditions. T!e essene of t!e model is determined by
strivin. for Vd retainin. soial balane t!rou.! minimization of soial !an.es and
keepin. old strutures and me!anisms for soial .overnin. or preventin. from
mass soial redundany "!i! is an inevitable result of radial demolition of soial
priniplesV ZGolovak!a @AAQMDW[.
3t is evident t!at ne" politial elite does not ,ustify !opes pinned on it and
does not fulfill important soial roles and funtions su! asM bein. an advisory
.roup, model for soial be!avior, moral and psy!olo.ial mass .uide Z0okorska,
0okorsky DL@L[. T!ereby, t!e ne.ative assessment of eliteTs ativity is natural "!en
D@S of t!e polled feel !eated by it, @HS % feel unfriendly and RES % are indifferent
Z(!ul.a @AAAMHRD%HRH[. 'e.ative evaluation is a dominant reason for .ro"in.
distrust in t!e state !eaded by elite and its e<eutives and a.enies Iarmy, polie,
mana.ers of bi. state enterprisesK, as "ell as non%.overnmental or.anizations and
businesses "!i! mass a"areness assoiates "it! po"er.
(tudies made at t!e end of @AAH and at t!e be.innin. of @AAE in seven
ountries of &entral and Eastern Europe, /yelorussia and Ukraine s!o"ed t!at
indiators of trust in Ukrainian parliament, .overnment, president, ourt, polie,
army and parties "as even less t!an avera.e Z#is!ler, 4ose @AAR[. T!e above%
mentioned tendeny remained durin. furt!er years.
T!e nature of trust annot be different in su! situation "!ere only @Q,@S of
t!e polled "ere satisfied "it! t!eir life in DLLL, "!ilst t!e number of pessimists "as
WL,AS and D@,AS of t!e polled "ere not able to .ive an unambi.uous ans"er. Only
H,OS of respondents !oped for a substantial improvement of t!eir o"n "ell bein. in
June DLLL, "!ilst @D,AS predited its "orsenin.. Ho"ever, it is no "onder t!at
population onsider #afia and riminal elements t!e most influential soial .roup
in urrent state buildin..
/ut in our opinion, t!e above%mentioned fats do not testify t!at ma,ority of
people are "illin. to ome bak to t!e U((4. 3n soiolo.istsC opinion from DHS to
one t!ird of respondents !ave more or less distint politial orientation ZGolovak!a
@AAQM@LQ[. T!e prevalent ma,ority of t!em probably "ant neit!er t!e restoration of
(oviet reality and freedom of spee! in partiular, nor onsolidation of Ukrainian
pseudo demoray. $nd t!is deideolo.ization of Ukrainian itizens is Uuite natural.
3mmorality of speifi ations of e<eutives and po"er a.enies, disa.reement as to
t!e .oal and means of its a!ievement, obvious from t!eir statements and ations,
intensifies t!e dama.in. proesses of already limited ommuniative links, non%
aeptane of ideas and values su..ested by po"er and mass media. $ordin. to
'.0ostenko t!ere are all .rounds to assume t!at messa.es omin. from state
institutes are pereived in most ases as ambi.uous and t!eir Vdual nature is not a
seret for t!e t"o partiipants of ommuniationVZ0ostenko @AAA M@LR[.
Ultimately, t!e peopleCs refusal to understand t!e e<planations of po"er
onernin. t!e meanin. and diretion of reforms in a soiety looks very lo.ial
"!en ompared "it! t!e soial prie t!ey pay.
43

3n Ukraine support for t!e re.ime inreased as a onseUuene of t!e Oran.e
4evolution in DLLE. Politial e<petations about politial future beame more
positive and Ukrainians professed t!ey to be optimisti about t!e ountryCs movin.
to"ards demoray. $ordin. of t!e 'e" Europe /arometer surveys of mass
response to transformation in post ommunist ountries OA perent of itizens
polled said t!at t!ey felt positive about t!e future, inludin. a ma,ority of et!ni
4ussians as "ell as et!ni Ukrainians Z4ose DLLQM@DL[.
President :itor Jus!enko !ad a!ieved t!e !i.!est sore of R,W amon. all
politial leaders for !is ativity Isale @%@L, "!ere @L are ma<.K. Trust in all t!e
main politial institutions refleted t!e same tendenies ITable @K.

Ta>"e1. 3nde< of trust Isale from @ to R, "!ere @ is absolute distrust, R is absolute
trustK.
@AAE @AAO DLLL DLLR DLLW DLLO DL@L DL@D
President D,H D,@ D,Q H,E D,Q D,R D,A D,D
Parliament D,H D,@ D,@ D,A D,R D,H D,E D,L
Government D,H D,@ D,E H,@ D,R D,E D,W D,@
2oal .overnment % % % D,Q D,R D,R D,R D,E
Politial parties % D,L D,@ D,R D,E D,D D,D D,L
Polie D,H D,D D,H D,E D,E D,E D,H D,@
Publi proseutors % % % D,E D,E D,E D,H D,@
&ourt % % % D,E D,E D,E D,H D,@

Havin. failed to adopt t!e lessons from t!e previous period Ukrainian leaders
made no movements to"ards real demoray. 3mmorality of speifi ations of
e<eutives and po"er a.enies, disa.reement as to t!e .oal and means of its
a!ievement, obvious from t!eir statements and ations, !ave intensified proesses
of dissatisfation. President :itor Jus!enko "!o "as pinned t!e bi..est !ope on
by t!e soiety durin. t!e years of independene lost publi support very Uuikly. 3n
DLLW t!e evaluation of !is ativity "as H,O. $ tendeny of .ro"in. distrust "as t!e
result of defeated !opes for t!e DLLE Oran.e 4evolution.
+e aept #.Do.anCs approa! aordin. to "!i! t!e erosion of trust to
institutions in developed demoraies is stable, international, strutural and
rationalX t!ou.! pollin. data does not .ive any .round to alle.e t!at le.itimay of
demoray is doubted. Despite t!e fat t!at ma,ority of population does not s!o"
trust to politial institutions, on avera.e si< out of ten respondents e<pressed t!eir
satisfation "it! t!e fat t!at demoray funtions in t!eir ountries ZDo.an @AAA M
EE[. 3t means t!at in t!e risis of trust "e s!ould rat!er see t!e olletive lon.in.
for .reater demoray t!an t!e loss of belief into its basi value. T!e erosion of trust
is above all t!e si.n of politial maturity of soiety. #oreover, aordin. to
2.Diamond demoray does not demand a !i.! de.ree of trust to politial leaders
and institutions for t!em to funtion effetivelyM VT!e ideal demorati ulture is
neit!er blindly trustin. nor !ostilely re,etin., but is inUuisitive and skeptial. +!at
a !ealt!y demoray must avoid is yniism, a s"eepin. distrust of politial and
soial institutionsV ZDiamond @AAAMDLW[.
3n fat, demoray an be interpreted as a politial system "!i!
institutionalizes distrust by establis!in. a sop!istiated system of !eks and
balanes, but for a transformin. soiety profound level of distrust an be
interpreted as a potentially dan.erous tendeny t!at mi.!t blok t!e "ay of
pro.ressive reforms and lead to t!e deline of state in .eneral.
3n t!e ne" EU member state eonomi and politial reforms !ave been faster
and more effetive. Europeans (oial (urvey DLLR%DL@@ provides t!e data "e need
to investi.ate popular support for ne" politial system and ompare it "it! Poland.
44

T!e position of Poland in eonomi sp!ere "as very similar to UkraineCs at t!e
be.innin. of @AALs. People "ere asked to evaluate t!eir urrent re.ime.

Ta>"e 2. 3nde< of satisfation "it! t!e "ay demoray "orks Isale from L to @L,
"!ere L is e<tremely dissatisfied, @L is e<tremely satisfiedK.
&ountry DLLR DLLQ DLLA DL@@
Poland H,QL E,HW E,O@ R,LE
Ukraine E,H@ H,DD D,RD H,@Q
iuestionM $nd on t!e "!ole, !o" satisfied are you "it! t!e "ay demoray "orks in
ountry\

T!e adeUuate indiators in Poland are mu! better and demonstrate
tra,etory of support for demorati system of .overnment. $s a result, t!e
differene bet"een t!e de.ree of trust in po"er strutures and ot!er state institutes
"as very distintive amon. Poles and Ukrainians.

Ta>"eD. 3nde< of trust Isale from L to @L, "!ere L is no trust at all, distrust, @L is
omplete trustK.
&ountry parliament le.al
system
polie politiians politial
parties
Poland H,EE E,DW R,HA D,WW D,RR
Ukraine @,AA D,DW D,RL @,OR @,AA
iuestionM Please tell me on a sore of L%@L !o" mu! you personally trust ea! of
t!e institutions 3 read out. L means you do not trust an institution at all, and @L
means you !ave omplete trust.

3t s!ould say t!at Ukraine !as t!e "orst sore in t!e re.ion as a "!ole.
Ho"ever, it is no "onder t!at in DL@D only DLS of t!e population of Ukraine a.reed
t!at t!ere "ere politiians able to .overn t!e state and onsidered #afia and
riminal elements t!e most influential soial .roup IHO,WSK.
(tudies made in DL@D s!o"ed t!at indiators of trust in Ukrainian
parliament, .overnment, president, ourt, polie, army and parties "as even less
t!an in DL@L "!en :iktor Janukovy! "as eleted as t!e President.
Pessimisti motives stren.t!ened due to dissatisfation "it! e<istin.
situation and .ave rise to a sad tradition of unertainty in t!e near future amon.
t!e ma,ority of population. $s a result of t!is situation, protesters aross t!e
ountry beame upset over orruption in Ukraine, t!e lak of demorati ri.!ts and
t!e ountryTs ailin. eonomy. -or t!e last t!ree mont!s, tens of t!ousands of
Ukrainians !ave been sin.in. t!e Ukrainian national ant!em on 0ievTs entral
sUuare, t!e #aidan, united in t!eir dreams of !an.e.
'e" politial situation "it! a ne" .overnment Uuestioned t!e soiety and
politial elite if t!ey are able to learn from mistakes made after Oran.e 4evolution.
3n our opinion, t!e first step for le.itimay of po"er is trust:ort+iness of
govern,ent) People usually use normative, value%driven riteria "!en formin.
evaluative attitudes to"ards institutions. T!ose normative riteria onern t!e
.oodness of institutional funtionin. from t!e perspetive of some kind of .eneral
interest, or ommon .ood. $lso, administrative ompetene is t!e ondition of
itizen trust in state institutions, as "ell as in t!e ta< aut!ority, polie or t!e
ourts.
To sum it up, "e are Uuotin. 4.4oseM FPopular aeptane of a re.ime is a
refletion of t!e demonstrated apaity of its institutions to persist ? "!et!er t!ey
are demorati or not FZ4ose DLLQM@DL[.

45

0on5"%&(on

Due to its s!arp polarization, "ide spread of orruption, separation of
population from po"er and its lo" involvement in politis as a result of elite and
po"er a.eniesT ativity, Ukraine !as reated t!e state of distrust. (!olars !ave
determined mass distrust of people in po"er as a main politial t!reat for future
implementation of t!e strate.y for soiety transformation.
T!e dominant tendeny of distrust in po"er and its leaders as "ell as state
and politial institutions "as not overome durin. t!e first deade of independene.
(upport for t!e re.ime inreased as a onseUuene of t!e Oran.e 4evolution in
DLLE. Politial e<petation about politial future beame more positive and
Ukrainians professed t!emselves to be optimisti about t!e ountryCs movin.
to"ards demoray. /ut !avin. failed to adopt t!e lessons from t!e previous period,
Ukrainian leaders made no movements to"ards real demoray. Data from
Europeans (oial (urvey DLLR%DL@@ s!o"s lo" sores of trust to"ard state and
politial institutions in t!e re.ion as a "!ole. $s a result of deep risis of le.itimay,
Ukrainians ame to #aidan and !an.ed t!e politial situation. #ost of t!em
demand reforms aordin. demorati standards and values.
T!e Oran.e 4evolution and events on #aidan !ave emp!asized t!at value%
based le.itimay is still important for transformin. Ukrainian soiety, and level of
onfidene in politial leaders and institutions is one of ruial indiators of
le.itimay.

NOTES

K +e !ave used data from t!e bookM 4esults of t!e national monitorin. surveys of
@AAD%DL@D, in :orona, :., (!ul.a, #., Ied.K IDL@DK Ukrainian soiety @AAD%DL@D.
&urrent state and dynamis of !an.es. (oiolo.ial monitorin., 3nstitute of
soiolo.y of t!e '$( of Ukraine, 0yivM $ppendi< pp.RDQ%WEQX I/ook "as publis!ed
in Ukrainian lan.ua.eM 4ezultaty nationalny! t!ori!ny! monitoryn.ovy!
opytuvan @AAD ? DL@D rokiv, in :orona, :., (!ul.a, #., Ied.K IDL@DK Ukrainske
suspilstvo @AAD ? DL@D. (tan ta dynamika zmin. (o!iolo.i!ny monitorin.,
3nstytut so!iolo.iyi '$' Ukraini, 0yiv RDQ%WEQ
KK T!e European (oial (urvey PP !ttpMPP""".europeansoialsurvey.or.
T!e European (oial (urvey IE((K is an aademially driven ross%national survey
t!at !as been onduted every t"o years aross Europe sine DLL@. T!e survey
measures t!e attitudes, beliefs and be!aviour patterns of diverse populations in
more t!an t!irty nations.

<I<LIO$RAPH;

@. /arber, /., I@AOHK T!e 2o.i and 2imits of Trust, 4ut.ers University Press, 'e"
/runs"ik I'.J.K
D. /eet!am, D., I@AA@K T+e legiti,ation of po:er, Pal.rave, Houndmills.
H. Diamond, 2., I@AAAK Developin. Demoray. To"ard &onsolidation, Jo!ns Hopkins
University Press, /altimore
E. Di Palma, G., I@AA@K 2e.itimation from t!e Top to &ivil (oietyM Politio%&ultural
&!an.e in Eastern Europe, in +orld Politis, :ol. EE, no. @M EA%OL.
R. Do.an, #., I@AAAK Eroziya doveriya v razvity! demokratiya!, in #irovaya
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University Press, &ambrid.e I U.0.K
46

Q. -ukuyama, -., I@AARK TrustM T!e (oial :irtues and &reation of Prosperity, -ree
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&ambrid.e IU.0.K

47

T1e Ro"e of Mora" Defa%"t (n
Po"(t(5a" Nat(on For2(ng Pro5e&&
(n Ukra(ne Len' of 201D B >eg(nn(ng of 201 year&M

:ira Jaros!enko

Petro Mo+yla #lack $ea $tate University in Mykolaiv, Ukraine

A>&tra5t

T+e article deals :it+ political and et+ical aspects of revolutionary events of t+e years
%&'4?%&'( in Ukraine fro, t+e perspective of defining t+e role of ,oral default in
political nation for,ing process started in t+e country) T+e aut+or puts t+e ,ain
e,p+asis at t+e necessity and urgency of saving t+e ,oral social capital of
3evolution, :+ic+ is going to beco,e t+e source of t+e future ,oral DrecoveringE of
society, +u,an rig+ts protection and de,ocratic develop,ent)

9ey /or'& ,oral default, protest ,ove,ent, trust credibility, ,oral DrecoveringE of
t+e society, Dtitus+kiE, DbanderivtsiE, +istori7ation, political nation)

Resear*" of t!e politial and et!ial aspets of t!e events of DL@H%DL@E
years, usin. a<iolo.ial and !istorial met!ods is one of t!e options to define t!e
role of moral default as a atalyst for t!e formation of a politial nation in Ukraine.
)oral efa$lt4 "!i! appeared and took plae in DL@H in Ukraine, struk
"it! its une<peted dept! and unpreditable onseUuenes. 3n a s!ort period of
time t!e pa.e of ne"est Ukrainian !istory turned into real sene, "!ere almost
ea! Ukrainian itizen beame, in a partiular role, a sub,et of politial and
!istorial proess.
T"e *a$se of t!e protest ations of Ukrainian itizens, supporters of t!e
European diretion in Ukrainian forei.n poliy in 'ovember DL@H, "as
.overnmental suspension of t!e si.nin. EU%Ukraine $ssoiation $.reement. T!e
slo.ans of demonstrators of Euromaidan in 0iev refleted demands and "as t!e
reminder, from t!e itizens to t!e po"er, onernin. its obli.ations to si.n t!e
$.reement, "!i! "as a lo.ial step in t!e ontinuation of t!e previous deisions
to"ards t!e European e<ternal !oie of Ukraine. $nd only after t!e brutal violation
of t!e ri.!ts of ivil protesters, inadeUuate .overnmental response to peaeful
ations of itizens, beatin. of students at t!e #aidan on t!e ni.!t of 'ovember DD,
DL@H t!ere ourred a so*ial e2plosion4 t!at spread all over Ukraine and aUuired
revolutionary politial ontent aimed at t!e removal of urrent Ukrainian
.overnment led by President :. Janukovy!.
T"e reason of t!is soial e<plosion beame t!e la*k of tr$st an
*rei(ilit% to ompromised aut!orities or t!e +oral efa$lt. &onversion of
Ukrainian itizens t!eir ri.!ts and trust to ontrol t!e distribution of state
resoures and to determine t!e future national development to t!eir politial
leaders, "!o did not fulfill t!e obli.ations to t!e voters, and did not at aordin. to
t!e publi interest, is assoiated "it! t!e term FdefaultG, "!i! is synonymous to
t!e term VbankruptyV. (ine by redit in t!is sense stands a<iolo.ial ate.ory
FtrustG, "!i! is politiianCs moral value !arateristi, t!e term Fmoral defaultG
aordin. to t!e aut!or is a ,ustified terminolo.ial struture t!at !araterizes
irresponsible, FbankruptG .overnment. #oreover, !u.e part of t!e itizens realize
t!e dan.er of spreadin. immoral relations in t!e soiety, "!en in,ustie,
48

dis!onesty, yniism, !uman ri.!ts violations, bribery, and orruption beome
ommon and normal. T!atCs "!y a lot of people, "!o believe in moral values,
onsiousness, ,ustie and trust, !oped and ounted on t!e enterin. t!e European
Union as a onentrated European system of ommon moral values. People
pereived t!is e<ternal poliy as a kind of mediine from t!e VbankruptyV of moral
life, as an instrument t!at, from t!eir point of vie", "as able to save our soiety.
Trea*"ero$s position of itizens, supporters of $ntymaidan, "!o !ave not
passed t!e e<am for morality, for "!om dis!onesty, brea! of la"s, orruption,
unfair po"er !as beome t!e norm and tradition of daily life, en!aned t!e dept! of
moral default. Preferably, t!ese fello" itizens livin. in t!e (out!eastern re.ions
mostly mi.rated from 4ussia durin. t!e latest years and t!e years of Ukrainian
independene in partiular. T!ey !ave mar.inal ulture, preserved by (oviet
stereotypes and ompensatory after e<posure of t!e totalitarian re.ime illusion of
prosperity. $nne<ation of t!e &rimea by t!e 4ussian -ederation "as made possible
by t!e trea!erous position of su! Ukrainian itizens. $nne<ation beame ynial
and arro.ant to"ards Ukraine as "ell as to"ards t!e international ommunity. T!e
oupation of Ukrainian territory by 4ussian troops undermined t!e redibility of
t!e brot!erly nei.!borin. (lavi people, "!i! "as a manifestation of moral default.
(ine t!en disrupted system of international seurity at t!e international level
be.an to lose onfidene in t!e .uarantees of international seurity. T!is an be
onsidered as anot!er +anifestation of t"e +oral efa$lt. T!e loal
.overnmental ounils durin. t!eir re.ional sessions provided evaluations of t!e
protest movements and separatism. Overall, t!e results "ere sub,eted on support
or non%support of #aidan. (ome politial fi.ures as a former President of Ukraine
:. Janukovy!, for e<ample, !ad fled to 4ussia, ontinuin. t!e ritiism in t!e
media about all t!e !an.es takin. plae in Ukrainian soiety after t!e vitory of
t!e revolution, tryin. to do"nplay its enormous moral apital. Unfortunately,
si.nifiant number of patrioti Ukrainian people onsiously or unonsiously,
atively or passively promoted destabilization and t!e spread t!e radial separatist
spirits in soiety. Ea! mistake, made by t!e ne" .overnment and #aidan ativists
!ad serious destrutive onseUuenes.
-or e<ample, deision made by :erk!ovna 4ada onernin. lan.ua.e issues
aused primarily ne.ative reation amon. 4ussian speakin. Ukrainian itizens,
"!i! "as used by 4ussian a..ressors for t!e so alled FprotetionG of t!ese people.
T!is Freepin. oupationG beame possible "it! support of non%patrioti itizens in
different re.ions of Ukraine Imainly in &rimea and Eastern UkraineK.
E-al$ation of protest ations, understandin. t!e essene of soial e<plosion
and foreastin. of upomin. events by Ukrainians and members of international
ommunity "as Uuite ontroversial and emotional. 3t is lear t!at t!e ob,etive
analysis of t!e epienter of events is ompliated by some sub,etive impressions
and dynamism of t!e situation in .eneral. 3t s!ould be also noted t!at t!e usa.e of
manipulation te!nolo.ies in t!e media in favor of various interested .roups and
t!e atual information "ar in t!e media !ad a !u.e influene on t!e sub,etive
evaluation of t!ose events. #aidan ativists, protesters, patriots, !eroes t!rou.!
media !andlers Imostly 4ussian T: !annels and pro%.overnmental offiials and
deputiesK "ere delared as VbanderivtsiV, VfasistsV, VriminalsV, Ve<tremistsV,
VterroristsV. $ntymaidan supporters, seurity fores, and t!e minority of Ukrainian
itizens supported orrupted aut!orities, beause t!ey used to solve all t!eir
problems "it!out puttin. any effort into produtive "ork, Uuality eduation, and
t!e la". F$ntymaidanivtsiG tried to or.anize similar meetin.s to demonstrate t!eir
ommitment to :. Janukovy! and to onvine t!e #aidan ativists. 2ater t!ey
beame leaders IVTro,an !orsesVK in PutinTs a..ressive plan of t!e oupation of
Ukraine by 4ussian troops
49

T"e ai+ of t!e protests "as verbally onentrated on prolaimed slo.ans
and posters, for e<ampleM F(!ameNG, F+e Got Tired of 3tNG, FGan. OutNG, F&riminals
OutNG, F-or European UnionNG, F-or +elfare 2ifeNG, FGlory to UkraineNG. T!e main
aims "ere institutionalized by t!e $tion Pro.ram, "!i! "as adopted by #aidan
ativists and presupposedM dismissal of #. $zarovCs .overnment, .ettin. bak to t!e
&onstitution of DLLE I"!i! establis!ed parliamentary%presidential republiK,
releasin. of politial prisoners, "it!dra"al of FDra.on la"sG, allin. t!e ne"
presidential eletions in DL@E and si.nin. t!e EU%Ukraine $ssoiation $.reement.
T"e ri-in1 for*e of t!e protest movement "as in an inredibly !i.! and
po"erful life potential of #aidan partiipants, "!i! "as direted on moral
Freoverin.G of t!e Ukrainian soiety, returnin. t!e failed trust redibility Imoral
defaultK in different e<pressions. T!ey tried to build trust and ,ustie bet"een ea!
ot!er and .ave t!e trust redibility to t!e ne" politial leaders, to t!e national and
international la"s. People from t!e #aidan didnCt .ive up durin. a very old
"eat!er, despite of usin. "ater annons, sniper bullets and ot!er "eapons by state
aut!orities. #oreover, t!e Uuantity of riot polie F/erkutG representatives and
Ftitus!ekG Idressed riminalsK "as mu! lar.er t!an t!e avera.e number of people
on #aidan. 3n ontrast, usin. of t!e military fore a.ainst peaeful protesters !as
led to a dramati inrease in t!eir Uuantity. $fter t!at t!eir number !as .ro"n to
!undreds of t!ousands of protesters and t!e protests spread t!rou.!out Ukraine.
T!e vitims of t!e "rat! of protesters "ere monuments to 2enin I"!o personified
t!e totalitarian (oviet re.imeK in all ities of Ukraine. :an.uard of t!e revolutionary
stru..le inluded mostly youn. people, "!ose level of patriotism and national
onsiousness durin. t!e revolutionary stru..le !ad inreased si.nifiantly.
$vera.e support of #aidan "as WL S I+estern 4e.ions ? AL S, (out!%East ? HL SK
of Ukrainian itizens.
T!e main peuliarity of t!e protest movement "as t!e institutionalization of
diret IstreetK demoray. T!e main enter of t!e protests "as #aidan in 0iev,
"!ere t!e representatives of different re.ions of Ukraine arran.ed enampment. /y
means of self%or.anization t!ey reated a strit and disiplined system of ivil
or.anization. $s "ell as in peaeful periods of time durin. t!e periods of assaults on
seurity fores T!e &ounil of t!e #aidan "as funtionin. t!ere as "ell as t!e
system of te!nial support of ommuniation, platform for protesters Iand also for
t!e .uests, artists, et.K performanes, system of publi order, self%defense a.ainst
attak seurity fores, points of !eatin. and food preparin., medial are, le.al
assistane, open university. People of all a.es, mostly middle%a.ed and youn.
people "ere amon. partiipants. T!ere "ere primarily "orkers and people "it!
!i.!er and seondary eduation. T!ey mana.ed to take vaation from t!eir re.ular
,ob and replae ea! ot!er on duty, to provide volunteer "ork in almost all possible
areas of #aidan funtionin.. People, "!o supported t!e protesters in all re.ions
and ities, .at!ered and sent t!em "arm lot!es, mediines, food, money and took
to t!e loal streets "it! posters and politial slo.ans, demonstratin. t!eir solidarity
and support. 2eaders of t!e opposition parties ooperated "it! #aidan, but
definitely did not lead it. #embers of Parliament from t!e opposition parties %
V/atkivs!!ina,V VUdarV V(vobodaV and individual deputies spoke to #aidan
ativists, reported on t!e "ork of Parliament, ooperated "it! ativists onernin.
various issues of #aidan funtionin., oordinated preparation of politial deisions
pre%approved by T!e &ounil of #aidan for onsideration in t!e Parliament.
T"e res$lt of t!e revolutionary sta.e of t!e period of 'ovember DD, DL@H and
before #ar! D@, DL@E "as t!e vitory of t!e Ukrainian itizens a.ainst t!e morally
bankrupt .overnment and aumulation of !u.e moral apital of t!e revolution. $t
t!e same time t"e (i11est res$lt /as t"e for+ation of Ukrainian politi*al
nation.
50

