Prof Fawzy Ibrahim EEG383 Ch.

2 Charst of Instrms 1 of 26
EEG 383 Electrical Measurements and
Instrumentations
CHAPTER 2
Characteristics of Measuring Instruments
Prof. Fawzy Ibrahim
Electronics and Communication Department
Misr International University (MIU)
Prof Fawzy Ibrahim EEG383 Ch.2 Charst of Instrms 2 of 26
Chapter Contents
2.1 Static characteristics of instruments
2.1.1 Accuracy and inaccuracy (measurement uncertainty)
2.1.2 Precision/repeatability/reproducibility
2.1.3 Tolerance
2.1.4 Range or span
2.1.5 Linearity
2.1.6 Sensitivity of measurement
2.1.7 Threshold
2.1.8 Resolution
2.1.9 Sensitivity to disturbance
2.1.10 Hysteresis effects
2.1.11 Dead space
2.2 Dynamic characteristics of Instruments
2.2.1 Zero order instrument
2.2.2 First order instrument
Prof Fawzy Ibrahim EEG383 Ch.2 Charst of Instrms 3 of 26
2.1 Static characteristics of Instruments
If we have a thermometer in a room and its reading shows a temperature of
20C, then it does not really matter whether the true temperature of the roomis
19.5C or 20.5C. Such small variations around 20C are too small to affect
whether we feel warmenough or not. Our bodies cannot discriminate between
such close levels of temperature and therefore a thermometer with an
inaccuracy of 0.5C is perfectly adequate.
If we had to measure the temperature of certain chemical processes, however,
a variation of 0.5C might have a significant effect on the rate of reaction or
eventhe products of a process.
A measurement inaccuracy much less than 0.5C is therefore clearly required.
Accuracy of measurement is thus one consideration in the choice of instrument
for a particular application.
Other parameters such as sensitivity, linearity and the reaction to ambient
temperaturechanges are further considerations.
These attributes are collectively known as the static characteristics of
instruments, and are given in the data sheet for a particular instrument. It is
important to note that the values quoted for instrument characteristics in such a
data sheet only apply when the instrument is used under specified standard
calibrationconditions.
The static characteristics of measuring instruments are connected only with the
static readingthat the instrument settles down to.
Prof Fawzy Ibrahim EEG383 Ch.2 Charst of Instrms 4 of 26
2.1 Static characteristics of Instruments
Definitions:
Measurand: the physical quantitybeingmeasuredis calledthe measurand.
Measuring system is the assembly that is used to measure the measurand
(Method and Instruments).
Is-Value: The real measuredvalue (X
IS
).
Should-Value: The value that it shouldbe (V
SH
), reference value.
Error is the A deviation between the Is-Value and the Should-Value of a
measurand or Also it can be defined as the difference between the measured
andthe true value (as per standard).
Arithmetic mean (or simpl y mean): Sumof all values divided by the number
of quantities and is given by.
n
x x x
X
n
+ + +
=

.....
2 1
Prof Fawzy Ibrahim EEG383 Ch.2 Charst of Instrms 5 of 26
2.1 Static characteristics of Instruments (Continued)
2.1.1 Accuracy and inaccuracy (measurement uncertainty)
The accuracy of an instrument is a measure of howclose the output reading of the
instrument is to the correct value or Howclose is the mean measurement of a
series of trials to the true value?
Wherex
n
is the n
th
measuredvalue .
In practice, it is more usual to quote the inaccuracy figure rather than the
accuracyfigure for an instrument.
Inaccuracy is the extent to which a reading might be wrong, and is often quoted as
a percentageof the full-scale(f.s.) readingof an instrument.
If, for example, a pressure gauge of range 010 bar has a quoted inaccuracy of
1.0%f.s. (1%of full-scale reading), then the maximumerror to be expected
in any reading is 0.1 bar. This means that when the instrument is reading 1.0
bar, the possible error is 10%of this value.
Thus, if we were measuring pressures with expected values between 0 and 1
bar, we would not use an instrument with a range of 010 bar. The term
measurementuncertaintyis frequentlyusedin place of inaccuracy.
% 100
) (
1
|
|
.
|

