UNIT-I

INTRODUCTION
Communication= Com (cum (Latin) = with or together with) + Union (Latin) = Union with or Union together with.
Introuction to Communication!
Communication may be broadly defined as the transfer of information from one point (source) to another (destination) through a
succession of processes:
i. The generation of a thought pattern or image in the mind of an originator.
ii. The description of that image by a set of aural or visual symbols.
iii. The encoding of these symbols in a form that is suitable for transmission over a physical medium of interest.
iv. The transmission of the encoded symbols to the desired destination.
v. The decoding & reproduction of the original symbols.
vi. The creation of original thought or image.
Communication!
Communication is a process in which a person, through the use of signs (natural or universal)/symbols (by human convention),
verbally and/or nonverbally, consciously or nonconsciously but intentionally, conveys meaning to another in order to affect changes.
"#ectronic communication!
!ny transfer of signs, signals, writing, images, sounds, data or intelligence of any nature transmitted in whole or in part by a
wire, radio, electromagnetic, photo electronic or photo optical sys. The definition of an "electronic communication# specifically e$cludes
a wire or oral communication.
Communication $%&tem&!
%hen the information is to be conveyed over any distance, a particular system is re&uired that is 'nown as Communication
(ystem. %ithin a Communication system, the information transfer is fre&uently achieved by superimposing or modulating the information
on to an electrical signal or electromagnetic wave, which acts as a carrier for the information signal. This modulated carrier is then
transmitted to the re&uired destination where it is received and the original information signal is obtained by demodulation. The purpose
of a communication sys is to transmit information bearing signals from a source to a user destination. %hen the message produced by the
source is not electrical in nature, an input transducer is used to convert it into a time varying electrical signal (called the message signal).
)y using another transducer connected to the output end of the sys, a distorted version of the message is recreated in its original form, so
that it is suitable for delivery to the user destination. The communication sys consists of three basic components: transmitter,
communication channel, and receiver.
i. Tran&mitter! The transmitter has the function of processing the message signal into a form suitable for transmission over the
channel* such an operation is called modulation. +t involves varying some parameter li'e amp, fre&uency, or phase of a carrier
wave in accordance with the message signal.
ii. Channe#! The function of the channel is to provide a physical connection between the transmitter output & the receiver output. +t
may be coa$ial cable, an optical fiber, or simply free space. !s the transmitted signal propagates along the channel, it is distorted
due to channel imperfections. ,oreover, noise and interfering signals (originating from other sources) are added to the channel
output, with the result that the received signal is a corrupted version of the transmitted signal.
iii. Recei'er! The receiver has the function of operating on the received signal so as to deliver it to the user destination. This
operation of estimating the original message signal is called detection or demodulation. The signal processing role of the receiver
is thus the reverse of that of the transmitter.
Communication Channe#!
+t is a mechanism for communication between a transmitter & a receiver.
+t is the medium used to transmit a signal from transmitter to receiver.
+t is a physical media & devices, which provide the means for transmitting information from one component of a networ' to (one
or more) other components. ! fullduple$ channel could be modeled as two communication channels.
Re(re&entation o) i))erent t%(e& &igna#&!
+n the present content or in the field of communication, a signal is defined as a singlevalued function of time that conveys
information. The signals may describe a wide variety of physical phenomenon. This value may be a real number, in which case we have a
realvalued signal, or it may be a comple$ number, in which case we have a comple$valued signal. +n either case, the independent
variable (time) is realvalued. The most useful method of signal representation depends on the particular type of signal being considered.
-epending on the feature of interest, we may identify four different methods of dividing into two classes:
.. *erioic + Non-*erioic $igna#&! ! periodic signal g(t) is a function that satisfies the condition g(t)/ g (t0T1) for all t, where t
denotes time & T1 is a constant. The smallest value of T1 that satisfies this condition is called the period of g(t). This period T1
defines the duration of one complete cycle of g(t). !nd any signal for which there is no value of T1 to satisfy the above condition
is called a nonperiodic or aperiodic signal.
2. Determini&tic $igna#& + Ranom $igna#&! ! deterministic signal is a signal about which there is no uncertainty w.r.t. its value
at any time or the deterministic signals may be modeled as completely specified functions of time. 3n the other hand, a random
signal is a signal may be viewed as belonging to a set of signals, with each signal in the set having a different waveform.
4. ,na#og $igna#& + Digita# $igna#&! !n analog signal is a signal with an amplitude that varies continuously for all time, i.e., both
amplitude & time are continuous over their respective intervals. 3n the other hand, a discretetime/digital signal is defined only
at discrete instants of time. Thus, in this case, the independent variable (time) ta'es on only discrete values, which are usually
uniformly spaced. %hen different samples of discretetime signal are &uanti5ed & coded, the resulting signal is referred to as a
digital signal.
6. "nerg% + *ower $igna#&! +n communication sys, a signal may represent a voltage or a current. Consider a v(t) developed across
a resistor 7, producing a current i(t). The instantaneous power dissipated in this resistor is defined by
p(t)/v
2
(t) / 7 / 7 i
2
(t)
p(t) v
2
(t) or p(t) i
2
(t)
8or 7/.9, p(t)/ i
2
(t)/ v
2
(t)
Therefore, regardless of whether a given signal g(t) represents a voltage or a current, we may e$press the instantaneous power
associated with the signal as p (t) / g
2
(t).
Thus the total energy of a signal g(t) will be :/
T
lim