3t s!ould be mentioned t!at dismissal of #. $zarovCs .overnment,
:. Janukovi!Cs "it!dra"al from t!e presidential duties, returnin. to t!e
&onstitution of DLLE, "!i! establis!ed parliamentary%presidential republi,
releasin. of politial prisoners Ifor e<ample famous J. Timos!enkoK, anellation of
FDra.on la"sG, formin. temporal peopleCs .overnment, appointment and
preparation for presidential eletions in #ay DL@E, si.nin. t!e politial volume of
EU%Ukraine $ssoiation $.reement is a rat!er lon. list of t!e results of Ukrainian
itizensC four mont!s stru..le for t!eir ri.!ts to lead a safe and prosperous life in
t!e independent and soverei.n ountry.
Unfortunately, too !i.! soial prie "as paid "it! t!e lives of about @LL dead
IF'ebesna (otnyaGK. T!atCs "!y t!ere are very !i.! soial e<petations and ritial
evaluation to t!e ne"ly appointed Ukrainian .overnment. T!is onversion of moral
and et!ial soial apital of t!e 4evolution into .radual moral improvement and
Freoverin.G of soiety, restoration of onfidene to"ards ea! ot!er, to t!e ne"
.overnment, to t!e state and t!e la"s, t!e emer.ene of self%or.anization,
solidarity, t!e ommon definition of priniples and rules, re.ulations for t!e
separation of po"ers, national resoures, responsible attitude of politial leaders to
t!e eletions and transparent and publi monitorin. of t!eir aut!ority s!ould be
t!e onsolidation of t!e results obtained.
T"e le1iti+a*% .ained by t!e people of Ukraine in late DL@H and early DL@E
years and vitory over t!e orrupted and morally bankrupt aut!ority "as possible
beause of t!e ative role of t!e deputies from t!e opposition parties of t!e
:erk!ovna 4ada of Ukraine. $t t!e same time, "!en t!e ne" parliament "as
formed, some deputies from t!e Party of 4e.ions left it and ,oined t!e ot!er politial
unions. $ll t!is !elped to introdue and support by votin. t!e demorati reforms,
determined to t!e peaeful development. (ome deputies, "!o pereived vitory of
t!e 4evolution in a bad "ay Inearly @LL people of total ERL members!ip of t!e
:erk!ovna 4ada of UkraineK left t!e ountry. &ommunisti fration e<ept for its
leader P. (imonenko still partiipate in t!e "ork of :erk!ovna 4ada, but do not
vote on t!e most key issues.
T!e former President of Ukraine :. Janukovy!, "!o !as left t!e territory of
Ukraine "as "it!dra"n from t!e duties of t!e President, t!rou.! t!e media s!o"s
!is disa.reement "it! t!e deisions of t!e (upreme &ounil and refusal to
reo.nize t!em as le.itimate. His appeal to t!e 4ussian President :. Putin "it! a
reUuest to protet t!e 4ussian%speakin. population of Ukraine from VbanderivtsiV
"as t!e prete<t for t!e &rimea oupation and implementation of PutinCs
administration t!eir a..ressive plans. :. Janukovy!, "!o "as delared "anted by
t!e results of t!e alle.ations made by !im in relation to t!e massare of peaeful
demonstrators, no more !as t!e influene on urrent events in Ukraine. -urt!er so%
alled referendum in &rimea on #ar! @W, DL@E and t!e anne<ation of &rimea to
4ussia !as s!o"n omplete disre.ard of national and international la"s and "as
anot!er manifestation of t!e moral default. 3t s!ould be also mentioned t!at
international arbitration institutions play t!e important role in determinin. t!e
le.itimay of urrent politial !an.es in Ukraine. T!e reo.nition of international
or.anizations % t!e U', P$&E, O(&E and :enie &ommission and state offiials of
ot!er ountries of t!e le.itimay of aepted politial deisions of urrent Ukrainian
aut!orities onfirmed t!e pattern of demorati development of Ukrainian soiety.
+e !i.!li.!t t!e fat t!at t!e territorial inte.rity of Ukraine beame t!e symboli
indiator of t!e maturity of t!e politial nation, of t!e true meanin. of national
values and made people reonsider t!e relations bet"een ea! ot!er and politiians
by definin. V"!o is "!oV.
/y t!e ontent and nature of t!e politial events of late DL@H % early DL@E it
an be rou.!ly defined as t!e re-ol$tionar% national li(eration.
51

-irst of all, t!ese proesses "ere re-ol$tionar% beause t!ere "as a !an.e
of riminal lan politial po"er "it! pseudo P neo%totalitarian politial re.ime to t!e
national patrioti politial po"er and demorati politial re.ime. Essential element
to t!e onsolidation of Ukrainian vitory of t!is time, unlike durin. t!e previous
e<periene, s!ould be too !i.! soial prie of t!is vitory and itizensT a"areness of
t!eir o"n role in onsolidatin. .ains t!rou.! self%or.anization, t!e funtionin. of
real demorati institutions, or.anization of aut!ority and ontrol over t!e ativities
of t!e ne" .overnment. 3t is important to reall t!at t!e Oran.e 4evolution of DLLE
did not !ave a revolutionary !arater "it!in t!e meanin. of t!e future evolution of
soial system. #embers of t!e Oran.e #aidan, !avin. reeived a temporary vitory,
furt!er provided a politial leader :. Jus!!enko "it! a .reat trust in demorati
!an.e. T!is led to t!e atual return of t!e same model of politial po"er and of t!e
same rent%seekin. oli.ar!i politial elite in t!e person of :. Janukovy!. 3n fat,
onvertin. onUuered Ukrainian vitory in t!e redibility of politial leader, "!o !ad
not proved !is loyalty to voters, is also a manifestation of moral default.
(eondly, t!ese proesses "ere t!e nation ($ilin1 beause t!ere "as a
rapid formation of Ukrainian politial nation in t!e fi.!t for t!eir onstitutional
ri.!ts and freedoms as "ell as territorial inte.rity. Outside t!reat to t!e territorial
inte.rity of Ukraine from t!e 4ussian .overnment "as a po"erful fator in
onsolidatin. solidarity and unity of t!e Ukrainian nation.
T!e ori.inal dream of Ukrainians to !ave t!eir o"n state, to be rulers of t!eir
o"n land "as tested by periodi loss and reovery due to t!e liberation stru..le of
t!e independent state as t!e ondition for "elfare and deent life of t!e nation.
(tate is a fore t!at .at!ers people to.et!er. (tate is an institutionally implemented
ondition of people livin. to.et!er based on ommon la", morality and traditions.
:ery important is t!e reUuirement of politial ,ustie Iinternal national distribution
of po"erK, "!i! is t!e prereUuisite for soial pro.ress and follo"s t!e most
demorati politial re.ime. $nd t!e most important role in developin. .uidelines,
rules, proedures and rituals of separation of po"ers is preisely taken by t"e
politi*al nation.
$s a !istorial p!enomenon nation is a soio%ultural, eonomi, politial
and ommuniative unity of t!e people, providin. t!em ivilized life "it!in t!e
.lobal ommunity. 'ation reates a viable soiety and t!e state, .uaranteein. its
seurity and vital interests. 3n modern "orld t!e nation serves as a arrier of t!e
main ob,etive Inational ideaK of soiety development in .eneral. $ nation does not
beome a .eopolitial reality, sub,et and ob,et of international relations and la"
as lon. as it does not form a nation%state as t!e le.itimay of its ri.!t to self%
determination and t!e or.anization of soiety.
To eter+ine t"e role of +oral efa$lt as a *atal%st for t"e politi*al
nation for+ation in Ukraine durin. t!e revolutionary events of DL@H%DL@E, it is
advisable to analyze some !istorial sta.es of Ukrainian politial nation
development.
4ememberin. trut!ful pa.es of t!e past is one of t!e onditions of politial
nation formation and t!e e<ample of soial syner.y Iommon statement e<amples of
interation bet"een .overnment and soietyK. 3t is also a ritial step of t!e past
Vproessin.V t!at is V!istorizationG of t!e past as a tool to modernize present.
T!e term F!istorizationG omes from t!e -ren! sientist P. /ourdieu and
means Fto !istorizeG as to put in !istorial perspetive. 3n fat, t!is is reUuirement
to apply ritial met!od for t!e a"areness and understandin. of t!e past. 3t is
about t!e importane of t!e establis!ment of !istorial memory in Ukraine,
delassifiation of t!e ar!ival materials of @AHD%@AHH Holodomor and t!e role of
a"areness of !istorial fats by Ukrainian itizens. -or e<ample, t!e interpretation
of t!e fored olletivization to !ide t!e politial repressions or t!e usa.e of
/andera IVbanderivtsiVK ima.e to ,ustify separatism and destabilize soiety.
52

$mon. Ukrainian and forei.n sientists, "!o analyze t!e role of memory in
t!e life on t!e soiety "e an mentionM P. /ourdieu, #. Edelman, H. +elzer,
(. 2urie, P. 4ilur, H. 0eni.!, #. Heide..er, (. -reud, 4. (!neider, 0. 'aumann,
P. 'ord, T. $dorno, $. Etkind, #. -erretti, (. $verintsev, G. Dili.entskiy, E. -romm,
J. 2evada, 2. Gudkov, (. 4omanenko, /. Dubin, (. Glebova ZGlebova DLLW[.
-or e<ample, /. Dubin puts t!e main emp!asis at t!e fat t!atM
Fdineradiable past t!at demands Flearin.%offG "ill impose itself to t!e present.
Probably t!atCs "!y pereptions of t!e past an si.n !ere t!e struture of some
medial symptom. History inludes mostly "!at !appened as a fat, but "!at
"asnCt solved as a problem and t!atCs "!y it ontinuously repeatsG ZDubin DLLE[.
T"e s$**ess of politial nation formin. in modern Ukraine depends on t!e
itizens!ip of t!e individual, t!e individualization of ivil soiety, manifested in
or.anizational and ideolo.ial models of #aidan. Demorati itizens!ip % is t!e
"illin.ness and ability of a person to perform ative itizen partiipation in publi
affairs and t!e state based on a t!orou.! understandin. of ri.!ts and
responsibilities, inludin. t!e ritial ret!inkin. of t!e nationTs past and t!e
responsibility for it to ourselves and to ot!ers ZH[.
3t s!ould be noted t!at t!e *riterion of *iti5ens"ip of t"e ini-i$al as
part of a politi*al nation onsideredM t!e ratio of personal values "it! ommon
ivi values of soiety, "!i! manifests itself in t!e assertion of t!eir "ords and
deeds in t!eir o"n "ay of life, !uman ri.!tsX effetive attitude to"ards ivi values
"!en implementin. t!em in pratie in diffiult timesX respetful attitude to t!e
study of !istory, traditions and lan.ua.e of t!e stateX interest in t!e soial,
politial, eonomi and ultural life, t!e desire to "ork for t!e ountry and inside
its bordersX t!e de.ree of personal and meanin.ful aims "it! ivil purposesX t!e
de.ree of ivi responsibility, identifyin. ourselves "it! t!e ot!er itizens of t!e
ountryX !arateristis of beliefs about t!emselves and about t!eir ountry.
$ordin. to t!e de.ree of manifestation defined riteria in ea! personality,
t!e level of ivi self%definin. an be !i.!, medium and lo". $lso in aordane of
!o" t!e ri.!ts and freedoms of t!e individual are proteted by t!e state, t!e ratio of
t!e individual interests and t!e interests of t!e state, t!ere are different models of
ivi identityM destrutive Ifrom (oviet totalitarian re.ime, "!en t!e person served to
t!e stateK, transition It!e period of Ukrainian independene and prolaimed
demoratization from @AA@ to DLLE yearsK and t!e rational model It!e period of
independene from DLLE to t!e present, t!e period of soial apital formation as
"ell as developin. of ivil soiety and politial nationK.
Peda.o.ial and et!nolo.ial aspets of itizens!ip "ere e<plored by
P. 3.natenko, :. Popluz!nyy, '. 0osarev, 2. 0rytska, psy!olo.ial and peda.o.ial
"ere resear!ed by #. /orys!evskyy, O. (uk!omlinsky, 3. Tysya!nik, 0. &!orna,
and politial and psy!olo.ial ? #. 3vanov and ot!ers. /ut t!e understandin. of
t!e itizens!ip formation, t!e analysis of t!e politial nation reation in t!e Vritial
memory "orkV reess in t!e ontent of "!at "as !appenin. to t!e soiety in t!e
past, inludin. t!e rationalization of t!e !istorial e<periene of olletivization
period @AHD%@AHH, ativities of (. /andera, "!i! "asnCt studied properly beause
of lassifyin. ar!ival materials or retiene.
T"e past (e*o+es a pla*e of so*iet% self6esi1nin1 an t"e fo*$s of t"e
past $pates t"e f$t$re. 4eently, t!e aut!or of t!e paper started "orkin. on t!e
study of delassifiation of ar!ival materials, involvin. students of t!e politial
sienes faulty to t!e analysis of t!ese materials. #oreover, aut!orTs series of
spee!es in #ykolayiv Oblast live radio broadast alled VPatrioti Pa.eG made it
possible toM @K reo.nize t!e importane of resear!in. t!e po"er of fats as an
ima.e of Vt!e trut! of t!e pastV and its influene on t!e style of t!inkin. of t!e
youn. and older .enerations, and DK make t!e assumption t!at t!e fats of t!e
politial deision of t!e ma,ority of issues, inludin. t!e Uuestion of t!e moral
53

eduation of itizens, t!e issue of property ri.!ts in Ukraine, "!i! are separated
by time, onfirm t!e follo"in.M t!e past beomes a plae of soiety self%desi.nin.
and t!e fous of t!e past updates t!e future.
)oern infor+ation an *o++$ni*ation te*"nolo1i*al *apa(ilities of
*ontrollin1 t"e past 78politi*s of +e+or%9:4 en"an*e its i+a1er%4 an "en*e
t"e so*ial -al$e of i+a1es3 +e, unfortunately, are not t!e best e<amples of t!e
usa.e of su! te!nolo.ies durin. t!e eletion ampai.ns, partiularly in t!e DLLE
eletions and t!e revolutionary events of DL@H%DL@E years and as a result % VT"o of
UkraineV in eletoral onsiousness and VbanderivtsiV in militaristi r!etori.
Oblivion, "!i! involves t!e disappearane of t!e past, an be an evidene
of t!e Vs!ortV memory and un"illin.ness and inability of soiety to remember, and
t!us to understand t!eir selves. VT!ose "!o annot remember t!e past % as
pointed #. Heide..er % doomed to first invent it.V &ate.ory Vburdensome pastV an
beome t!e ob,et of politial e<ploitation and beome t!e "eapon of politial
stru..le. Ho" T. $dorno determines Vlear mindV disseted t!e urse of t!e past.
(kip to ritial reords involves removal of taboos, pro!ibitions of traumati past,
publi debates and intensifiation of politial eduation. T!e first su! e<periene
"as analyzed and resear!ed in Germany. Germany !as s!o"n an e<ample of t!e
!an.in. role of memory in le.itimizin. t!e politial system, t!e inlusion of a
normative foundation of t!e olletive identity of dark past. 3t "as one of t!e
.rounds of politial onsensus, "it!in "!i! t!ere "as a departure from t!e idea
of Vspeial German pat!V, t!e Germans mana.ed to inte.rate into t!e European
"orld and stabilize t!e ne" German demoray ZJaros!enko DLLQ[.
T"e *$rrent politi*al *$lt$re of Ukrainian soiety is !araterized by a
pronouned funtional imbalane t!at leads to systemi imbalane. T!is is despite
t!e fat t!at it is ommon % Ukrainians al"ays !ad been a .ood land lords and
!ad t!e ability to develop private farmin., even at t!e ost of t!eir life.
Psy!olo.ial effet of !avin. t!eir o"n farm, o"n property, to dispose of !is .ood,
to be onsious, independent "ere and no" are t!e ar!etypal features of
Ukrainian mentality. T!is learly proved t!e literal ontent of t!e doument from
t!e delassified ar!iveM

ANNEN 1.

mHPn HH y.
^ELPEHR@
SPE0IAL REPORT

On t!e olletive rops of t!e Tarasivka villa.e of Pervomaysk re.ion
I&urrently #ykolayiv re.ion, appro<. aut!orsK t!e itizen Didyk "as detained and
brou.!t to a villa.e ounil by t!e overseer, beause s!e "as steelin. t!e .rain. T!e
Head of t!e Tarasivka villa.e ounil ? #ankovets #oisey $r!ipovi!, HO years old,
ordered to put !er to t!e ellar, from "!i! latter s!e tried to esape. T!en by
#ankovets order Didyk "as dressed iron !orse VpasternV "!i! usually .oes a"ry
!orses.
$fter some time, t!e dispossessed Didyk esaped and "as arrested for t!e
seond time in E days in t!e olletive farm orn.
T!e Head of t!e Tarasivka villa.e ounil ? #ankovets #oisey $r!ipovi! "as
proseuted for violation of revolutionary le.ality.
&ase ompleted and submitted to t!e PeopleTs investi.ator for trial.
T!e results of t!e ourt "ill be announed later.
54

T!e Head of t!e Odessa polie offie P Tsertovy! P Z#aterials of 'ikolaev
re.ional ar!ive PP o. @@, pq @, r. @H, s. WL[

$nalyzin. su! douments, "!i! in @AHE by order of t!e &P(U I/K "ere
removed from t!e ar!ive and kept, of ourse, in seret, "e ome to a onlusion
t!at t!e fat of !idin. t!e douments is a diret evidene of t!e totalitarian
/ols!evik state rimes a.ainst its itizens. #anifestations of .enoide an be proved
by almost every pa.e of t!ese !istorial douments. V/lak boardsV, Fet!ni
leansin.V, VonentrationV, Vrozkula!ennyaV, VdenuniationV, V.rain prourement
planV, VGPOV, VompetitionV, VolletivizationV, VfarmV, VprodkramV, Vtyp!us in an
orp!ana.eV, Vinitement to rebellionV, Vkulatski elementsV, Vindependent farmersV,
Vdo not make us slavesV, V!ave pity on t!e !un.ry !ildrenV, Vterrorist .roupV, Vkill
stiksV, VUkraine !as not peris!edV, Vvilla.e Piski. /as!tankaV % t!ese key"ords
inlude delassified douments in #ykolayiv oblast ar!ives Z#aterials of 'ikolaev
re.ional ar!ive PP o. DLLL, pq D, r. DE. ? t.M @AAW[.
(u! evidenes of sub,et%ob,et state P individual relations, "!i! "ere
based on t!e Vrevolutionary le.itimayV and foused on repression Iremovin.K by
state not only bread but also di.nity from its itizens. -rom EH to @EW villa.es in t!e
#ykolayiv re.ion disappeared from t!e map as a result of t!e Holodomor of @AHD%
@AHH years, and for many years t!ese fats !ave not been doumentary kno"n. T!e
only soures of evidene "ere memories of .randparents, t!en t!eir !ildren. 3t is
not diffiult to a.ree t!at t!ey passed on to t!eir !ildren and .rand!ildren
alienation of t!e state almost .enetially. -rom t!e @LL studentsC sientifi papers
in Petro #o!yla #ykolayiv (tate University in DL@H and its .enealo.ial
investi.ations @@ students indiated ases "!ere t!eir relatives "ere affeted by
t!e Holodomor of @AHD%@AHH. (tudents "!o partiipated in t!e analysis of
ar!ival materials treated t!e task "it! partiular dili.ene.
4adio listeners in t!e #ykolayiv re.ion, mostly t!e elderly, after notifiation
about delassified douments revealed e<traordinary emotional impressions and
started to all to t!e studio. 3n partiular, someone ouldnCt find t!e differene
bet"een t!e Holodomor events of @AD@%@ADD, @AHD%@AHH and @AEQX someone tried
to blame (talinCs disease as t!e ause of !is ations. $nd t!ere "ere also t!ose
"!o offered to provide douments from t!e family fund. T!is an e<plain t!e
features of politial ulture "it! traumati ta.s in t!e pereption of t!e ima.e of
t!e state. (o, of ourse, !istorization is a !allen.e of our time.
'la/e an in*onsistent la/s4 "$+an ri1"ts -iolations unfortunately let
smart traders use su! ille.al means as Vmole burro"sV for takin. of anot!erTs
property. $fter nearly a entury t!e ur.eny of properly funtionin. resear! as an
important element of interation bet"een eonomi and politial systems is very
!i.!, espeially due to t!e lak of effetive model of or.anizational and re.ulatory
frame"ork of soial and eonomi relations in modern Ukraine. Pre%eletion
promises of almost all politiians in Ukraine sine independene onernin.
promotion of t!e middle lass formation I"!i! is a si.n of stren.t!enin. t!e
institution of propertyK atually turned into delarations and, on t!e ontrary,
beame t!e obstales on t!e "ay of stren.t!enin. t!e middle lass and aused
deepenin. stratifiation, enri!ment oli.ar!i stratum. &onfirmation of speifi
fats t!at struk its yniism beame possible after "innin. of DL@H%DL@E years
4evolution. T!reatenin. spread of riminal ases aUuired s!arin. land assets of
t!e former olletive and state farms, as "ell as layin. t!e ne" o"ners of t!e land
lease a.reements for vested s!ares. $t t!e same time, alon. "it! t!e traditional
pattern of unla"ful distribution and redistribution of land resoures, t!e fats
appeared onernin. t!e overt pur!ase of land taken under t!e .uise of
re.istration under lon.%term lease on an irreversible transfer of o"ners!ip. :ery
dan.erous are modern persistent tendenies to Fs!ado"G buyin. a si.nifiant
55

amount of a.riultural land by natural and le.al persons in Ukraine, inludin. t!e
orders of forei.ners.
T!e proliferation of t!ese fats !as aused !idden soial protest in soiety,
reduin. publi trust in .overnment, a moral risisX t!e outflo" of t!e "orkin.
population abroad beame part of t!e united soial ause of e<plosion in 'ovember
DL@H. 3f "e ompare t!e old "it! t!e modern developments, in t!e opinion of t!e
aut!or, !idden and not analyzed fats "it! t!e absene of its onlusions made,
!ave a ne.ative pro,etion on t!e present of our soiety as obstales to demorati
transformation. Delassifiation of ar!ival douments is ritial, rational
Vproessin.V of t!e past, "!i! is assoiated "it! V!istorizationV of t!e past and
present and modernization undoubtedly ontributes to t!e formation of rational
ivi identity in Ukraine as t!e basis of a politi*al nation.
(ine +oralit% in a demorati soiety is one of t!e important dimensions of
politial life, morality is an inte.ral omponent of t!e stability of t!e politial
system, a si.nifiant indiator of a soiety and its politial onsiousness, t!e
formation of t!e Ukrainian politial nation reUuires t!e formation of a ommon ivi
ulture, "!i! ombines t!e traditional values of t!e Ukrainian people "it! t!e
values of minorities in t!eir modern ivilized form.
T"e set of e2pressions of +oral efa$lt % loss of trust to politiians, to
t!e state, to national and international la"s, to fraternal 4ussian people, traitors to
t!e nation, all t!is played t!e role of atalyst of t!e Ukrainian politial nation
formin.. 3n Ukraine t!e riminal po"er and t!e t!reat from e<ternal a..ression
proved to be a po"erful atalyst for t!e onsolidation of soiety. T!e remnants of
post%totalitarian attitudes of onsiousness rapidly vanis!ed from former (oviet
sub,ets, "!o rapidly transformed into itizens of a demorati European ountry.
$ survey onduted by t!e Ukrainian T: !annel V@u@V #ar! A, DL@E .ave an
absolutely en!antin. resultsM UkraineTs entrane to t!e EU "as supported by QQS
of t!e itizens, '$TO members!ip % QLS. Ukrainian reation to moral default led to
su! results in aeleratin. t!e formation of politial onsious nation, "!i! in
peaeful time "ould !ave taken years.
Sa-in1 t"e res$lt of t!e revolutionary p!ase late DL@H % early DL@E years in
Ukraine needs furt!er ationsM
Protetion of t!e territorial inte.rity of t!e Ukrainian stateX
&onvertin. of t!e moral and et!ial soial apital of t!e 4evolution into
.radual moral improvement of soiety, restorin. onfidene in ea! ot!er,
t!e ne" .overnment, t!e state, t!e la"sX
3mprovement of self%or.anization, solidarity, t!e ommon definition of
priniples, rules, re.ulations separation of po"ers, national resouresX
On t!e "ave of !i.! soial e<petations, ritial assessment of t!e
performane of t!e ne"ly appointed Ukrainian .overnment, lustration
and real fi.!t a.ainst orruptionX
T!e suessful !oldin. of presidential eletions in Ukraine in due time
#ay DR, DL@E, votin. for a "ise, respeted leader of t!e nation ? Fmoral
beaonGX
(i.nin. t!e eonomi part of EU%Ukraine $ssoiation $.reementX
$ession to '$TOX
&areful reform in areas of soial development, adaptation to European
and international standards, "!i! are based on t!e respet of !uman
ri.!ts and t!e preservation of national valuesX
T!e ob,etive understandin. of t!e !istorial e<periene of Ukraine "it!
an a"areness of atastrop!i onseUuenes unompromisin. rivalry of
politial elites. Historial memory, to eliminate Vblind spotsV of t!e past.
56

Ukrainian politi*al nation "ill be able to aept and implement innovative
areas of development, to ensure t!e irreversibility of demorati !oie, to fous
ener.ies and resoures on soial development, to produe !i.!ly ontemporary
ulture in all its aspets. $t t!e same time, to implement state%national identity of
Ukraine, t!e (tate is reUuired to provide t!e !i.! level of politial stability, open
"ide prospets for suessful modernization.
L(terat%re
@. Glebova 3.. 3.. Travmaty!eskoe pros!loe i natsyonalnaya politi!eskaya kultura
ITraumati Past and t!e 'ational Politial &ultureK PP Politi!eskaya 'aukaM
3ssledovaniya polyty!eskoy ulturiM (ovremennoe sostoyanieM (at.nau!.tr. P 4$'
J'JO'.Tsentr sotsyal.%ynform.yssled., Otd.polyt.nauky.X 4os.assots.polyt. nauki.
4ed. and omp. #alinova O., Glebova 3. % #oso"M 3'3O' 4$' DLLW. % pp.@@E%@EL.
D. Dubin /. 0onets veka IT!e End of t!e &enturyK PP /. Dubin. Jntellektualnie
.ruppi i symvoly!eskye formiM O!erki (oiolo.ii sovremennoy kulturi. % #., DLLE.
% p.@RW.
H. Jaros!enko :. Problema .romadyanskostv v umova! demokrati!now
transformatsvw ukrayinsko.o suspvlstva IT!e &itizens!ip Problem in Demorati
Transformation &onditions of Ukrainian (oietyK PP 'aukovv pratsv. 'aukovo%
metodi!niy%z!urnal.% T.WA. % :ip.RW. Polvti!nv nauki, Pravoznavstvo. % #ykolayivM
#DGU, DLLQ. ? pp. EW%RL.
E. #aterials of 'ikolaev re.ional ar!ive PP o. @@, pq @, r. @H, s. WL.
R. #aterials of 'ikolaev re.ional ar!ive PP o. DLLL, pq D, r. DE. ? t.M @AAW.

