GeoJournal Volume 31 Issue 3 1993 (Doi 10.1007 - bf00817378) Antoine S. Bailly - Spatial Imaginary and Geography - A Plea For The Geography of Representations
0 оценок0% нашли этот документ полезным (0 голосов)
81 просмотров4 страницы
spatial imaginary and geography
Оригинальное название
GeoJournal Volume 31 Issue 3 1993 [Doi 10.1007_bf00817378] Antoine S. Bailly -- Spatial Imaginary and Geography- A Plea for the Geography of Representations
0 оценок0% нашли этот документ полезным (0 голосов)
81 просмотров4 страницы
GeoJournal Volume 31 Issue 3 1993 (Doi 10.1007 - bf00817378) Antoine S. Bailly - Spatial Imaginary and Geography - A Plea For The Geography of Representations
1993 (Nov) by Kluwer Academic Publishers Spatial Imaginary and Geography: A Plea for the Geography of Representations 1) Bailly, Antoine S., Prof. Dr., University of Geneva, Department of Geography, Blvd. Carl Vogt, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland ABSTRACT: After twenty years of work on the geography of representations, how is it still possible to define geography as "the science of space", ie as direct knowledge of material reality? This conception of the discipline - based on Cartesian precepts of evidence (eg the observer's independent certainty), reductionism (ie a disaggregation into sets of simple elements), causality (ie the presupposition of a linear linkage between cause and effect) and exhaustiveness (ie the certainty that nothing essential has been omitted) - has been thrown into question by the geography of representations' holistic approach. How can our scientific practices be separated fi'om our interior existence with its affective and emotional aspects? Is not scientific action an extension of being? Mustn' t the geographer, above and beyond the observation of concrete phenomena, also understand the subtle and complex - at times random and hidden - links which unite human beings and their life-space, be it from the viewpoint of the poet, or of all those who take alternative approaches to geography? What I would like to demonstrate is (1) how in an historically and socially given environment, the individual constructs his own reality in linking together the structural, functional and symbolic; (2) how the representation of the landscape is related to our existential experience; and (3) how the imaginary and the real are connected in each place. Man is Geographic Knowledge To t he pr ecept o f evi dence, one mus t oppos e t hat o f subj ect i vi sm, al l owi ng us, as it does, t o account f or h u ma n i rrat i onal i t y; t he pr ecept o f r educt i oni s m mu s t be r epl aced by t hat o f compl exi t y, f or t he mo r e t hat a gi ven site st udi ed is di saggr egat ed, t he mor e compl ex it b e c o me s and t he gr eat er t he n u mb e r o f di mens i ons one fi nds; pr obabi l i sm is t o be oppos e d t o causal i sm, as it is i mpossi bl e t o f or esee ever yt hi ng ( except i n r a n d o m t er ms) ; exhaus t i venes s mus t be r epl aced by t he i deol ogi cal , ie t he part i al r epr es ent at i on o f p h e n o me n a bas ed on our expl i ci t and i mpl i ci t choi ces (Bailly 1984). The geogr apher , like all r esear cher s i n t he soci al sci ences, finds hi ms e l f f aced wi t h a f abul ous and compl ex wor l d, a chaot i c swirl o f exi st ent i al exper i ences: s houl d he want t o unde r s t a nd its cr eat i on and evol ut i on, and t o fi nd or der in t he chaos, he will have t o accept t he r a n d o m char act er o f change and t he appar ent i rrat i onal i t y o f h u ma n behavi or . He will al so have t o t ake i nt er est i n t he symbol i cs o f pl aces (as did G. Bachel ard), i n t hei r myt hi cal aspect s (as did A. Cauquel i n) , and i n t hei r subj ect i ve c onnot a t i on (as did P. Sansot ). He mus t f ur t her cons i der t opophi l i a or t opophobi a, l oved or hat ed pl aces, as Yi Fu Tuan woul d say. Space is not hi ng t aken i n and o f itself, r at her it is r el at ed t o t he cons ci ous nes s or i deol ogy o f he who lives it; t her eby space b e c o me s an exi st ent i al pl ace. I pr ef er t he t e r m "place", be s t owe d wi t h si gni fyi ng power by huma ni s t geogr apher s , t o t he mo r e geomet r i cal t e r m "space" (whi ch, like t i me, is a uni ver sal pri nci pl e) and t he mo r e in- st i t ut i