T
T
;g(t);
2
dt
/

;g(t);
2
dt
!nd its average power will be </
T
lim
./2T

T
T
;g(t);
2
dt
=ow, we can say that the signal g(t) is an energy signal if the total energy of the signal satisfies the condition 1>:>? and the signal g(t) is
a power signal if and only if the average power of the signal satisfies the condition 1><>?. The energy and power classifications of
signals are mutually e$clusive. +n particular, an energy signal has 5ero average power, whereas a power signal has infinite energy. !lso, it
is of interest to note that, usually, periodic signals & random signals are power signals, whereas signals that are both deterministic & non
periodic are energy signals.
-re.uenc% Re(re&entation o) $igna#&!
There are many possible methods for representation of signals. +n practice, we find that 8ourier analysis, involving the resolution
of signals into sinusoidal components, overshadows all other methods in usefulness. There are several methods of 8ourier analysis
available for the representation of signals. The particular version that is used in practice depends on the type of signal being considered.
8or e.g. if the signal is periodic, then the logical choice is to use the 8ourier series to represent the signal in terms of a set of harmonically
related sine waves. 3n the other hand, if the signal is an energy signal (nonperiodic) then it is customary to use the 8ourier transform to
represent the signal. )y using the 8( or 8T, we obtain the fre&uencydomain description or spectrum of the signal, by means of which we
are able to discern (to understand something only after loo'ing at it) important characteristics of the signal in a way that may otherwise be
waveform of signal & its spectrum (fre&uency content) are two natural vehicles to understand the signal.
-ourier $erie&!
@et gT1(t) denotes a periodic signal with period T1 and it can be represented by an infinite sum of sine & cosine terms using
8ourier series e$pansion.
gT1(t)/ a10 2

.
A
n
an cos(2Bnf1t) 0 bn sin(2Bnf1t)C (.)
where (fundamental fre&uency f1/./T1)
:ach of the terms cos(2Bnf1t) & sin(2Bnf1t) is called a basis function which form an orthogonal set over the interval T1 and satisfy the
relations.

2 / 1
2 / 1
T
T
cos(2Bmf1t) cos(2Bnf1t) dt/
1
]
1

n m
n m T
, 1
, 2 / 1

2 / 1
2 / 1
T
T
cos(2Bmf1t) sin(2Bnf1t) dt/1,

m & n

2 / 1
2 / 1
T
T
sin(2Bmf1t) sin(2Bnf1t) dt/
1
]
1

n m
n m T
, 1
, 2 / 1

2 / 1
2 / 1
T
T
gT1 (t)dt/

2 / 1
2 / 1
T
T
a1 dt 0 2

.
A
n
an

2 / 1
2 / 1
T
T
cos(2Bnf1t) dt0 bn

2 / 1
2 / 1
T
T
sin(2Bnf1t) dtC

2 / 1
2 / 1
T
T
gT1 (t)dt/ a1 (T1) 02

.
A
n
an .1 0 bn.1C
a1/./T1

2 / 1
2 / 1
T
T
gT1 (t) dt
(imilarly, an/./T1

2 / 1
2 / 1
T
T
gT1 (t) dt cos(2Bnf1t) dt * n/., 2, 4D
& bn/./T1

2 / 1
2 / 1
T
T
gT1 (t)dt sin(2Bnf1t) dt * n/., 2, 4, D
,#ternate Re#ation!
gT1 (t) / a10 2

.
A
n
an (e
E2Bnf1t
0 e
FE2Bnf1t
)/2 0 bn (e
E2Bnf1t
e
FE2Bnf1t
)/2EC
gT1 (t)/a102

.
A
n
(anEbn) e
E2Bnf1t
0 (an 0 Ebn) e
FE2Bnf1t
C
gT1 (t)/

n
A cn e
E2Bnf1t
(2) where Cn/
1
1
1
]
1

< +

>
1 ), (
1 , 1
1 ), (
n jbn an
n a
n jbn an
!nd, cn/./T1

2 / 1
2 / 1
T
T
gT1 (t) e
FE2Bnf1t
dt, n/1, G., G2 DD
Therefore, the above e&uation (2) is referred to as the comple$ e$ponential 8ourier series & the coefficients cn are called comple$ 8ourier
coefficients.
-ourier Tran&)orm!
@et g(t) denote a nonperiodic deterministic signal, e$pressed as some function of time t. )y definition, the 8T of the signal g(t)
is given by the integral
H(f)/

dt ft j t g ) 2 e$p( ) ( * variable f: fre&uency
Hiven the 8T H(f), the original signal g(t) is recovered e$actly using the formula for the inverse 8T (+8T):
g(t)/

df ft) (E2 e$p (f) H
where t/time
The functions g(t) & H(f) are said to constitute a 8T pair. 8or the 8T of a signal g(t) to e$ist, it is sufficient, but not necessary,
that g(t) satisfies three conditions collectively 'nown as -irichletIs conditions:
i. The function g(t) is a singlevalued, with a finite number of ma$ima & minima in any finite time interval.
ii. The function g(t) has a finite number of discontinuities in any finite time interval.
iii. The function g(t) is absolutely integrable, i.e.

dt t g ; ) ( ; > ?
<hysical reali5ation of a signal is a sufficient condition for the e$istence of a 8T. +ndeed all energy signals i.e. signals g(t) for which

;g(t);
2
dt> ? are 8ourier transformable.
H(f)/ FAg(t)C and g(t)/ F
-/
01())2
where, F0 2 an F
-/
0 2 play the role of linear operators. !nother convenient shorthand notation for 8T pair, represented by g(t) & H(f), is
-T
g(t)
1())
I-T
+n general, the 8T, H(f) is a comple$ function of fre&uency f, so that we may e$press it in the form, H(f)/;H(f); e$p(E J(f)), where ;H(f); is
called the continuous amplitude spectrum of g(t), and J(f) is called the continuous phase spectrum of g(t). Kere, the spectrum is referred to
as a continuous spectrum because both the amplitude & phase of H(f) are defined for all fre&uencies.
NOT"! 8or the special case of a realvalued function of time g(t), we have
H(f)/HL(f) and ;H(f);/;H(f);, J(f)/ J(f)