57

E%ro(ntegrat(on Po"(5y 0r(&(&
(n t1e Donet&k AreaA Infor2at(on A&3e5t

(er.ii /ondarenko

enter for Public o,,unications "nalysis and Develop,ent FD!"9OGG,
Ukraine

A>&tra5t

T!e offiial !oie of t!e European vetor of Ukraine development implies a ro" of
system !an.es in t!e politial, eonomi, le.al and !umanitarian systems.
&!an.es of many life sp!eres of t!e state aordin. to t!e European standards
reUuire t!e support of its population. #akin. ations of .overnment learer and
pursuin. an effetive informative poliy "!i! "ill provide formin. and distribution
of ob,etive kno"led.e about proesses and ations direted on t!e onfluene of
Ukraine in European spae is needed. $daptation of lar.e array of information for
t!e neessities of every purpose audiene allo"s us to talk about aims, tasks and
e<peted results of poliy of European inte.ration in Ukraine fully and learly.

9ey /or'& Eurointegration policy, infor,ation policy, political co,,unications

Met1o'o"ogy

(uess of Euro inte.ration poliy realization of Ukraine depends diretly on
t!e itizensC a"areness, t!eir self%identifiation and t!e amount of kno"led.e t!ey
!ave. T!e latest events I'ovember DL@H % #ar! DL@EK are t!e evidene of t!e
partiular failure of European inte.rationC poliy. To be ob,etive, t!e aut!or tried to
define t!e reasons of ineffetiveness of informative poliy of aut!orities t!rou.!
omparin. t!e e<peted results of aut!oritiesC information poliies I2a"s of Ukraine,
Derees of President, Deisions of &abinet of #inisters of Ukraine, .overnment
Pro.rams and strate.ies of informin. t!e peopleK, estimative results of level of t!e
itizens informed Isoiolo.ial resear!es, onduted by 4azumkov &enter and 0eu
&ommuniation &ompanyK and analysis of t!e re.ional #$((%#ED3$ materials
Imonitorin. t!e 3nternet of #$((%#ED3$ and e<pert estimations of materials about
Euro inte.ration in Donetsk traditional #$((%#ED3$K.

Intro'%5t(on

3ndependent Ukraine started sear!in. for its o"n !armonious and safe
plae in t!e .eopolitial map of t!e "orld after ollapse of t!e U((4. Havin. a
ertain industrial, eonomi, sientifi potential it lost its traditional
ommuniations t!at aused t!e emer.ene of ne" problems and !allen.es. 'e"
.roups of influene "!i! in t!e future "ill define t!e vetors and !istory of
58

development of t!e ountry up to today started bein. formed on t!e fra.ments of
Vt!e old stateV.
Despite of a non%blok status delared, t!e .overnment of Ukraine !as
defined a strate.i vetor of furt!er development of t!e ountry direted on t!e
European inte.ration. 3nte.ration into t!e European ommunity started in @AAE,
after Partners!ip and &ooperation $.reement si.ned bet"een Ukraine and t!e
European Union and its member states. 3n DL@L Eurointe.ration proess "as fi<ed
in t!e 2a" of Ukraine V$bout t!e priniples of domesti and forei.n poliyV, as an
offiial vetor of forei.n poliy of t!e ountry. 3t is "ort! !i.!li.!tin. t!at an ative
p!ase of ourrene of Ukraine in t!e European le.al, politial, eonomi and
!umanitarian spae be.an in Ukraine e<atly in DL@L.
3n #ar! DL@H t!e President of Ukraine issued t!e Deree V$bout Ur.ent
#easures of t!e European 3nte.ration of UkraineV "!i! aelerated t!e proess
formally. T!is doument !ad to provide furt!er development of strate.i
partners!ip of Ukraine and t!e European Union, and as result t!e $.reement on
assoiation !ad to be si.ned. Unfortunately, si.nin. of $ssoiation "as broken by
t!e Government of Ukraine in 'ovember of t!e same year.
Despite of t!e support of a ertain part of t!e population, Euro%inte.ration
proesses are estimated ambi.uously "it!in ertain territories. &onsiderin.
features of politial system of Ukraine, its vertial, it is possible to assume t!at
re.ional poliy diretly depends on national features, takin. into aount loal
features, self%identifiation of t!e population, preferenes of t!e loal elite, politial
and soial relations.
+it!in t!e artile t!e aut!or aims to define t!e reasons of lo" support of t!e
European inte.ration in t!e territory of Donetsk re.ion in a onte<t of t!e state
information poliy.
$mon. t!e domesti resear!ers studyin. t!e role of information poliy of
.overnment aut!orities and its influene on various proesses, partiularly on t!e
European inte.ration and formation of positive ima.e of territories, it is possible to
point out Po!eptsov G.G. ZPo!eptsov, &!ukut DLLO[, Gubersky 2.:. ZGubersky,
DLLQ[, Jefimova :. :. ZJefimova, DLLA[, E./.Tik!omirova ZTik!omirova, DL@H[,
'.P.0arp!uk Z0arp!uk, DL@@[, (!ev!enko G. :. Z(!ev!enko, DLLA[, 'a.ornyak
T.2. Z'a.ornyak, DL@H[ and 0a!inskoy '. $. Z0a!inskaya, DL@L[.
3n order for any ations of aut!orities to !ave t!e ma<imum effet, system for
informin. itizens is neessary. T!is ativity is intended to provide ommuniation,
to imbue it "it! meanin.s, to foused on providin. and a!ievin. strate.i politial
.oals. 3t !as to define t!e al.orit!m of formation and distribution of adeUuate
kno"led.e aross t!e state, to be a Vroad mapV in information spae, bot! in t!e
ountry, and beyond its borders.
T!e information poliy of aut!orities an be onsidered as a set of priniples,
approa!es, meanin.s definin. la"s of funtionin. of t!e information sp!ere
ZPo!eptsov, &!ukut, DL@LM@D[ "it!in ompetenes in "!i! t!e .overnment body
"orks and it is direted on t!e state stren.t!enin.. ZU'E(&O, DL@LM Q@[.
(everal attempts to or.anize and realize national information strate.y on
formation of ob,etive kno"led.e of Euro inte.ration "ere made durin. t!e last @L
years in Ukraine. 3n DLLH t!e (tate pro.ram of publi informin. onernin. t!e
European inte.ration of Ukraine for DLLE%DLLQ "as approved. T!e mission of t!e
59

Pro.ram "as to ensure a broad publi support for a state poliy in t!e sp!ere of t!e
European inte.ration.
$ordin. to t!e aut!orities, t!e follo"in. "as neessary to a!ieve t!e .oalM
to improve essential Ukrainian populationCs a"areness onernin. EU
I!istory and development prospets, t!e main ativities, t!e le.islation,
funtionin. of institutes and distribution of po"ers of aut!ority bet"een
t!em, e<pansion, t!e relations "it! ot!er states, et.KX
to "idely inform t!e publi about t!e strate.y of realization of
Eurointe.ration poliy, priority tasks in t!is sp!ere for a!ievin. deeper
understandin. of t!e European inte.ration of Ukraine as t!e main strate.i
diretion of soio%politial and eonomi development of t!e state.
$mon. t!e main instruments of implementation of t!e Pro.ram t!ere "ere some
possible press ations Ipress onferenes, press tours, et.K, publi meetin.s Iround
tables, onferenes, symposiums, et.K, t!e press and distribution of ne"sletters,
reation of separate "eb pa.es on sites of aut!orities and loal .overnments, diret
advertizin., implementation of various trainin. pro.rams, pro.rams for trainin. of
speialists onernin. t!e European inte.ration, et. Zt!e President of Ukraine
DLLH[.

3n DLLO t!e .overnment of Ukraine approved t!e (tate tar.et pro.ram of informin.
of t!e publi onernin. t!e European inte.ration of Ukraine for DLLO%DL@@. /y t!e
results of implementation of t!e previous Pro.ram t!e purpose to ontinue t!e
inrease of t!e level of publi a"areness as to t!e European inte.ration of Ukraine
and to reate a stable pro%European ma,ority in t!e Ukrainian soiety "as set.
T!e Pro.ram of DLLE "as based on separate ations. /y ontrast t!e
Pro.ram of DLLO .ave preferene to usin. t!e inte.rated me!anisms and t!e tools
foused on t!e onsumer of information. Or.anization of information and
eduational ampai.ns in re.ions, inter%level interation, onsultations "it! t!e
publi, inrease of transpareny level of aut!oritiesC ativity, interation "it! ivil
soiety and independent mass% media "ere planned. 3f earlier t!e &abinet of
#inisters of Ukraine "as in !ar.e of all oordination and realization of
information poliy in DLLO t!is responsibility "ere onferred on a speifi
.overnment body ? t!e (tate ommittee on radio and teleastin. of Ukraine. $lso
one of t!e features of t!e pro.ram "as publily delared foreast and finanin.
soures. T!e bud.et of t!e pro.ram "as WR million DOW t!ousand !ryvnias Iin DLLO
it "as about @H million U( dollarsK for R years Zt!e &abinet of #inisters of Ukraine
DLLO[. T!e previous pro.ram !ad no amount for implementation of t!e Pro.ram.
T!e lak of lear resoure support testified to a formalisti approa! to its
realization and minor value t!at ne.atively influened t!e a!ievement of politial
.oals.
T!e aeptane of t!e la" of Ukraine V$bout t!e priniples of domesti and
forei.n poliyV beame t!e ne<t si.nifiant moment in DL@L. $ordin. to t!e $rt.
@@ of t!is la", providin. of inte.ration of Ukraine in t!e European politial,
eonomi, le.al spae for t!e purpose of obtainin. a members!ip in t!e European
Union is one of t!e priorities of t!e forei.n poliy. Z:erk!ovna4ada of Ukraine
DL@L[.
60

3n DL@H t!e ur.eny of development and realization of effetive information
poliy "as fi<ed in t!e &onept of realization of a state poliy in t!e sp!ere of
informin. and establis!in. ommuniation "it! t!e publi on topial issues of t!e
European inte.ration of Ukraine for t!e period till DL@Q, "!i! "as approved by t!e
Government of Ukraine on #ar! DQ, DL@H. T!e purpose of t!e &onept is providin.
steadily !i.! level of t!e populationCs onsious support of UkraineCs Euro
inte.ration poliy as one of t!e priorities of domesti and forei.n poliy of our state,
reforms "!i! are arried out and "ill be arried out by t!e po"er for t!e purpose
of preparation of Ukraine for future members!ip in EU. T!e &onept is aimed at
providin. appropriate level of a"areness of UkraineCs itizens about t!e features of
t!e European inte.ration proess, t!e ontents and tasks of t!e $.reement on
assoiation bet"een Ukraine and EU Zt!e &abinet of #inisters of Ukraine
DL@H[.$ordin. to t!e President of Ukraine, t!e fored informin. of t!e population
!ad to provide support for t!e politiians.
$ordin. to t!e Plan of implementation of t!e &onept, informin. of itizens
of Ukraine !as to pass t!rou.! preparation and distribution of video and audio
materials, !oldin. speial events Iround tables, onferenes, seminars, et.K,
eduational ations, interation and trainin. of representatives of mass media,
arryin. out press ations and ot!er speial events Ifor e<ample T!e Day of
EuropeK, involvement of independent e<perts in t!e sp!ere of t!e European
inte.ration, publi or.anizations Zt!e &abinet of #inisters of Ukraine DL@H[.
&onsiderin. a s!ort time, a politial situation and a lak of any means t!e suess
of t!is ampai.n is Uuestioned. $rtifiial plantin. of ideas of Euro%inte.ration usin.
of madministrative resoureY and promotion t!rou.! under ontrol of mass media,
publi or.anizations and sientifi ommunity be.an. On t!e one !and, su! poliy
reated information dissonane and provided support for rulin. politial fore IParty
of 4e.ions and its satellitesK. On t!e ot!er !and, it made t!e pro%European fores in
Ukraine more ative. $s a result, VviolentV Euro%inte.ration and a failure of si.nin.
of $ssoiation "it! EU disappointed not only t!e supporters of t!e European
ourse, but also t!e eletorate of rulin. party. T!is resulted in t!e events of
'ovember DL@H ? -ebruary, DL@E It!e Euromaidan ? t!e #aidanK.
3n DLLO 4azumkov &enter resear! publis!ed t!at QL,WS of t!e interro.ated
e<perts ne.atively !araterized t!e level of information support of Euro%inte.ration
proess IT!e (tate pro.ram of informin. of t!e publi onernin. t!e European
inte.ration of Ukraine for DLLE%DLLQKX RE,AS % are rat!er ne.ativeX @R,QS % are
unambi.uously ne.ativeX only about a Uuarter IDH,RSK of respondents .ave positive
versions of t!e ans"er Z4azumkovTs &enter, DLLOM E@[. Poll also s!o"ed a lo" level
of kno"led.e of Ukrainian itizens about EU I"orkin. seletion "ere a number of
DLLQ peopleK.EQ,DS of respondents s!o"ed a lo" level of kno"led.eX on avera.e ?
HW,AS, Q,HS !ad no information at all and only E,HS ans"ered t!at t!ey are rat!er
informed. T!e reUuest for ob,etive information also !as !i.! perent. RE,DS of
respondents "ould like to kno" more about EU, @O,WS % are ompletely not
interested in EU, @O,AS % !ave enou.! informationX Q,OS !ad no opinion.
Z4azumkov enter, DLLOM EW[.
T!e results of resear! of t!e 4azumkov &enter, "!i! "ere presented in
DL@H also s!o" lo" level of kno"led.e of t!e population onernin. t!e European
inte.ration of Ukraine. $t national level EH,RS of respondents I"orkin. seletion
61

aounted DL@L peopleK ans"ered t!at t!ey !ad not enou.! information, HO,WS %
t!e avera.e level, A,RS % kne" not!in. and only R,HS !ad !i.! level of kno"led.e
on t!is sub,et. 3n spite of t!e fat t!at t!e perenta.e of people informed
insuffiiently dereased, and t!e perenta.e of people !avin. enou.! information
inreased substantially, did not !an.e a situation t!at indiate ineffiient
information poliy of t!e state Z4azumkovTs &enter, DL@HM @@O[.
(imilar results "ere s!o" in DL@H at t!e reUuest of Embassy of Great /ritain
in Ukraine by t!e 0ey &ommuniations ompany. T!e results of omple< resear!
Ipolls, fous .roups, studyin. of douments, t!e ontent analysis of media
materialsK found out t!at t!ere "as a steady division into supporters of EU and t!e
&ustoms Union in t!e Ukrainian soiety, t!us a very essential s!are aounted
itizens, "!ose position "as not defined Z/ritis! Embassy 0iev, 0ey
&ommuniations DL@H[. (u! VunertaintyV testifies t!at t!e "ork "it! t!e
population "as not onduted.
$ordin. to an offiial position lo" level of kno"led.e is onneted "it!M
lak of proedure of arryin. out system nation%"ide soiolo.ial resear! on
Uuestions of t!e European inte.rationX
misunderstandin. of information reUuirements of tar.et .roups of t!e
Ukrainian soiety "!i! information poliy is intended forX
lak of appropriate finanin.X
lak of effetive interation and ommuniation bet"een aut!orities Ibot! on
entral, and loal levelsK and ivil soietyX
use of outdated met!ods of reation and distribution of information
Ikno"led.eKX
ineffiient use of information resoure of EUX
improper adaptation of information produt to t!e needs of t!e Ukrainian
onsumer Iinludin. re.ionalKX
insuffiient information "ork at re.ional and loal levels Zt!e &abinet of
#inisters of Ukraine DL@H[.
$ordin. to t!e aut!or, t!e auses of ineffiient information poliy are
notin. its te!nial realization or a lak of means, but in poor p!ilosop!y and
misunderstandin. of strate.i transformations by politial, eonomi, publi,
ultural, et. elite. (elf%identifiation of persons in po"er and t!eir dependene on
politial elite of nei.!borin. states an also be onsidered as an important ause.
Durin. DH years of independene Ukraine "as not en.a.ed in formation of ne"
identity of Vt!e itizen of UkraineV, Vt!e European stateV, and it "as onentrated on
maintenane and opposition of deep ar!etypes of V/anderovitesV and V!omo
sovietiusV. (u! opposition influenes t!e proess of t!e European inte.ration,
serves as an an!or of furt!er transformations and a ore of disa.reements in t!e
Ukrainian soiety.
T!e advane of ideas of t!e European inte.ration is also !araterized by a
lo" level of understandin. of proesses and e<peted results at re.ional level. 3f t!e
"estern areas, o"in. to t!e !istorial features, more aspire to Europe, eastern
areas t!ink t!e ot!er "ay round. $ordin. to t!e aut!or, it is onneted "it! self%
identifiation of t!e population of Eastern Ukraine, Donetsk re.ion in partiular, its
!istorial roots and future vision. T!e results of t!e resear! V-ators of formation
62

of t!e European identity in modern Ukrainian soietyM re.ional aspetsV I#ar!%
$pril, DL@D, seletion ? @D@D peopleK s!o"ed t!at @OS of respondents onsider
t!emselves as VEuropeansV in Donetsk re.ion, HQ,QS % Vt!e (oviet peopleV, HW,RS %
Vni!ilistsV, i.e. denyin. any identityX Q,QS % Vamorp!ousV Z0orz!ov DL@H[.
T!e results of resear!es estimatin. level of kno"led.e of UkraineCs
population and Eastern areas are very similar. 3n DLLO, aordin. to resear! of t!e
4azumkov&enter, EAS of respondents in t!e east !ad lo" level of kno"led.e of
Euro%inte.ration proesses. HH,DS % avera.eX O,HS % !ad no information, only H,HS
of respondents told t!at t!ey are rat!er informed. $lso, as "ell as t!e ot!er part of
Ukraine, t!e east in DLLO need for information on EU and Euro%inte.ration
remained rat!er !i.!. RL,HS "ould like to kno" more, D@,AS % "anted to kno"
not!in.X @A,@S % "ere satisfied "it! t!e information t!ey !adX O,QS found it
diffiult to ans"er Z4azumkov &enter, DLLOM EW[. 3n DL@H t!e situation in t!e east of
Ukraine did not !an.e si.nifiantly, but t!e .eneral ne.ative dynamis "as
observed. EWS of respondents defined t!e level of kno"led.e of EU as lo"X HW,WS %
!ad t!e avera.e levelX @@S !ad ompletely no information, and only D,AS of
respondents ould tell t!at t!ey "ere rat!er informed Z4azumkov &enter, DL@HM
@@O[.
$ordin. to D+%Trend, t!e day before si.nin. t!e $ssoiation "it! EU and
t!e -ree trade zone t!e number of supporters of assoiation "it! EU IHASK in t!e
east, traditionally pro%4ussian re.ion, e<eeded t!e number of its opponents IHRSK
ZD+%Trend DL@H[. Ho"ever, it is not enou.! for t!e poliy of t!e European
inte.ration to be unonditionally supported by t!e population.
Dependene of preferenes of Eastern UkraineCs population, inludin.
Donetsk re.ion, onernin. poliy of t!e European inte.ration diretly depends on
t!eir level of kno"led.e and self%identifiation. 3t s!ould be noted t!at realization of
information poliy in Donetsk re.ion !as situational !arater. $ordin. to
standard and le.al base, responsibility for realization of a state poliy in re.ions lies
on publi aut!orities, on re.ional publi administrationsin partiular. To
!araterize t!eir ativity in Donetsk re.ion, it is possible to tell t!at it is limited to
santy information on a site and in mass media. -or many years in Donetsk
re.ional publi administration t!ere "as no profile mana.ement "!i! "ould be
en.a.ed in systemati realization of a state poliy of t!e European inte.ration in t!e
re.ion.
(uperiority in t!is diretion an be .iven to non%.overnmental or.anizations,
representatives of sientifi ommunity and independent mass%media. &onsiderin.
te!nial, or.anizational and finanial apabilities, t!ey over only insi.nifiant
part of t!e population of Donetsk re.ion. Generally, "ork is onentrated on
interation "it! students and studyin. yout! IEurolubsK, arryin. out resear!es
on various aspets of realization of Euro%inte.ration poliy Ifor e<ample,
liberalization of a visa re.imeK, speial events IDay of Europe, Days of ulture, Days
of inema, et.K. On #ay DE, DL@H t!e EU 3nformation &entre, "!i! main ob,etive
is providin. t!e !elp to universities and sientifi enters of t!e Donetsk re.ion in
trainin. e<perts and arryin. out resear! "ork as to Euro%inte.ration and
developments of t!e relations bet"een Ukraine and EU, distribution of information
on EU and its poliy, and also assistane to partiipation of students and
63

resear!ers in debate on t!e orrespondin. perspetive ZEU 3nformation enter
DL@H[ "as reated on t!e basis of Donetsk national university.
T!e representation of a sub,et of Euro%inte.ration in mass%media of t!e
re.ion is indiative. $ordin. to results of seletive monitorin. t!e 3nternet of mass
media arried out by t!e Titan3nfo ompany in July%$u.ust, DL@H testifies to lo"
level of interest to t!e desi.nated sub,et. -or t!e studied period aordin. to t!e
!osen media ard IHA online mediaK @@HHQ materials "ere proessed. T!e
European inte.ration "as mentioned in HH of t!em "!i! amounts L,HS of total
number of t!e proessed materials. @DS of materials "ere diretly onneted "it! a
sub,et of si.nin. of $ssoiation "it! EU, D@S % "it! East partners!ip, ot!er WQS
to some e<tent affeted Euro%inte.ration. T!e vast ma,ority of materials "ere s!ort
information messa.es IORSK, t!e s!are of analytial materials "as minimum IHSK,
reports and intervie"s Ion WSK. T!e 3nternet editions of Donbass "rote about t!e
European inte.ration mainly as t!e proess !avin. politial !arater. T!is sub,et
"as .enerally assoiated "it! ativity of po"er institutes It!e President, t!e &abinet
of #inisters of Ukraine, t!e :erk!ovna 4adaK. T!ere "as e<tremely lo" Uuantity of
mentionin.Cs publi or.anizations "!i! usually position t!emselves as Vvan.uard
of Eurointe.rationV. 3t testifies to absene of ,ournalisti interest to"ards t!is
sub,et, alon. "it! neessary kno"led.e of it to a perspetive ZTitan3nfo, &enter for
Publi &ommuniations $nalysis and Development VD3$2OGV DL@H[. 3t s!ould be
noted t!at t!e ma,ority of materials "ere reprints IrepostsK of t!e entral mass
media and ne"s a.enies.
T!e similar situation ould be seen in print media of t!e re.ion. Generally,
problems "ere presented in t!e form of s!ort information materials of t!e top
offiials of area desribin. !ospitality events and t!e states Imeetin.s, visits,
openin. of onsulates, et.K. $nalytial materials "ere insuffiient, .enerally, t!ey
onerned t!e eonomi part of t!e European inte.ration and "ere aimed for a
narro" readers!ip. 3t is possible to onsider su! si.nifiant events as visits of t!e
top offiials of t!e state to EU ountries, visits of offiial dele.ations to Ukraine and
re.ions, si.nin. of intermediate douments, "it!in $ssoiation preparation in EU
as peaks of ativity of re.ional mass%media.
T!e re.ional mass media started to over a sub,et of t!e European
inte.ration more atively after speedin. up of proess by t!e President of Ukraine in
#ar!, DL@H Zt!e President of Ukraine DL@H[. 3n most ases materials didnTt bear
semanti loadin. and "ere aimed at desribin. t!e a!ievements of rulin. party
IParty of 4e.ionsK in t!e ourse of preparation and $ssoiation si.nin. "it! EU. T!e
piture !an.ed dramatially after a suspension and failure of si.nin. t!e
$ssoiation in Otober and 'ovember DL@H, and also after t!e be.innin. of protest
moods in Ukraine and re.ions.
$ordin. to monitorin. results of Donetsk mass media I'ovember%
Deember, DL@HK, materials testified to imbalane of overin. of publi protests.
Donetsk mass media "rite eit!er too mu! or not!in.M it is a lot of about a po"er
position, almost no information about !o" itizens fi.!t for t!e ri.!t to be !eard.
$fter Vblak T!ursdayV Imakin. deision by t!e &abinet of #inisters of Ukraine on
t!e termination of preparation for si.nin. t!e $ssoiation at t!e (ummit of East
Partners!ipK materials .enerally ontain ,ustifiation "!y t!e $.reement "ill not be
si.ned, about possible eonomi risks and e<planations Vpauses for t!e sake of t!e
64

futureV in :ilnius. $ordin. to re.ional media of e<perts ensors!ip, espeially in
mass media under ontrol to t!e po"er ZT!e Ukrainian eduational enter of
reforms DL@H[, is felt.

