Chapter 27 BACTERIA AND ARCHEA

BACTERIA
Bacteria are prokaryotes.
Bacteria lack membrane bound organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts.
One circular DNA molecule that contains genes responsible for metabolism, cell growth, and
cell replication.
The chromosome is so tightly packed that fills only part of the cell. This region is called the
nucleoid.
Prokaryotes are the most abundant organisms on Earth.
They hae a great ability to adapt to wide range of habitats.
STRUCTURAL AD FUNCTIONAL ADAPTATIONS
Prokaryotic cells usually are !." # ".! $m, much smaller than the typical eukaryotic cell %! &%!!
$m.
Their uni'ue shapes are useful in classification and identification.
%. coccus (sphere) e.g.* +taphylococcus aureus ,common skin bacterium-
2. bacillus (rod) e.g.* Clostridium tetanus ,produces tetanus to.in-
/. spiroce!e (corkscrew, fle.ible) e.g.* Treponema pallidum ,cause of syphilis-
0. spirillum (rigid heli.) e.g. +pirillum olutans ,rat&bite feer-
". "ibrio (comma shape) e.g.* 1ibrio cholera ,cause of cholera-
CELL#SURFACE STRUCTURES
2ost bacteria hae a cell $all made of pep!ido%l&cans, sugars linked to short polypeptides.
The cell wall of eukaryotes is made of cellulose or chitin.
The walls of archaea lack peptidoglycans.
The cell wall structure aries with the species.
+ome scientists to classify bacteria use cell wall composition3
'ram#posi!i"e bacteria absorb and retain crystal iolet stain3 their wall is structurally simpler
and with a large amount of peptidoglycans than the ne.t group.
'ram#ne%a!i"e bacteria do not absorb crystal iolet stain3 their cell wall is structurally more
comple. and has fewer amounts of peptidoglycans.
The cell wall of gram&negatie bacteria is made of a layer of peptidoglycan and
proteins surrounded by an outer membrane of lipopolysaccharides, carbohydrates
bounded to lipids.
These lipopolysaccharides are often to.ic.
4ram&negatie bacteria tend to be more resistant than gram&positie bacteria to antibiotics
because the outer membrane preents the entry of drugs.
2any prokaryotes secrete a sticky layer of polysaccharide or protein that forms another
protectie layer called the capsule or %l&cocal&( outside the cell wall.
Composed of polysaccharides and 5 or peptidoglycans.
+ometimes called the capsule or slime layer.
+ome capsules preent dehydration.
Coneys irulence6 ,e.ample* +treptococcus pneunoniae, Bacillus anthracis -
7acilitates attachment ,e.ample* attachment of encapsulated bacteria to epithelium-.
+ome bacteria hae hundreds of hair&like protein appendages known as )imbriae (sing. fimbria)
and pili*
7imbriae are more numerous and shorter than pili.
7imbriae are used for attachment to surfaces ,e.ample* 8eisseria gonorrhea use pili for
attachment to mucous membranes of the penis, agina, and urinary tract-
9+e. pili9 allow for :oining of two bacteria during con+u%a!ion e.change of ;8<.
,OTILIT-
2ost motile bacteria moe by means of rotating )la%ella.
Bacterium flagella hae a structure different from that of eukaryotes3 it consists of a
basal body, a hook and the filament.
7lagella may be scattered oer the entire surface of the cell.
+pirochetes moe with a corkscrew motion.
=elical filaments under the outer layer of the cell wall create the motion, similar in
structure to the flagella.
>hen the filaments rotate, the cells moes in a corkscrew motion.
?n a heterogeneous medium, many prokaryotes e.hibit !a(is that are attraction to a stimulus or
a moement away from it.
+ome bacteria secrete a slimy thread that anchor to the substratum. <s the cells continue to
secrete :ets of slime, the filamentous prokaryote glides along the growing end of the filament.
INTERNAL AND 'ENO,IC OR'ANI.ATION
+ome prokaryotic cells hae speciali@ed membranes that perform metabolic functions. These
membranes are infoldings of the plasma membrane.