1
]
1

+
(5L) arg (5) arg ;* 5L ; ; 5 ;
Ey $ 5L Ey* $ 5

Kence*
i. The amp spectrum of the signal is an even function of the fre&uency, i.e. symmetric about ya$is
ii. The phase spectrum of the signal is an odd function of the fre&uency, i.e. antisymmetric about the ya$is.
These two statements are summed up by saying that the spectrum of a realvalued signal e$hibits conEugate symmetry.
"3. /! Consider a rectangular pulse of duration T & amp !, g(t)/! rect (t/T), where rect(t)/
1
]
1

>
< <
2 / . ; ; , 1
2 / . 2 / . , .
t
t
$o#ution! H(f)/

dt ft j t g ) 2 e$p( ) ( /

2 /
2 /
) 2 e$p(
T
T
dt ft j A
/!
fC E2 ft)/ Ae$p(E2
2 /
2 /

T
T
/!/E2Bf Ae$p (E2BfT/2)e$p (E2BfT/2)C
H(f)/!/Bf Asin(BfT)C/!T Asin(BfT)/BfTC/!T sinc(fT) where* sinc (M)/sin BM/BM
Kence, ! rect(t/T) !T sinc(fT)
NOT"! 8T, H(f) is a realvalued & symmetric function of fre&uency f because g(t) is a symmetric function of time t.
"3. 4!
a) g(t)/e$p (2t) for tN1
/ 1 for t>1
!ns: H(f)/./(20E2Bf)
b) g(t)/e$p (t) for t O1
/ 1 for t P1
!ns: H(f)/./(.E2Bf)
NOT"! )oth signals are asymmetric functions of t, and hence their 8Ts are comple$ valued.
*ro(ertie& o) -T!
*ro(ert% /! Linearit% ($u(er(o&ition)! @et g.(t) H.(f) & g2(t) H2(f)
Then for all constants C. & C2, we have C.g. (t) 0 C2g2 (t) C.H.(f) 0 C2H2(f)
*roo)!
,&&ume g(t)=C/g/ (t)+C4g4 (t)5 1())=

) (t g
e
FE2Bft
dt
1())=

+ (t)C C2g2 (t) AC.g.
e
FE2Bft
dt
/ C.

g. (t) e
FE2Bft
dt0C2

g2 (t) e
FE2Bft
dt
/C.H. (f) 0 C2H2 (f)
"3. 6! Consider a double e$perimental pulse, g(t)/

'

<

>
1 ), e$p(
1 , .
1 ), e$p(
t at
t
t at
/e$p(a;t;)
,n&! 1())=4a7(a
4
+(48))
4
)
g(t)/

'

<

>
1 ), e$p(
1 , 1
1 ), e$p(
t at
t
t at
,n&! 1())=-9:8)7(a
4
+(48))
4
)
=3T::
i. )ecause of symmetric function, H(f) is real and symmetric.
ii. 8T, H(f) is odd & purely imaginary i.e. a realasymmetric function has an odd & purely imaginary function as its 8TP
*ro(ert% 4! Time $ca#ing! @et g(t) H(f), then g(at) ./;a;H(f/a)
*roo)! 8Ag (at)C/

) (at g
e
FE2Bft
dt (let at/ , then dt/./a d )
C,$" I! +f aP1* FAg(t)C/./a

) ( g e
FE2Bft
dt
/./a H (f/a)
C,$" II: +f a>1* FAg(t)C/./a

) ( g e
FE2B (f/a)
d
/./a H (f/a)
Kence5 g (at) (/7;a;) 1 ()7a)
(a)

(b)
8ig. (a) & (b) show the difference between two sinusoidal signals with different fre&uencies
NOT"! -unction g (at) com(re&&e in time <% a )actor a5 wherea& the )unction 1 ()7a) re(re&ent& 1()) e3(ane in )re.uenc% <%
the &ame )actor a. Thu&5 the &ca#ing (ro(ert% &tate& that the com(re&&ion o) a )unction g(t) in the time omain i& e.ui'a#ent to the
e3(an&ion o) it& -T 1()) in the )re.uenc% omain <% the &ame )actor5 or 'ice-'er&a.
*ro(ert% 6! Dua#it%! +f g(t) H(f), then H(t) g (f)
*roo)!
g (t)/

e f G ) (
E2Bft
df
+nterchanging t & f, g (f)/

e t G ) (
E2Bft
dt
"3am(#e! g(t)/! sinc (2wt)
! sinc (2wt) !/2w rect (f/2w)
((ince rect (t) is an even function so !/2w rect (f/2w)/!/2w rect (f/2w))
*ro(ert% :! Time $hi)ting! +f g(t) H(f), then g (tt1) H(f) e
E2Bft1
<roof: F Ag (tt1)C/

t1) (t g e
E2Bft
dt let tt1/ then, dt/d
/

) ( g
e
E2Bf ( 0t1)
d
/e
E2Bft1

) ( g
e
E2Bf
d

/ e
E2Bft1
H(f)
NOT"! The magnitude of H(f) is unaffected, but its phase is changed by the linear factor F2Bft1.
"3. 4./! 8ind 8T in each case. g(t)/
1
]
1

>
< <
2 / ; ; * 1
2 / 2 / * ) cos(
T t
T t T t A
*ro(ert% =! -re.uenc% $hi)ting! +f g(t) H(f), then e
E2Bfct
g(t) H (ffc) where fc is a real constant.
*roo)! FAe
E2Bfct
g(t)C/

e t g ) (
E2Bfct
e
E2Bft
dt
/

e t g ) (
E2B (ffc) t
dt
/H (ffc)
NOT"! ,ultiplication of a given function g(t) by the factor e
E2Bfct
is e&uivalent to shifting its 8T H(f) in the positive direction by the
amount fc. This property is called modulation theorem, because a shift of the range of fre&uencies in a signal is accomplished by using
modulation.
"3am(#e! R- *u#&e
g(t)/! rect (t/T) Cos (2Bfct)
/! rect (t/T) A(e
E2Bfct
0e
FE2Bfct
)/2C
/!/2 Arect (t/T) e
E2Bfct
0rect (t/T) e
FE2Bfct
C
H(f)/!T/2Qsinc AT (ffc)C0sinc AT (f0fc)CR
In &(ecia# ca&e o) )cT>>/5 we a((ro3imate the re&u#t a&
1()) ?
1
1
1
]
1