0on5"%&(on

-ailures in realization of t!e poliy of t!e European inte.ration are diretly
onneted "it! information poliy of aut!orities, bot! on national, and re.ional
levels. T!e ritial amount of kno"led.e about t!e European inte.ration "!i!
"ould allo" itizens to make a rational !oie of t!e European vetor of t!e
ountryCs development "as not .iven beause of ineffiient ommuniation of t!e
po"er "it! t!e .eneral publi. T!e population is e<tremely areful and does not
trust t!e European inte.ration o"in. to t!e i.norane of main ob,etives of t!e
poliy, e<peted results and personal benefits in t!e east of Ukraine, in partiular
Donetsk re.ion. $lso a ma,or fator is self%identifiation of t!e population of
Donetsk re.ion. E<istene of Vp!antom (oviet rootsV, supported by t!e 4ussian and
pro%4ussian mass media in t!e re.ion bloks t!e formation of ne" identity.
3t is possible to onsider a formalisti approa!, lo" level of professionalism
of responsible persons, a lak of kno"led.e and motivation, onsious sabota.e by
loal elite, inludin. t!e !eads of t!e area foused on t!e Euroasian vetor of
inte.ration, as t!e reasons of a failure of information poliy Havin. diret influene
on development of meanin.s and kno"led.e formation at broad masses about t!e
European inte.ration, t!ey eit!er stron.ly distorted, or !an.ed onepts "!i!
allo"ed t!em to manipulate publi onsiousness and deflet attention. 3t is
neessary to reo.nize t!at t!e international institutes "!i! responsible for
advane of poliy of t!e European inte.ration in Ukraine "erenTt ready to "ork "it!
re.ions. $ll information poliy "as aimed for national level and limited in most
ases to 0iev and partially lar.e ities.
-or t!e situation to improve, it is neessary to reonsider ompletely t!e
priniples of formation and realization of information poliy. 3t is neessary to divide
it into national and re.ional level "!i! "ill onsider features of ea! re.ion
separately, and t!e states .enerally, and also to satisfy a Uuery of tar.et audienes.
T!e .reatest possible support of independent mass media and information pro,ets
"ill .ive an opportunity to reate alternative information spae "!ere it "ill be
possible to .ain additional kno"led.e and to make a onsious !oie to"ards one
of t!e poliies. (tren.t!enin. of information maintenane of t!e pro,ets realized by
publi or.anizations "ill also allo" to inform more "idely various tar.et .roups and
to form a pool of t!e loyal population. 'ot only support and a onsious !oie of
t!e European vetor of development depends on effiieny of information poliy, but
also formation of an e<ternal ima.e ? a brand of t!e ountry and its ertain re.ions
% as European and demorati.

65

<I<LIO$RAPH;

@. D+%TrendM UkraiTnio!iku,utT pereva. vid asoiaiiT z Je(.
!ttpMPPd".dePpP@Qezt, DL@E%LH%@R
D. Evrope,ska,ainte.rai,aUkrainy v materiala! 3nternet%izdani,Doneko,oblasti L@
i,ul,a ? @R av.usta DL@H .oda. !ttpMPP""".enterdialo..or.PDL@HPLOPblo.%
post]HL.!tml
H. GubersTky, 2.:., DLLQ, 3nformai,napolitykaUkraiTnyM ,evrope,sTky,kontekstM
mono.rafi,a, 0yiTv. % book
E. 3nformai,naskladovaJevrope,sTkoiT ta Jevroatlanty!noiT inte.raiiTM
.romadsTkadumka I(oiolo.i!neopytuvann,aK.
!ttpMPP""".razumkov.or..uaPukrPfilesPate.ory],ournalP'(DAR]ukr.pdf, , DL@E%
LH%@E
R. 3nformaionny, entr E(. !ttpMPPbit.lyP@eQ43LT, DL@E%LH%@R
W. Jefimova :.:., DLLA, Derz!avna informai,na polityka UkraiTny v konteksti
inte.raiiT v Jevrope,sTky, so,uz.
!ttpMPPar!ive.nbuv..ov.uaPportalPso].umP:naouPDLLA]HPEfimo"a.pdf, DL@E%
LH%@E
Q. Jevrope,sTky, so,uz !y #ytny, so,uzM .romadsTka dumka.
!ttpMPP""".razumkov.or..uaPukrPfilesPate.ory],ournalP'(D]@E@%@ED]ukr.pdf,
DL@E%LH%@R
O. 0a!ynsTka '.O., DL@L, 0omunikatyvni taktyky formuvann,a pryvablyvo.o
miz!narodno.o imidz!u derz!avy.
!ttpMPPar!ive.nbuv..ov.uaPportalP(o]GumPGileyaPDL@L]HWPGileyaHWPPH]do,
DL@E%LH%@E
A. 0onepi,a realizaiiT derz!avnoiT polityky u sferi informuvann,a ta
nala.odz!enn,a komunikaiiT z .romadsTkist,u z aktualTny! pytanT ,evrope,sTkoiT
inte.raiiT UkraiTny na period do DL@Q roku.
!ttpMPPzakonE.rada..ov.uaPla"sPs!o"P@WO%DL@H%SD@SOL, DL@E%LH%@H
@L. 0orz!ov G.O., DL@H, Pidtrymka ,evrope,sTkoiT inte.raiiT ta ,evrope,sTkoiT
identy!nosti, 3nM Jevrope,sTka perspektyva UkraiTny ta vizova polityka kraiTn Je(M
vyklyky i moz!lyvosti, pp. @OE%@AQ. % t!esis in sientifi olletions.
@@. 'aionalTna,a informaionna,a politikaM bazova,a modelT, DL@L, #osko".% book.
@D. 'a.orn,ak T.2., DL@H, /rendin.territoriikakvektorpolitiki. !ttpMPP""".zpu%
,ournal.ruPe%zpuPDL@HPEP'a.ornyak]Plae%/randin.P, DL@E%LH%@E
@H. 'a.orn,ak T.2., DL@H, /rendyn. terytori, ,ak derz!avna ta re.ionalTna politykaM
#ono.rafy,a, Donetsk. ? mono.rap!y.
@E. Plan za!odiv s!!odo vykonann,a 0onepiiT realizaiiT derz!avnoiT polityky u
sferi informuvann,a ta nala.odz!enn,a komunikaiiT z .romadsTkist,u z aktualTny!
pytanT ,evrope,sTkoiT inte.raiiT UkraiTny na period do DL@Q roku.
!ttpMPPzakonE.rada..ov.uaPla"sPs!o"PQRE%DL@H%SD@SOL, DL@E%LH%@E
@R. Po!epov G.G., &!ukut (.$., DLLO, 3nformai,na polityka, 0yev. ? book.
@W. Postanova 0abinetu #inistriv UkraiTny mPro zatverdz!enn,a Derz!avnoiT ilTovoiT
pro.ramy informuvann,a .romadsTkosti z pytanT ,evrope,sTkoiT inte.raiiT UkraiTny na
DLLO%DL@@ rokyY. !ttpMPPzakon@.rada..ov.uaPla"sPs!o"PRAE%DLLO%SDLS/-,
DL@E%LH%@E
66

@Q. 4e.ionalTni media ? vysvitlenn,a podi, !y promyvann,a mizkiv\.
!ttpMPPure.or..uaPuaPnoviniPre.onaln%podiii%!y%prom.!tml, DL@E%LH%@R
@O. U.oda pro asoiai,u Je( ? UkraiTnaM doslidz!enn,a obiznanosti ilTovy! .rup ta
strate.i,a komunikai,noiT kampaniiT.
!ttpsMPP"""..ov.ukP.overnmentPuploadsPsystemPuploadsPatta!ment]dataPfileP
@AL@DOP(opin.](tudy]-inal]4eport]+eb]Ua.pdf, DL@E%LH%@R
@A. Ukaz Prezidenta Ukrainy ^ @DQPDL@H mO res!enii (oveta naionalTno,
bezopasnosti i oborony Ukrainy ot @D marta DL@H mO neotloz!ny! mera! po
evrope,sko, inte.raii UkrainyY. !ttpMPPpresident..ov.uaPdoumentsP@RRDL.!tml,
DL@E%LH%@E
DL. Ukaz Prezydenta UkraiTny mPro derz!avni pro.ramy z pytanT ,evrope,sTkoiT ta
,evroatlanty!noiT inte.raiiT UkraiTny na DLLE%DLLQ rokyY.
!ttpMPPzakon@.rada..ov.uaPla"sPs!o"P@EHHPDLLH, DL@E%LH%@E
D@. Bakon UkraiTny mPro zasady vnutris!nToiT i zovnis!nToiT politykyY.
!ttpMPPzakonE.rada..ov.uaPla"sPs!o"PDE@@%@Q, DL@E%LH%@E

67

Myt1o"og(-at(on of t1e Meta31or
t"e oor to E$rope open for Ukraine
(n t1e Mo'ern E%ro3ean Po"(t(5a" an' Me'(a
D(&5o%r&e

Olena Taranenko


A>&tra5t

On t!e basis of t!e analysis of t!e "ide media%map, t!e transformation of t!e key
metap!ors of a forei.n%poliy disourse of Ukraine durin. DLLQ%DL@E is proved.
(peifis of myt!olo.ization by means of media !annels in t!e ourse of
eurointe.ration of Ukraine are s!o"n on t!e e<ample of a metap!or Va door to
Europe open for UkraineV "!i! durin. t!e speified period "as transformed into a
metonymial si.n aordin. to t!e la"s of myt!olo.y. (emanti dynamis of a
metap!or and reation of t!e ne" semanti field, "!i! is lose to t!e myt!, are t!e
indiators of transformation of t!e politial European disourse of Ukraine. T!e
media disourse of t!e period of t!e Euromaidan of 'ovember DL@H ? -ebruary,
DL@E is emp!asized in t!e artile.

9ey /or'& ,yt+ologi7ation in a ,edia discourse, t+e Euro,aidan, a political
discourse, a ,etap+or, a ,etony,y

Met1o'o"ogy
T!e main feature of t!e modern information proesses is t!eir mass !arater
and publiity, and t!is fat atualizes t!e reation of myt!s, used as te!nolo.y.
$tualization ours at a subonsious level of pereption of t!e audiene and in a
onsious manipulation by t!e media.
#any funtions and si.ns of mass ommuniation as a proess oinide "it!
t!e lo.i and struture of t!e ar!ai myt!. (u! !arateristis of mass
onsiousness as nonritiality, !i.! ontrollability, affetivity, intolerane,
tendeny to e<tremes, illo.ialness, indifferene to ontraditions and t!e absene
of neessity of verifiation are t!e basis for t!e reation of myt!s and are
maintained by modelin. of soial reality in media. #ass media define todayCs norms
and priorities, impose estimates and labels, reate a ne" myt!olo.ial system of
ritual "ors!ip, "!i! are re.ulated by rite be!avior of t!e member of soiety.
T!e met!odolo.ial basis of resear! of a myt!olo.ization of politial spae by
media !annels are t!e polydisiplinary sientifi and applied developments. T!e
delared ob,et of resear! is studied by e<perts in t!e field of soial
ommuniations, politial sienes, applied lin.uistis, t!e international diplomay,
et.
68

3n t!is onte<t modern resear!ers fairly notied t!at mass media play a role
of Vt!e po"erful .enerator of myt!sV Z@[. T!e 4ussian sientist (er.ey 'eklyudov
believes t!at onseUuenes of ommuniation revolution failitated a manipulation
of mass onsiousness by t!e media. 3t seems t!at Vt!e level of myt!olo.izationV of
publi life for t!e last deade e<tremely inreased, and "e from a kin.dom of
siene and rationalism stepped into a ertain Vmyt!olo.ialV era. T!us, as t!e
sientist remarks, t!e symbolial struture of myt!olo.ial ideas is e<tremely poor
ZD, p.@Q[.
T!e modelin. of reality, reation of t!e parallel myt!olo.ized reality in media
ours first of all "it! t!e !elp of t!e lan.ua.e means. -or t!is purpose, metap!ors,
"!i! aordin. to myt!olo.ial lo.i, are transformed to metonymies are atively
used.
T!e proess of interonversion of a metap!or and metonymy in real lan.ua.e
pratie, inludin. t!e media disourse, "ere studied, in partiular, by 4oman
Jaobson, &laude 2xvi%(trauss, 4oland /art!es, Edmund 4onald 2yn!, on "!ose
ideas "e an rely in t!e resear!.
4oman JaobsonTs idea t!at t!e messa.e represents not a type"ritten strin.,
but t!e or!estral sore, t!e onnetion of a metap!or and a metonymy,
paradi.mati assoiation of ima.es and synta.mati seUuene, is supplemented in
t!e myt!olo.ial resear!es by &laude 2xvi%(trauss. -or t!e t!eory of t!e -ren!
et!nolo.ist t!e idea t!at t!e meanin. depends on transformations from one system
to anot!er "as important. T!e model of myt!olo.ial struture is desribed by 2xvi%
(trauss as linear seUuene of si.ns "!i! turns into a set of metap!ors, and t!ey
are a.ain understood as a metonymy. T!e paradi.mati struture is transformed to
a synta.mati !ain. 3nterpretation of t!e myt! assumes double s"it!in.M from t!e
metonymial form to metap!orial one and bak to a metonymy form.
Edmund 4onald 2yn! desribes an essene of similar transformation on t!e
e<ample of myt!olo.ial and reli.ious disourses. $ordin. to t!e sientist,
metap!orialness in t!em is deniedX myt!olo.ial and reli.ious formulas are
onsidered as absolutely true. $t t!is level key"ords are entered into t!e
metonymial relations, and t!ey beome interdependent si.ns ZH[.
3n t!e lassial myt! t!e ima.e is interpreted as a si.n, an inde< of diret
ation. 3t is supported by absolute belief of partiipants of ritual in t!e effetiveness
of t!is ima.e. 3n a remyt!olo.ization situation t!e metap!or is used for failitation
of understandin. and rememberin., assoiation bri.!tness. T!e suessful
metap!or is repeated in media, onsolidatin. t!e .ained effet.
(o, in politial disourses olletive meanin.s, ideolo.ems and t!e "orld
outlook vie"s are t!e indiators of politial re.imes, forei.n poliy vetors of
development and personal "ays Vare implantedV.
Geor.e 2all believes t!at repeatability is an essential feature of modern ulture
"!i! forms its redundany. Permanent repetition of dominant ideolo.ems
determines t!e ulture, espeially for t!e people, "!o are intensively influened by
mass media ZE, p.DE[, Vultural redundany produes and reprodues values and
onepts "!i! form t!e foundations of oordinate soial interationV ZE, p.@DD[.
&laude 2xvi%(trauss also desribed similar redundany, aentin. on its
transformin. !arater. $ordin. to t!e sientist, t!e myt! reates a system of t!e
self%desription of t!e "orld "it! a redundant potential.
69

#etap!ors "!i! are repeated many times in mass media depreiate,
impoveris! t!e symbolial !arater and meanin., beomin. empty si.ns, labels.
$ordin. to t!eory of 4oland /art!es, "!enever onept of t!e myt! loses its
ob,et, onrete meanin., is symbolized. T!e seond, built%on semiotis system is
reatedM !ere "e !ave si.nified, si.nifier, "!i! itself represents primary
semiotis system, and, at last, t!ere is a representation of si.nified by means of
t!e si.nifier [R, p.OL]. T!us former si.nifier beomes si.nified, t!e myt! turns
into devastatin. form for t!e poor ontents. #yt!ems, reated t!us ? not symbols
and not si.ns, are Van alibi of t!e ideaV I4. /art!esK, VsimularumV, Vreplia
"it!out ori.inalV, Vsi.ns "it!out refereneV IJ. /audrillardK. E<atly in it is t!e
essene of reation in t!e myt! t!e seondary semiotis system. T!e myt!
naturalizes t!e onept, makes it so alive, onvinin., real, natural t!at t!e
addressee even doesnTt notie its unnaturalness, persuasive artifiiality. T!e
(ystem Vempty si.nsV "!i! e<orises t!e addressee a..ressively interferes in
media, and t!ese si.ns alm t!e addressee "it! t!e ima.es of virtual stability
and "ellbein.. $ordin. to e<at definition of 4. /art!es, Vt!e myt! represents a
"ord to "!i! ,ustifiation e<tremely stron. ar.uments are .ivenV [R, p.AW].
Dan.er of su! proess is t!at t!e poor metonymial si.n reates produtivity
illusion for t!e addressee. Havin. bein. fi<ed in repetition, su! ima.e tries to "ork
as a myt!olo.ial spell, onvines t!e addressee of media ommuniation t!at t!e
problem is solved by desi.nation. 'amin. and repetition replae t!e solution of
publi problems. T!e essene of t!is problem is also emp!asized in t!e "ell%kno"n
statement of t!e media t!eorist #ars!all #2u!an, VT!e medium is t!e messa.eV
ZE, p.HL[.
T!e similar onept is atively used in pratie of neurolin.uisti
pro.rammin.. T!is onept of a reframin., means t!e transformation of a personCs
point of vie" on a situation by !an.in. !er purposes or intentions in t!is
situation. 4eframin. means proess of revaluation of t!e meanin. of t!e event
"it!out !an.in. t!e onte<t in "!i! it is plaed. 3n a situation of obviously
ompliated ommuniation bet"een t!e aut!orities and soiety in Ukraine many
frames are used by media not as a ontent, and as myt!ems, stereotypes, si.ns
"it!out meanin.. 3nformin. is substituted for frame onstrution, in fat for t!e
myt!olo.ization "!i! is po"erfully influenin. mass onsiousness.
3n our opinion, su! proess an be observed in t!e usin. of metap!or Va door
to Europe open for UkraineV in a modern European politial and media disourse.

Intro'%5t(on

E<pression Va door to Europe open for UkraineV starts bein. used atively as a
metap!or "it! typial omparison of !opes and opportunities of Ukraine about
aession to t!e European Union "it! t!e ima.e of open doors. 3t is observed, for
e<ample, in Julia Timos!enkoTs statement in DLLR after a series of meetin.s of t!e
Ukrainian dele.ation "it! !eads of t!e European states and euroommissioners-
H*e understood t+at doors to t+e European +ouse re,ain for Ukraine open
irrespective of results of a referendu,) ! received a lot of opti,is,H
I!ttpMPP""".pravda.om.uaK. +e "ill remark !ere natural for a metap!or of open
70

doors an ima.e of Europe as a !ouse. +e "ill easily present su! an ima.e, it is
bri.!t and onstruted on e<peted paradi.mati assoiations.
$s t!e visual assoiation t!is metap!or e<tends to ot!er onte<ts lose to an
ima.e of t!e European !ouse. -or e<ample, in t!e !eadin.s H#us+ Opens N"TO
Doors for Ukraine and GeorgiaH I@@.LE.DLLQ, !ttpMPP""".se.odnia.ruKX HTi,os+enko-
t+e EU doors beco,e open for UkraineH IDR.LO.DLLA,
!ttpMPP""".realtRLLL.om.uaPne"sPutfPruKX HHillary linton- HDoors of N"TO are
open for UkraineH ILD.LQ.DL@L, @ne"s.azKX HT+e European Union t+oug+t up so,e
kind of conditional HdoorsH for Ukraine) T+e European o,,issioner for Enlarge,ent
and European Neig+bour+ood Policy Itefan /Jle declares t+at t+e door to Europe is
open for Ukraine on condition of observance of t+e European standardsH IDA.LA.DL@L,
!ttpMPPua%reporter.omKX HN"TO $ecretary General- doors in N"TO are open for
UkraineH IDA.LA.DL@L, !ttpMPPne"sland.omPne"sKX HObservers fro, European
Parlia,ent- T+e door to Europe +as to be open for UkraineH IO.LD.DL@L,
0orrespondent.'etKX HNear t+e open door to Europe))) HI@D.@L.DL@@, "eekly DLLLKX
HKatsenyuk- t+e EU still +olds doors open for UkraineH IDL@@, !ttpMPPob,etiv.tvKX
H#russels opens a door for AievH IDA.LH.DL@D, t!e ne"spaper VDeloVKX HBavier $olana-
T+e European doors are still open for UkraineH ILA.DL@D, !ttpMPPua%reporter.omKX
HKeliseyev- 3eaction of Europe to elections in Ukraine testifies to open doors in EUH
IHL.@L.DL@D, radio V(vobodaVK et.
+e "ill emp!asize t"o tendenies in t!ese and similar e<amples. -irstly, t!e
metap!or of open doors at t!e same time refers to Europe, t!e European Union and
even '$TO. (u! diffusion of meanin. leads to loss of symbolism of t!e European
!ouse "it!out "!i! t!e ima.e of doors loses t!e onreteness and a semanti
si.nifiane. (eondly, absolute mi<ture of times and modalities in t!e use of verbs
is an important peuliarity. Doors to Europe seem to be already open or t!at an be
open in t!e future or !ave to be opened and still remain open, but may be losed
"it!out observane of ertain onditions.
-rom our point of vie", ,ust t!e mi<ture, imposin. of semanti layers leads to
metap!or transformation in a metonymial si.n. (u! transformation means
myt!olo.ization of t!e meanin.. T!e ima.e of t!e door opened to Europe unfastens
from t!e initial meanin.s and presents t!e solution of an important publi problem
by itself. $s t!e addressee illusion is reated t!rou.! ontinuous repetition, so, t!e
familiar and lear ima.e in itself desi.nates presene of Ukraine in Europe,
fulfillment of all onditions and an esape from diffiult and onflit situations.
T!e myt!olo.ial self%presentation of a metap!or of open doors to Europe
beomes obvious in situations "!en by means of t!is ima.e problems of alternative,
a !oie in onfrontation are desribed. 3n t!is "ay, for e<ample, t!e media
illuminate t!e Uuestions of UkraineCs possibility to aess to t!e &ustoms union or
Julia Timos!enkoTs release as a ondition for Ukraine reeivin. t!e status of t!e
assoiated member of t!e European Union .
-or e<ample, in t!e !eadin. Uuotin. t!e statement of t!e deputy of t!e
/undesta., HDoors of Europe are open for Ukraine, but t+e usto,s union 5 a step
back fro, t+e,H I!ttpMPPipress.uaPne"sK, metap!orial meanin. is supported in an
ima.e of a step from doors. T!us absene of t!e sub,et of t!is ation in t!e
statement, an identifiation of ot!er diretion of movement Ito t!e &ustoms unionK
71