Bacteria lack membrane bound organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts.
The plasma membrane is folded in some species, and proides an internal membrane surfaces.
These folds are inoled in cellular respiration and photosynthesis.
One circular/ double#s!randed DNA molecule that contains genes responsible for
metabolism, cell growth, and cell replication.
Prokaryote chromosomes contain fewer proteins than those of eukaryotes.
The ;8< is concentrated in the nucleoid region.
Plasmids are small circular ;8< molecules found in bacteria.
Plasmids are separate from the chromosome and capable of replication.
Plasmids hae small number of genes. These genes are not normally needed for reproduction
or surial of the bacterium.
Aeplication and translation is similar to eukaryotes.
Prokaryote ribosomes are slightly smaller than eukaryotic ribosomeBs and differ in their protein
and A8< content.
These differences allow certain antibiotics, such as erythromycin and tetracycline, to bind to
ribosomeBs and block protein synthesis in prokaryotes but not in eukaryotes.
REPRODUCTION AND ADAPTATION
Bacteria reproduce by binar& )ission.
Binary fission replication that is the splitting of single cell into two cells.
;8< replicates and a transerse wall is formed by the ingrowth of the plasma
membrane and cell wall.
2ostly gram&positie bacteria during aderse conditions form endospores.
7ormed inside bacterial membrane, consisting of thick peptidoglycan layers
surrounding ;8<, A8<, ribosomes, and essential en@ymes.
=ighly dehydrated, no metabolism occurring until hydrated again. +pecial endospore
staining needed to isuali@e.
RAPID REPRODUCTION/ ,UTATION/ AND 'ENETIC
RECO,BINATION PRO,OTE 'ENETIC DI0ERSIT- IN
PRO1AR-OTES*
The fact that prokaryotes e.hibit such a wide range of adaptations suggests that they must hae
considerable genetic ariation.
RAPID REPRODUCTION AND ,UTATION
?nsertions, deletions and base&pair substitutions in their ;8< increase genetic difference.
+pontaneous mutations may occur in a single gene at an aerage rate of one in ten million per
cell diision in E. coli.
?t has been suggested that about C million new mutations arise per day in the E. coli found in the
human intestine.
8ew mutations, though indiidually rare, can greatly increase genetic diersity in species like E.
coli that hae short generation times and large population si@es.
This diersity can lead to rapid eolution.
'ENETIC RECO,BINATION
;8< from different indiiduals can combine by means of transformations, transduction and
con:ugation.
TRANSFOR,ATION AND TRANSDUCTION
Trans)orma!ion occurs when a cell takes in fragments of ;8< released by another cell.
The cell is now a recombinant.
?n !ransduc!ion iruses (bacteriophages) transfer genes between bacterium cells.
CON2U'ATION AND PLAS,IDS
Con+u%a!ion occurs when two cells of different mating types come together and genetic
material is transferred from one cell to the other by means of a se( pilus*
The ability to form a se. pilus and donate ;8< results from the presence of a particular piece of
;8< called the 7 factor (7 for fertility).
The 7 factor consists of about 2" genes, most of which are re'uired for the formation of the se.
pilus.
The 7 factor can be found either in the chromosome or in a plasmid, where is called an 7
plasmid.
Cells containing the 7 plasmid, designated 7
D
cells, function as ;8< donors.
Cells lacking the 7 factor, designated 7
&
cells function as ;8< recipients during
con:ugation.
The 7
D
is transferable if a copy of the entire 7
D
is transferred.
Chromosomal genes can be transferred during con:ugation.
< cell with the 7 factor built into its chromosome is called an =fr cell (for high fre'uency of
recombination)
<n =fr cell functions as donor of ;8<,
>hen chromosomal ;8< from an =fr cell enters an 7
&
cell, homologous regions of the =fr and
7
&
c chromosomes may align, allowing segments of their ;8< to be e.changed.
This results in a recombinant bacterium that has genes from two cells.