< +

>
1 )C* ( A c sin 2 /
1 * 1
1 )C* ( A c sin 2 /
f fc f T AT
f
f fc f T AT
*ro(ert% @! ,rea uner g(t)! +f g(t) H(f), then

dt t g ) (
/H (1)
i.e. the area under a function g(t) is e&ual to the value of its 8T, H(f) at f/1.
H(f)/

) (t g e
FE2Bft
dt, for f/1, H (1)/

dt t g ) (
*ro(ert% A! ,rea uner 1())! +f g(t) H(f), then g (1)/

df f G ) (
i.e. the value of a function g(t) at t/1 is e&ual to the area under its 8T H(f).
g(t)/

e f G ) (
E2Bft
df, for t/1 g (1)/

df f G ) (
*ro(ert% B! Di))ertiation in time omain! @et g(t) H(f), and assume that the first derivative of g(t) is 8ourier transformable, then
) ( 2 ) ( f fG j t dtg d i.e. differentiation of a time function g(t) has the effect of multiplying its 8T H(f) by the factor E2Bf.
Ag(t)C/

e f G ) (
E2Bft
df
Ad/dt g(t)C/d/dt

e f G ) (
E2Bft
df
d/dt g(t)/

e f fG j ) ( 2
E2Bft
df
3r d/dt g(t) E2Bf H(f)
F Ad/dt g(t)C/E2Bf F Ag(t)C/E2Bf H(f)
!ssuming that the 8T of higherorder derivatives of g(t) e$ists, we can generali5e the above result as
(
n
7t
n
) g(t) (948))
n
1())
*ro(ert% C! Integration in the Time Domain! @et g(t) H(f), then provided that g (1)/1, we have f j f G d g
t
2 / ) ( ) (

i.e. integration of a time function g(t) has the effect of dividing its 8T H(f) by the factor E2Bf, assuming that H (1) is 5ero.
g(t)/d/dt A


t
d g ) ( C
F Ag(t)C/ F Ad/dt Q


t
d g ) ( RC
H(f)/E2Bf QF A


t
d g ) ( CR

t
d g ) ( H(f)/E2Bf
!ssume,

t
d g ) ( /f (t)
g(t)/d/dt f (t)
H(f)/E2Bf. F Af (t)C
H(f)/E2Bf/ F A


t
d g ) ( C
"3am(#e! Triangu#ar *u#&e! g. (t)/! rect Q(t0T/2)/TR ! rect Q(tT/2)/TR
H. (f)/!T e
E2BfT/2
sinc (fT)!T e
FE2BfT/2
sinc (fT)
/!T sinc (fT)Ae
E2Bft
e
FE2Bft
C/2E!T sinc (fT) sin (BfT)
!nd H. (1)/1
Therefore, H2 (f)/./E2Bf H. (f)/!T (sin Bft/Bf) sinc (fT)/!T
2
sinc
2
(fT)
=3T:: H. (f) S odd and purely imaginary
H2 (f) S even & purely real
*ro(ert% /D! Con9ugate -unction&! +f g(t) H(f), then for a comple$valued time function g(t), we have gL (t) HL (f),
g(t)/

e f G ) (
E2Bft
df
gL (t)/

e f G ) ( L
E2Bft
df
<ut fSf
gL (t)=-

+
e f G ) ( L
E2Bft
df/

e f G ) ( L
E2Bft
df
,n hence5 gE (t) 1E (-))
"3am(#e! Rea# an imaginar% (art& o) a time )unction! @et g(t) be a comple$ valued, and can be e$pressed as g(t)/7e Ag(t)C0E +m
Ag(t)C and gL(t)/7e Ag(t)CE +m Ag(t)C
Therefore, 7e Ag(t)C/./2 Ag(t)0 gL (t)C
& +m Ag(t)C/./2E Ag(t)gL (t)C
=ow, apply property .1, 7e Ag(t)C ./2 AH(f)0gL (f)C
+m Ag(t)C ./4E AH(f)HL (f)C
Kence, for a real valued function, H(f)/HL (f), i.e. H(f) e$hibits conEugate symmetry.
*ro(ert% //! Fu#ti(#ication in time omain!
@et g. (t) H. (f) & g2 (t) H2 (f), then g. (t) g2 (t)

d f G G ) ( 2 ) ( .
FAg. (t).g2 (t)C/H.2 (f)/ dt e t g t g
ft j

2
2 .
) ( ) (
H.2 (f)/
dt e df e f G t g
ft j t f

2 T 2
2 .
C T ) T ( )A (
H.2 (f)/

e f G t g ) T ( 2 ) ( .
E2B (ffI) t
dfIdt
/
/

e f G t g ) ( 2 ) ( .
E2B
t
(d dt )
/

e t g d f G ) ( ) ( 2
E2BMt
dt
/

d f G G ) ( 2 ) ( .