onal t e r m "t erri t ory". Accor di ng t o Ent r i ki n (1976), pl ace "is not a col l ect i on o f empi r i cal l y obser vabl e obj ect s and event s, but r at her is t he r epos i t or y o f meani ng". A pl ace says what we are, and I l eave t o rat i onal i st s t he pl easur e o f bel i evi ng t hey can r et r anscr i be pl ace t h r o u g h exact ness. I pr ef er t o seek an unde r s t a ndi ng o f pl aces i n t hei r i nner ri chness, t hei r hi st ori cal and social meani ng, and t hei r sense f or ma n ( Rel ph 1976), usi ng t he wor ks o f poet s and novel i st s, and t he tales t ol d by t hei r i nhabi t ant s, pr oj ect i ng as t he y do t hei r i nner sel ves i nt o t he nar r at i on. Hu ma n bei ngs are geogr aphi cal act ors; pl aces are t hei r l i fe-space, all r el at i ons are mi xed t oge t he r t her ei n i n a t angl e o f links whi ch bear our per s onal feel i ngs, col l ect i ve me mor i e s and symbol s. No one si ngl e vi si on o f a pl ace is feasi bl e. Above us, t her e is not but one sol e heaven, but r at her t hous a nds o f t h e m ( St ei n 1987) whi ch evol ve, fall pr ey t o change, and fi nd t hei r sour ces i n our l i ved exper i ence. Beaut y and ugl i ness are r el at ed t o ma n, and t he mos t di l api dat ed bui l di ng may" b e c o me super b, ri ch and e n d o we d wi t h soul . A f eel i ng or a r ecol l ect i on can suffice f or space, havi ng b e c o me a pl ace, t o c o me t o life. But t he rat i onal i st will never unde r s t a nd this, f or he cannot obj ect i vel y expl ai n an ol d ma n ' s a t t a c hme nt t o hi s squal i d hous i ng, a j uni or hi gh school s t ude nt ' s pr ot es t graffiti, or a fest i val i n t he mos t at r oci ous o f Cal cut t a' s sl ums. The 248 GeoJ ournal 31.3/1993 researcher' s empat hy is t he i ndi spensabl e poi nt of depart ure in t he geogr aphy of represent at i ons, while in- di fference and neut ral i t y are al t oget her at odds wi t h it. Thus t he city comes to life beyond its map, st ruct ures, physical l andmar ks and funct i ons. Due to t he i somor phi sm bet ween t he di fferent facets of places - bet ween habitat, social rituals, cultures, dress, etc. - t he geogr apher can isolate t he maj or role of certain component s of places. Huma n pasts, present s and fut ures j oi n up t her ei n to create an at mospher e which onl y an i nner analysis can grasp in its subtle richness. Geogr aphi c r epr esent at i on is already a way of bei ng, a way of speaking of t he Eart h, t he great t heat er of t he human advent ure. It is also t he medi at or of spatial experi ence f r om an existential poi nt of view, discovering i nt eract i ons bet ween man and his envi r onment , t he role of places in t he realization of human dynami cs, and so on. I n t he following sect i on I will use t he exampl e of t he r epr esent at i on of move me nt and travel, somewhat negl ect ed by geographers mor e gi ven to st udyi ng sedent ary perspect i ves, to illustrate t he pot ent i al i t i es of t he geography of represent at i ons. Imaginary Motion Of t he four f undament al el ement s - water, air, fire and eart h - t he latter, consi dered as t he mot her of humanki nd and his home f r om bi rt h to deat h, has always t r oubl ed and i nt ri gued man. I t mus t be t raversed in order to live, and move me nt across t he face of t he eart h has progressi vel y signified life. Onl y upon deat h - t hat mo me n t when one ret urns to t he eart h - does move me nt cease. Boughal i ' s (1974) descri pt i on of traditional practices in Ber ber t ri bes illustrates t he bi rt h-deat h-l i fe-pl ace link. There has been but one short step made since t he earliest ant i qui t y in associating t he eart h and move me nt wi t h t he evol ut i on of living beings. The analysis of move me nt cannot be r educed to t he geomet ri cal rel at i on bet ween two sets of points, as space, durat i on, and spatial practices combi ne wi t h human experi ence to t r ansf or m t he terrestrial surface into places, and distance into lived travel. I f t he r epr esent at i on of a t raj ect ory corresponds to t he organi zat i on of a series of l andmarks, which in t urn corresponds to t opol ogi cal concept s such as separat i on-associ at i on, order-posi t i on, and connect edness (Bailly 1985), t hen