Chapter 2 FRAMEWORKS FOR UNDERSTANDING: SCIENCE,

SYSTEMS, AND ETHICS

WHAT IS SCIENCE?
The systematic, precise, objective way to study the natural world.
Science assumes that studying the world in a systematic way, we can obtain valuable insights
about our environment.
- Methodically and logically
Science demands evidence and tries to eliminate bias.
See Table 2.1 on page 36 to learn some Basic Principles of Science.
Parsimony, also known as ckham!s ra"or, is an important principle used in science#
The e$planation o% unknown phenomenon should be attempted in terms o% what is
already known about the phenomenon.
&% there are several plausible e$planations, the simplest one should be accepted# don't
make things more comple$ than they ought to be.
Science use models or paradigms that provide a %ramework o% interpreting results and
developing theories.
The accumulation o% evidence can cause paradigms to be discarded and new ones created.
R!ro"#$i%i&i'y# science is a process that includes repeatable observations and testable
hypotheses.
(iscovery or descriptive science describes natural structures and processes as accurately as
possible through care%ul observation and analysis o% data.
(ata can be )uantitative and )ualitative.
&n a controlled e$periment,
The $on'ro& (ro#! is the one in which a&& )aria%&s are held constant.
The *!rimn'a& (ro#! is the one in which one %actor or treatment is varied.
The )aria%& is the condition o% an e$periment that is subject to change and that may
in%luence the outcome o% the e$periment.
&n %&in" *!rimn's those carrying out the e$periment don!t know until a%ter data have been
gathered and analy"ed in order to avoid treating the e$perimental and control groups di%%erently.
&n "o#%&+%&in" *!rimn's neither the subject nor the e$perimenters know who is receiving
the e$perimental or the control treatment.
D"#$'i) an" in"#$'i) rasonin(
In"#$'i) rasonin( begins with observations and draws conclusions# general principle.
*hat do all these %acts have in common+
,rom many e$amples to all possible e$amples# in"#$'i) &a!.
-eri%iable observations and measurements are the "a'a .singular, "a'#m/ o% discovery science.
This dependence on observations demysti%ies natural phenomena and distinguishes science
%rom supernatural e$planations.
In"#$'i) $on$&#sions are generali"ations that summari"e many concurrent observations.
D"#$'i) rasonin( begins with supplied in%ormation called premises, and draws conclusions
on the basis o% that in%ormation.
&t discovers relationships between %acts.
&%0then# 1I, all organisms are made o% cells and humans are organisms '-n
humans are made o% cells.1
(eductive process %lows %rom general observations to a speci%ic conclusion.
2 good e$planation o% inductive and deductive reasoning#
http#33skepdic.com3re%uge3ctlessons3lesson4.html
Hy!o'-ss an" T-oris
2 -y!o'-sis is a tentative answer to some )uestion. &t is an educated guess.
2 '-ory in science is a comprehensive e$planation supported by abundant evidence, which is
widely accepted by the scienti%ic community.
2 theory is validated by a continuum o% observations and e$periments.
The common use o% the word theory is more applicable to a hypothesis in science, and not to a
scienti%ic theory. ,or many people a theory is speculative and not supported by %acts.
2 scienti%ic theory produces many hypotheses that can be tested.
Pro%a%i&i'y is the measure o% how likely something is to occur.
5robability is based on a set o% previous observations or on standard statistical methods.
Scientists o%ten increase their con%idence in a study by comparing results to a random
sample or a larger group.
Many s'a'is'i$a& 's's %ocus on calculating the probability that observed results could have
occurred by chance.
6cological tests are o%ten considered signi%icant i% there is less than 78 probability that the
results were achieved by random chance.
&n mani!#&a'i) *!rimn's the scientist alters one o% the conditions while the other variables
are held constant in order to observe what happens.
Na'#ra& *!rimn's involve observation o% events that have already happened.
&n %&in" *!rimn's the researcher doesn!t know which group is treated until a%ter the data
have been analy"ed.