d df
f f
tdf f j e f G t g


1
]
1

T
T
T T 2 ) T ( 2 ) ( 2
1
]
1

) ( . 2 ) ( . G tdt j e t g
This integral is 'nown as the convolution integral e$pressed in fre&uency domain and the function H.2 (f) is referred to as the
convolution of H.(f) & H2(f).
The shorthand notation is fre&uently used: H.2(f)/H.(f)LH2(f)/H2(f)LH.(f)
3r in symbolic form: g.(t).g2(t) H.(f)LH2(f)
*ro(ert% /4! Con'o#ution in Time omain!
@et g. (t) H. (f) & g2 (t) H2 (f), then,

d t g g ) ( 2 ) ( . H. (f). H2 (f)
F A

d t g g ) ( 2 ) ( . C/H.2 (f)/

d t g g ) ( 2 ) ( . A C e
FE2Bft
dt
H.2 (f)/ e t g g

) ( 2 ) ( .
FE2Bft
d dt @et tU/M, then dt/dM, t/U0M
/0 e g g

) ( 2 ) ( .
E2Bf ( ) +
d dt
/

e g ) ( .
E2Bf
d

e g ) ( 2
E2BfM
dM
H.2 (f)/H. (f). H2 (f) or g/ (t)E g4 (t) 1/ ()). 14 ())
%e may state that the convolution of two signals in the time domain is transferred into the multiplication of their individual 8Ts in the
fre&uency domain. This property is 'nown as convolution theorem. +ts use permits us to e$change a convolution operation for a transform
multiplication, an operation that is ordinarily easier to manipulate.
*ro<#em& o) $imon G%Hin! 4./5 4.45 4.65 4.:5 4./4
To(ic& to <e co'ere ne3t!
-irac delta function
Vnit step function
-C signal
(ignum function
+ntegration in time domain
Dirac De#ta -unction!
+ts unit is impulse. +t is denoted by W (t) and is defined as having 5ero amplitude everywhere e$cept t/1, where it is infinitely large in such
a way that it contains unit area under it curve, i.e.
W(t)/1, t 1 (.) &

. ) ( dt t
(2)
=o function in the ordinary sense can satisfy two rules of e&ns (.) & (2), however, we can imagine a se&uence of functions that have
progressively taller & thinner pea's at t/1, with the area under the curve remaining e&ual to unity, whereas the value of the function tends
to 5ero at every point, e$cept at t/1 where it tends to infinity. That is, we may view the delta function as the limiting form of a unitarea
pulse as the pulse duration approaches 5ero.
1
lim ) (

t
./U rect (t/U) Qif the delta function is e$pressed as rectangular pulseR
1
lim ) (

t
./U e$p (Bt
2
/U
2
) Qif delta function is e$pressed as Haussian pulse of unit areaR
*ro(ertie& o) De#ta -unction!
.. The delta function is an even function of time, i.e. W (t)/ W (t)
2. The integral of the product of W (t) & any time function g(t) that is continuous at t/1 is e&ual to g (1)* thus

) 1 ( ) ( ) ( g dt t t g * we refer to this statement as the sifting property of the delta function because single value of g(t) is
sifted out.
4. The sifting property of the delta function may be generali5ed by writing

) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) ( t g dt t t t g
8ig. -emonstration of generating a delta function using rectangular function
(ince the delta function is an even function of t, we may rewrite the above e&uation in a way emphasi5ing resemblance to the
convolution integral as follows: ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( t g t t g t g d t g

.
i.e. the convolution of any function with the delta function leaves that function unchanged. %e refer to this statement as the
replication property of the delta function.
6. The 8T of the delta function is given by FAW (t)C/. or W (t)C .
())
874


D )
-874
-ig. *ha&e Re(re&entation o) Dirac De#ta )unction
,((#ication& o) De#ta -unction!
.. DC &igna#! g(t)/., H(f)/X
(ince W(t)C ., by applying the duality property to above 8T pair
. W(f)
. W(f) Qsince delta function is an even functionR
Gence
(f) ft)dt 2 ( . .

j xp e
2. Com(#e3 "3(onentia# -unction! )y applying the fre&uency shifting property, we obtain the 8T pair, g(t) W(ffc)
i.e. g(t)/.. e
E2Bfct
F0g(t)2=

e . .
948)ct
. e
I948)ct
t
= J()-)c) ((ince . W(f), therefore, ..e
E2Bfct
= W(ffc))
4. $inu&oia# -unction&! (cos(2Bfct) & sin(2Bfct))
%e 'now that cos(2Bfct)/./2 Ae
E2Bfct
0 e
FE2Bfct
C
& sin(2Bfct)/./2E Ae
E2Bfct
0 e
FE2Bfct
C
There)ore5 co&(48)ct) /740J ()-)c) + J ()+)c)2
+ &in(48)ct) /7490J()-)c) - J()+)c)2
6. $ignum -unction! +t is an odd function of time defined by sgn(t)/
1
1
1
]
1

<

>
1 * .
1 * 1
1 * .
t
t
t
%e may view the signum function as the limiting form of a time function that consists of a positive decaying e$ponential for
positive time and a negative rising e$ponential for negative time i.e. sgn(t)/
) , ( lim
1
t a g
a
where g(a,t)/
1
1
1
]
1

<

>

1 *
1 * 1
1 *
t e
t
t e
at
at

Gence5 F0&gn(t)2= F0
) , ( lim
1
t a g
a
2=
1
lim
a
F0g(a5 t)2
F0&gn(t)2=
1
lim
a
-9:8)7(a
4
+:8
4
)
4
)=-9:8)7:8
4
)
4
= -978)= /798)
,#&o5 /798t -&gn())
Y. Unit $te( -unction! u(t)/
1
1
1
]
1

<

>
1 * 1
1 * 2 / .
1 * .
t
t
t
E H(f)
f 1
(ince, u(t)/./2Asgn(t) 0 .C
Therefore, u(t) (./E2Bf) 0 (./2) W (f)
Z. Integration in Time Domain! @et y(t)/

t
d g ) (
or y(t)/

d t u g ) ( ) ( * where u(tU)/
1
1
1
]
1

>

<
t
t
t

* 1
* 2 / .
* .
Kence,
[(f)/H(f)/ A(./E2Bf) 0 (./2) W(f)C/(./E2Bf) H(f) 0 (./2) H(f) W(f)
/ (./E2Bf) H(f) 0 (./2) H(1) W(f)
i.e.