it is even mor e symbolic. A straight line with a t raj ect ory t owards t he infinite, is opposed to t he oscillation or per pet ual r et ur n of a circle; a rectilinear pat h is lost in t i me, abolishing its reversibility. It becomes a bear er of personal meani ngs which find t hei r origin in cultural values: let us not forget t hat culture is a collective way of injecting order i nt o human feelings, a collective perspect i ve which each per son assumes personally. Man draws f r om t he i magi nary t he means of t ranscendi ng move me nt , to such an ext ent as to be able to ret race t he road of life. I n taking hi msel f to be t he cent er of t he Uni verse - t he poi nt of depart ure at t he mi ddl e of t he circle - he mat eri al i zes his dreams of i mmort al i t y. But to at t ai n this worl d of spout i ng wat ers in t he gardens of plenty, he mus t t ake a l ong trip f r om t he per i pher y f r om which he is ost raci zed t owards t he cross at t he circle' s cent er wher e opposi t es uni t e and t ensi ons are resol ved. Ideas of move me nt t owards bet t er places can be f ound in l i t erat ure ( f r om t he Odyssey to t he Aenead, and in our t i me in science fiction: in Tol ki en' s Lord of the Rings, for exampl e) as well as in our vacat i on and r et i r ement practices - and even in t he concent ri c circles on maps of our cities, schemat i zed by t he ur ban ecologists of t he Chicago school (Park and Burgess) and by novelists: "They cross t he whol e city, f r om t he shady st reet s of t he fine nei ghbor hoods, wi t h t hei r maj est i c resi dences and opul ent foliage, and t he grey and noi sy resi dent i al zones of ot her mi ddl e classes, to t he large rings of mi sery" (Al l ende 1986, p. 69). But social ascensi on - t hat mar vel l ous j o u r n e y - goes in t he opposi t e di rect i on f r om t he i mpover i shed cent er t owards t he l uxury of t he out er rings. The symbol i cs of mo v e me n t allow one to bear this funct i oni ng, for to under t ake any move me nt , ie to go beyond physical and social barriers, man mus t pr ove t hat he is capable of mast er i ng places. I n Antiquity, t he guardi ans of t he key passageways - t he precursors of our police - t ur ned away t hose who r emai ned profane. Nowadays t he deci pheri ng of social codes and t hei r symbol i c pr oper t i es is still i ndi spensabl e for mobility. Wi t h his ment al maps, man i magi nes his t raj ect ory - t hus t he origin of t he myt h of social and spatial ascensi on into space, t owards t hat bet t er place at t he j our ney' s end, t he pr omi sed land of t he Hebr ews and Mor mons . " I f we t hi nk of space as t hat which allows move me nt , t hen place is a p a u s e . . . " (Tuan 1977). At t i mes t he i magi nary gets t he upper hand; in my dr eams I leave Geneva behi nd to live in a fabul ous city. I know its l ayout , its st ruct ure or at least I i magi ne I know t hem. Perhaps it is Pri ncet on; but apart f r om this linear st ruct uri ng axis, it has not hi ng in c ommon wi t h t he Pri ncet on wher e I once lived. Mai nst r eet and t he campus have be c ome l andmar ks which allow me to move around in a new i magi nary decor, spri nkl ed wi t h abandoned dreams. This worl d, like t hat of t he small provincial t own of A. Robbe- Gr i l l et ' s Gomme s , has its exact di mensi ons, its accumul at ed i ma g e s . . , but no one can situate t he streets, buildings and limits; t he cent eri ng works wi t hi n a maze- like i magi nary in which t i me fades away. The classical myt h of t he l abyri nt h can of t en be f ound in t he r epr esent at i on of move me nt : an i t i nerary in anot her worl d, it const i t ut es a passage which mus t be over come. It is t he place of one' s rebirth. A j our ney in t he mi nd, in space and t i me, it provi des access to a mar vel l ous el sewhere. The circle is its privileged sign (as is water), for this f or m wi t hout r ef er ence poi nt s t hwart s us in isolating easily decoded st ruct ures. I n ori ent i ng hi msel f like Theseus or Daedal us, man attains new knowl edge, t hus he who offers up a sacrifice in t he myt h becomes conf ounded wi t h his vi ct i m; t hus t he Gomr nes ' det ect i ve becomes t he criminal (Bailly and Cost ant i no 1985). Movement , place and t i me are con- f ounded in