QUESTION 1

a. List at least five (5) sources of error in the measurement of precipitation at a point.
Typical sources of error in rainfall measurement include
Non-standard collector;
Initial wetting of device;
Tipping interval;
Location (sheltering);
Wind effects;
Non-vertical aspect; and
Instrument range exceeded.
b. Briefly discuss the advantages and disadvantages of estimating the average depth of
rainfall on a catchment using arithmetic, Theissen, and isohyetal averages.
Table has list of advantages and disadvantages
Arithmetic Theissen Isohyetal
Advantages
Simple
Constant across storm
events
Allows for non-uniform
spacing of gauges
Includes gauges just
outside the catchment
which better represent
rainfall on catchment
Smooth surfaces
Allows for non-uniform
spacing of gauges
Doesnt assume all
storms are identical in the
spatial dimension
Computerised techniques
available
Disadvantages
Needs uniform spacing of
gauges across catchment
Results in cliffs
between regions.
Assumes gauges are
located in homogeneous
regions.
No additional descriptive
variates (e.g. elevation)
can be used to estimate
spatial pattern.
Needs to be recalculated
for every storm
Describe how you would distinguish between continuing losses and initial losses in the
analysis of a storm event where you have a surface runoff hydrograph available.
Initial losses occur prior to the commencement of surface runoff. Continuing losses occur
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after commencement of surface runoff.
Infiltration losses during a storm event can be estimated using Horton's equation, the
Green-Ampt equation and Philip's equation. Briefly discuss the conceptual differences
between these alternative equations.
Hortons and Philips equations are based on the movement of water at the surface of the
ground while Green-Ampt considers the movement of water through the soil structure.
Discuss reasons for selection of the depth at which the velocity measurement is made
when a single point measurement technique is employed. Include in your discussion
potential sources of systematic error which may invalidate the reason.
The depth for the single point measurement is based on a logarithmic velocity profile and is
the point where the average velocity would occur. Sources of systematic error include the
velocity profile being non-logarithmic which is very likely given the max velocity occurs
below the water surface while the max velocity should occur at the water surface for a true
logarithmic velocity profile.
Briefly discuss the importance of the three cell circulation pattern with respect to the
location of desert areas on the Earth's surface.
The three cell is a conceptual model of the movement of energy from the equator (surplus) to
the poles (deficit). The cells are 0 to approx 30 , approx 30 to approx 60 , and approx 60 to
o o o o o
90 with rising air masses at 0 and 60 and falling air masses at 30 and 90 . Zones of low
o o o o o
rainfall are associated with falling air masses. Hence 30 will be areas of low rainfall and
o
likely to be associated with arid areas or deserts.
Describe briefly a conceptual model of the hydrological cycle. Include in your discussion
reasons for conceptualisation of the hydrological cycle in the manner required for
development of your model.
A simple conceptual model is to divide the cycle into atmospheric, surface and groundwater
components. There is a need to discuss the linkages, i.e. seepage from surface water to
groundwater, evaporation from surface water to atmosphere, etc.
QUESTION 2
The following instantaneous measurements of stage and discharge have been obtained for
Flowing Creek at a location called The Site.
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Date Stage (m) Discharge(m /s)
3
11-9-72 2.96 26.4
11-9-72 3.13 44.1
2-2-73 1.42 1.6
13-3-73 0.80 0.25
29-3-73 1.78 3.1
19-2-74 2.27 7.1
3-4-74 3.17 51.0
3-4-74 2.98 33.0
9-8-74 1.02 3.0
11-8-74 0.36 0.2
20-11-74 0.59 0.9
7-1-75 2.01 12.3
18-1-75 1.45 6.4
3-2-75 2.61 23.4
On 11th January 1975 a flood occurred in November Creek. What discharges correspond
to the following observed stages on this day?
0.80m
1.30m
3.00m
Extend the rating curve developed in Part 1 of this question to 3.5m using a log-log
extension. What flow do you estimate will occur for a stage of 3.5m?
Data is set up in table as shown below.