"it! ation IstepK and similar aspets, make a metap!or indistint, seondary, used
for reation of a ne" semanti field, ot!er onte<t.
(imilar e<ample 5 HTo Europe advise to open doors for Ukraine t+at didnLt pass
to 3ussiaH I!ttpMPP.lavom.uaPne"sK. 3n t!is ase t!e ri!ness of metap!orial
assoiations is redued to t!e elementary myt!olo.ial binarity, to literal opposition
by t!e priniple Vo"nV ? ValienV. T!e metonymial si.n .ains a..ression and is free
from variability of a metap!or.
3n t!e !eadin.s HTi,os+enkoLs 3elease :ill open to Ukraine doors to EuropeH
IDQ.LE.DL@H !ttpMPP#3Gne"s.om.uaK "e also !ave a metap!or of open doors in
obviously poor meanin. deprived of onreteness. T!e addressee .ets t!e
impression is made t!at release of t!e most kno"n Ukrainian politial prisoner "ill
automatially solve all t!e problems of eurointe.ration of Ukraine. T!us, a onrete
desription of t!is proess is unlear and even unneessary ? "!et!er it is about
t!e aession to t!e EU, about t!e assoiation a.reement, about politial or
eonomi measures, et. T!e metonymial si.n of doors to Europe V"as!es outV t!e
sense. T!ereby t!e manipulation "it! t!e addressees is arried out ? t!ey are
!eated, .iven illusion of easy, automati solution of problems by t!e very use of an
ima.e of t!e opened doors as a!ieved result.
T!e situation "!i! !as developed sine 'ovember, DL@H in Ukraine !an.ed
also reUuirements to t!e media. Obvious dan.er for t!e eurointe.ration proesses in
Ukraine made partiipants of a politial and media disourse e<press more ertain
and more onrete vie"s, not to !ide t!e politial position under empty si.ns and
manipulative myt!emes.
$tually, already in DL@H, before t!e Euromaidan, t!e use of a metap!or of
open doors to Europe returns to initial metap!orialness and definiteness of
meanin. is observed. (u! dynamis is onfirmed also by pratie of politial
deisions I"it!dra"al of t!e president from t!e planned ourse on eurointe.rationK.
T!ose t"o tendenies, "!i! "e emp!asized in metap!or funtionin. in t!e
Ukrainian media for DLLQ%DL@D, almost disappeared. -irstly, t!e onept VEuropeV
beomes more ertain and onnets in mass onsiousness it beomes onneted
"it! t!e assoiation si.nin. "it! t!e EU and realization of poliy of t!e East
European ooperation. (eondly, in t!e use of verbs, t!ere is no free transition from
t!e past to t!e present and future times, t!e emp!asis is plaed on semantis of
e<petation of onrete measures in t!e present ? Vdoors remain openV. 3t "as, for
e<ample, repeatedly delared by t!e ambassador of t!e U($ Geoffrey PyattM HEurope
keeps open t+e door for UkraineH Iradio V(vobodaVK, t!e euroommissioner ytefan
-9leM HDoors for Ukraine to Europe re,ain openH
I!ttpMPP.azeta.zn.uaPaut!orsPs!tefan%fyuleK, t!e #inister of -orei.n $ffairs of
("eden &arl /ildtM HEurope leaves doors open for Ukraine H I!ttpMPPmedia%offie.ruK
and ot!er politiiansM HT+e European Parlia,ent +olds doors for Ukraine open) #ut
Ukraine can be allo:ed to access to t+e EU only if t+e country i,prove,ent and
advance to de,ocracy :ill beginH I!ttpMPPobozrevatel.omPpolitisK.
4eturnin. of a onrete meanin. to t!e metap!or of open doors is "ell
illustrated by t!e statements of t!e European &ommissioner for Enlar.ement and
European 'ei.!bour!ood Poliy ytefan -9le. 3n t!e proess of !an.in. of a
situation in Ukraine in 'ovember DL@H ? -ebruary, DL@E, in t!e statements of t!e
politiian, t!is ima.e a!ieves t!e inreasin. definiteness, and, t!erefore, and
72

effiieny. (o, DE.@@.@H euroommissioner delares in t!e aount in T"itterM HOur
co,,it,ent to ,oderni7ation of Ukraine re,ains fir,, door re,ains open, benefits for
neig+bours too, despite r+etoricH I!ttpMPPkyivpost.uaPukrainePne"sPfyuleK. 3n t!is
statement t!e attention of t!e politiian for a ne.ative role of t!e so%alled r!etori,
in t!is onte<t ? empty speakin., pronounin. meanin.less "ords and promises is
representative. -urt!er ytefan -9le, as a rule, replaes onept of Europe "it! more
onrete onept of t!e European poliy "!i! doors are open for Ukraine. Even
usin. a metap!or, t!e politiian speaks more and more definitelyM HDoors to signing
of association re,ain open as soon as t+e govern,ent of Ukraine :ill testify t+e
readiness to resu,e ,ove,ent to political association and econo,ic integration :it+
EuropeH I!ttpMPP""".DLk!vylyn.omPne"sPpolitisPne"sK.
(!ift of a vetor of a metap!or in a politial field Ito assoiation brakin. by t!e
.overnment of UkraineK .ives to t!e appeal a definite ans"er about t!e one "!o is
.uilty for !an.in. t!e forei.n poliy vetor of development of t!e ountry and,
respetively, "!o is responsible for t!e problems of soial and eonomi !arater
and stay of ultural dialo.ue bet"een Europe and Ukraine.
+e "ill remind t!at in :itor Janukovy! and #ykola $zarovTs numerous
addresses to t!e Ukrainian people and omments for media onernin.
eurointe.ration of Ukraine open doors to Europe "ere also often mentioned. 3n a
parado<ial "ay, after refusal of si.nin. t!e EU%Ukraine $ssoiation $.reement,
t!ese politiians ontinued to repeat t!e statement t!at "e do not lose a door to
Europe. 3n t!is meanin. t!is metap!or beame an absolutely devastated si.n, in
fat, suitable to any even opposite in meanin. onte<t. T!at empty and false
r!etori about "!i! dan.er t!e European politiians "arned "as onduted.
T!ey atively used t!is emptiness of a metap!or in t!e omments about t!e
absene of dialo.ue bet"een t!e aut!orities and soiety and in a onte<t of
readiness of Europe to support t!e ivil initiatives in Ukraine. T!e autumn of DL@H
"ill ome into t!e "orld politial !istory as t!e time of t!e Euromaidan be.innin. ?
ations of ivil disobediene in Ukraine "!i! initial purpose "as an assoiation
si.nin. "it! EU, as it "as delared in an eletion pro.ram of t!e andidate for
president :. -. Janukovy!.
T!e media disourse of Ukraine durin. 'ovember DL@H ? -ebruary, DL@E
represents ompliated stratifiation of inonsistent information streams,
mediarats inludin. bot! e<ternal, and internal players. T!e metap!or of open
doors a.ain Vomes to lifeV, tries to beome effiient and effetive. 3t is used by all
aut!ors of a disourse, and t!erefore it .ets opposite onnotations, losin. initial
meanin.. #ost often t!e media disourse offers e<pression VEurope is ready to lose
doors for UkraineV. /ut if from t!e point of vie" of t!e Euromaidan supporters, t!is
ima.e possesses t!e onnotation of possible dan.er "!i! !as to be prevented, its
opponents use t!e t!reatenin. onnotations of !eatin. by Europe, refusal of t!e
EU from Ukraine are used.
(o, for e<ample, t!e PeopleTs Deputy Petro Poros!enko "arns t!at t!e EU an
forever lose doors for Ukraine, allin. for ative "ork on le.islative base of proess
of eurointe.ration of Ukraine. H%@ EU Me,ber $tates can ,ake t+e decision 5
:+et+er to open doors for Ukraine, or to close t+e, foreverH, ? t!e Ukrainian
politiian says, speifyin. measures for prevention of su! ne.ative result. $t t!e
same time t!e !airman of t!e (tate Duma &ommittee of 4ussia on t!e
73

international affairs $le<ey Pus!kov delares on t!e pa.e in t!e miroblo. T"itterM
HEU isnLt capable to bring Ukraine out of financial crisis 5 it +as neit+er ,eans, nor
desire to do it) "ctually doors to t+e EU for it are closedH I!ttpMPP""".from%ua.om K.
Durin. t!e ative period of t!e Euromaidan t!e metap!or of open doors for
Ukraine is used in t!e speified VEuropean open door poliyV meanin.. T!is ima.e is
speified by lo.ial ar.uments t!at removes a myt!olo.ial onte<t and obviously
promote returnin. to rational onversation. 3n fat, t!e outdated metap!or beomes
t!e steady term and starts bein. filled "it! more onrete meanin..
(o, assertin. t!at VT!e EU ontinues an open door poliyV, t!e Ukrainian
ne"spaper VUriadovy 0urierV supplements a metap!or "it! speifiationsM HT+e EU
assures Ukraine t+at none association failed) "t t+e sa,e ti,e, no association :as
conducted by t+e EU in t+e conditions of suc+ s+arp polari7ation :+ic+ is no:
observed in UkraineH IDE.@D.DL@H, !ttpMPPukurier..ov.uaK. Ukrainian television Vt!e
Rt! !annelV in January, DL@E onstantly Uuoted t!e European &ommission
representatives "!o, aordin. to ,ournalists, Hre,ind Ukraine of policy of t+e doors
of Europe opened for itH) T!e president of European &ommission Josx #anuel
/arroso, onfirmin. an open door poliy, speifies t!at for t!e end of January, DL@E
indispensable onditions for t!is purpose are measures for demoray development
in Ukraine, namely anellation of la"s on January @W and adoption of la" about
amnesty I!ttpMPPua.interfa<.om.uaPne"sPpolitialK. T!is term is e<tremely often
used in Ukrainian media disourse in January ? -ebruary, DL@E in Uuotin. of t!e
European politiians &at!erine $s!ton, Josx #anuel /arroso, ytefan -9le,
$leksander 0"aknie"ski, Pat &o< and ot!ers. $ll European politiians in t!e period
of t!e Euromaidan say about inadmissibility of bloods!ed in Ukraine as an
indispensable ondition of ontinuation of an open door poliy.
T!us, it s!ould be emp!asized t!at t!e speifiation of a metap!or of open
doors in a politial and media disourse "as pereived by t!e Ukrainian audiene
a.ainst dissatisfation "it! onrete measures of t!e real !elp to Ukraine from t!e
European states and publi institutions. 3t allo"ed, on t!e one !and, to t!e pro%
4ussian media !annels atively Uuote statements of t!e 4ussian politiians about
Europe "!i! betrayed t!e Ukrainian people and about t!e European doors "!i!
atually slammed for Ukraine. #any PeopleTs Deputies from t!e Party of 4e.ions
also made similar statements. (o, :adim 0olesni!enko, bein. indi.nant "it! visits
of t!e European politiians to t!e #aidan, laims t!at for similar intervention of
Ukrainians in t!e European poliy HAiev :ould be laug+ed and pointed at t+e door
for not ,inding its o:n businessH I!ttpMPPvsenovosti.in.uaK.
On t!e ot!er !and, supporters of t!e Euromaidan also s!o"ed feelin. of t!e
deeived e<petations by means of a metap!or of open doors. T!ese feelin.s "ell
illustrate, for e<ample, statements of t!e former !ead of (eurity (ervie of Ukraine
3.or (mis!ko on t!e Rt! !annel on -ebruary DW, DL@EM HT+e European Union only
said t+at +olds doors open, but actually t+ese doors :ere closedH or t!e leader of
ne"s on @u@ T: !annel 'atalya #osey!uk on #ar! @, DL@EM HUkraine is no: in
a situation si,ilar to t+at of sitting on a t:ine) *e are said t+at doors to Europe are
open, but :e8re not allo:ed even to cross a t+res+oldH)

0on5"%&(on
74

On t!e e<ample of funtionin. of a metap!or of open doors for Ukraine to
Europe "e observe t!e dan.er of proesses of myt!olo.ization of publi
onsiousness. -illed "it! semanti ri!ness of assoiations, t!is metap!or
adeUuately reflets important publi proesses and, t!ereby, !elps "it! t!eir
solution. #any times and t!ou.!tlessly repeated, it is impoveris!ed to t!e empty
si.n darkenin. sense. #yt!olo.ial illusion of realization of eurointe.ration only
due to onstant repetition and self%presentation of a metonymial si.n is reated in
t!is "ay. +it! t!e audieneCs re,etion of t!is ima.e, its disapproval, its
understandin. as false results. T!e metap!or of open doors today, undoubtedly,
needs su! re!abilitation. 3t "as onfirmed in Josx #anuel /arrosoTs statement on
#ar! A about t!e obli.ation of Europe to t!e Ukrainians "!o died in -ebruary,
DL@E for t!e European values. T!is obli.ation is ertainly also e<pressed
symbolially, but filled "it! deep assoiative sense "!i! also "ill re!abilitate a
metap!or of doors open for Ukraine to Europe. +e !ope t!at interation of t!e ne"
Ukrainian .overnment "it! representatives of t!e European Union "!o beame
more ative in #ar!, DL@E, beome a real basis for a ne" vetor of eurointe.ration
of Ukraine "it! savin. preservation of its national interests and for makin. media
disourse free from myt!s and stereotypes "!i! are inonsistent and unlear to
mass audiene.

Referen5e&

@. Polytolo.ia, @AAH, Eniklopedi!esky slovar, #osko".z bookX
D. 'ekludov (., DLLL, (truktura i funkia myfa. P #yfi i myfolo.ia v
sovremennoy 4ossii, #osko".z bookX pp. '6 5 4@
H. 2y! E., DLL@, 0ultura i kommunikaia. P $vailable onlineatM
!ttpMPPulture.niv.ruPdoPulturePommuniationPLDH.!tmX
E. 2all G., DLLD, #as%media. 0omunikaia, kulturaM .lobalniy pid!id, 0iev. z
bookX
R. /art 4., @AAE, (emiotika. Poetika., #osko".z book.

75

R%&&(an)Ukra(n(an Infor2at(on 4ar
(n t1e 0onteIt of E%roMay'an

#iko=a, (zelest

University of Gdansk, Poland

A>&tra5t

T!e artile is an attempt to present and ompare t!e vie"s on t!e events in Ukraine
in t!e period from 'ovember DL@H to #ar! DL@E refleted in 4ussian and
Ukrainian media. #y kno"led.e of En.lis!, 4ussian and Ukrainian lan.ua.es "as
"idely used for t!is purpose. Partiular attention "as paid to 4ussian pro%
.overnment media Isu! as 43$ 'ovostiK and Ukrainian media favourable to"ards
Euromaidan Ie. .. HromadskeT:K. (u! t!e analysis may ontribute to t!e mu!%
needed understandin. of t!e onflitin. points of vie"s onernin. t!e events of
Ukrainian revolution "!i! are in reent times a !ot topi.

9ey /or'&A Euro,aidan, Ukraine, ,edia, infor,ation :arfare, propaganda

T!e aim of t!is artile is possibly t!e s!ortest and most suint e<position
of t!e 4ussian%Ukrainian relations development durin. t!e period from 'ovember
DL@H to #ar! DL@E t!rou.! t!e lens of media overa.e of t!e seleted events in
bot! Ukrainian and 4ussian soures. T!e !oie of t!is time span is motivated,
firstly, by t!e partiular dynamism of politial developments in Ukraine durin. t!is
period and seondly, by t!e intensity of disputes surroundin. t!ese events,
onduted in media. T!e Uuoted artiles and spee!es, appearin. in 4ussian,
Ukrainian and Polis! soures appear in aut!orsC translation. $t least t!ree Uuite
far%rea!in. simplifiations "ere made for t!e purpose of t!is "ork due to t!e
e<tensity of bot! t!e sub,et of t!e events of Ukrainian 4evolution DL@H%@E and t!e
sub,et of 4ussian%Ukrainian information "ar.
-irstly, it "as assumed t!at t!e events of t!e Ukrainian 4evolution "ere
diretly tri..ered by t!e brea! of earlier resolutions by t!e Ukrainian aut!orities
ori.inatin. from t!e Party of 4e.ions. T!e mentioned resolutions "ere related to t!e
si.nin. of an assoiation a.reement "it! t!e European Union. T!e mass protests
emer.ed in 0iev immediately Fafter t!e .overnment !ad announed t!at "ork !ad
been suspended on t!is a.reement ,ust before t!e :ilnius (ummit of 'ovember DO?
DA, DL@H. -or Ukraine, si.nin. t!e $ssoiation $.reement "ould !ave marked a
deisive step a"ay from t!e enturies%lon. orientation to"ard 4ussia and t!e eastG.
ZDiuk DL@E[ Omitted in t!is artile are ertain diffiult 4ussian%Ukrainian
relations!ip issues t!at ertainly paved t!e "ay to t!ese events. Janukovy!Cs
presideny and period of .overnane by t!e &abinet of #ykola $zarov in t!eir
entirety "ere also dropped. Ho"ever, t!is does not mean t!at t!ese issues are
irrelevant in t!e onte<t of t!e events desribed, but rat!er too lar.e and e<tensive
for a s!ort artile
@
.

@
To a lar.e e<tent t!ese issues are e<plained in t!e publiation of t!e University of Opole, ed. by 4afal
4iedel #efore and "fter "ccession 5 Ukraine and Poland in !ntegrating Europe and publiations of
numerous prominent Ukrainian resear!ers, su! as /o!dan 'a!aylo and Jarosla" Hryak.
76

(eondly, a ompre!ensive desription of t!e information "ar bet"een
4ussia and Ukraine as a state Ior Ukrainians as a nationK "ould reUuire yet furt!er
!istorial retrospetion, per!aps it "ould be neessary to .o even as far bak as it
is su..ested e... by a Ukrainian "riter Oksana Babuz!ko, a professor of History
$leksander 2ukasze"iz or a p!ilolo.ist :asyl 2u!ik ? to t!e times of Tsar Peter
t!e first, "!o in @QLD issued a la" bannin. book printin. in t!e Ukrainian
lan.ua.e. Z2ukasze"iz DL@H[ $nd at any rate, t!e understandin. of ontemporary
developments in 4ussian%Ukrainian relations "ould suffer a lot from t!e lak of
understandin. of t!e me!anisms of information "arfare used in t!e &old +ar
period. #odern 4ussia remains lar.ely t!e !eir of t!e (oviet Union, but more rarely
uses t!e !ard means and more often various eonomi and informational tools.
ZBubok DLLAM HHD%HEE[ Ho"ever, t!e ob,etive of measures remains % absolutely %
t!e sameM t!e subordination of t!e states of t!e so%alled near abroad, treated by
4ussia as its sp!ere of influene. Z#0e", #aniatis DL@E[ T!erefore, 4ussiaTs
propa.anda ativities deserve speial attention, beause it is an old "ar "a.ed by
ne" met!ods, "!i! 4ussia itself admits. $ordin. to !ead of t!e 4ussian
presidential administration (er.ei 3vanovM F4ussia onduts independent poliy and
firmly defends its national interests. 3t is not easy to e<plain t!is to t!e "orld, but it
is possible and "e !ave to do it I...K usin. t!e latest and most e<ellent te!nolo.yG.
ZF: 4ossii nastupil period rastsveta .ospropa.andyG[
T!irdly, t!is artile is limited to a desription of t!e las! bet"een t!e
"orldvie"s presented in 4ussian pro%.overnment media and Ukrainian media
assoiated "it! t!e opposition. T!e opposition !as to be understood in a "ider
senseM bot! as politial formations and movement of t!e broad masses of
population advoatin. t!e removal of t!e ambient re.ime. T!e politial fritions
inside t!e opposition, su! as onflits bet"een t!e oppositionist politiians, or
bet"een 'GOs and politiians, or bet"een ,ournalists and politiians are skipped,
"!i! s!ould not be vie"ed as an attempt to ne.let t!eir relevane. 3n t!e
desribed informational "ar opposition politiians and ativists of 'GOs !ad to rely
on ,ournalists and to some e<tent speak "it! t!eir voie, !ene t!ese onflits "ere
s!ifted to t!e bak.round. 3t is also "ort! notin. t!at t!ere is a lar.e number of
media reourses in 4ussia t!at are ritial of PutinCs re.ime and Ukrainian state
media in times of Janukovy!Ts rei.n represented rou.!ly t!e same position on t!e
Euromaidan as t!e 4ussian pro%.overnment media. T!us t!e presented points of
vie" an be alled 4ussian and Ukrainian only "it! a bi. reservation, as t!ey an
be re.arded only as partially representative to 4ussian and Ukrainian soiety
respetively.
Pro%European protests in Ukraine "ere "idely supported by t!e pro.ressive
and pro%European media sine t!eir very be.innin.. $lso, t!e ,ournalist
environment played a si.nifiant role in t!e events of Euromaidan, "!i! an be
,ustified by t!e fat t!at "ell%kno"n Ukrainian ,ournalist #ustafa 'ayem "as one
of t!e leadin. or.anizers of t!e protest. 'ayem is one of t!e most reo.nized and
valued ,ournalist amon. t!e youn. Ukrainians. -ormer T:i station orrespondent,
no"adays !e "orks for t!e ne"spaper Ukrainskaya Pravda IUkrainian Trut+K and
Hro,adskeTM IPublic TMK ? t!e latter bein. t!e non%profit 3nternet television t!at
emer.ed parallel to Euromaidan. Z0otsyuba DL@H[ He is also notably ative in soial
media "!i! due to t!eir openness, mass sale and simpliity of use .ive t!e
opportunity to enable t!e sno"ball effet and en.a.e lots of people into every kind
of mass event, be it rok onert or mass demonstration of a politial nature. Due
to t!e !u.e importane of t!e soial media like -aebook and T"itter amon. t!e
youn.er .eneration of Ukrainians 'ayem !ad an opportunity to all to.et!er
t!ousands of people to t!e 3ndependene (Uuare in 0iev immediately after t!e
information about !an.in. t!e ourse of .overnment !as been .iven to t!e publi.
77