&n "o#%&+%&in" *!rimn's used to tests drugs neither the subject nor the researcher know
who is in the treatment group and who is in the control group.
&n a $on'ro&&" *!rimn', the groups in which all variables are held constant.
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
&t is not a rigid procedure.
9e)uires evidence to logically solve problems.
4. Make o%sr)a'ions.
- Curiosity.
2. 2sk critical /#s'ions.
:. ,ormulate -y!o'-sis#
- 2 hypothesis is an educated guess proposed as a tentative answer to a speci%ic
)uestion or problem.
;. Pr"i$'ions are logical conse)uences o% the hypothesis.
- Make a prediction that can be tested.
7. Ts' the prediction# controlled e$perimentation.
< Control group# in a $on'ro&&" *!rimn', the groups in which all variables are
held constant.
< The e$perimental group di%%ers %rom the control group in only one variable.
< =oth groups are then compared.
>. Collect data.
?. &nterpret data.
@. Dra0 $on$&#sions.
- Aypothesis s#!!or'" or no'.
- 5rocess, which outlines a series o% steps, used to answer )uestions.
2 !ara"i(m is a model that e$plains how the world works.
&t determines how we think about a phenomenon.
Scienti%ic credibility depends on the repeatability o% observations and e$periments.
Science is a social process.
Most scientists work in teams and research groups include both graduate and undergraduate
students.
Scientists subject one another to care%ul scrutiny and check on each other's claims by repeating
the e$periments.
Para"i(m s-i,' occurs when the majority o% the scientists admit that the old e$planations are
inade)uate and do not e$plain new observations.
Science and technology are associated.
&n many instances, technology results %rom scienti%ic discoveries a!!&i" to the development o%
goods and services.
Many technologies are goal-oriented applications o% science.
Bot all technologies are applied science. Technology in general predates science.
Scientists have the responsibility to educate politicians, bureaucrats, corporate leaders, and
voters about how science works and about the potential bene%its and ha"ards o% speci%ic
technologies.
There is an important and crucial relationship between science, technology and society.
SYSTEMS
4. En)ironmn'a& s$in$ is a science# it uses the scienti%ic method. See Ch. 1 definition.
2. En)ironmn'a& s'#"is are multidisciplinary including sociology, economics, and other
non-science topics. See Ch. 1 definition.
:. En)ironmn'a&ism is mission orientedC it attempts to in%luence attitudes and policies
that a%%ect our environment.
Systems consist o% many interrelated components, %eedbacks and %lows.
Posi'i) and n(a'i) ,"%a$1 m$-anisms keep the system in e)uilibrium, %unctioning in a
controlled %ashion within certain parameters.
Systems are resilient. They recover a%ter disturbances and destructive events.
O!n sys'ms receive input, .e.g. energy/ %rom outside the system.
Emr(n' !ro!r'is are characteristics o% the whole, %unctioning system that are )uantitatively
or )ualitatively greater than the sum o% all o% its parts.
CRITICA2 THINKING
Critical thinking means correct thinking in the pursuit of releant and reliable kno!ledge about
the !orld. "nother !a# to describe it is reasonable$ reflectie$ responsible$ and skillful thinking
that is focused on deciding !hat to beliee or do.% Steven (. Scha%ersman
http#33www.%reein)uiry.com3critical-thinking.html
2 set o% skills that help us evaluate in%ormation and options in a systematic, purpose%ul, e%%icient
manner.
IT HE2PS US IN3
- (iscovering hidden ideas and meanings.
- (eveloping strategies %or evaluating reasons.
- 6valuating conclusions.
- 9ecogni"ing the di%%erence between %acts and values.
- 2voiding jumping to conclusions.
STEPS.
4. &denti%y and evaluate premises and conclusions in an argument.
2. 2cknowledge and clari%y uncertainties, vagueness, e)uivocations and contradictions.