\
|

=
sh
sh n
X
X x
Accuracy
Prof Fawzy Ibrahim EEG383 Ch.2 Charst of Instrms 6 of 26
2.1 Static characteristics of Instruments (Continued)
2.1.2 Precision/repeatability/reproducibility
Precision Howmuchdo the measurements vary fromtrial to trial?
If a large number of readings are taken of the same quantity by a high precision
instrument, thenthe spreadof readings will be very small.
Precision is often, though incorrectly, confused with accuracy. High precision
does not imply anything about measurement accuracy. A precise systemis not
necessarilyan accurate systemand vice versa.
Repeatability describes the closeness of output readings when the same input is
applied repetitively over a short period of time, with the same measurement
conditions, same instrument and observer, same location and same conditions
of use maintainedthroughout.
Reproducibility describes the closeness of output readings for the same input
when there are changes in the method of measurement, observer, measuring
instrument, location, conditions of use and time of measurement.
Both terms thus describe the spread of output readings for the same input. This
spread is referred to as repeatability if the measurement conditions are
constant and as reproducibilityif the measurement conditions vary.
value mean the is X
X
X x
ecision
n

|
|
|
.
|

\
|

= % 100
) (
1 Pr
Prof Fawzy Ibrahim EEG383 Ch.2 Charst of Instrms 7 of 26
2.1 Static characteristics of Instruments (Continued)
2.1.2 Precision/repeatability/reproducibility
Figure 2.1 shows the results of tests on three industrial robots that were
programmed to place components at the center of the concentric circles shown,
and the black dots represent the points where each robot actually deposited
components at eachattempt.
Both the accuracy and precision of Robot 1 are shown to be low in this trial.
Robot 2 consistently puts the component down at approximately the same
place but this is the wrong point. Therefore, it has high precision but low
accuracy. Finally, Robot 3 has both high precision and high accuracy, because
it consistentlyplaces the component at the correct target position.
Fig. 2.1 Comparison of accuracy and precision (a) Robot 1; (b) Robot 2 and (c) Robot 3.
(a) Low precision, low accuracy (b) Highprecision, lowaccuracy
(c) High precision, high accuracy
First digit (A)
Second digit (B)
Multiplier (C)
Tolerance (D)
Prof Fawzy Ibrahim EEG383 Ch.2 Charst of Instrms 8 of 26
2.1 Static characteristics of Instruments (Continued)
2.1.3 Tolerance
Tolerance describes the maximum deviation of a manufactured component
fromsome specifiedvalue.
For instance, crankshafts are machined with a diameter tolerance quoted as so
manymicrons (10
-6
m).
Another example, electric circuit components such as resistors have tolerances
of perhaps 5%. One resistor chosen at randomfroma batch having a nominal
value 1000W and tolerance 5% might have an actual value anywhere between
950Wand 1050W.
The colored bands that are found on a resistor as shown in Fig. 2.2 can be
used to determine its resistance. The first and second bands of the resistor give
the first two digits of the resistance, and the third band is the multiplier which
represents the power of ten of the resistance
value. The final bandindicates what tolerance
value (in %) the resistor possesses. The
resistancevalue written in equationformis:
Fig. 2.2 The resistors
representation
D% 10 AB
C

(2.1)
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2.1 Static characteristics of Instruments (Continued)
2.1.2 Tolerance
Fig. 2.2 (b) The color code for resistors.
Prof Fawzy Ibrahim EEG383 Ch.2 Charst of Instrms 10 of 26
2.1 Static characteristics of Instruments (Continued)
2.1.4 Range or span
The range or span of an instrument
defines the minimum and maximum
values of a quantity that the
instrument is designedto measure.
2.1.5 Linearity
Linear device is the one in which the
relation between its output reading is
linearly proportional to the quantity
beingmeasuredas shown Fig. 2.3.
The Xs marked on Fig. 2.3 show a
plot of the typical output readings of
an instrument when a sequence of
input quantities are appliedto it.
The non-linearity is then defined as
the maximum deviation of any of the
output readings marked X from this
straight line.
Non-linearity is usually expressed as a
percentageof full-scale reading.
Fig. 2.3 Instrument output characteristic.
2.1.6 Sensitivity of measurement
The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the change in instrument output
that occurs when the quantity being measured changes by a given amount.
Thus, sensitivityis the ratio:
The sensitivity of measurement is therefore the slope of the straight line drawn
onFig. 2.3.
Example 2.1
The following resistance values of a platinum resistance thermometer were
measured at a range of temperatures. Determine the measurement sensitivity
of the instrument in ohms/C.
Solution
If these values are plottedon a graph,
the straight-linerelationshipbetween
resistancechange and temperature
change is obvious, so it is a linear device.
Prof Fawzy Ibrahim EEG383 Ch.2 Charst of Instrms 11 of 26
2.1 Static characteristics of Instruments (Continued)
value measured in Change
reading output in Change
y Sensitivit =
C y Sensitivit
o
/
30
7
200 230
307 314
O =