t
d g ) ( (./E2Bf) H(f) 0 (./2) H(1) W(f)
Data Re(re&entation + Tran&mi&&ion!
The data may represent the output of a source of information that is inherently discrete in nature (e.g. a digital computer). %hen
channel causes an overlap in time between successive symbols, this form of distortion can pose a serious problem to the &uality of
reception if it is left uncontrolled. To avoid this, several techni&ues are used & these techni&ues are based on shaping the baseband
response of the system. The use of an appro$imate waveform for baseband representation of digital data is basic to its transmission from a
source to destination. To send the encoded digital data over a channel, we re&uire the use of a format or waveform for representing the
data. There are several formats (line codes) that can be used for the electrical representation of binary symbol . & 1, as described here:
a) ON-O-- $igna#ing! +n this format . is represented by transmitting a pulse of constant amp for the duration of the symbol (Tb) &
symbol 1 is represented by switchingoff the pulse for the same duration.
b) Non-Return to Kero (NRK) $igna#ing! The format, in which symbols . & 1 are represented by pulses of e&ual positive and
negative amplitudes for the bit duration Tb.
c) Return-to-Kero (RK) $igna#ing! The format in which symbol . is represented by a positive rectangular pulse of half symbol
width (Tb/2), & symbol 1 is represented by transmitting no pulse.
d) Li(o#ar Return-to-Kero (LRK) $igna#ing! This uses three amp levels, specifically positive and negative pulses of e&ual amp
are used alternately for symbol ., and no pulse is used for symbol 1. ! useful property of )7\ is that the power spectrum of the
transmitted signal has no dc component & relatively insignificant low fre&uency components for the case when symbols . & 1
occur with e&ual probability.
e) $(#it *ha&e (Fanche&ter Coe) $igna#ing! +n this method of signaling, symbol . is represented by a positive pulse followed by
a negative pulse, with both pulses being of e&ual amp & halfsymbol width. 8or symbol 1, the polarities of these two pulses are
reversed. The ,anchester code suppresses the dc component & has relatively insignificant lowfre&uency components,
regardless of the signal statistics. This property is essential in some applications.
f) Di))erentia# "ncoe $igna#ing! +n this format, the information is encoded in terms of signal transition. ! transition is used to
designate symbol 1, while no transition is used to designate symbol .. The original binary information is recovered by comparing
the polarity of adEacent symbols to establish whether or not a transition has occurred.
La&e<an an *a&&<an $igna#&!
The message signal delivered by a source of information is referred to as a baseband signal. The term ]basebandI being used to
designate the band of fre&uencies representing the message signal. )aseband (message) signals can be of an analog or digital type. !nalog
baseband signals arise when a physical waveform such as an acoustic or light wave is converted into an electrical signal. The output of a
digital computer is an e$ample of a baseband signal of the digital type.
!nother signal of primary interest is the transmitted signal i.e. baseband or passband transmission. +n baseband transmission, the
band of transmission fre&uencies supported by the channel closely matches the band of fre&uencies occupied by the message signal. +n
passband transmission, the transmission band of the channel is centered at a fre&uency much higher than the highest fre&uency component
of the message signal. +n this case, the transmitted signal is said to be a passband signal, the generation of which is accomplished in the
transmitter using a process 'nown as modulation.
$igna# Lanwith! The bandwidth of a signal (e.g. bandwidth of sound signal is (211121) K5) provides a measure of the e$tent of
significant spectral content of the signal for positive fre&uencies. %hen the signal is strictly band limited, the bandwidth is well defined.
There are some commonly used definitions for bandwidth. The formulation of each definition depends on whether the signal is lowpass
or bandpass.
.. Nu##-to-Nu## Lanwith! %hen the spectrum of a signal is symmetric with a main lobe bounded by well defined nulls (i.e.
fre&uencies at which the spectrum is 5ero), we may use the main lobe as the basis for defining the bandwidth of the signal.
2. 6-L <anwith! 8or low pass signal, the 4 d) bandwidth is defined as the separation between 5ero fre&uency and the positive
fre&uency at which the amp spectrum drops to ./^2 of its pea' value at 5ero fre&uency. 8or the bandpass signal centered at Gfc,
the 4d) bandwidth is defined as the separation between the two fre&uencies at which the amp spectrum of the signal drops to
./^2 of the pea' value at fc.
4. Root Fean $.uare (rm&) Lanwith! +t is defined as the s&uare of the second moment of a properly normali5ed form of the
s&uared amplitude spectrum of the signal about a suitably chosen point.
%rms/
2 / .
2
2 2
; ) ( ;
; ) ( ;
1
1
1
1
]
1

df f G
df f G f
!n attractive feature of the rms bandwidth %rms is that it is more suitable for mathematical evaluation than the other two definitions of
bandwidth, but it is not as easily measurable in the laboratory.
Tran&mi&&ion Channe# Lanwith!
+t is the range of fre&uencies that can be transmitted through the channel without much attenuation or distortion in the shape of
the signal.
Channe# Lanwith! The difference between the limiting fre&uencies within which performance of a device (in respect to some
characteristics) falls within specified limits.
Channe# Ca(acit%! Kow much information can be reliably transferred over a noisy channel. Channel capacity, C, is ma$imum rate of
information transfer over a noisy channel with arbitrarily small probability of error.
Gart#e%-$hannon Theorem! C/) log2 (.0<(/<=) bps
-or Noi&e )ree channe#! !ccording to Kartley law, in the noise free channel of bandwidth ), the channel capacity (information rate) (in
bps) is given by
C=4 L #og4 (F) <7&
2
A
%here ,: number of coding levels, ,/2
n
(n: number of bits per symbol (level))
-or Noi&% channe#! The (hannonKartley theorem gives a formula for the capacity of a channel when its bandwidth ()) & noise level
((=7) are 'nown i.e.
C=4 L #og4 (/+$NR) <7&
%here, (=7 is the pure ratio of total signal power to total random noise power at the input to the receiver (not e$pressed in d)) ( i.e.,
(=7/<(/<=).
NOT"!
,ore signal power increases capacity, but increase is slow,
,ore bandwidth allows more symbols per second, but also increases the noise,