:. (istinguish between %acts and values.
;. 9ecogni"e and interpret assumptions.
7. (istinguish the reliability or unreliability o% a source.
>. 9ecogni"e and understand conceptual %ramework.
WHAT DO I NEED TO THINK CRITICA22Y?
Skepticism and independence# don't believe everything you hear or read.
pen-mindedness and %le$ibility# be willing to consider di%%erent points o% view.
2ccuracy and orderliness# deal systematically with parts o% a comple$ whole.
5ersistence and relevance# stick to the main pointC don't allow diversions or personal biases
lead you astray.
Conte$tual sensitivity and empathy# imagine being in someone else's place.
(ecisiveness and courage# draw conclusions and take stand when the evidence warrants doing
so.
Aumility# reali"e that you may be wrong and that reconsideration may be called %or in the %uture.
ther resources#
http#33www.austhink.org3critical3
http#33www.%reein)uiry.com3critical-thinking.html
ETHICS#
- 2 branch o% philosophy concerned with mora&s and )a&#s.
- Mora&s# distinction between right and wrong.
- 4a&#s# ultimate worth o% actions or things.
6thics evaluate the relationships, rules, principles or codes that re)uire or %orbid certain
conduct.
Some consider ethics and morals as the same concept and do not distinguish between them.
EN4IRONMENTA2 ETHICS is concerned with the moral relationship between humans and the
world around us.
Some ethical )uestions#
(o we have special duties, obligations or responsibilities to other species or to nature in
general+
2re there ethical principles that constrain how we use resources or modi%y our environment+
&% so, what are the %oundations o% those constraints and how do they di%%er %rom principle
governing our relations to other humans+
Aow are our obligations and responsibilities to nature weighed against human values and
interests3
(o some interests or values supersede others+
ARE THERE UNI4ERSA2, ETERNA22Y 4A2ID ETHICA2 PRINCIP2ES OR MORA2 2AWS?
Uni)rsa&is's think there are universal ethical principles either revealed by Dod or
discovered through reason and knowledge.
R&a'i)is's think everything depends on the person, society or situationC there is right
and wrong but no transcendent principle that dictates whether a %act is right or wrong.
6verything depends on the interpretation o% %actsC ethical values are conte$tual.
Ni-i&is's claim the world makes no sense and there is no reason to behave morally.
6verything is arbitrary, and there is no meaning or purpose in li%e e$cept struggle %or
e$istence, power and strength.
U'i&i'arians hold that right actions bring good to the greatest number o% people.
Aedonists %all under this category# pleasure and happiness are the sole good in li%e.
Pos'mo"rnis's believe that nature is whatever we believe it to be. &t is arbitrary, ever-
changing, socially constructed. ne point o% view is not better than other.
4A2UES, RIGHTS AND O52IGATIONS.
Moral agents are capable o% acting morally or not and should accept responsibility %or
their actions, e.g. most adult humans.
Moral subjects cannot act morally but have moral interest o% their own and can be
treated rightly or wrongly by others, e.g. children.
Moral e$tensionism # widening perspective that 2EE humans have inalienable rights.
&nalienable rights o% all humans, e. g. li%e, liberty and the pursuit o% happiness.
http#33www.un.org3verview3rights.html
Moral e$tensionism # the widening perspective o% whom we consider ethically signi%icant.
&nherent values # intrinsic or innate worth.
&nstrumental values # con%erred or givenC valued %or its use only.
Should moral e$tensionism include non-humans+ (o animals have rights+ Should we e$tend
this to lower %orms o% li%e like bugs, %ish, %ungi, etc.+ 2nd to non-living things like rivers,
mountains, lakes, the oceans, rocks and soil+
Many philosophers think that reason and consciousness are essential %or moral consideration.
thers considers than sentient .%eeling, perceptive/ beings deserve to be considered moral
subjects. *hat do we do with non-sentient beings like rivers and rocks+
*e give legal standing to corporations although they are creations o% the imagination. Should
ecosystems, %orests, etc. also have legal standing+
RE2IGIOUS AND ETHICA2 PERSPECTI4ES
=&C6BT9&C# all living things have an inherent value, not only humans.