=
(2.2)
Prof Fawzy Ibrahim EEG383 Ch.2 Charst of Instrms 12 of 26
2.1 Static characteristics of Instruments (Continued)
2.1.7 Threshold
If the input to an instrument is gradually increased fromzero, the input will have
to reach a certain minimum level before the change in the instrument output
reading is of a large enough magnitude to be detectable. This minimumlevel of
input is known as the thresholdof the instrument.
Manufacturers may specify threshold for instruments as absolute values or as a
percentageof full-scale readings.
As an illustration, a car speedometer typically has a threshold of about 5 km/h.
This means that, if the vehicle starts from rest and accelerates, no output
readingis observedon the speedometer until the speedreaches 5 km/h.
2.1.8 Resolution
Howfinely can we and/or the instrument separate one value fromanother thats
close to it?
Resolutionis specifiedas an absolute value or a percentage of f.s. deflection.
One of the major factors influencing the resolution of an instrument is howfinely
its output scale is dividedinto subdivisions.
For instance, if we have 4-bit and 8-bit multimeters to show the range from0-
10V, the best resolutionfor bothof them:
for 4-bit the resolutionis: for 8-bit
8
10
39.0625 .
2
mV = mV 625
2
10
4
=
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2.1 Static characteristics of Instruments (Continued)
Using a car speedometer as an example again, this has subdivisions of
typically 20 km/h. This means that when the needle is between the scale
markings, we cannot estimate speed more accurately than to the nearest 4
km/h. This figure of 4km/h thus represents the resolutionof the instrument.
2.1.9 Sensitivity to disturbance
All calibrations and specifications of an instrument are only valid under
controlled conditions of temperature, pressure etc. These standard ambient
conditions are usuallydefinedin the instrument specification.
As variations occur in the ambient temperature, pressure, etc., the sensitivity to
disturbanceis a measure of the magnitude of this change.
Such environmental changes affect instruments in two main ways, known as
zero drift andsensitivitydrift.
1. Zero drift or bias describes the effect where the zero reading of an instrument
is modified by a change in ambient conditions. This causes a constant error
that exists over the full range of measurement of the instrument.
The mechanical formof bathroomscale is a common example of an instrument
that is prone to bias. It is quite usual to find that there is a reading of perhaps
1kg with no one stoodon the scale.
If someone of known weight 70 kg were to get on the scale, the reading would
be 71 kg, and if someone of weight 100 kg, the readingwould be 101kg.
Prof Fawzy Ibrahim EEG383 Ch.2 Charst of Instrms 14 of 26
2.1 Static characteristics of Instruments (Continued)
2.1.9 Sensitivity to disturbance
1. Zero drift or bias
If a thumbwheel is usually provided that can be turned until the reading is zero
with the scales unloaded, thus removingthe bias.
Zero drift is also commonly found in instruments like voltmeters that are
affected by ambient temperature changes. Typical units by which such zero drift
is measured are volts/C.
A typical change in the output characteristic of an instrument subject to zero
drift is shown in Figure 2.4(a).
2. Sensitivity drift (also known as scale factor drift) defines the amount by which
an instruments sensitivity of measurement varies as ambient conditions
change.
Figure 2.4(b) shows what effect sensitivity drift can have on the output
characteristic of an instrument. Sensitivity drift is measured in units of the form
(angular degree/bar)/C.
If an instrument suffers both zero drift and sensitivity drift at the same time, then