#ustafa 'ayem is also onsidered an aut!or of t!e term Euro,aidan itself
beause it "as !is T"itter "!ere t!is term "as for t!e first time used publilyM F3Cm
.oin. to t!e Euromaidan. $ll "!o !ave t!e opportunity to ome durin. t!e day are
asked to do soX our .uys need your support. General meetin., aordin. to t!e
previous arran.ements, "ill take plae at W P#G. Z&!ervonenko DL@H[ T!is terse and
media%friendly term ontainin. in t!e same time t!e .uidin. priniple of t!e
demonstrations immediately .ained t!e favour of t!e people demonstratin. on t!e
3ndependene (Uuare. Ot!er t!in.s t!at ould !ave been ontributed to 'ayemTs
inredible popularity as t!e media fae of Euromaidan "ere !is independene from
all kind of politial parties, oura.eous ,ournalist ativity, often in t!e very !ot spot
of t!e events and t!e openness of !is ritiism to"ards Janukovy!cs re.ime.
ZFJanukovy! vs. #ustafa 'ayemG[
Durin. t!e first "eek of t!e protests 4ussian -ederation observed t!em in
nearly omplete silene. T!is only !an.ed on 'ovember HL
t!
DL@H "!en t!e
Ukrainian aut!orities deided to use speial polie fore #erkut a.ainst unarmed
people .at!ered on t!e streets. T!e offiial prete<t of t!e use of fore t!at fateful
day "as t!e need to arry out t!e preparations of t!e sUuare for &!ristmas,
inludin. leanin. and settin. up t!e &!ristmas tree. $ordin. to loal militiaCs
spokesperson t!e muniipal servies responsible for t!e preparations "ere
onerned about t!e ensuin. situation and t!us turned to militia. 4e.ardin. t!e
use of fore t!e spokesperson stated t!e follo"in.M FPeople .at!ered on t!e streets
"ere !inderin. t!e preparations and be!avin. violently, !ene t!e fore "as used to
restore orderG. ZF/erkutivtsi rozi!naly JevromaydandG[ T!is version "as also
onfirmed by t!e rulin. Party of 4e.ions, inludin. president Janukovy!Cs advisor
#ik!ail &!e!etov, "!o stated t!at bot! people of 0iev and tourists "is!ed to see
on t!e sUuare F&!ristmas tree and ie rink, not some noisy protest ationG
%
.
ZF4e.ional &!e!etov o raz.one JevromaydanadG[ T!e version .iven by t!e 4ussian
media does not differ mu! from t!e version reported by t!e Ukrainian .overnment
fores. -or e<ample, on t!e "ebsite of t!e ne"s a.eny 3!" Novosti t!e artile on
events of 'ovember HL is entitled Ministry of !nternal "ffairs of Ukraine- t+e radicals
involved in t+e clas+es on Nove,ber 4& in Aiev and is basially a summary of vie"s
of t!e 3nterior #inister :italiy Ba!ar!enko onernin. t!e ase of dispersion of
demonstrators. Ba!ar!enko laims t!at all t!e peaeful demonstrators Ie...
studentsK left t!e 3ndependene (Uuare voluntarily lon. before #erkut ame in and
t!e fore "as applied only a.ainst radial nationalists and !ooli.ans. $ordin. to
Ba!ar!enko, fore "as used a.ainst people on t!e streets "it! full onsent of t!e
aut!orities but Fit !as to be understood, to "!i! or.anizations t!ose people
belon.edG. ZF#:D UkrainyM radikaly u!astvovalidG[
Ho"ever, t!e Ukrainian media presented t!ese events in a different li.!t. $s
reported by t!e ne"spaper MariantyM Ft!e mornin. of 'ovember HL
t!
task fore
#erkut dispersed !undreds of peaeful demonstrators. T!en about a dozen
protesters "ere !ospitalized, more t!an t!irty people "ere detained but later
releasedG. ZFJanukovy! znays!ov triok! vynnyk!dG[ Ukrainian Trut+,
Hro,adskeTM and information a.eny UN!"N also reported on t!e beatin. of t"o
Ukrainian ,ournalists ? Dmytro Hnap and Jakov 2ubi! by unidentified individuals.
T!is event took plae on DA
t!
of 'ovember and "as i.nored by militia. $ordin. to
t!e beaten ,ournalists t!emselves, t!e assault "as undoubtedly ommissioned by
t!e .overnment fores. ZFU 0yyevi nevidomi pobylyd, U tsentri 0yyeva Ftitus!kyGdG[
3t "as t!en t!at t!e responses of 4ussia Iand pro%4ussian UkrainiansK on one
!and, and t!e +est Iand pro%+estern UkrainiansK !ave beome more foreful and
t!e anta.onisms "ere doomed to ontinuously .ro" ever sine. 4adial reations of
t!e .overnment aused some radialization of bot! demands and met!ods on t!e
protestersC side. Demonstrators in 0iev Iand in ot!er Ukrainian ities to "!i! t!e
protests !ave spread at t!at timeK no lon.er strived for t!e ad,ustments in t!e
78

politial ourse of t!e aut!orities, but for no less t!an removal of t!e aut!orities.
T!e situation a..ravated day by day and 0ievCs streets turned into battlefield "!ere
t!e re.ular "ars bet"een demonstrators and militia "ent on. $lso, as t!in.s "ere
beomin. more dramati, t!e symbols and mottos of revolution "ere evolvin. into a
more radial and nationalisti diretion. /lak and red fla.s ? symbols of Ukrainian
3nsur.ent $rmy IUP$K and portraits of (tepan /andera
D
emer.ed on t!e streets,
"!i! "as t!e .rist to t!e mill for t!e 4ussian propa.anda. ZFJevromaydan v
Odesse razvernuldG[
Geor.i Pots!eptsov, a reno"ned Ukrainian e<pert in t!e field of
ommuniation te!nolo.ies and politial marketin. points out t!at F3nformation
"arfare takes on speial si.nifiane in periods of risis due to t!e .ro"in.
importane of information in t!ese periods. T!erefore, in times of "ar t!e
strutures of po"er take t!e efforts to .ain ma<imal ontrol over t!e information.
T!e same .oes for plannin. of any substantial politial eventsG. ZPots!eptsov DLL@M
HO[ $t t!e turn of 'ovember and Deember DL@H 4ussians no lon.er !ad any
doubts t!at t!e situation in Ukraine "as .ettin. out of ontrol so drasti solutions
beame reUuired. 3n t!e deisive moments of !istory t!e "ay of presentin.
information beomes more vivid and emotionally oloured so t!at it may easily
affet t!e emotions of t!e publi. Hene t!e sudden advanement of Dmitry 0iselov,
t!e e<treme ri.!t%"in. ,ournalist "!o on Deember A
t!
DL@H "as appointed by
Putin to !ead 3ossiya $egodnya ? a lar.e .overnment o"ned international ne"s
a.eny. 0iselov "as already reno"ned for !is unompromisin. anti%+estern
position ? and +est did not remain indebted to !im, as !is !omop!obi and anti%
(emiti replias desi.ned to disredit t!e opponents of PutinCs poliy as "ell as
onspiray t!eories of !istory, in "!i! t!e +est fi.ures as bot! overt and !idden
enemy of 4ussia, "ere stron.ly ritiized t!rou.!out t!e +estern "orld for Uuite
some time. 0iselov "as by t!at time a reo.nizable fi.ure in 4ussia as "ell, !is
Fonspirational, almost oUuettis! .rin and over ent!usiasti !and .estures !ave
made !im a reo.nizable staple of 4ussian television. /ut it is !is to<i oktail of
punditry and sensationalism t!at !as .ained !im reputationG. Z#ills DL@H[
0iselovCs ativity "as aimed at disreditin. Euromaidan as an ation !eld by
mar.inal and radial nationalist .roups as "ell as people paid up by t!e +est, not
!avin. any real publi supportM FEveryt!in. "as predetermined and sta.ed ,ust like
in t!e movie o%produed by t!e +est. IdK 3n fat, only t!ree iruits rebel a.ainst
t!e Janukovi!Cs deisionM 2viv, Ternopil and 3vano%-rankivsk iruits in!abited by
a total of R million people ? Uuite a lot, but UkraineCs entire population onstitutes
EO million peopleG. 3t "as also emp!asized by 0iselov t!at t!e demonstrators attak
t!e defeneless militia and "ant to overt!ro" t!e le.itimate aut!orities of t!eir
ountry "it! t!e support of forei.n ountriesM F$ rank of poliemen ? youn. lads ?
.ets !it a.ain and a.ain "it! a metal !ain by a ravin. !ooli.an assured t!at !e
"ill miss penalty. 'o" t!e Ukrainian street%opposition turns to t!e United (tates
for !elp sayin. t!at t!eir demonstrations "ere peaeful and t!ey .ot attaked Iby
militiaK. $nd t!e reation of $meria s!o"s its double standardsM if t!e protestors
ated like t!is in $meria, t!e polie "ould open fire "it!out !esitation. /ut in t!e
ase of 0iev ? itCs okay to beat t!e poliemen. IdK 3t seems t!at to t!ose "!o are
be!ind t!ese protests !uman blood is but t!e paint on anvas. -irst t!e poliemen
"ere provoked, beaten and peppersprayed. $nd t!en poor students "ere summoned
to t!e sUuare and ynially left "it!out any protetion as suitable vitims of

D
Ukrainian 3nsur.ene $rmy IUkrainska Po:stanc7a "r,ia, UP$K "as t!e military "in. of t!e
Or.anization of Ukrainian 'ationalists t!at fou.!t a.ainst (oviets and Poles as t!eir main opponents
durin. t!e +orld +ar 33 and temporarily ooperated "it! German fores in !ope of reatin. an
independent Ukrainian state. (tepan /andera "as t!e main leader and ideolo.ist of t!e or.anization.
(oureM !ttpMPP""".ukemonde.omPupaP , DL@E%LE%@R.
79

politial te!nolo.iesG. 0iselov "as also bein. reproa!ful to"ards :italiy 0lits!ko ?
one of t!e leaders of t!e opposition % for !is lose ontats "it! t!e +est and !is
part in t!e p!oto s!oot for German ma.azine for .ay men. ZFDmitrii 0iselev pro
raz.on EvromaidanadG[
4ussian ausations a.ainst Euromaidan, aordin. to "!i! it !ad to be
provoked by +estern a.enies, met an over"!elmin. response of t!e Ukrainian
media. T!e latter delared a suspiion t!at t!ose responsible for t!e beatin.s of
people operate on be!alf of 4ussian speial servies or even are 4ussians
t!emselves. $usations !ave beome more diret "!en t!e demonstrators started
bein. killed. 3nitially, t!ere "ere ,ust fe" separate inidents of deat! on
Euromaidan, but until -ebruary DL
t!
DL@E t!e number of killed people "ent beyond
a !undred. ZFBa so!odni vbyly bils!e @LL lyudeydG[ T!e .uns!ots appearin. as if
from no"!ere, as "ell as t!e operational reordin.s interepted by Ukrainian
,ournalists aroused t!e darkest senariosM FT!ere is no doubt t!at t!ose snipers are
4ussian. T!e distintive pronuniation reveals t!e in!abitants of t!e viinities of
#oso", only one of t!em may be Ukrainian. T!e tapes s!ould be ommissioned by
t!e e<perts IdK and all le.al measures a.ainst t!ese people s!ould be taken. /ut "e
need to stren.t!en t!e ontrol of airports and frontiers so t!at t!ey ould not leave
Ukraine in t!e first plaeG. ZFU merez!u vyklaly Fradioperek!oplennya snayperivG u
0yyeviG[ T!e ,ournalists "ere also t!e tar.et of attaks of unidentified assailants
durin. t!e entire Euromaidan. T!e most reno"ned ase "as t!e beatin. of Tetyana
&!ornovol, Ukrainian Trut+ orrespondent on Deember DE
t!
"!i! resulted in
serious !ealt! ompliations. /rutal beatin. of t!e "oman roked t!e Ukrainian
soiety. Ukrainian Trut+ ommentedM FHer last artile "as an artile onernin.
assets !eld by t!e !ief of polie Ba!ar!enko. Previously, s!e ritiized
#edved!uk
H
, 0luyev
E
, $zarov, 2yovo!kin
R
and t!e Janukovi! family. Until t!e
ase is not duly larified all t!ose people "e onsider initiators of t!e assault on
TetyanaG. ZFPobyly Tetyanu &!ornovolG[ /ut it is :ya!eslav :eremiy "!o must be
onsidered t!e bi..est vitim amon. t!e ,ournalist ommunity. On January DL
t!
!is
si.!t "as !eavily dama.ed as a result of beatin. and !e "as !ospitalized for almost
a mont!. On -ebruary @O
t!
, t!e very day :eremiy left !ospital !e "as s!ot in t!e
!est by t!e unkno"n assailants and died t!e day after. ZFU 0yyevi vbyto
z!urnalista ? B#3G[ T!ese events testify to t!e fat t!at ,ournalists "ere atively
involved in Euromaidan and t!e tra.i fate of some of t!em may !ave been a
ertain kind of "arnin. to all t!ose "!o "ould "ant to dislose t!e F"ron.G types of
information.
European soieties "at!ed t!e esalation of violene in Ukraine "it! .reat
onern. 3n many ities, espeially in Poland t!e ations of solidarity "it! Ukrainian
opposition took plae and by t!e end of -ebruary !ave taken a mass sale. T!is fat
!as been notied and appreiated by t!e Ukrainian media. T!e opposition publiist
Juri (a"iki ommented on t!is as follo"sM F'ot only Polis! politiians, but
ordinary Polis! people are deeply onerned "it! t!e situation in Ukraine. T!ey are
e<pressin. t!eir solidarity "it! Euromaidan in every possible "ay. IdK 3n 0iele
Ukrainian national fla.s are no" deoratin. t!e main streets and to"n sUuare. $s
t!e or.anizers of t!e event say, one !undred Ukrainian fla.s in t!e ity entre are
t!e si.n of Polis! support for t!ose Ukrainians "!o demand rappro!ement
bet"een Ukraine and EUG. Z(a"iki DL@H[

H
:iktor #edved!uk ? Ukrainian oli.ar!, la"yer and politiian, !ead of Janukovi!cs presidential
administration.
E
$ndriy 0luyev ? influential Ukrainian buisenessman and politiian, D
nd
!ead of Janukovi!cs
presidential administration.
R
(er!iy 2yovo!kin ? t!e !eif of staff under president :iktor Janukovy!.
80

4ussia, !o"ever, one a.ain made use of its onsiderable e<periene in
ounterin. internal opposition as "ell as !ostile politial fores abroad and
ontinued to ombat t!e Ukrainian opposition in t!e information spae. $s "e
kno", t!e traditional mass media su! as television and radio are losin. relevane
in modern information ampai.ns, beause youn.er .eneration stiks "it! t!e
3nternet and t!e opponents of 4ussian -ederation are often "ell aUuainted "it!
t!e latest te!nolo.ies reUuired to ondut an ative "eb%ampai.n. /ut also t!e
4ussian information arsenal onstantly evolves, improves and enri!es "it! ne"
te!nolo.ies. Just like in Estonia in DLLO, yber attaks "ere arried out a.ainst
revolutionary fores in Ukraine and all t!e supporters in t!e +est. $ordin. to
Polis! ma.azine Ne:s:eek, people "ere !ired from around t!e "orld by 4ussian
speial servies to monitor blo.s and 3nternet forums and "rite on be!alf of
ordinary itizens !ostile omments on Euromaidan or t!ose +estern politiians
"!o arry out pro%Ukrainian poliy, for e<ampleM F3s #r. Prime #inister Tusk able
to e<plain "!y "e s!ould kiss UkraineCs ass\ (ine "!en are t!ey our friends\G.
T!e 3P from "!i! t!is omment "as sent is in t!e United (tates, ot!er omments
"ere sent from German, Greek, Polis! and ("iss 3PCs but $ndrze, #rozek "!o is
t!e speialist on yber%terrorism "orkin. in t!e Polis! university &olle.ium &ivitas
!as a ertain kind of e<planation for t!isM GJust beause t!e 3PCs are diverse doesnCt
neessarily mean t!at t!e omments "ere atually sent from t!ose plaes. 3tCs a
standard trik of !akers and yber%terrorists "!o donCt "ant to be loated. IdK
4ussia !as one of t!e t!ree lar.est armies of !akers in t!e "orld. T!ere are many
bases in t!e 4ussian -ederationCs territory, inter alia in 0azan and &!elabinsk,
from "!ere a massive propa.anda ampai.n, not only in Poland, is runG. ZF+yna,ei
4os,anie bombardu,a polski internet\G[
2ar.e 4ussian media ompanies also !ave a onsiderable stake in t!e
+estern media market. #ost prominent and popular of t!em is 3ussia Today ? t!e
multilin.ual 4ussia%based television net"ork "!i! si.nifiant e<pansion aused
bi. onern of $merian notables. $s T+e #oston Globe informed, Ft!ere used to be
a time "!en t!e U( media "rote t!e .lobal narrative. T!e "orld sa" itself t!rou.! a
lar.ely $merian amera lens. 'o more. IdK U( forei.n poliy is bein. refleted
t!rou.! a blindin. array of prismsG. ZPintak DLLW[ 3ussia Today !as a format
similar to //&, &'' and Eurone"s and is, aordin. to Danny (!e!ter
W
, a
F!annel of youn. peopleG bot! from 4ussia and form outside 4ussia, F"!o are
ine<periened, but very ent!usiasti about "!at t!ey are doin.G. Z+alker DL@L[ 3t
seems, !o"ever, t!at reporters of 4ussia Today mainly fous on presentin. t!e
point of vie" of t!e 4ussian politial elite, "!i! beame partiularly evident in t!e
ase of a politial risis in Ukraine, espeially after t!e events takin. plae at t!e
turn of -ebruary and #ar! DL@E, namely Janukovy!Cs esape to 4ussia as "ell
as t!e formation of t!e ne" Ukrainian .overnment and unpreedented entry of
4ussian troops into t!e Eastern part of Ukraine. 3ussia Today presents Janukovi!
as le.ally valid president, 4ussiaCs ations as a protetion of abused minorities,
4ussian army invadin. Ukraine as self%defene troops and t!e seizure of po"er by
t!e opposition as a violation of t!e Ukrainian &onstitution and international la".
ZFUkrainian military "onCt listendG[ /ut at least t"o ases !ave been doumented of
,ournalists openly ritiizin. t!e &rimean 3nvasion on 3ussia Today. 2iz +a!l left
on air e<pressin. a statement t!at s!e an no lon.er be a part of a net"ork t!at is
supportive for :ladimir PutinCs a..ressive poliy, "!ereas $bby #artin e<pressed
!er disontent "it! t!e &rimean 3nvasion, but did not leave 3ussia Today. ZF4T
,ournalist resi.ns on airG[ T!is preedene "as ertainly a si.nifiant loss for 4ussia
in t!is partiular information ampai.n.

W
$merian reo.nizable film produer, ,ournalist and blo..er.
81

Even t!ou.! t!e number of people a"are of t!e e<istene of Ukraine as a
standalone politial entity is inreasin., t!e opinions on t!e urrent events as "ell
as su..estions of solutions and visions of UkraineCs future are split "it!in t!e
international ommunity. T!e aut!orities of t!e United (tates of $meria and many
prominent European politiians, inludin. German &!anellor $n.ela #erkel and
Polis! #inister of -orei.n $ffairs 4adosla" (ikorski "ere stron.ly involved in t!e
supportin. of t!e opposition. T!e postulates of protesters reeived an overall
support of a number of +estern demorati states. 4adosla" (ikorski, "!o "as one
of EU visitors "itnessin. t!e si.nin. of t!e $.reement on t!e (ettlement of t!e
&risis in Ukraine from -ebruary D@
st
DL@E, is also a staun! supporter of e<tensive
penalties for 4ussia for its military intervention on t!e territory of Ukraine.
$ordin. to !is statement made on #ar! @@
t!
DL@EM F+e IEUK are t!e lar.est
eonomy on Eart!, "e !ave fored ountries like (out! $fria and 3ran to !an.e
ourse and "e s!ould ommuniate very learly t!at t!ere "ill be osts for
oupyin. &rimea and even bi..er osts for invadin. mainland UkraineG. ZF//&
H$4Dtalk "it! 4adosla" (ikorskidG[
(till t!e international ommunity is far from full unanimity onernin.
Euromaidan. (ome of t!e +estern publiists indiate an over"!elmin. role of far%
ri.!t fores in t!e protests. On -ebruary @A
t!
Palas! Gos!, 'J 3nternational
/usiness Times orrespondent "roteM G/ritainCs &!annel E 'e"s reported t!at
$voboda !as assumed a Fleadin. roleG in t!e street protests in 0iev, "it! affiliated
paramilitary .roups prominently involved in t!e disturbanes. $voboda fla.s and
banners !ave been featured in t!e demonstrations at 0ievCs 3ndependene (Uuare.
Durin. t!e ontinuin. street riots, one $voboda #P, 3.or #yros!ny!enko, reated
an ioni moment of sorts "!en !e alle.edly !elped to topple t!e statue of :ladimir
2enin outside a .overnment buildin., follo"ed by its oupation by protesters.
Ho"ever, despite its e<tremist r!etori, $voboda annot be alled a fringe party ?
indeed, it urrently oupies HW seats in t!e ERL%member Ukrainian parliament,
.rantin. it status as t!e fourt!%lar.est party in t!e ountryG. ZGos! DL@E[ /ut some
of t!e parties of t!e e<treme ri.!t are also ritial to"ards Euromaidan. $s an be
read on t!e "ebsite of nationalist assoiation *ierni Polsce I/ait+ful to PolandK, t!ey
Fe<press solidarity "it! t!e (lavi nation of Ukraine and President :. Janukovy!
in t!eir stru..le for soverei.ntyG and protest Fa.ainst t!e attempts of induin. t!e
ivil "ar and robbin. Ukraine made by t!e Bionist fores of U($, EU and 3sraelG.
Z0osiur DL@E[
T!e attitudes to"ards Euromaidan are not less varied "it!in t!e Ukrainian
soiety itself. 3t seems t!at no" in DL@E t!e fores of anta.onism in t!e ountry are
stron.er t!an ever before. 3n partiular, "it!in t!e Polis! minority of Ukraine t!ere
are onsiderable differenes of opinion on t!e sub,et of Euromaidan and
inte.ration of Ukraine "it! EU. 'ot every Pole is supportive for t!e ations of Polis!
stateCs aut!orities re.ardin. Ukrainian politial risis. #i!al /a,ar, "!o is a
prominent ativist of t!e Polis! minority of Ukraine and a 4oman%&at!oli priest,
states as follo"in.M FT!e buildin. of su! a fitional state "as doomed to failure and
tended to ollapse sine t!e very be.innin., "!i! beame even more evident "!en
t!e .overnment refused to si.n t!e assoiation a.reement. IdK +e pray for peae
and "e pray for "isdom for t!e aut!orities of Ukraine. 3t is !o"ever neessary for
Ukrainians to deide for t!emselves "!at future t!ey "ant for t!eir ountry.
/eause at t!is moment "e deal "it! situation "!en ot!ers deide for t!is nation
and t!e nation itself is stron.ly dividedG. Z/a,ar DL@E[
3ndeed, it is t!e uneUuivoal self%determination t!at seems to be t!e primary
.oal for Ukraine. T!e traes of lon.%term dependene from 4ussia are still very
notieable, espeially in t!e East of Ukraine, "!i! is lar.ely russified. T!ere are
!u.e numbers of people in Ukraine t!at tend to be pro%4ussian and donCt onsider
inte.ration "it! Europe to be a proper !oie for Ukraine. -irstly, t!ere is t!e
82

intelli.entsia of (oviet formation ? t!e pro%4ussianness of t!ese people is of t!e
most onsious nature as t!ey atively ontributed to t!e (oviet re.imeCs lon.evity
and later formed a stron. and ative reationary "in. "it!in independent Ukraine.
T!ese "ell eduated people "ere o%reators of 4ussian propa.anda and
ontributed a lot to Janukovy!Cs rise to po"er "it! t!eir effetive politial
te!nolo.ies. Professor Dmytro Taba!nyk, a former UkraineCs #inister of
Eduation I#ar! @@, DL@L ? -ebruary DH, DL@EK is t!e fi.ure "!ose ontribution to
Janukovy!Cs re.ime "as espeially si.nifiant. To mention ,ust one of Taba!nykCs
statementsM FGaliians I"estern UkrainiansK pratially donCt !ave anyt!in. in
ommon "it! t!e people of Great Ukraine, not in mentality, not in reli.ion, not in
lin.uistis, not in t!e politial arenaG. Z-edus!!ak DL@L[ (tatements like t!e one
above obviously serve t!e purpose of reatin. ertain vision of +estern Ukrainians
as separatist and nationalisti and in t!e same time, parado<ially, too stron.ly
linked to t!e +estern ultural ore beause of lon.%dra"n politial dependene on
4zezpospolita and $ustro%Hun.arian Empire. Dmytro Taba!nyk, durin. !is
politial areer t!at started in (oviet times and ame to an end beause of t!e
events of Euromaidan, !as made every possible effort to reinfore t!e e<istin.
anta.onisms bet"een people livin. in different re.ions of t!e ountry.
T!e .roup of soially deprived people "!o !ave suffered from t!e politial
and eonomi transformation is also Uuite numerous. T!ose people are mostly non%
Uualified "orkers "it! only basi eduation, bot! 4ussian% and Ukrainian%
speakin.. 3n todayCs rapidly !an.in. "orld t!ey yearn for relatively stable and
seure life t!at t!e (oviet re.ime offered to t!eir kind of people. T!ey do vote for
pro%4ussian parties like T!e &ommunist Party of Ukraine and Party of 4e.ions but
only beause t!ey do not identify t!emselves "it! t!e state t!at didnCt took a
suffiient are for t!eir interests. 3t an t!us be onluded, t!at t!eir seemin.ly
pro%4ussian position is in fat t!e nostal.ia for (oviet Union "!erein 4ussians "ere
t!e dominant element and !as little to do "it! t!eir o"n national identity. 3n ase
of t!is .roup 4ussian soial te!nolo.ists are t!erefore intendin. to stren.t!en t!is
nostal.ia and enliven t!e symbols of t!e fallen empire so t!at 4ussian -ederation
may appear as !eir to U((4 and defender of t!e old Ibut not for.ottenK values.
T!ere is also t!e issue of et!ni 4ussians livin. in Ukraine "!o in fat
onstitute a lar.e minority of population in some iruits in t!e sout!%eastern part
of t!e ountry and t!e ma,ority of population in $utonomous 4epubli of &rimea
"!ose le.al status is urrently bein. disputed. 4ussian people livin. in Ukraine and
/alti states !ave been .radually loosin. t!eir former position as e<%(oviet
republis "ent t!rou.! a politial transformation, !ene t!ey tend to be even more
loyal to"ards :ladimir PutinCs and Dmitiriy #edvedevCs poliy t!an t!eir tribesmen
from 4ussia onludin. t!is poliy to be a tool to up!old t!eir vital interests. On
t!e ot!er !and, many et!ni 4ussians fully respet t!e soverei.nty of Ukrainian
state unlike many of t!e et!ni Ukrainians.
T!e division into +estern, Ukrainian%speakin. Ukrainians and Eastern,
4ussian%speakin. Ukrainians appears to be a lar.ely simplified, inaurate and
artifiial division. T!ere is a lan.ua.e barrier to some e<tent, as a lar.e part of t!e
older .eneration of people in t!e East does not speak in any lan.ua.e ot!er t!an
4ussian, and does not use t!e 3nternet, so it is !i.!ly e<posed to t!e influene of
4ussop!one mainstream media. $nd t!ose media form an ima.e of onstant t!reat
for t!e 4ussian lan.ua.e and ulture from t!e nationalist fores in UkraineM
F4ussian #inister I(er.ei 2avrovK ur.ed t!e (eretary%General of t!e &ounil of
Europe to demonstrate sustainability in t!e approa! to t!e events in Ukraine and
pay partiular attention to deisions inonsistent "it! European la" and violatin.
t!e ri.!ts of 4ussians and ot!er minorities in UkraineG. ZF2avrov obratil vnimaniye
na us!!emleniyedG[ T!e lin.uisti situation is in fat t"ofold. T!e number of
s!ools in "!i! Ukrainian lan.ua.e is tau.!t is almost ne.li.ible in t!e eastern
83

iruits of Ukraine, "!ereas in t!e "estern part of t!e ountry and in 0iev 4ussian
lan.ua.e ontinuously looses popularity. Ho"ever !anes are small t!at lan.ua.e
itself an be a barrier to ommuniation, espeially for youn.er people. T!e
perenta.e of people speakin. En.lis! inreases and many Ukrainian media, su!
as Ukrainian Trut+ or TMi ondut t!eir pro.rams in bot! Ukrainian and 4ussian.
3t is up to every individual Ukrainian in "!i! version of t!e same events !e
"ants to believe and t!is is t!e fundamental !oie t!at t!e future of Ukraine
depends on. 4e.ardless of !o" t!e furt!er events in Ukraine "ill .oX it is needed to
say t!at t!e revolution of Euromaidan is unpreedented in t!e modern UkraineCs
!istory. T!e use of brute fore resulted in a po"erful mobilization of dormant
ener.y levels "it!in soiety. $mon. t!e protesters "ere representatives of various
soial .roups, t!eir avera.e a.e "ere HR years and many politial e<perts vie"
Euromaidan as t!e first .eopolitial revolution of t!e D@
st
entury. ZF(upport
Ukrainians and t!ey an !elpdG[ Ole! 4ybalkin, ativist of t!e 'GO $pilna $prava
Io,,on auseK said in t!e debate on TMi, t!at Fpeople did not ,ust ome out to
!an.e one tsar IJanukovi!K to anot!er tsar I0lits!ko or JaenukKG. ZF#y bez krovi
vladu ne viddamoG[ 3n t!e opinion of Oksana Babuz!ko it "ould be "ron. to t!ink
t!at Ukraine "ants to simply move from one sp!ere of influene into t!e ot!er. T!e
aim of Euromaidan reators and ativists "as not ,ust t!e politial impat, but t!e
transformation of a"areness of people "!o are ,ust no" "akin. up from t!e torpor
of t!e (oviet Union. T!e "riter says to a 4ussian intervie"erM FHere and no" t!e
ne" forms of interpersonal relations are bein. rated. T!ose forms are based on t!e
ne" system of values, not t!e one in!erited from t!e (oviet Union, nor t!e one t!at
is bein. e<ported from t!e +est "it! its ult of "ealt! and division into better and
"orseG. Z4ybakova DL@E[ T!e memory of t!e ultimate effets of t!e Oran.e
4evolution DLLE, !o"ever, .ives some serious doubts as to !o" lon.%lastin. t!e
!an.es initiated by Euromaidan "ill prove to be. $nd in t!is onte<t t!e role of
media "ill be onstantly inreasin. and determinin. t!e future politial ourse.