Aumans are only one o% many species.
Eiving organisms have an intrinsic value whether they use%ul to us or not.
2ll living things are worthy o% respect.
2nimal rights advocates emphasi"e one or %ew species.
6mphasis on the individual organism rather than the population o% organisms.
Shamanism, =uddhism, Shintoism, Taoism and Bative 2merican 9eligions share this
reverence %or nature.
-arious branches o% Christianity, Fudaism and &slam share many belie%s about nature and our
role in it.
2BTA95C6BT9&C# the world has been made %or our domination and only humans have
inherent rights and values.
Aumans are masters o% the world with a uni)ue set o% rights and values.
=ecause o% our intelligence and creativity or because our uni)ue place in Dod's plan,
humans have a justi%ication to dominate nature# -#manism.
Bature is only a source o% materials %or humans.
ST6*29(SA&5# humans have a responsibility to care %or nature .creation/.
Caretakers o% and partners in nature rather than dominators o% nature.
Aumans are part o% nature, not outside nature.
2 number o% Christian, Fewish and &slamic groups have played important roles in
nature protection.
6CC6BT9&C# processes like evolution, adaptation, biogeochemical cycles and other
ecological processes are the most important parts o% nature.
&ndividuals do not count %or muchC humans are mostly a negative in%luence.
6C,6M&B&SM# a non-hierarchical, pluralistic, relationship oriented philosophy.
Many %eminists believe that neither 6astern nor *estern religions are su%%icient to
solve environmental problems. The problem comes %rom the patriarchal system.
ppression o% women and nature are related and stem %rom the male-patriarchal
system.
5eople see themselves as related to each other and to nature.
Bot male dominated - patriarchal.
Cooperation rather than competitionC a network o% personal relationships.
Some eco%eminists have e$tended the movement to include racism and social
ine)ualities.
E$o,minis's contend that patriarchal systems o% domination and duality cause both
environmental degradation and social dys%unction. They call %or a more pluralistic,
nonhierarchical, caring treatment o% both nature and other people.
E$o'rrorism inoles e&tremist ie!s on enironmental issues and animal rights$ and is a
fringe'issue form of terrorism aimed primaril# at inflicting economic damage on those seen as
profiting from the destruction and e&ploitation of the enironment. "dherents go !a# be#ond
mainstream enironmentalists and animal actiists to acts of iolence (ustified on grounds that
mainstream efforts aren)t enough$ and the# often compare themseles to anti'slaer#
abolitionists or opponents of *a+i death camps.%
http#33%aculty.ncwc.edu3TConnor3;2G3;2Glect4>.htm
ther sites on ecoterrorism#
http#33www.sourcewatch.org3inde$.php+titleH6co-terrorism
http#33www.answers.com3topic3ecoterrorism
EN4IRONMENTA2 6USTICE
Minorities are usually e$posed to greater pollution and environmental ha"ard by living in places
where wastes are dumped, industrial %acilities are built, etc.# 2U2U, locally unwanted land use.
En)ironmn'a& 6#s'i$ combines civil rights with environmental protection to demand a sa%e,
healthy, li%e-giving environment %or everyone.
Ineducated and powerless people can o%ten be tricked or intimidated into signing socially and
environmentally disastrous contracts.
5oor, minority communities at home and abroad are being increasingly targeted as places to
dump unwanted wastes.
There is0
En)ironmn'a& ra$ism# ine)uitable distribution o% ha"ards based on race. 1EIEI -
locally unwanted land use1 and 1B&M=J -not in my backyard.1
To*i$ $o&onia&ism# targets poor communities in Third or ,ourth *orld countries %or
waste disposalC %light o% polluting companies across the border.
&ntergenerational justice# should we care about ne$t generations+