Geophysics 424 January 2012

Martyn Unsworth, University of Alberta, 2012

1
C : Theory of EM field propagation in the Earth

C1 Maxwells equations

Quantities describing the electromagnetic field

E = electric field strength (V/m)

D = displacement, electric flux density

J = electric current density (A/ m
2
)

B = magnetic flux density

H = magnetic field strength

P = polarization

= electric charge density (beware of other uses of this symbol)


Quantities describing the properties of the Earth

= electrical conductivity

= dielectric permittivity

= magnetic permeability



Constitutive relations

These quantities are linked through the constitutive relations as follows

J = E

B = H

D = E + P

In these equations the terms on the right (E, H ) can be thought as inputs. The equations
then predict the response (output) based on the Earth properties.


Earth properties in more detail


(a) Electrical Conductivity () : Measures the ability of a material to conduct
electric current (see 424B for details)
Geophysics 424 January 2012
Martyn Unsworth, University of Alberta, 2012

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(b) Magnetic permeability ()

On the atomic scale, atoms can behave as magnetic dipoles. Usually consider the
relative permeability, which is written as:

=
0

r

where
0
is the relative permeability (
0
= 4 x 10
7
H/m)

Can also consider the magnetic susceptibility

r
= 1+k

There are two types of behaviour.

Diamagnetic : The dipoles align anti-parallel to an applied magnetic field (H).
Magnetic flux density represents the combination of the applied magnetic field and
the effect of the material. All materials display this property that can be considered
as EM induction in a circuit that comprises the electrons orbiting the nucleus.

Magnetic susceptibility : k < 0
Relative permeability:
r
< 1

Paramagnetic : In this case the atom has a net magnetic moment due to the
configuration of unpaired electrons in the outer shell. The atoms will align parallel to
an applied magnetic field and reinforce the applied magnetic field. The paramagnetic
response will be much stronger that the diamagnetic response.

Magnetic susceptibility : k > 0
Relative permeability:
r
> 1


Variations in
r
are usually encountered only in major ore bodies. Thus for the rest
of this class, we will assume that =
0
(unless there is a good reason).



(c) Dielectric permittivity ()

On the atomic scale, some molecules have a overall electric dipole moment (e.g.
H
2
O). These molecules will align with an applied electric field (E) to generate a
displacement (D). Usually express the permittivity as a relative permittivity (
r
)
that is defined as:

=
r

0

where
0
= 8.85 x 10
12
F/m and is defined as the permittivity of free space.

Geophysics 424 January 2012
Martyn Unsworth, University of Alberta, 2012

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Note that permittivity is only important when displacement current must be
considered. We will see that at the low frequencies used in EM geophysics, that
displacement current is rarely significant so we will assume that =
0

However in GPR the frequencies are high enough that displacement current is
significant.


In general, , and all vary with position in the earth (and are tensors). However we
will assume that they are scalars and that only varies with position in the Earth.




Geophysics 424 January 2012
Martyn Unsworth, University of Alberta, 2012

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Maxwells equations

(1) Coulombs Law
. V E = /
0

}
S
E. dS = /
0




(2) Continuous magnetic flux
. V B = 0
}
S
B.dS = 0
Based on the observation that magnetic flux
is continuous, and that magnetic monopoles
do not exist in isolation.






(3) Amperes Law
. V B = J
}
B . dl =
}
S
J.ds
Constant current > Magnetic field

Based on the observation that an electric
current, J, generates a magnetic field, B.
This was quantified by Ampre through a
study of the forces between current carrying
conductors.

Note that this includes only conduction
current on right hand side








(4) Faradays Law
. V E = -
t c
cB

}
E.dl = -
t c
c

}
S
B.dS
Changing magnetic field > electric field

Equation (4) : After the discovery of
Ampres Law, the reverse effect was
looked for. i.e. a magnetic field producing
an electric current. First quantified by
Michael Faraday in 1831 as magneto-
electric induction. The negative sign comes
from Lenzs Law (simply conservation of
energy). Faradays Law states that the
induced e.m.f. (voltage) is proportional to
the rate of change of magnetic flux.

V =
}
E.dl














Geophysics 424 January 2012
Martyn Unsworth, University of Alberta, 2012

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Displacement current

- Once the time derivative in Faradays Law was observed, Faraday suggested that
electromagnetic (EM) waves might exist.

- However, no time derivative is found in (3) to allow equations (3) and (4) to be
coupled.

- James Clerk Maxwell showed that equation (3) was only true when no time
variation occurred.

- He added an extra current term that was called the displacement current to the
right hand side of Amperes Law where:

displacement current =
t c
cD
=
t c
cE


- Thus Amperes Law becomes:

. V B = J+
t c
cE


- Now that (3a) and (4) are coupled, we can show that electromagnetic waves can
travel in the atmosphere and Earth.

- N.B. If you read Maxwells original treatise you will never see grad, div or curl.
All the derivations are written out component by component!


Maxwells Lecture hall at Cambridge University J.C. Maxwell
Geophysics 424 January 2012
Martyn Unsworth, University of Alberta, 2012

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C2: Boundary conditions

Consider the horizontal interface between two halfspaces, with conductivity
1
and
2

Assume that both halfspaces have the same permeability () and permittivity ().