the typical modificationof the output characteristic is shown in Figure 2.4(c).
Prof Fawzy Ibrahim EEG383 Ch.2 Charst of Instrms 15 of 26
2.1 Static characteristics of Instruments (Continued)
2.1.9 Sensitivity to disturbance
Fig. 2.4 Effects of disturbance: (a) zero drift; (b) sensitivity drift; (c) Both drifts.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Example 2.2
The A spring balance is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 20C
andhas the deflection/loadcharacteristic (Table 1).
It is then used in an environment at a temperature of 30C and the following
deflection/ loadcharacteristic is measured.
Determine per C change in ambient temperature the following:
(a) The zero drift. (b) The sensitivitydrift.
Solution
At 20C, deflection/load characteristic is a straight line. Sensitivity =20 mm/kg.
At 30C, deflection/load characteristic is still a straight line. Sensitivity =22
mm/kg.
Bias (zero drift) =5mm(the no-loaddeflection)
Sensitivitydrift =2mm/kg
(a) Zero drift/C =5/10=0.5mm/C
(b) Sensitivity drift/C =2/10 =0.2 (mmper kg)/C
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2.1 Static characteristics of Instruments (Continued)
2.1.9 Sensitivity to disturbance
Table 1at 20C
Table 2 at 30C
Prof Fawzy Ibrahim EEG383 Ch.2 Charst of Instrms 17 of 26
2.1 Static characteristics of Instruments (Continued)
2.1.10 Hysteresis effects
If the input measured quantity to the instrument is steadily increased from a
negative value, the output reading varies in the manner shown in curve (a) of
Fig. 2.5.
If the input variable is then steadily decreased, the output varies in the manner
shown in curve (b) of Fig. 2.5.
The non-coincidence between
these loading and unloading
curves is known as hysteresis.
Two quantities are defined,
maximuminput hysteresis and
maximum output hysteresis,
as shown in Fig. 2.5. These
are normally expressed as a
percentage of the full-scale
input or output reading
respectively.
Fig. 2.5 Instrument characteristic with hysteresis.
Prof Fawzy Ibrahim EEG383 Ch.2 Charst of Instrms 18 of 26
2.1 Static characteristics of Instruments (Continued)
2.1.11 Dead space
Dead space is defined as the range of different input values over which there is
no change in output value. Any instrument that exhibits hysteresis also displays
deadspace, as markedon Figure 2.6.
Some instruments that do not
suffer from any significant
hysteresis can still exhibit a
dead space in their output
characteristics.
Fig. 2.6 Instrument characteristic with dead
space.
Prof Fawzy Ibrahim EEG383 Ch.2 Charst of Instrms 19 of 26
2.2 Dynamic characteristics of Instruments
The dynamic characteristics of a measuring instrument describe its behavior
between the time a measured quantity changes value and the time when the
instrument output attains a steadyvalue in response.
As with static characteristics, any values for dynamic characteristics quoted in
instrument data sheets only apply when the instrument is used under specified
environmental conditions.
Outside these calibration conditions, some variation in the dynamic parameters
canbe expected.
In any linear, time-invariant measuring system, the following general relation
canbe written between input (x) and output (y) for time t >0:
where x is the measured quantity, y is the output reading and a
0
. . . a
n
, b
0
. . .
b
m
are constants.
If we limit consideration to that of step changes in the measured quantity only,
thenequation(2.3) reduces to:
x b
dt
dx
b
t d
x d
b
t d
x d
b
t d
x d
b
y a
dt
dy
a
t d
y d
a
t d
y d
a
t d
y d
a
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
m
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
0 1
2
2
2
1
1
1
0 1
2
2
2
1
1
1
....
....
+ + + + +
= + + + + +