this existential experi ence. GeoJ ournal 31.3/1993 249 Behind the visceral desire for initiatory movement , seen in the tradition of the Lacedemoni an crypt and in that of the adventures of the Crusaders as narrated by storytellers, many marvellous countries arise with a better beyond. And one can understand the around-the-world trip of the bourgeois tired of his existence, or the adolescent' s fugue. To inhabit a place is to put down roots and domesticate the place, but to become a man, one must know how to leave the setting of one' s childhood and its rules; one breaks one' s chains and goes beyond the mirror to bring about a social and spatial departure. Dreams of India, like those formerly of the Holy Land, bodily and spiritual evasions, catalyze spiritual experience towards further initiations and new guiding lines in one' s existence. Even if the trip involves asceticism or t emporary deprivation, it leads to a inner paradise. Travel professionals have clearly underst ood this quest. But we see such i mpoveri shment in the vacation catalogues concerning the exoticism of the everyday! The functional wins out over the symbolic, the superficial over the interior, and the myt h collapses into the refound functional. The hackneyed mount ai n dwellers created by ski stations (Gudrin and Gumuchi an 1978) illustrate the primacy of the economic over every other value; even snow has become functional! And the vacationer from the city finds the rhyt hm of his everyday urban existence, with the simple addition of a new range of activities. A far cry from the pilgrim in the Middle Ages! (Osterrieth 1985). A Mixture of Real and Imaginary The symbols which make places come alive are not only those of the traveller or poet, but also those each of us leaves in his wake. We each feed off of our era, and our narratives and writings speak for us. Why are people thus surprised by the mixture of real and imaginary in novelists' representations, as well as those of cartographers? Don' t maps reveal the substance of place valorizations? Thus those terrestrial maps surrounded by angelic and diabolical scenes, oceans beyond which paradisiacal worlds are depicted. These anthologies of the marvellous do not serve simply for warring! No more so than pedestrian maps made of dreams about walks in marvellous l andscapes. . . The interweaving of time and space conforms to this logic of real and imaginary. Ancient peoples situated the spent portions of their lives and death to the west; the east, on the contrary, was the source of life which moved with the sun. Beyond, at the antipodes, were the mythical worlds, including the traces of past civilizations, swallowed-up worlds and new Americas: dreams of fabulous journeys. Deliberately idealist and subjectivist, the geography of representations draws its richness from the analysis of the permanent mixture of real and imaginary. It would be erroneous to believe that with cont emporary society, man has become more mobile, or that he has lost his roots because he lives in more and more homogeneous environments. We have, rather, neglected to discover the symbolics of the places of our cont emporary lives and their poetic density. To parody G. Durand (1964), I would say that the fundament al evil which has threatened geography is it has minimized images and myths, accepting instead sterile functionalist visions. In integrating spatial meaning and its symbolics, even the most modern of places are revealed in all their richness to those who study them. One discovers not only subject-society-place relations, but collective social valorizations and spatial myths as well. Each neighborhood, each building possesses bot h symbolic and functional characteristics, eg churches, synagogues, and mosques - places of worship which play an ideological role - as well as constructions localized in precise parts of the city - on sacred sites such as hilltops dominating the urban landscape. Each communi t y develops main principles of location which integrate the ideology and symbolism of places of worship. These ment al representations bring forth the multiplicity of imaginary worlds: "thus, the humbl est - like the ugliest - of places, takes on the prestige of the signifier which only time can bestow upon things" (Fauque 1974). The pol ysemy of lived spaces, ie the