66 . . lim

C
B
<(/<1 (where <=/=1))
The effect of noise on the data channel can be reduced by increasing the (=7. +t is always desirable to 'eep the (=7 as high as
possible to ma$imi5e the signal power so one can receive almost original signal.
"3. /! Calculate the capacity of a standard 6 _K5 telephone channel with a 42 d) signaltonoise ratio.
)/4611411/4.._K\ (!ns. 42`Y4 bps)
"3. 4! ! system has a bandwidth of 6 'K5 and a (=7 of 2a d) at the input to the receiver. Calculate a) its information carrying capacity
b) the capacity of the channel if its bandwidth is doubled, while the transmitted signal power remains constant. (!ns. a) 4b2.Z b) ZZ66a)
"3. 6! +f bandwidth/4_K5 & 7b/41_bps then calculate a) (=7 in d) b) number of levels & number of bits in a symbol c) bit & symbol
duration d) baud rate
!ns. a) 41d) b) ,/42, n/Y c) T/YTb/..Zb cs d) 7/Z11 bauds 7b/7 log2 , or T/Tb log2 (,)
Noi&e!
+n an electrical sense, noise may be defined as any unwanted form of energy tending to interfere with the proper & easy
reception & reproduction of wanted signals. =oise is thus seen as limiting the range of system, for a given transmitted power. +t affects the
sensitivity of receivers, by placing a limit on the wea'est signals that can be amplified. =oise may be classified according to type, source,
effect, or relation to the receiver, depending on circumstances e.g. it s divided into two broad groups* noise whose sources are e$ternal to
the receiver & noise created within the receiver itself.
.. "3terna# Noi&e! The various forms of noise created outside the receiver come under the leading of e$tended noise and include
atmospheric, e$traterrestrial, & industrial noise.
a) ,tmo&(heric Noi&e! This is a form of noise also 'nown as static which is caused by lightening discharges in
thunderstorms & other natural electric disturbances occurring in the atmosphere. -ue to its origin it is in the form of
impulses (spurious radio signals) and because such processes are random in nature, it is spread over all the radio
spectrum used for broadcasting. The field strength of the static noise is appro$imately inversely proportional to
fre&uency and varies according to variations in propagating conditions. Kence, the atmosphere noise is less severe
above 41 ,K5 but the usual increase in its level at night.
<) "3traterre&tria# Noi&e!
i. $o#ar Noi&e! under normal &uiet conditions, sun emits a constant noise, simply because it is a large body at a
very high temp. (3ver Z111
1
C on the surface). +t, therefore, radiates over a very broad fre&uency spectrum,
which includes the fre&uencies used for communications. Kowever, the sun is a variable star and undergoes
a1
61
21
1
21
61
.1
2
.1
4
.1
6
.1
Y
.1
Z
.1
f ('K5)
!verage for midnight
!verage for midday
:stimated
,easured

7
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

=
o
i
s
e

+
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
(
d
)
)
8ig. dariation of !tmospheric =oise with 8re&uency
solar cycles (appro$imately .. years) at the pea' of which electrical disturbances erupt, such as corona flares
& sunspots. ! super cycle occurs whose intensity is even higher after every .11 years.
ii. Co&mic Noi&e! The distant stars also have high temperatures* they radiate noise in the same manner as our
sun. The noise thus received is called thermal (or blac'body) noise from the center of our own gala$y (the
,il'yway), from other gala$ies, and from other virtual point sources such as "&uasars# & "pulsars#.
c) Inu&tria# Noi&e! )etween the fre&uencies of appro$imately .Z11 ,K5, the noise intensity made by humans easily
outstrips that created by any other source, internal or e$ternal to the receiver. The maEor sources of noise include
automobile & aircraft ignition, electric motors & switching gears, lea'age from high voltage lines, fluorescent lights, &
a multitude of other heavy electric machines. The noise is generated by the arc discharge present in all these operations
and it is not surprising that this noise should be most intense in industrial & densely populated areas. The industrial
noise also increases as the receiver bandwidth is increased.
2. Interna# Noi&e! The noise created by any of the active or passive devices found in receivers is 'nown as internal noise. (ince
such noise is random & random noise power is proportional to the bandwidth over which it is measured.
a) Therma# Noi&e! The noise generated in a resistive component of any impedance is random and is referred to variously
as thermal, white, or eohnson noise. +t is due to the rapid & random motion of the molecules, atoms, & electrons of
which any such resistor is made up. The noise power generated by a resistor is proportional to its absolute temp (T) &
the bandwidth ()) over which the noise is to be measured.
Thus, <nf T)
<n/_T) where _/)olt5manIs constant/..4a $ .1
24
e/'
To calculate the resistorI e&uivalent rms noise voltage (dn), the e&uivalent circuit of a resistor as a noise generator may
be drawn. !ssume that 7@ is noiseless and is receiving the ma$ noise power generated by 7* under these conditions of
ma$ power transfer, 7@ must be e&ual to 7. Then, <n/d
2
/7@/d
2
/7/(dn/2)
2
/7/dn
2
/67
dn
2
/67<n/6_T)7