R PLAS,IDS AND ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE*
+ometimes, mutation in chromosomal gene of a pathogen can confer resistance.
Aesistance can be due to*
?nterference with the transport of an antibiotic into the cell.
The target protein for an antibiotic molecule may be altered, reducing its inhibitory effect.
Aesistance genes may code for an en@yme that degrades the antibiotic.
These resistance genes are carried by plasmids, which are called R plasmids*
NUTRITION AND ,ETABOLIC DI0ERSIT-
8utrition is aried in bacteria.
<ccording to the source of carbon*
He!ero!ropic species are saprop&!ic (saprotrophs) and parasi!ic. They re'uire at
least one organic nutrient.
Au!o!ropic bacteria are either po!os&n!e!ic or cemos&n!e!ic. They need
inorganic CE2 as the source of carbon.
<ccording to the source of energy*
Po!o!rops obtain energy from light.
Cemo!rops obtain energy from chemicals taken from the enironment.
Combining the sources of carbon and energy*
<utotrophs*
Po!oau!o!rops obtain energy from light and CE2 is carbon source.
Cemoau!o!rops obtain their energy by o.idi@ing inorganic chemicals and CE2 is
carbon source.
=eterotrophs*
Po!oe!ero!rops obtain energy from light and carbon from organic molecules.
Cemoe!ero!rops must consume organic molecules for both energy and carbon.
ROLE OF O3-'EN IN ,ETABOLIS,
2ost bacteria re'uire o.ygen to lie. They are aerobes (obli%a!e aerobes).
+ome bacteria carry their metabolic functions always in the absence of o.ygen. They are
obligate anaerobes (obli%a!e anaerobes).
Facul!a!i"e anaerobes use o.ygen if it is aailable but can also carry on their metabolic
functions anaerobically.
NITRO'EN ,ETABOLIS,
8itrogen is a ma:or nutrient essential for the production of amino acids and nucleic acids in all
organisms.
Prokaryotes can use nitrogen from a ariety of compounds.
+ome prokaryotes, like cyanobacteria and methanogens, are capable of using atmospheric
nitrogen as the source of nitrogen.
Ni!ro%en )i(a!ion* 82 is conerted to 8=0
D
This is the only known biological mechanism that uses 82.
+ome soil bacteria conert 8=0
D
to 8E2
&
3 others conert 8E2
&
to nitrates, 8E/
F
.
,ETABOLIC COOPERATION
Cyanobacteria are nitrogen&fi.ing organisms. Cooperation between cells allows antagonistic
mechanism to function in different cells of a colony, e.g. in <nabaena, heterocyst cells fi.
nitrogen, while other green cells carry on photosynthesis.
< thick wall that restricts the entrance of E2 surrounds heterocyst. ?ntercellular connections
allow heterocytes to transport fi.ed nitrogen to other cells and to receie carbohydrates from its
neighboring cells.
+ome colonies coat the surface of rocks and other ob:ects forming what is called bio)ilms.
Cells produce proteins that stick them to the surface.
Channels in the biofilm allow nutrient to reach cells in the interior and wastes to be
e.pelled.
Biofilms cause damage to industrial and medical e'uipment, contaminate products and
cause tooth decay.
+ulfate&consuming bacteria coe.ists with methane&consuming archaea in ball&shape aggregates
in the ocean floor.
The bacteria use <chaeaBs waste products
The bacteria produce compounds that facilitate methane consumption by archaea.
,OLECULAR S-STE,ATICS
+ystematists based prokaryotic ta.onomy on phenotypic characteristics such as shape, motility,
nutritional mode, and response to gram stain.
These criteria do not reeal a clear eolutionary history.
2olecular systematics, howeer, has lead to dramatic conclusions.
LESSONS FRO, ,OLECULAR S-STE,ATICS
2icrobiologists began comparing the se'uences of prokaryotic genes in the %C7!s.
Carl >oese concluded that many prokaryotes are more closely allied to eukaryotes and belong
in a domain of their own* Arcaea.