Point Date Stage Log
Stage
Flow Log
Flow
(m) (m /s)
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1 11/09/1972 2.96 0.471 26.4 1.422
2 11/09/1972 3.13 0.496 44.1 1.644
3 2/02/1973 1.42 0.152 1.6 0.204
4 13/03/1973 0.8 -0.097 0.25 -0.602
5 29/03/1973 1.78 0.25 3.1 0.491
6 19/02/1974 2.27 0.356 7.1 0.851
7 3/04/1974 3.17 0.501 51 1.708
8 3/04/1974 2.98 0.474 33 1.519
9 9/08/1974 1.02 0.009 3 0.477
3
10 11/08/1974 0.36 -0.444 0.2 -0.699
11 20/11/1974 0.59 -0.229 0.9 -0.046
12 7/01/1975 2.01 0.303 12.3 1.09
13 18/01/1975 1.45 0.161 6.4 0.806
14 3/02/1975 2.61 0.417 23.4 1.369
Column 3 is plotted against column 4 to give the figure below. Note the two separate curves
indicating a change of control.
1.1.1 level = 0.8, flow = 1.54m /s
3
1.1.2 level = 1.3, flow = 4.96m /s
3
1.1.3 level = 3.0, flow = 36.8m /s
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For part 2, the log of stage is plotted against log of flow as shown in the figure below.
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For level of 3.5m (log = 0.544), the flow is 49.4m /s.
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QUESTION 4
The cumulative recordings from two pluviometers located on catchments A and B are
listed below. The Theissen areas for these gauges are 600km and 400km respectively.
2 2
The hydrograph of the resulting flood is also listed (the hydrograph may be considered to
consist of straight lines joining the data points). Derive a loss rate for this storm event.
Time Cumulative Rainfall (mm) Discharge
(hours) A B (m /s)
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0 0 27 100
2 29 37 100
4 38 45 100
6 40 60 100
8 49 102 100
10 84 116 200
12 115 135 500
14 123 139 1000
16 128 154 1300
18 950
20 600
5
22 400
24 300
26 200
28 200
30 200
For this catchment and storm event, comment on the applicability of the assumptions
made in derivation of the loss rate.
To determine the loss rate, it is necessary to first determine the depth of surface runoff. This is
achieved through the following table
Time Rainfall (mm) Flow Baseflow
Surface
Runoff
(hours) A B (m /s) (m /s) (m /s)
3 3 3
0 0 27 100 100
2 29 37 100 100
4 38 45 100 100
6 40 60 100 100
8 49 102 100 100 0
10 84 116 200 111.1 88.9
12 115 135 500 122.2 377.8
14 123 139 1000 133.3 866.7
16 128 154 1300 144.4 1155.6
18 950 155.6 794.4
20 600 166.7 433.3
22 400 177.8 222.2
24 300 188.9 111.1
26 200 200 0
28 200 200
30 200 200
Sum 4050
Note that the baseflow is determined as a straight line joining the start and end of the surface runoff
hydrograph. The sum of the ordinates on the surface runoff hydrograph is 4050m /s giving the depth
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of surface runoff as 29.16mm. This is obtained from dividing the surface runoff volume (sum of
hydrograph ordinates multiplied by the timestep) by the catchment area.
To determine the loss rate it is necessary to use the index approach.
To use this approach, you need to determine the rainfall during the supply period, as shown in the
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following table.
Time Rainfall (mm)
Supply Period
Rainfall (mm)
Incremental
Supply Period
Rainfall (mm)
(hours) A B A B A B
0 0 27
2 29 37
4 38 45
6 40 60
8 49 102 0 0 0 0
10 84 116 35 14 35 14
12 115 135 66 33 31 19
14 123 139 74 37 8 4
16 128 154 79 52 5 15
From this table, the catchment average rainfall during the supply period is 68.2mm. Using a
supply period of 8 hours, an initial estimate of is given by
Using trial values of 3.5, 4.5, 5.5, 6.5 and 7.5, the following table is developed
Time
(hours)
Supply Period
Rainfall Increments
(mm)
3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5
A B A B A B A B A B A B
8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
10 35 14 28 7 26 5 24 3 22 1 20 0
12 31 19 24 12 22 10 20 8 18 6 16 4
14 8 4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
16 5 15 0 8 0 6 0 4 0 2 0 0
Sum 53 27 48 21 44 15 40 9 36 4
Weighted
Average
42.6 37.2 32.4 27.6 23.2
From this table it is possible to plot the surface runoff against the loss rate as shown in the figure
below. From this plot, the loss rate is determined to be 6.2mm/h.
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