superimposition of representations, is what makes this new approach indispensable. Regions, cities and nei ghborhoods - constituting mirrors of our societies - are both dreams and nightmares. The geographer must study t hem to become a valuable interlocutor in dealing with planning technocrats and theoreticians promot i ng devel opment from the top down. In refusing to integrate the richness of human inner relationships with the symbolics of places, disincarnate geography will lose its geographical know how. "A sons perdus leurs violons Fond danser notre race humai ne Sur la descente ~ reculons" "The dying sounds of their violins make the human race dance backwards down the downhill stretch" (Apollinaire, Alcools) Towards a Theory of Spatial Experience What is missing in the geography of representations is the bit of rigor needed to anchor existential experience within a logical-theoretical schema. Even if theories of man have not det ermi ned the true proportions of will (individual freedom) and social determinism, we can propose - not a unifying theory - but a series of classificatory regularities identified through research on landscape structures (Bailly 1985). The complexity of our relations to places, clarified by work in microgeography, requires us to conceive of every ment al space as organized in accordance with three aspects: structural, functional and symbolic. The structural aspect, clearly highlighted by Lynch, allows one to grasp the way in which environmental 250 GeoJ ournal 31.3/1993 st r uct ur es are us ed by i ndi vi dual s i n t hei r spatial pract i ces. The f unct i onal aspect pri vi l eges t he space- t i me const r ai nt i n expl ai ni ng pr obl e ms o f accessi bi l i t y and t he e c o n o mi c capaci t i es o f places. The s ymbol i c aspect - far mo r e r ar el y deal t wi t h except in t he geogr aphy o f r epr es ent at i ons - reveal s an i mme ns e var i et y o f spatial connot at i ons , and t he bundl e o f uni f i cat or y r el at i ons be t we e n man, soci et y and place. Thi s t hr eef ol d di st i nct i on allows one t o cons i der space as mo r e t han a si mpl e me di um. The link, f or exam- pl e, be t we e n Ge ne va ' s f ount ai n, an obj ect cons t r uct ed on lake L6man, and t hi s i nt er nat i onal t our i st t own' s i mage, shows how a s ymbol at t ract s and b e c o me s a par t o f l i ved exper i ence: aft er one ' s visit t o t he Mont - Bl anc br i dge, ever y t our i st i dent i fi es t he f ount ai n wi t h t he city, wi t h Swi t zerl and, and wi t h t he Mont - Bl anc i n t he backgr ound. The exper i ence creat es new i nf or mat i on - a ne w l andmar k (Bailly and Fer r i er 1986) - whi ch l eads us t o unde r s t a nd how r epr es ent at i ons are cons t r uct ed. Ever y place, br oke n down i nt o a set o f el ement s , is or gani zed al ong st r uct ur i ng axes ( mai n t r ans por t at i on axes, and physi cal axes such as rivers, val l eys, etc. ) rel at i onal axes ( i nt er sect i ons, knot s) , and l andmar ks and r ef er ence vol ume s (be t he y nat ur al - eg mount a i ns - or cons t r uct ed - eg t empl es) . A syst emat i c classification o f t hese c o mp o n e n t s and an anal ysi s o f t hei r def or mat i ons c ompa r e d wi t h Eucl i dean geomet r y, makes it possi bl e t o grasp t he l andmar ks us ed by peopl e i n t hei r r egi ons and t o unde r s t a nd t he t r ans f or mat i ons bor n o f t hei r pract i ces i n t hi s space. This net wor k onl y t akes on its full meani ng, however , whe n c ompl e t e d by a set o f f unct i onal , cul t ur al and s ymbol i c signifiers whi ch are i nsepar abl e f r om it, ie mar ker s whi ch i nf or m one about t he place. A pl ace, posi t i on or geogr aphi cal expanse onl y t akes on its meani ngs i n accor dance wi t h t he i mages ( r epr es ent at i ons ) at t r i but ed t o it. Amo n g t he si gni fyi ng el ement s , we fi nd t he symbol i cs o f or i ent at i on and t he sacr ed char act er o f cer t ai n pl aces. They mus t be c ompl e t e d by t he val ues at t r i but ed t o t he l i mi t s o f t he space and t o t he l andmar ks, whe t he r t hey be rel i gi ous, cul t ural or admi ni st r at i ve. Pl aces are t hus concept ual i zed as si gni fyi ng me nt a l spaces, i nt er nal i zed by t hei r i nhabi t ant s, as oppos e d t o t he