Mn=N:OTLR
=ote that the rms noise voltage associated with a resistor is independent of the fre&uency at which it is measured but
evenly distributed over the fre&uency spectrum.
"3. /! !n amplifier operating over the fre&uency range from .a21 ,K5 has a .1 _9 input resistance. %hat is the rms
noise voltage at the input to this amplifier if the ambient temp is 2b
1
CX (!ns. .a.2 cd)
b) $hot Noi&e! it is caused by random variations in the arrival of electrons (or holes) at the output electrode of an
amplifying device & thus appears as a randomly varying noise current superimposed on the output. %hen amplified, it
is supposed to sound as a shower of lead shot were falling on a metal sheet and hence the name shot noise. +n )eTs, this
is mainly a result of the random drift of the discrete current carriers across the Eunctions. (ince the paths ta'en are
random & une&ual, therefore, minute variations occur although the collector current is constant. (hot noise also behaves
in the same manner as thermal noise, apart from the fact that it has a different source. 8or a diode, the rms value of shot
noise current is given by in=N4.eiL where &e/electric charge/..ZL.1
.`
C id/direct diode current, )/bandwidth of
system.
+n case of all other devices e$cept diode, the formula is either simplified or it is not even a formula for shot noise
current. Therefore, we deal with shot noise by finding an e&uivalent inputnoise resistor, which precedes the device,
assuming the device noiseless.
c) Tran&it-time noi&e! if the time ta'en by an electron to travel from (say) the emitter to the collector of a transistor
becomes comparable to the period of the signal being amplified, i.e. at fre&uencies in the upper dK8 range & beyond,
the so called transittime effect ta'es place, and the noise input admittance of the transistor increases. The minute
currents induced in the input of the device by random fluctuations in the output current become of great importance at
such fre&uencies & create random noise. This high fre&uency random noise increases with fre&uency at a rate Z d) per
octave and &uic'ly predominates over the other forms of noise.
d) -#icHer Noi&e! !t low audio fre&uencies, a very wea' (poorly understood) form of noise called flic'er or modulation
noise is found in transistors. +t is proportional to emitter current & Eunction temperature. (ince it is inversely
proportional to fre&uency it may be completely ignored above Y11 K5.
Noi&e Ca#cu#ation&!
Ca&e I! (,ition o) noi&e ue to &e'era# &ource&)
7e&/7.0720740D7n (series combination of resistances)
./7e&/./7.0./720D./7n (parallel combination of resistances)
Ca&e II! (,ition o) noi&e ue to &e'era# am(#i)ier& in ca&cae)
dn4/^6_T)74, dIn4/dn4/!2/^6_T)74/!2/^ (6_T)74/!2
2
)/^6_T)7I4
%here 74I/74/!2
2
,
7Ie&/7207I4/72074/!2
2
,
72I/7Ie&/!.
2
/(720(74/!2
2
))/!.
2
/72/!.
2
074/!.
2
!2
2
Re.=R/+R4P=R/+R47,/
4
+R67 ,/
4
,4
4
Ca&e III! (Noi&e in reacti'e circuit&)
"3. /! (re(eate) !n amplifier operating over the fre&uency range from .a21 ,K5 has a .1 _9 input resistor. %hat is the rms noise
voltage at the input to this amp if the ambient temp is 2b
1
CX
"3. 4! Calculate the noise voltage at the input of a Td 78 amplifier, using a device that has a 211 9 e&uivalent noise resistance & a 4119
input resistor. The bandwidth of the amplifier is Z,K5, & the temp is .b
1
C. (!ns. Z.`4 cd)
Noi&e -igure!
The noise figure (noise factor), 8, is defined as the ratio of (=7 at the input terminals of a receiver or amplifier to the (=7 at the
output terminals of the receiver. Thus 8/((=7) i/((=7) o/(<s/<n) i/(<s/<n) o (at 2Y
1
C.)
The noise figure can be e$pressed as a pure ratio or in d). !s a practical receiver generates some noise and the (=7 will deteriorate as
one moves toward the output, therefore, the output (=7 will be lower than the input (=7, and so the noise figure will e$ceed unity.
Kowever, the noise figure will be . for an ideal receiver, which introduces no noise of its own.
Lau!
The unit in which the information carrying capacity or "signaling rate# of a communication channel is measured. 3ne baud is
one symbol (statetransition or level transition) per sec. This coincides with bits per sec only for a uni&ue state of the communication
channel* distinguishable by the receiver from all other possible states e.g. it may be amp, phase, or fre&uency of a carrier.
8or an ,ary <!, system with n bits per symbol, the baud rate is given by
)aud 7ate, 7/7b/log2, symbols/s where n/log2, and 7b/bit rate
"3. 6! The first type of a twostage amp has a voltage gain of .1, a Z11 9 input resistor, a .Z11 9 e&uivalent noise resistance & a 2b_ 9
output resistor. 8or the second stage these values are 2Y, a. '9, .1 '9, & .,9 respectively. Calculate the e&uivalent input noise
resistance of this twostage amp.
(!ns. 2Y.a 9)
"3. :! The noise output of a resistor is amplified by a noiseless amp having a gain of Z1 & a bandwidth of 21 _K5. ! meter connected to
the output of the amp reads .md rms. a) The bandwidth of the amp is reduced to Y_K5, its gain remaining constant. %hat does the meter
read nowX b) +f the resistor is operated at a1
1
C, what is its resistanceX
(!ns. a) 1.Y md b) b.Y ' 9)
$un&(ot
! &un&(ot is a region on the (unTs surface (photosphere) that is mar'ed by a lower temperature than its
surroundings and has intense magnetic activity, which inhibits convection, forming areas of low surface
temperature. !lthough they are blindingly bright at temperatures of roughly 61116Y11 _, the contrast with the
surrounding material at about Ya11 _ leaves them clearly visible as dar' spots. +f they were isolated from the
surrounding photosphere they would be brighter than an electric arc. ! minimum in the elevenyear sunspot cycle
is predicted for 211b A.C. (unspots are often related to intense magnetic activity such as coronal loops and
reconnection. ,ost solar flares and coronal mass eEections originate in magnetically active regions around sunspot
groupings. (imilar phenomena observed on stars other than the (un are commonly called starspots.
These are two pictures of different sunspots. The picture on the left shows the whole (un with some large sunspot
groups on it. The sunspot groups in that picture are as big as the giant planet eupiter. The picture on the right is a
closeup of some other sunspots. The large sunspot near the middle of the righthand picture is bigger than :arthg