L(terat%reA

@. /a,ar #i!al. Ukrainy "ykorzystu,a dobre inten,e Polski i Polak{". $vailable
online atM !ttpMPP""".kresy.plP"ydarzenia,spolezenst"o\zobazPukrainy%
"ykorzystu,a%dobre%inten,e%polski%i%polako" . Publis!edM DL@E%LE%LQ.
D. //& H$4Dtalk "it! 4adosla" (ikorski, PolandCs -orei.n #inister. $vailable online
atM !ttpsMPP""".youtube.omP"at!\vfgvu+HEUAd:J . Publis!edM DL@E%LH%@@.
H. /erkutivtsi rozi!naly Jevromaydan ta z!orstoko pobyly lyudey. $vailable online atM
!ttpMPP""".LHRD.uaPne"sPEDAL@R Publis!edM DL@H%@@%HL.
E. &!ervonenko :italiy. :yydut%li ukraintsy na Jevromaydan\. $vailable online atM
!ttpMPP""".bb.o.ukPrussianPinternationalPDL@HP@@P@H@@DD]ukraine]maidan]p
rotests.s!tml Publis!edM DL@H%@@%DD.
R. Diuk 'adia. EuromaidanM UkraineCs (elf%Or.anizin. 4evolution. $vailable online atM
!ttpMPP"""."orldaffairs,ournal.or.PartilePeuromaidan%ukraineCs%self%or.anizin.%
revolution Publis!edM DL@E%LH.
W. Dmitrii 0iselev pro raz.on Evromaidana i :italiya 0li!ko. $vailable online atM
!ttpsMPP""".youtube.omP"at!\vfDTmG4+"r@m3 Publis!edM DL@H%@D%LO.
Q. -edus!!ak 'atalia. -uror over Taba!nyk appointment risin.. $vailable online atM
!ttpMPP""".kyivpost.omPontentPukrainePfuror%over%taba!nyk%appointment%
risin.%WDLOW.!tml Publis!edM DL@L%LH%@A.
O. Gos! Palas!. EuromaidanM T!e Dark (!ado"s Of T!e -ar%4i.!t 3n Ukraine
Protests. $vailable online atM !ttpMPP""".ibtimes.omPeuromaidan%dark%s!ado"s%
far%ri.!t%ukraine%protests%@RRWWRE Publis!edM DL@E%LD%@A.
84

A. 0osiur Dariusz. Popieramy prezydenta +. Januko"yza " "ale z sy,onistyznym
bandytyzmem U($, UE, 3zraela. $vailable online atM
!ttpMPP"iernipolse."ordpress.omPDL@EPL@PDRPpopieramy%prezydenta%"%
,anuko"yza%"%"ale%z%sy,onistyznym%bandytyzmem%usa%ue%izraelaP Publis!edM
DL@E%L@%DR.
@L. 0otsyuba Ole!. UkraineCs /attle for Europe. $vailable online atM
!ttpMPP""".nytimes.omPDL@HP@@PHLPopinionPukraines%battle%for%
europe.!tml\]rfL Publis!edM DL@H%@@%DA.
@@. 2avrov obratil vnimaniye na us!!emleniye yazykovyk! prav russkik! na Ukraine.
$vailable online atM !ttpMPPria.ruP"orldPDL@ELDDRPAAWAQ@QDW.!tml Publis!edM
DL@E%LD%DR.
@D. 2ukasze"iz $leksander. 4ossiyskaya tsenzura. $vailable online atM
!ttpMPPsiba.infoPinde<.p!pPDLLA%LQ%L@%@L%D@%@WPQRAE%%%%%v%%vs%% Publis!edM
DL@H%LE%DD.
@H. #0e" #olly, #aniatis Gre.ory. Playin. by PutinCs tatis. $vailable online atM
!ttpMPPinosmi.ruP"orldPDL@ELH@@PD@OELWRO@.!tml Publis!edM DL@E%LH%@@.
@E. #ills 2aura. 4ussia state ne"s a.eny .ets ontroversial !ief. $vailable online atM
!ttpMPPbi.story.ap.or.PartilePrussia%ne"s%a.eny%appoints%ontroversial%leader
Publis!edM DL@H%@D%LA.
@R. #:D UkrainyM radikaly u!astvovali v stolknoveniak! HL noyabrya v 0iyeve.
$vailable online atM !ttpMPPria.ruP"orldPDL@ELDLQPAAHQLRAWD.!tml Publis!edM
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!ttpMPPtvi.uaPpro.ramPDL@HPLHPD@Ppolitklub]vitaliya]portnykova]vid]DLLHDL@H
Publis!edM DL@H%LH%DL.
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!ttpMPP""".!i.!beam.omPdoP@PD%QAALOER.!tml Publis!edM DLLW%@@%@A.
@O. Pobyly Tetyanu &!ornovol. $vailable online atM
!ttpMPP""".pravda.om.uaPne"sPDL@HP@DPDRPQLLODARP Publis!edM DL@H%@D%DR.
@A. Pots!eptsov Geor.i. 3nformatsionnyye voyny. :akler Press 0iev, DL@@.
DL. 4e.ional &!e!etov o raz.one JevromaydanaM :inovaty te, kto ne daval ustanovitC
yelku. $vailable online atM !ttpMPPkorrespondent.netPukrainePpolitisPHDQH@HH%
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online atM !ttpMPP""".olta.ruPartilesPliteraturePDHAW Publis!edM DL@E%LH%@D.
DH. (a"iki Juri. (olidarna z Ukryinoyu Pols!!a odya!ayetsya u syno%z!ovte.
$vailable online atM !ttpMPP""".radiosvoboda.or.PontentPartilePDR@ALRHE.!tml
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DW. U 0yyevi vbyto z!urnalista ? B#3. $vailable online atM !ttpMPPdt.uaPU04$3'EPu%
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85

DO. U tsentri 0yyeva Ftitus!kyG pobyly ne tilky z!urnalistiv, a y militsioneriv. $vailable
online atM !ttpMPP""".pravda.om.uaPne"sPDL@HP@@PDAPQLLHREOP Publis!edM
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!ttpMPPrt.omPne"sPyanukovi!%statement%ukraine%rimea%LQEP Publis!edM DL@E%
LH%@@.
HL. +alker (!a"n. 4ussia Today, Tomorro" t!e +orld. $vailable online atM
!ttpMPP""".!i.!beam.omPdoP@PD%DROAEDAD.!tml Publis!edM DL@L%LA%DL.
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HH. Janukovy! vs. #ustafa 'ayem. $vailable online atM
!ttpsMPP""".youtube.omP"at!\vfzt#E0]aA]0 Publis!edM DLLA%@D%DW.
HE. Janukovy! znays!ov triok! vynnyk! u roz!oni Jevromaydanu HL lystopada.
$vailable online atM !ttpMPP""".varianty.netP@WERL%yanukovy!%znais!ov%trok!%
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HR. Jevromaydan v Odesse razvernul RLL%metrovyy fla. Ukrainy. $vailable online atM
!ttpMPPfakty.itv.uaPruPinde<Pread%ne"sPidP@RLE@HL Publis!edM DL@E%LD%@Q.
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!ttpMPPipress.uaPne"sPza]so.odni]vbyly]bils!e]@LL]lyudey]]medyky]na]maydani
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HQ. Bubok :ladislav. $ -ailed EmpireM T!e (oviet Union in t!e &old +ar from (talin to
Gorba!ov. University of 'ort! &arolina Press, DLLA.

86

Ukra(ne 7&. R%&&(an Fe'erat(onA
01a""enge& A1ea' an' I23"(5at(on& for Internat(ona"
La/

+o,ie! -orysinski

Eastern Mediterranean University in /a,angusta, Nort+ern yprus

A>&tra5t

T!e purpose of t!is ontribution is to offer a series of preliminary refletions on t!e
international le.al dimension of t!e situation in Ukraine and to onstrut a le.al
ase, even if, at least for t!e time bein., t!e ase is only virtual, bet"een Ukraine
and t!e 4ussian -ederation. T!e paper fouses, first, on t!e partiesM Ukraine and
t!e 4ussian -ederation, bot! involved in buildin. up t!eir ases usin. many
available !annels and instruments, seond, on t!e ,ud.es on t!ose seleted states
and international or.anizations "!o !ave already taken positions onernin. t!e
le.alityPille.ality of ations and omissions of t!e parties. T!e paper ontends t!at
t!is ase is a le.al ase, a le.al dispute onernin. many Uuestions of international
la" and t!e e<istene of fats onstitutin. violations of international obli.ations
attributable to t!e parties. T!e final setion offers some tentative, onludin.
remarks onernin. t!e future of t!is ase, t!e prospet of its referral to an
independent international ourt or tribunal and its impliations for international
la" at lar.e.

9ey /or'&M international la:, settle,ent of international disputes, adNudication,
Ukraine, t+e 3ussian /ederation

Intro'%5t(on

T!e situation in Ukraine and its impliations are "at!ed by many
international la"yers "it! a sense of disbelief. +!o "ould !ave t!ou.!t t!at t!e
4ussian -ederation, a member of t!e United 'ations, t!e &ounil of Europe and t!e
Or.anization for (eurity and &ooperation in Europe ould effetively anne<
&rimea, a part of t!e territory belon.in. to a nei.!bourin. fello" member of t!ose
international or.anizations, Ukraine\ +!o "ould !ave t!ou.!t t!at t!e parliament
of t!e 4ussian -ederation ould aut!orize its president to use military fore to
a!ieve t!at end\
+!o "ould !ave t!ou.!t t!at Ukraine ould inreasin.ly beome a failed
state ? in spite of Prime #inister JatsenyukCs rat!er at!y r!etori t!at F4ussia
"ill fail to make Ukraine a failed stateG ? !avin. lost a part of its territory "it!out
any meanin.ful attempt to defend it, and urrently unable to effetively ontrol
parts of its o"n territory oupied by armed separatist .roups "!o !ave or.anized
loal referenda and delared independene from Ukraine\ $nd "!o "ould !ave
t!ou.!t t!at santions ould be rat!er s"iftly and effetively imposed a.ainst a
.reat po"er, a permanent member of t!e (eurity &ounil offiially delarin. !er
deep atta!ment to t!e key priniples of ontemporary international la"M state
soverei.nty, territorial inte.rity, self%determination, but be!avin. like a ro.ue state
disre.ardin. t!e most fundamental priniples of international la"\ 3ndeed, t!ere
are reasons to be s!oked.
87

$nd t!e situation in eastern Ukraine ontinues to deteriorate. Ukraine, in
fat, is on t!e brink of "!at ould be an et!nially motivated and e<ternally
inspired internal onflit or, indeed, a ivil "ar.
T!e main purpose of t!is s!ort ontribution is to offer a series of preliminary
refletions on t!e international le.al dimension of t!e situation in Ukraine and to
fous on a ran.e of issues t!at ould build up a le.al ase, if only virtual, bet"een
Ukraine and t!e 4ussian -ederationX to !art t!e le.alization of t!e ase and t!e
territory "it!in "!i! t!e parties operate. T!e ase may never rea! t!e sta.e of
bein. submitted, as a ontentious ase, to an international ourt, su! as t!e
3nternational &ourt of Justie. Ho"ever, t!ere are stron. indiations t!at a le.al
ase bet"een Ukraine and t!e 4ussian -ederation is atually bre"in., and t!is "ill
set out a oneptual frame"ork of analysis, t!e form and struture of t!is paper.
T!e r!etori of international la" !as, some!o", dominated t!e disourse
used by bot! parties, and to some e<tent by ot!er interested ators, "!o tend to
,ustify all t!eir ations or omissions of international resonane, la"ful and
unla"ful alike, "it! t!e !elp of international la". Unfortunately, international la"
r!etori does not stem from t!e fat t!at international la" "as atually respeted.
Professor HenkinCs famous and ommonly Uuoted observation t!at Fit is probably
t!e ase t!at almost all nations observe almost all priniples of international la"
and almost all of t!eir obli.ations almost all of t!e timeG IHenkin, @AQAM EQK, sadly,
finds no onfirmation in t!is ase in "!i! international la" !as been fla.rantly
and arro.antly violated. FOf ourse, violations are not fun.ibleX t!ey must be
"ei.!ted as "ell as ountedG I!bide,K and t!at is e<atly "!at t!e follo"in. setions
of t!is paper "ill attempt to do, lookin. at t!e ase in !and from t!e perspetive of
bot! sides ? Ukraine and t!e 4ussian -ederation, as "ell as ot!er ators "!o,
onvinin.ly or not, offered t!eir ,ud.ment and understandin. of t!e le.al aspets
involved.
T!e la" is rarely unontroversial, !ene, t!e proess of t!e Ukraine v.
4ussian -ederation ase buildin. involves a number of !i.!ly ontentious points of
la" and fat, onflitin. le.al vie"s and interests bet"een t!e t"o parties. /ot!
parties !ave been atively involved in buildin. up t!eir ases usin. many available
!annels and instruments. /ot! parties, for instane, use t!e United 'ations
bodies, t!e (eurity &ounil and t!e General $ssembly, as onvenient tools for
.ainin. t!eir forei.n poliy ob,etives and mobilizin. support amon. ot!er states.
T!e ne<t setion "ill fous on t!e partiesM Ukraine and t!e 4ussian
-ederation. 3t "ill provide a number of observations on t!e ase buildin. proesses
and tatis employed by bot! sides. T!e follo"in. setion "ill fous on |t!e ,ud.esC ?
on t!ose seleted states and international or.anizations "!o !ave already taken
positions onernin. t!e le.alityPille.ality of ations and omissions of t!e parties.
T!e final setion "ill offer some tentative, onludin. remarks onernin. t!e
impliations of t!e Ukraine v. 4ussian -ederation ase for international la" at
lar.e.

Ukra(ne 7. R%&&(an Fe'erat(onA T1e Part(e&

T!e ase bet"een Ukraine and t!e 4ussian -ederation to be onstruted
!ere may in fat onsist of a number of international le.al ases eit!er already
submitted by Ukraine or under onsideration for submission.
One ase t!at !as already been lod.ed by Ukraine a.ainst t!e 4ussian
-ederation is t!e ase submitted to t!e European &ourt of Human 4i.!ts on #ar!
@H, DL@E. T!is ase, an inter%state omplaint based on $rtile HH of t!e European
&onvention on Human 4i.!ts and -undamental -reedoms "!i! bot! states are
parties to, alle.es t!e responsibility of t!e 4ussian -ederation for violations of
individualsC ri.!ts .uaranteed by t!e &onvention. 3nter%state omplaints are not
88

very ommon in t!e &ourtCs pratie and are often interpreted as unfriendly ats.
I/ur.ent!al et al), DLLAM @QO%@OLK. 3n addition, Ukraine reUuested t!e &ourt to
issue interim measures t!at "ould obli.e t!e 4ussian -ederation to refrain from
takin. measures t!reatenin. t!e life and !ealt! of t!e ivilian population on t!e
territory of Ukraine. T!e &ourt ur.ed bot! parties to refrain from takin. any
measures, espeially military ations "!i! Fmi.!t entail brea!es of t!e
&onvention ri.!ts of t!e ivilian population, inludin. puttin. t!eir life and !ealt!
at risk, and to omply "it! t!eir en.a.ements under t!e &onvention, notably in
respet of $rtiles D Iri.!t to lifeK and H Ipro!ibition of in!uman or de.radin.
treatmentKG. T!e interim measures deision obli.ed t!e parties to inform t!e &ourt
of any steps taken to improve t!e situation IPress 4elease, E&H4M @H.LH.DL@EK.
T!e ase of partiular importane t!at Ukraine is "orkin. on, is to be
submitted to t!e 3nternational &ourt of Justie in t!e Ha.ue. 3n #ar! t!e
Ukrainian 'e"s $.eny reported t!at t!e Ukrainian #inister of Justie #r. Pavlo
Petrenko initiated "orks on a omplaint onernin. 4ussiaCs enroa!ment upon
Ukrainian territory. T!e omplaint ould also inlude t!e issue of real estates and
deposits t!at 4ussia alle.edly did not transfer to Ukraine after t!e dissolution of t!e
(oviet Union. T!is ase, !o"ever, !as not been filed yet.
T!e prospet of t!e Ukraine v. 4ussian -ederation ase bein. suessfully
brou.!t before t!e 3nternational &ourt of Justie seems to be rat!er slim. 3t "ould
reUuire onsent to be .iven by bot! parties for t!e ,urisdition of t!e &ourt, in one
of t!e formal "ays provided by its (tatute. 4ussia, !o"ever, still does not, in
.eneral, aept t!e ompulsory ,urisdition of t!e 3nternational &ourt of Justie
I#aro!kin, DLLAM QLLK and rea!in. a ompromise "it! t!e urrent .overnment of
Ukraine "!i! 4ussia does not reo.nize, seems very unlikely. 'evert!eless, it
annot be ompletely ruled out in t!e future. 3ndeed, 4ussia !as substantially
"idened t!e sope of its aeptane of t!e ,urisdition of t!e &ourt and in DLLO
found itself brou.!t before t!e &ourt ? Geor.ia v. 4ussian -ederation % for t!e first
time I+ritten statement by t!e 4ussian -ederation, DLLAM HK. 3t s!ould also be
noted t!at sine @AOA 4ussia "it!dre" a number of its reservations on t!e
aeptane of t!e ompulsory ,urisdition of t!e 3nternational &ourt of Justie
onernin. disputes on t!e interpretation and appliation of several !uman ri.!ts
onventions I#aro!kin, DLLAM QLLK.
3n DLLO, t!e 4ussian -ederation "as brou.!t before t!e 3nternational &ourt
of Justie by Geor.ia in a ase onernin. Fations on and around t!e territory of
Geor.iaG in brea! of t!e 3nternational &onvention on t!e Elimination of $ll -orms
of 4aial Disrimination. $t t!e end of t!e day, !o"ever, after onsiderin. a number
of preliminary ob,etions raised by 4ussia, t!e &ourt, by ten votes to si<, found t!at
it !ad no ,urisdition to entertain t!e appliation filed by Geor.ia on @D $u.ust
DLLO. I3&J % DL@@M @WK.
$not!er option Ukraine mi.!t entertain, is to follo" t!e footsteps of (erbia
and to reUuest t!e U' General $ssembly to reUuest t!e 3nternational &ourt of
Justie to render an advisory opinion on t!e Uuestion, similar to t!at asked "it!
referene to t!e delaration of independene of 0osovo, of onformity "it!
international la" of t!e referendum t!at resulted in t!e seession of &rimea from
Ukraine and its transfer to t!e 4ussian -ederation I3&J % DLLOK. Jet anot!er
avenue, for a semi%,udiial ase, ould be filin. a ase a.ainst 4ussia before one of
t!e U' !uman ri.!ts bodies, su! as t!e Human 4i.!ts &ounil, t!e &ommittee on
t!e Elimination of 4aial Disrimination and t!e &ommittee a.ainst Torture
,urisdition of "!i! t!e 4ussian -ederation aepted in @AA@ I#aro!kin, DLLAM
QLD%QLHK.
3n onlusion, it must be underlined t!at t!ere is no .uarantee t!at bot!
sides "ill ever find t!emselves before an international ourt or tribunal or yet
89

anot!er international ,udiial body "!o determines it !as ,urisdition to deal "it!
t!e ase. Ukraine and t!e 4ussian -ederation may or may not be able to present
t!eir ar.uments based on international la" to independent international ,ud.es.
(till, bot! Ukraine and 4ussia spare no effort in buildin. up t!eir ases before
available fora. T!e U' (eurity &ounil, "!ere t!e parties re.ularly ause ea!
ot!er of misbe!avior is, undoubtedly, one of t!e most important. 3n an attempt to
illustrate t!e le.al ontroversies bet"een t!e parties, and to onstrut t!eir
positions, t!e reords of t!e (eurity &ounil meetin.s, many of "!i! foused on
t!e situation in Ukraine, offer a valuable soure of information.

T1e Po&(t(on of Ukra(ne

3n t!e Ukraine v. 4ussian -ederation ase, t!e position of Ukraine is likely to
entre around t!ree issuesM t!e anne<ation of &rimea, intervention, in many
different forms, into its domesti affairs by 4ussia and t!e violation of !uman ri.!ts
bot! in &rimea and in eastern Ukraine.
4ussia ille.ally oupied and anne<ed &rimea, usin. its military fores and
brutally violatin. international la". 3t is responsible for a..ression a.ainst Ukraine
and anne<ation of a part of its territory. T!is, in s!ort, is t!e ru< of t!e Ukrainian
position repeatedly presented at many U' (eurity &ounil and General $ssembly
meetin.s over t!e past t!ree mont!s and, naturally, t!e first point on t!e list of
violations of international la" Ukraine auses t!e 4ussian -ederation of.
Ukrainian representatives repeatedly appealed to all (eurity &ounil and United
'ations members to find t!e means and measures, multilateral and bilateral, to
stop t!e a..ressor, t!e 4ussian -ederation.
$ndrii Des!!ystia, $tin. #inister for -orei.n $ffairs of Ukraine told
members of t!e U' General $ssembly on #ar! DQ, DL@E, t!at

Over t+e past ,ont+, :e +ave :itnessed t+e ,ost flagrant violations of international
la: since t+e inception of t+e United Nations) "fter t:o :eeks of ,ilitary occupation,
an integral part of Ukraine :as forcibly anne.ed by a $tate t+at +ad previously
co,,itted itself to guaranteeing t+e independence, sovereignty and territorial
integrity of ,y country in accordance :it+ t+e #udapest Me,orandu,, by a $tate
t+at +appens to be one of t+e per,anent ,e,bers of t+e $ecurity ouncil, entrusted
by t+e ,e,bers+ip of t+e United Nations :it+ t+e pri,ary responsibility for
,aintaining international peace and security. IU' General $ssembly Offiial 4eords
? DL@EM @K.