(2.3)
Prof Fawzy Ibrahim EEG383 Ch.2 Charst of Instrms 20 of 26
2.2 Dynamic characteristics of Instruments (Continued)
2.2.1 Zero Order Instrument
If all the coefficients a
1
. . . a
n
other than a
0
in equation (2.4) are assumed zero,
then:
where K is a constant known as the instrument sensitivityas definedearlier.
Any instrument that behaves according to equation (2.5) is said to be of zero
order type.
Following a step change in the measured quantity at time t, the instrument
output moves immediately to a newvalue at the same time instant t, as shown
inFigure 2.7.
A potentiometer, which measures motion, is a good example of such an
instrument, where the output voltage changes instantaneously as the slider is
displacedalongthe potentiometer track.
x b y a
dt
dy
a
t d
y d
a
t d
y d
a
t d
y d
a
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n 0 0 1
2
2
2
1
1
1
.... = + + + + +

(2.4)
kx y x
a
b
y or x b y a = = =
0
0
0 0
(2.5)
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2.2 Dynamic characteristics of Instruments (Continued)
Fig. 2.7 Zero order instrument characteristic. Fig. 2.8 First order instrument characteristic
Prof Fawzy Ibrahim EEG383 Ch.2 Charst of Instrms 22 of 26
2.2 Dynamic characteristics of Instruments (Continued)
2.2.1 First Order Instrument
If all the coefficients a
2
. . . a
n
except for a
0
and a
1
are assumed zero in
equation(2.4) then:
Any instrument that behaves according to equation (2.6) is known as a first
order instrument.
If equation (2.6) is solved analytically, the output quantity y in response to a
step change in x at time t varies with time in the manner shown in Fig. 2.8. The
time constant of the step response is the time taken for the output quantity, y to
reach63%of its final value.
A large number of other instruments also belong to this first order class: this is
of particular importance in control systems where it is necessary to take
account of the time lag that occurs between a measured quantity changing in
value and the measuringinstrument indicatingthe change.
Fortunately, the time constant of many first order instruments is small relative to
the dynamics of the process being measured, and so no serious problems are
created.
(2.6)
x b y a
dt
dy
a
0 0 1
= +
Prof Fawzy Ibrahim EEG383 Ch.2 Charst of Instrms 23 of 26
2.2 Dynamic characteristics of Instruments (Continued)
2.2.1 First Order Instrument
Example 2.3
A balloon is equipped with temperature and altitude measuring instruments and
has radio equipment that can transmit the output readings of these instruments
back to ground. The balloon is initially anchored to the ground with the
instrument output readings in steady state. The altitude-measuring instrument
is approximately zero order and the temperature transducer first order with a
time constant, t of 15 seconds. The temperature on the ground, T
0
, is 10C and
the temperatureT
x
at an altitude of x meters is given by the relation:
(a) If the balloon is released at time zero, and thereafter rises upwards at a
velocity of V =5 meters/second, draw a table showing the temperature and
altitude measurements reported at intervals of 10 seconds over the first 50
seconds of travel. Showalso in the table the error in eachtemperature reading.
(b) Whattemperature does the balloonreport at an altitude of 5000meters?
Solution
(a) The transducer is assumed to be a first order differential. Let the temperature
reported by the balloon at some general time t be T
r
. Then T
x
is related to T
r
by
the relation:
x T T
x
01 . 0
0
=
(2.7)
Prof Fawzy Ibrahim EEG383 Ch.2 Charst of Instrms 24 of 26
2.2 Dynamic characteristics of Instruments (Continued)
2.2.1 First Order Instrument
Example 2.3 Solution
Where in Eq. (2.6) the output, y =T
r
(the reported reading), the input, x =T
x
(the temperatureT
x
at an altitude of x ), the constants, a
1
=t, a
0
=1, and b
0
=1.
Substitutefor T
x
fromEq.(2.7), we get:
The solution of the differential (2.9) consists of two parts: The transient or
complementary function part (T
rCF
) when T
x
=0, and the particular integral part
(T
rPI
) in the form:
The transient or complementary function part of the solution of Eq. (2.8) when
T
x
=0 is given by:
x r
r
T T
dt
dT
= +
(2.8)
t t x T
dt
dT
r
r
05 . 0 10 ) 5 ( 01 . 0 10 01 . 0 10 = = = +
(2.9)
0 = +
r
r
T
dt
dT

15 / / t t
rCF
Ae Ae T

= =

rPI rCF r
T T T + =
(2.10)
(2.11)
Prof Fawzy Ibrahim EEG383 Ch.2 Charst of Instrms 25 of 26
2.2 Dynamic characteristics of Instruments (Continued)
2.2.1 First Order Instrument
Example 2.3 Solution
The particular integral part of the solutionis given by:
Substitute(2.12) into (2.9) we have:
Since t =15 then:
and
The particular integral part of the solutionis given by:
Thus, the whole solutionis given by:
Applyinginitial conditions: at t =0, T
r
=10 in Eq. (2.14); therefore:
t Ct B C or t T
dt
dT
r
r
05 . 0 10 05 . 0 10 = + + = +
(2.13)
Ct B T
rPI
+ =
(2.12)
05 . 0 05 . 0 10 15 = = + + C t Ct B C
75 . 10 10 15 = = + B B C
t T
rPI
05 . 0 75 . 10 =
t Ae T T T
t
rPI rCF r
05 . 0 75 . 10
15 /
+ = + =

(2.14)
75 . 0 75 . 10 10 = + = A A
Prof Fawzy Ibrahim EEG383 Ch.2 Charst of Instrms 26 of 26
2.2 Dynamic characteristics of Instruments (Continued)
2.2.1 First Order Instrument
Example 2.3 Solution
Thus, the whole solutionis given by:
Using Eq. (2.15) to calculate T
r
for various values of t, the following table can be
constructed:
(b) At 5000 m, t =1000seconds. CalculatingTr fromEq. (2.15) we get:
(2.15)
t e T T T
t
rPI rCF r
05 . 0 75 . 10 75 . 0
15 /
+ = + =

C x e T
o
r
25 . 39 1000 05 . 0 75 . 10 75 . 0
15 / 1000
= + =