ext er nal i t y o f e nvi r onme nt s out s i de me nt a l limits. Each pl ace t hus exi st s as a seri es o f f unct i onal pr oper t i es ( t ypes o f activities and l i fest yl es), s ymbol i c pr oper t i es (prest i - gi ous pl aces and cent er s) and t e mpor a l pr oper t i es (hi st o- rical and proj ect i ve). Ge ogr a phy mus t r econs t r uct t he c o mp o n e n t s o f t hes e pl aces f r om t he b o t t o m up and mu s t i l l umi nat e t hei r symbol i cs. The l andscape is concei ved o f as c o mp o s e d o f si gns whi ch are accept ed, de c ode d and val or i zed by cert ai n me mb e r s o f soci et y. Pl ace, havi ng t hus b e c o me r eadabl e, is i magi nar i l y r egi st er ed ( psychol ogi cal facts, me nt a l i mages, and so on ) - failing whi ch t her e is nei t her cent ral i t y, mar gi nal i t y nor hi erarchy. C o n c l u s i o n Thi s ki nd o f anal ysi s, whi l e del i cat e owi ng t o t he phi l osophi cal r ef l ect i on t hat it necessi t at es ( i ncl udi ng hol i sm, a nt hr opoc e nt r i s m and p h e n o me n o l o g y ) , allows t he geogr apher - aware o f t he r ol e o f t he symbol i cs o f our r epr es ent at i ons about our spatial pract i ces - t o expl or e ne w wor l ds: t hos e o f our val ues, me a ni ngs and obj ect i ves. Thus we can gi ve up t he ol d def i ni t i on, "sci ence o f places", t o i ni t i at e our sel ves i nt o t he links be t we e n me nt a l r epr es ent at i ons , i nt ent i onal st r uct ur es and bundl es o f pract i ces i n space and t i me. One o f ge ogr a phy' s obj ect i ves - t hat o f under s t andi ng, or gani zi ng and f or es eei ng h u ma n geogr aphi c exper i ence - j us t i f i e s t hi s r e ne we d appr oach. St udyi ng meani ngs , h u ma n val ues and t he symbol i cs o f pl ace, t he ge ogr a phe r r esi t uat es h u ma n bei ngs i n t he r ol e t he y had l ost i n anal yses gui ded by f unct i onal i sm. Do e s n ' t t hi s expl or at i on o f t he exi st ent i al f ounda t i ons o f our wor l d t r ul y des er ve t o be cal l ed " h u ma n geogr aphy" ? N o t e 1~ The term "geography of representations" is widely used in francophone social science, but is not commonly employed in English. This concept refers, according to Piaget, to the manner in which human beings experience: how they presently perceive something, and how their present perception is based upon an accumulated set of experiences and memories; how they represent this phenomenon, imagine it and value it in verbal, written, mental or graphical form. Re[erenees Allende, E.: D' amour et d'ombre. Fayard, Paris 1986. Bachelard, G.: La po6tique de l'espace. PUF, Paris 1957. Bailly, A.: Probabilit6s subjectives et g6ographie humaine. M61anges offerts h Frangois Gay. Laboratoire d'Analyse Spatiale, Nice 1984. Bailly, A.: Distances et espaces: vingt ans de g6ographie des repr6sentations. L'Espace G6ographique 3, 197-205 (1985) Bailly, A.; Costantino, V.: Ambiance de banlieue, un parcours g6o- litt6raire ~t travers "Les Gommes" de A. Robbe-Grillet. Actions et Recherches Sociales 2, 35-50 (1985) Bailly, A.; Ferrier, J.P.: Savoir lire le territoire: plaidoyer pour une g6ographie r6gionale attentive /t la vie quotidienne. L'Espace G6ographique 4, 259-264 (1986) Boughali, M.: La repr6sentation de l'espace chez le Marocain illettr6. Anthropos, Paris 1974. Cauquelin, A.: Essai de philosophic urbaine. PUF, Paris 1982. Christinger, R.: Le voyage dans l'imaginaire. Mont-Blanc, Gen~ve 1972. Durand, G.: Uimagination symbolique. PUF, Paris 1964. Entrikin, N.: Contemporary Humanism in Geography.Annals of the Association of American Geographers 4, 615-632 (1976) Fauque, R.: Perception de la ville et imaginaire urbain. Espace et Soci6t4s 1, 73-76 (1974) Fremont, A.: La r6gion, espace v6cu. PUF, Paris 1976. Guerin, J.P.; Gumuchian, H.: Les mythologies de la montagne. Revue de G6ographie Alpine 385-402 (1978) Lynch, K.: The Image of the City. MIT Press, Cambridge 1960. McCannell, D.: The Tourist, A New Theory of the Leisure Class. Schocken Books, New York 1976. Osterrieth, A.: Space, Place and Movement: the Quest for Self in the World. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington, Seattle 1985. Relph, E.: Place and Placelessness. Pion, London 1976. Sansot, P.: Variations paysag6res: invitation au voyage. Klincksiek, Paris 1983.