Ukraine aused t!e 4ussian -ederation of violatin. t!e &!arter of t!e
United 'ations and t!e /udapest #emorandum by "!i! five states, inludin. t!e
4ussian -ederation, .uaranteed UkraineCs independene and territorial inte.rity in
return for t!e surrender of nulear arms deployed on Ukrainian territory by t!e late
(oviet Union. Ukraine "ill ertainly e<plore t!e fat t!at 4ussiaCs -ederation
&ounil unanimously approved President :ladimir PutinCs reUuest to use 4ussian
military fores in Ukraine, to stren.t!en its ar.ument. On #ar! @, DL@E, t!e
upper !ouse of t!e 4ussian parliament voted in favor of sendin. troops to t!e
$utonomous 4epubli of &rimea to ensure peae and order in t!e re.ion.
$n important omponent of t!e Ukrainian ar.ument and ausation is t!at
t!e referendum in &rimea, !eld on #ar! @W "as ille.al and t!e 4ussian ation
amounted to a |land .rabC. 3t violated bot! international la" and t!e Ukrainian
&onstitution.
3n t!e ,urisprudene of t!e 3nternational &ourt of Justie, t!ere is no ase
"!i! ould offer a diret indiation of !o" su! an ar.ument ould be put
for"ard. |2and .rabC ases are not ommonly dealt "it! by international tribunals.
90

'evert!eless, in several ases t!e 3nternational &ourt of Justie dealt "it!
territorial disputes or frontier disputes bet"een states.
T!e seond ar.ument Ukraine "ould undoubtedly raise, is t!e 4ussian
ille.al intervention into domesti affairs of Ukraine. Ukraine auses 4ussia of
supportin. ille.al militant .roups operatin. in t!e eastern re.ion of Ukraine,
endan.erin. ivilians, seizin. !osta.es and reatin. an atmosp!ere of terror and
violene. Ukraine is stron.ly of t!e opinion t!at t!e ations of armed |separatistsC
operatin. in t!e (lavyansk and Donetsk re.ions of Ukraine, are in fat diretly
attributable to 4ussia.
T!e ase Ukraine is buildin. in t!is point losely resembles t!at brou.!t to
t!e 3nternational &ourt of Justie by 'iara.ua a.ainst t!e United (tates of
$meria. 3n t!is ase, onernin. t!e military and paramilitary ativities in and
a.ainst 'iara.ua, 'iara.ua aused t!e United (tates ofM

Using ,ilitary force against Nicaragua and intervening in NicaraguaLs internal affairs,
in violation of NicaraguaLs sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence
and of t+e ,ost funda,ental and universally accepted principles of international la:)
T+e United $tates +as created an Har,yH of ,ore t+an '&,&&& ,ercenaries ? ,any of
:+o, served t+e for,er dictator "nastasio $o,o7a Debayle 5 0O2 trained t+e,, paid
t+e,, supplied t+e, :it+ ar,s, a,,unition, food and ,edical supplies, and directed
t+eir attacks against +u,an and econo,ic targets inside Nicaragua I3&J, @AOEM DK.

T!e |separatistsC responsible for ats of provoation a.ainst Ukraine aimed at
underminin. its soverei.nty and territorial inte.rity are desribed as 4ussian
saboteurs and merenaries, or terrorists sponsored by 4ussia. T!eir desription by
t!e Ukrainian side, fouses on t!e fat t!at t!ey are !eavily armed, professionally
trained and led by 4ussian military offiers, t!at t!ey kill Ukrainian polie offiers
and take !osta.es and, in s!ort, operate like terrorists and must be treated
aordin.ly. $ ,oint statement issued by t!e representatives of Ukraine, t!e 4ussian
-ederation, t!e United (tates and t!e European Union in Geneva on $pril @Q says
t!at Fall ille.al armed .roups must be disarmedX all ille.ally seized buildin.s must
be returned to le.itimate o"nersX all ille.ally oupied streets, sUuares and ot!er
publi plaes in Ukrainian ities and to"ns must be vaatedG IGeneva (tatement of
$pril @Q, DL@EK. Ukraine atta!es onsiderable importane to t!e Geneva
|a.reementC and onsiders t!e doument as a soure of ommitment, also for
4ussia.
T!e t!ird ar.ument likely to omplement t!e first and t!e seond is
onerned "it! violations of Ukrainian itizensC ri.!ts. 3t is t!e ausation of
violatin. !uman ri.!ts of t!e people in Ukraine by t!e armed .roups assoiated
"it! 4ussia and t!e fat t!at Ft!e 4ussian leaders!ip !as done not!in. to publily
dissoiate itself from t!e armed separatists and provoateurs or to ur.e t!em to
immediately lay do"n t!eir arms and release aptured administrative buildin.s.
4ussia !as not even ondemned t!e seizure of !osta.es, inludin. ,ournalists, or
separatistsC open ats of <enop!obia and anti%(emitismG I(eurity &ounil, DA $pril
DL@EM @QK.

T1e 3o&(t(on of t1e R%&&(an Fe'erat(on

T!e position of t!e 4ussian -ederation, t!e party aused of violatin. many
fundamental priniples of international la", is likely to be not only t!at of denial
but also of ounterlaims and ounter ausations of Ukraine violatin.
international la". 3n t!e first plae, !o"ever, one an e<pet t!at 4ussia "ill refuse
to aept t!e ,urisdition of any international ourt or tribunal, or raise preliminary
ob,etions, as it suessfully did in t!e Geor.ia v. 4ussian -ederation ase before
91

t!e 3nternational &ourt of Justie in DLLO, if Ukraine initiates t!e proess. Today,
one reason for su! attitude is t!e 4ussian assertion t!at t!e Ukrainian President
:itor Janukovy! "as ousted in an ille.al oup "!i! ended UkraineCs
onstitutional aut!ority. &onseUuently, 4ussia does not reo.nize t!e interim
.overnment of Ukraine allin. it a |self%prolaimed aut!oritiesC or a |0yiv liUueC.
#oreover, 4ussia a priori onsiders t!e Ukrainian presidential eletions planned for
#ay DR, ille.itimate.
$s far as t!e substantial ar.uments are onerned, 4ussia denies violatin.
international la" by anne<in. &rimea. -ollo"in. t!e #ar! @W referendum, 4ussia
s"iftly reo.nized &rimea as an independent, soverei.n state and aepted its
reUuest to ,oin t!e 4ussian -ederation. $s for t!e referendum itself, 4ussia
ontends t!at !oldin. t!e referendum "as in line "it! international la" and t!e U'
&!arter, and "as also in line "it! t!e preedent set by 0osovo. President Putin, in
!is spee! on #ar! @O .ave a determined defene of !is ountryTs ri.!t to absorb
&rimea and laimed t!at t!e situation in &rimea "as akin to 0osovoCs breaka"ay
from (erbia in DLLO.
3n t!e ase of 0osovo, t!e 3nternational &ourt of Justie rendered an advisory
opinion on t!e UuestionM F3s t!e unilateral delaration of independene by t!e
Provisional 3nstitutions of (elf%Government of 0osovo in aordane "it!
international 2a"\G T!e &ourt, by ten votes to four, "as of t!e opinion t!at t!e
delaration of independene of 0osovo adopted on @Q -ebruary DLLO did not violate
international la" I3&J, DL@LM EEK.
$s a footnote, it must be remembered t!at in t!e 0osovo ase, t!e 4ussian
-ederation stron.ly ar.ued in favour of preservin. t!e territorial inte.rity of (erbia
and, more .enerally ommented t!at Fterritorial inte.rity is an unalienable attribute
of a (tateCs soverei.ntyG. 3n onlusion, 4ussia ar.ued t!at t!e situation in 0osovo
did not Feven be.in to ome lose to t!e |e<treme irumstanesC under "!i! t!e
ri.!t to seession may be invokedG and, onseUuently, t!at t!e unilateral
delaration of independene of 0osovo "as not in aordane "it! .eneral
international la" I+ritten (tatement by t!e 4ussian -ederation, DLLAM HA%ELK. T!e
referene to 0osovo in t!e 4ussian narrative seems to be .reatly misplaed.
3n an effort to ,ustify t!e anne<ation of &rimea, 4ussia is likely to refer to t!e
ri.!t of e<ternal self%determination of t!e people of &rimea, t!e ma,ority of "!om
are 4ussian, t!e need to protet o"n nationals abroad or t!e fat it "as invited to
intervene in &rimea. T!e overall "ei.!t of t!e 4ussian |defenesC may not be very
stron. .iven t!at t!ey are based on !i.!ly disputable fats. Jet, 0ris! ontends, Fit
is ironial t!at t!ese laims !ave ome into t!e realm of t!e ar.uable beause
traditional onstraints in t!e la" on t!e use of fore and self%determination !ave
been blurred by instanes of liberal interventionism over t!e last t"o deades.G
I0ris!, DL@EMDK 3n any ase, ea! ar.ument !as to be arefully onsidered by t!e
ourt.
T!e 4ussian -ederation is also likely to re.ister a number of ounter laims
and alle.ations of Ukraine violatin. international la". T!ey !ave already been
presented to t!e U' (eurity &ounil durin. its emer.eny session alled by 4ussia
on #ay D. 4ussia aused Ft!e 0yiv re.imeC and its |+estern sponsorsC, espeially
t!e European Union, of destabilizin. Ukraine. #ore speifially, a referene "as
made to ille.al Fpunitive military operations undertaken by t!e aut!orities of t!e
0yiv re.ime, involvin. terrorists, t!e pro%fasist 4i.!t (etor and ot!er
ultranationalist or.anizations a.ainst t!eir o"n people in sout!%eastern Ukraine.G
IU' (eurity &ounil, D #ay, DL@EM H%EK
$dditionally, T!e #inistry for -orei.n $ffairs of t!e 4ussian -ederation !as
very reently publis!ed a *+ite #ook on Miolations of Hu,an 3ig+ts and t+e 3ule of
9a: in Ukraine 0Nove,ber %&'4 5 Marc+ %&'(2) T!e doument alle.es t!at it lists
Fmost fla.rant violations of fundamental international norms by ultranationalist,
92

neo%'azi, and e<tremist fores "!i! !ave monopolized t!e Euromaidan protestsG
and onludes t!at Ft!e onslau.!t of raism, <enop!obia, et!ni intolerane, t!e
.lorifiation of t!e 'azis and t!eir /anderite syop!ants s!ould be brou.!t to a
speedy end t!rou.! t!e united efforts of t!e Ukrainian people and t!e international
ommunity,G and t!at Ft!e relevant international or.anizations, "!i! in
aordane "it! t!eir mandates must ontribute to t!e ondutin. of ob,etive and
non%politiized investi.ations into t!e numerous violations of !uman ri.!ts and t!e
priniple of t!e rule of la" in UkraineG I+!ite /ook, DL@EM WEK.
T!e list of ar.uments "!i! !ave been mentioned as likely to be raised by
t!e parties, Ukraine and t!e 4ussian -ederation, is, by all means, tentative and
does not aspire to be e<!austive. T!e situation on t!e .round too, may lead to t!e
formulation of ne" alle.ations of international la" bein. violated.

Ukra(ne 7. R%&&(an Fe'erat(onA T1e J%'ge&

/efore t!e real ,ud.es are .iven an opportunity to look into t!e Ukraine v.
4ussian -ederation ase and determine "!et!er international la" !as been
violated, by "!om and !o", a number of virtual |,ud.esC, states and international
or.anizations, !ave offered t!eir vie"s and ,ud.ments onernin. t!e ase at !and.
-or pratial reasons and t!e size of t!is s!ort ontribution, referenes must be
redued to a number of key players. One of t!e most important and ompetent is
t!e United 'ations. Ot!er international or.anizations, su! as '$TO, O(&E, t!e
European Union, t!e &ounil of Europe, G%Q, and very many states, "it!in or
outside t!e U' forum, !ave also spoken.
T!e United 'ations !as offered many states an opportunity to voie,
individually or olletively, t!eir opinions. 3t !as, t!rou.! a number of speial
reports, offered its o"n voie and opinion as "ell. T!e (eurity &ounil and t!e
General $ssembly debates on Ukraine attrated mu! attention and allo"ed many
partiipatin. states to artiulate t!eir ,ud.ments. T!e (eurity &ounil "as alled
more t!an ten times t!is year to debate t!e situation in Ukraine. T!e 4ussian
-ederation found pratially no allies amon. its members sine none of t!e
|traditionalC supporters of t!e 4ussian -ederations are urrently non%permanent
members of t!e (eurity &ounil.
T!e (eurity &ounil meetin. on #ar! @R must be .iven speial emp!asis.
$ draft resolution sponsored by a .roup of forty%t"o states, inludin. members of
t!e European Union, noted, inter alia, t!at t!e &rimean referendum !as no le.al
validity and "ill !ave no le.al effet on t!e status of &rimea. $t t!e end of t!e day,
t!irteen members of t!e (eurity &ounil voted in favour of t!is resolution, &!ina
abstained from votin. and t!e 4ussian -ederation voted a.ainst, astin. its veto
ri.!t.
(peakin. for t!e United (tates of $meria, #s. Po"er laimed t!at Ffrom t!e
be.innin. of t!e risis, t!e 4ussian position !as been at odds not only "it! t!e la",
but also "it! t!e fatsG. #r. $raud of -rane, noted t!at Ft!e violation of
international la" is so obvious at t!is point t!at one almost feels pity at seein.
4ussian diplomay z so formalisti, so finiky in its respet for proprieties and its
invoation of te<ts z stru..lin. to find a le.al basis for t!e oupG. (ir #ark 2yall
Grant, t!e representative of t!e United 0in.dom added t!at Ft!e resoundin.
messa.e from todayCs vote is t!at 4ussia stands isolated in t!e &ounil and in t!e
international ommunityF I(eurity &ounil, #ar! @R, DL@EM H%RK.
On #ar! DQ, DL@E, t!e U' General $ssembly, by @LL votes in favour to @@
a.ainst and "it! RO abstentions, adopted a resolution, titled FTerritorial inte.rity of
UkraineG. 3n its operative part, t!e 4esolution G"ffir,s its ommitment to t!e
soverei.nty, politial independene, unity
93

and territorial inte.rity of Ukraine "it!in its internationally reo.nized bordersG,
Falls upon all (tates to desist and refrain from ations aimed at t!e partial or total
disruption of t!e national unity and territorial inte.rity of UkraineG and, finally,
Falls upon all (tates, international or.anizations and speialized a.enies not to
reo.nize any alteration of t!e status of t!e $utonomous 4epubli of &rimea and
t!e ity of (evastopol on t!e basis of t!e above%mentioned referendum and to
refrain from any ation or dealin. t!at mi.!t be interpreted as reo.nizin.
any su! altered statusG IGeneral $ssembly, DQ #ar!, DL@EK.
Even t!ou.! t!e (eurity &ounil resolution on Ukraine "as vetoed, and t!e
resolution adopted by t!e General $ssembly is not le.ally bindin., t!e role of t!e
U' as a forum for a..re.ation and artiulation of U' member statesC vie"s on t!e
Ukraine v. 4ussian -ederation ase must be appreiated. 3n t!e United 'ations
Ukraine did not obtain all it "is!ed, nevert!eless, t!e fat t!at @LL members of t!e
United 'ations voied t!eir opposition to t!e 4ussian anne<ation of &rimea and
voted in favour of a stron.ly "orded General $ssembly resolution allin. for its non%
reo.nition, must be seriously taken into onsideration.
T!e vie" of t!e U' General $ssembly !as already been taken into
onsideration by a number of ot!er international or.anizations and is visibly
refleted in t!eir douments. -or instane, in a statement, t!e G%Q leaders meetin.
in /russels on $pril DR reiterated t!eir stron. ondemnation of 4ussiaTs ille.al
attempt to anne< &rimea and (evastopol F"!i! "e do not reo.nizeG IG%Q, DL@EM@%
DK.
$ very stron. position blamin. t!e 4ussian -ederation for violatin.
international la" "as taken by t!e Parliamentary $ssembly of t!e &ounil of
Europe IP$&EK. On $pril @L, t!e $ssembly, by @ER votes in favour, D@ a.ainst and
"it! DD abstentions, adopted a resolution providin., inter alia t!atM

T+e "sse,bly considers t+at t+e actions of t+e 3ussian /ederation leading up to t+e
anne.ation of ri,ea, and in particular t+e ,ilitary occupation of t+e Ukrainian
territory and t+e t+reat of t+e use of ,ilitary force, t+e recognition of t+e results of t+e
illegal so?called referendu, and subsePuent anne.ation of ri,ea into t+e 3ussian
/ederation constitute, beyond any doubt, a grave violation of international la:,
including of t+e United Nations +arter and t+e Organi7ation for $ecurity and o?
operation in Europe 0O$E2 Helsinki /inal "ct I&oE, DL@EM @K.

'$TO offiials, (eretary General $nders -o.! 4asmussen and U( .eneral
P!ilip /reedlove, referred to F4ussiaCs a..ression in UkraineG and laimed t!at it
!as aused Fa paradi.m s!iftG and Fa ompletely ne" seurity situation in EuropeG.
T!ey alled t!e situation in Ukraine Foutra.eousG I'$TO, DL@EM @K.
2ast but not least, one must of ourse onsider t!e position of t!e European
Union. T!e ase of Ukraine a.ainst t!e 4ussian -ederation features prominently on
t!e UnionCs a.enda and t!e UnionCs position is a topi in its o"n ri.!t. 3t an be
best summarized "it! a referene to t!e European &ounilCs onlusions adopted at
its #ar! DLPD@ session. T!e &onlusions reiterate t!atM

T+e European Union re,ains co,,itted to up+old t+e sovereignty and territorial
integrity of Ukraine) T+e European ouncil does not recognise t+e illegal referendu,
in ri,ea, :+ic+ is in clear violation of t+e Ukrainian onstitution) !t strongly
conde,ns t+e illegal anne.ation of ri,ea and $evastopol to t+e 3ussian /ederation
and :ill not recognise it) T+e European ouncil asks t+e o,,ission to evaluate t+e
legal consePuences of t+e anne.ation of ri,ea and to propose econo,ic, trade and
financial restrictions regarding ri,ea for rapid i,ple,entation. IEuropean &ounil
DLPD@ DL@EM para. DAK

94

$dditionally, a number of onlusions on t!e situation in Ukraine "ere
adopted by onseutive meetin.s of t!e -orei.n $ffairs &ounil. #oreover, it is
important to note t!at many t!ird states, su! as #ontene.ro, 3eland, $lbania and
'or"ay, ali.ned t!emselves "it! t!e &ounilCs deisions. $lso, pratially on a daily
basis, t!e situation in Ukraine is refleted in t!e Hi.! 4epresentative of t!e
European Union for -orei.n $ffairs and (eurity Poliy, &at!erine $s!tonCs,
statements and omments.
-or obvious reasons, vie"s taken by different states and international
or.anizations must not interfere "it! t!e ,ud.ment of an independent international
ourt, even if, at least for t!e time bein., t!e ase is only virtual. T!e ourt must be
en.a.ed in t!e resolution of a dispute in an unbiased, dispassionate manner. T!e
,ud.es are e<peted to e<erise t!eir po"ers impartially and onsientiously.
Ho"ever, t!e vie"s presented above must not be i.nored, or li.!tly dismissed,
"!en serious alle.ations of violatin. fundamental priniples of international la" are
made and substantiated. 3t is not unommon t!at international or.anizations, su!
as t!e United 'ations, perform Uuasi%,udiial funtions and, as &live $r!er ri.!tly
ontends, Ft!ere is a .reat deal of rule ad,udiation t!at arises from t!e e<istene of
international or.anizationsG I$r!er, DLL@M @LWK.

0on5"%&(on

T!e virtual ase filed by Ukraine a.ainst t!e 4ussian -ederation may, or may
not, find its "ay to t!e doket of an independent international ourt or tribunal.
Ultimately, Ukraine may fail to onvine t!e ,udiiary t!at it !as t!e ,urisdition to
deal "it! t!e ase at !and, or, alternatively, t!e 4ussian -ederation may onvine
t!e ,udiiary, as s!e did before, it does not !ave t!e ,urisdition to deal "it! t!e
ase at !and. T!is remains an open Uuestion. Ho"ever, t!e most likely senario
seems to be t!at of no 4ussian onsent for t!e ,urisdition of an international
ourt.
T!e ase, nevert!eless, is a le.al ase, a le.al dispute onernin. many
Uuestions of international la" and t!e e<istene of fats "!i!, if establis!ed, "ould
onstitute a brea! of international obli.ations.
Ukraine ontends, inter alia, t!at t!e 4ussian -ederation !as violated
international la" by first, anne<in. &rimea, a part of t!e territory of UkraineX
seond, by aut!orizin. t!e President of t!e 4ussian -ederation to use fore a.ainst
Ukraine and, t!ird, by trainin., armin., eUuippin.,
finanin. and supplyin. t!e separatist fores operatin. in eastern Ukraine !as
ated a.ainst Ukraine, in brea! of its obli.ation under international la" not to
intervene in t!e affairs of anot!er (tate. On t!e ot!er !and, t!e 4ussian -ederation
ontends t!at Ukraine violated t!e ri.!ts of t!e 4ussian population of &rimea and
used punitive military operations a.ainst t!eir o"n people in sout!%eastern
Ukraine.
#ost of t!e ators, states and international bodies referred to in t!e previous
setion, !ave already onluded t!at t!e 4ussian -ederation !as ated a.ainst its
obli.ations under international la", eit!er diretly or t!rou.! ations of armed
separatist attributable to t!e 4ussian
-ederation.
T!e future of t!is ase depends in lar.e part on t!e "illin.ness of t!e parties
to find a solution, "it! or "it!out referene to ad,udiation. T!e pro.nosis for su!
settlement is not, !o"ever, enoura.in.. #ore importantly, violations of
international la" may sometimes be Finidental and not t!e ause of disorderG
IHenkin, @AQAM EWK but not in t!is ase. 3n t!is ase, t!e very foundations of
international la" seem to be severely tested and in defene of t!e rule of la", its
settlement is surely indispensable.
95

Referen5e&A

$r!er &. IDLL@K, !nternational Organi7ations, H
rd
edition, 2ondon, 4outled.e.

/uer.ent!al T., (!elton D. and (te"ard D.P. IDLLAK, Hu,an 3ig+ts in a Nuts+ell, E
t!

edition, (t. Paul, +est.

&oE IDL@EKM 3econsideration on substantive grounds of t+e previously ratified
credentials of t+e 3ussian delegation, &ounil of Europe, Parliamentary $ssembly,
4esolution @AAL IDL@EK.

G%Q IDL@EKM G6 T+e Hague declaration, DE #ar! DL@EM
!ttpMPPeuropa.euPrapidPpress%release](T$TE#E'T%@E%OD]en.!tm.

General $ssembly DQ #ar! IDL@EKM Territorial integrity of Ukraine, 4esolution
adopted by t!e General $ssembly on DQ #ar! DL@E, WOPDWDM
!ttpMPP""".un.or.PenP.aPsear!Pvie"]do.asp\symbolf$P4E(PWOPDWD

Geneva (tatement of $pril @Q IDL@EKM
!ttpMPPartile."n.omPvie"PDL@EPLEP@QPJoint]Geneva](tatement]on]Ukraine]fro
m]$pril]@Q]T!e]full]te<P

Henkin 2. I@AQAK, Ho: Nations #e+ave, 'e" Jork, &olumbia University Press.

3&J I@AOEKM ase oncerning Military and Para,ilitary "ctivities in and "gainst
Nicaragua) "pplication !nstituting Proceedings, A $pril, @AOEM !ttpMPP""".i,%
i,.or.PdoketPfilesPQLPAW@R.pdf.

3&J IDL@LKM "ccordance :it+ !nternational 9a: of t+e Unilateral Declaration of
!ndependence in 3espect of AosovoM $dvisory Opinion of DD July DL@LM
!ttpMPP""".i,%i,.or.PdoketPfilesP@E@P@RAOQ.pdf.

3&J IDL@@KM "pplication of t+e !nternational onvention on t+e Eli,ination of "ll /or,s
of 3acial Discri,ination IGeor.ia v. 4ussian -ederationK. Jud.ment of @ $pril DL@@M
!ttpMPP""".i,%i,.or.PdoketPfilesP@ELP@WHAO.pdf.

0ris! '. IDL@EK, ri,ea and t+e 9i,its of !nternational 9a:,
!ttpMPP""".e,iltalk.or.Primea%and%t!e%limits%of%international%la"P

#aro!kin (.J. IDLLAK, On t+e 3ecent Develop,ent of !nternational 9a:- $o,e
3ussian Perspectives, F&!inese Journal of 3nternational 2a"G, :ol. O, 'o. H, pp.
WAR%Q@E.

'$TO IDL@EKM N"TO +ief describes LoutrageousL 3ussia as t+reat to Europe,
FEuobserverG, @A #ay DL@E.

Press 4elease, E&H4 IDL@EKM !nteri, ,easure granted in inter?$tate case broug+t by
Ukraine against 3ussia, European &ourt of Human 4i.!ts, Press 4elease, E&H4
LQH IDL@EK.

(eurity &ounil, #ar! @R IDL@EKM (eurity &ounil, (aturday, @R #ar! DL@E,
(PP:PQ@HOM !ttpMPP""".un.or.PenP.aPsear!Pvie"]do.asp\symbolf(PP:.Q@HO

96

(eurity &ounil, DA $pril IDL@EKM (eurity &ounil, Tuesday, DA $pril DL@E,
(PP:PQ@WRM !ttpMPP""".un.or.PenP.aPsear!Pvie"]do.asp\symbolf(PP:.Q@WR

(eurity &ounil, D #ay IDL@EKM (eurity &ounil, -riday, D #ay DL@E, (PP:Q@WQM
!ttpMPP""".un.or.PenP.aPsear!Pvie"]do.asp\symbolf(PP:.Q@WQ

+!ite /ook IDL@EKM *+ite #ook on Miolations of Hu,an 3ig+ts and t+e 3ule of 9a: in
Ukraine 0Nove,ber %&'4?Marc+ %&'(2, #inistry of -orei.n $ffairs of t!e 4ussian
-ederationM !ttpMPP""".voltairenet.or.P3#GPpdfP+!ite]/ook]:oltaire]'et"ork]%
D.pdf.

+ritten (tatement by t!e 4ussian -ederation IDLLAKM *ritten $tate,ent by t+e
3ussian /ederation) !nternational ourt of Bustice, "ccordance :it+ !nternational 9a:
of t+e Unilateral Declaration of !ndependence by t+e Provisional !nstitutions of $elf?
Govern,ent of Aosovo, !ttpMPP""".i,%i,.or.PdoketPfilesP@E@P@RWDO.pdf.

97

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