Ether studies hae shown that the cyanobacteria group is monophyletic.
The 4ram&negatie bacteria group is polyphyletic.
The genetic diersity of prokaryotes is immense.
=ori@ontal gene transfer has played an important role in the diersity of prokaryotes.
Eer hundred millions of years, prokaryotes hae ac'uired genes from een distantly related
species and continue to do so today.
1ery early in the history of life, the prokaryotes dierged into two main lineages, the arcaea
and the bac!eria.
ARCHAEA
MAIN FEATURES BACTERIA ARCHAEA
rRNA sequences
RNA polymerase
Introns
Antibiotic sensitivity
epti!o"lycan in cell
#all
Membrane lipi!s
Many unique to bacteria
Relatively small and
simple
Absent
Inhibited
Present
Carbon chains
unbranched
Many match eukaryotic
ones
Complex; similar to
eukaryotic
Present in some genes
Not inhibited
Absent
Carbon chains branched
<rchaea is an eolutionarily distinct group (domain) of prokaryotes consisting of the
me!ano%ens, most e.treme alopiles and e.treme !ermopiles (e.tremophiles).
Check* http*55www.sidwell.edu5us5science5lb"5Gabs5ClassificationFGab5<rchaea5

Their cell walls lack peptidoglycan, and their translational mechanism resembles eukaryotes
rather than prokaryotes.
2ethanogens produce methane gas from simple carbon compounds.
They lie in anaerobic enironments like swamp, marine sediments and digestie track of
animals.
They are important in sewage treatment plants.
They lie in anaerobic enironments like swamp, marine sediments and digestie track of
animals.
E.treme halophiles lie in saturated salt solutions. They often color the rocks on which they lie
with a purple&reddish color due bac!eriorodopsin, a photosynthetic pigment.
E.treme thermophiles lie in temperatures up to %%!
o
C and p= of % or 2.
Their ;8< remains as a double heli. with the help of speciali@ed of proteins.
+ome marine archaea lie in moderate enironments in the oceans. 8ot all archaea are
e.tremophiles.
BACTERIA
Pro!eobac!eria is a large and dierse group of gram&negatie bacteria.
?t includes photoautotrophs, chemoautotrophs and heterotrophs.
<erobic or anaerobic species.
+ubdiided into fie subgroups.
The other groups are Chlamydias, spirochetes, gram&positie bacteria and cyanobacteria.
Check* http*55www.sidwell.edu5us5science5lb"5Gabs5ClassificationFGab5Bacteria5
PRO1AR-OTES PLA- CRUCIAL ROLES IN THE BIOSPHERE
CHE,ICAL REC-CLIN'
Bacteria are essential in the rec&clin% o) nu!rien!s in ecosystems.
Ecosystems depend on the continual recycling of chemical elements between the liing and
nonliing components of the enironment.
Bacteria and fungi are the ma:or decomposer organisms.
Bacteria conert inorganic compounds to forms that can be taken up by other organisms
<utotrophic bacteria carry on photosynthesis
Cyanobacteria and others fi. nitrogen.
They can decrease the aailability of nutrients and hae great effect soil nutrient concentration.
ECOLO'ICAL INTERACTIONS
+ome bacteria are s&mbio!ic with other organisms.
+ymbiotic means 9liing with other organisms.9
2utualism, commensalism or parasitism.
PRO1AR-OTES HA0E BOTH HAR,FUL AND BENEFICIAL I,PACTS OF
HU,ANS.
2any species are important pa!o%ens of humans, plants and animals.
Pathogenic bacteria produce e(o!o(ins, strong poisons that are secreted by the cells.
Endo!o(ins are components of the cell wall of most gram&negatie bacteria that are release
only when the bacterium dies.
=ori@ontal gene transfer can spread genes associated with irulence to harmless strains.
=armful genes can be transfer to non&irulent bacteria ia bacteriophages and render the
harmless strain into a irulent form.
Prokaryotes are ery useful in research and technology.