1
x
E
2
x
E = horizontal electric fields

1
z
E
2
z
E = vertical electric fields

1
y
B
2
y
B = horizontal magnetic field

1
z
B
2
z
B = vertical magnetic fields



(1) Electric field parallel to surface



Consider a rectangular loop L of length x and height z. The loop encloses a surface,
S.

From Faradays Law
} }
c
c
= dS B
t
dl E
L
x
. .
x E x E dl E
x x
L
x
A A =
}
2 1
.
As 0 Az 0 .
}
S
dS B
Thus 0
2 1
= A A x E x E
x x


and
2 1
x x
E E =


E parallel to surface is continuous



Geophysics 424 January 2012
Martyn Unsworth, University of Alberta, 2012

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(2) Magnetic field parallel to surface



Consider a rectangular loop L of length y and height z. The loop encloses a surface,
S.

From Amperes Law
} }
=
S L
dS J dl B . .
y B y B dl B
y y
L
A A =
}
2 1
.

As 0 Az , 0 .
}
S
dS J
Thus 0
2 1
= A A y B y B
y y

and
2 1
y y
B B =

B parallel to surface is continuous




(3) Electric field normal to the surface




Consider a small cylinder with surface area S on top and bottom. As current flows
across the boundary, a steady state is established with equal amounts of charge entering
and leaving the cylinder. Thus:

2 1
z z
SJ SJ = ;
2 1
z z
J J = ;
2
2
1
1 z z
E E o o =


E normal to surface is discontinuous

Geophysics 424 January 2012
Martyn Unsworth, University of Alberta, 2012

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This shows that the electric field normal to the surface is discontinuous. This is due to a
layer of electric charge on the interface. The surface charge density can be calculated as
follows:

}
=
S
Q
dS E
c
.

where Q is the total electric charge inside the cylinder

}
= =
S
z z z
S E S E S E dS E ) 1 ( .
2
1 1 2 1
o
o


Thus the surface charge density can be defined as c
o
o
) 1 (
2
1 1
= =
z
E
S
Q
q


(4) Magnetic field normal to the surface





}
=
S
dS B 0 .
}
= =
S
z z
S B S B dS B 0 .
2 1

2 1
z z
B B =

B normal to surface is continuous













Geophysics 424 January 2012
Martyn Unsworth, University of Alberta, 2012

9

C3 : Diffusion of EM fields in a conductive medium

Some equations here written in Equation Editor (need recent version of WORD to edit)

C3.1 General solution of Maxwells equations

(add a sketch of an EM wave)

Consider an electromagnetic wave that is travelling through a region characterized by
conductivity (), magnetic permeability () and dielectric permittivity (). The local
electric charge density is Q(x,y,z)

The electric and magnetic fields vary in space and time as E(x,y,z,t) and B (x,y,z,t) and are
described by Maxwells equations :

(1)

(2)

Ultimate goal is to eliminate B and obtain an equation for E

Constitutive relation gives us with Amperes Law becoming

(3)

Note that the first term on the right hand side represents conduction current, while the
second represents displacement current. Taking the curl of Faradays Law give us

(4)

Substituting (3) into (4) and using the vector identity

(5)

We can show that

(6)

Now if it assumed that the Earth properties (conductivity, permeability, permittivity) do
not vary with time, then we can write.

(7)

Coulombs Law states that
Geophysics 424 January 2012
Martyn Unsworth, University of Alberta, 2012

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(8)

Assumption 1 : Assume there are no free electric charges (Q =0). Note that this will not
be true in a 2-D or 3-D resistivity structure where electric current crosses boundaries
between regions of differing resistivity. This requires that:

(9)

which simplifies (7) to give

(10)

We now have a second order differential equation for E(x,y,z,t) where the time-variation
can be assumed to be completely general. This represents the time-domain.


Limiting cases

(1) If the conduction current term is much larger than the displacement current term,
then (10) simplifies to a diffusion equation

(11)

(2) However if the displacement current term is much larger than the conduction
current term, then (10) simplifies to a wave equation.

(12)
Comparison with the standard wave equation shows that the wave velocity is

(13)

Which for free space values of and gives c = 3 x 10
8
m/s, showing that this is a
radio wave moving at the speed of light.


C3.2 Transform to the frequency domain

Need to determine which of these limiting cases will apply for EM signals travelling in
the Earth.

Assumption 2 : Analysis is simplified if analysis is transformed into the frequency
domain i.e. we assume that the electric and magnetic fields have a harmonic time
variation at an angular frequency . The angular frequency and frequency are related as
. This allows variables to be separated as

Geophysics 424 January 2012
Martyn Unsworth, University of Alberta, 2012

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(14)

where . Substitution of (14) into (10) gives

(15)

Note that the first term on the right hand side represents conduction current, while the
second represents displacement current. To understand which term will dominate,
consider some numerical values for two common types of geophysical exploration. The
ratio of displacement current to conduction current can be written as

Magnetotellurics : This uses a low frequency EM signal at f = 1 Hz in a
region where = 0.01 S/m and assuming a free space value of dielectric
permittivity, this gives R = 5.56 x 10
-9
showing that conduction current is
dominant and the signal will propagate by diffusion.

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) : A 1 GHz signal travels in glacial ice
with = 10
-5
S/m giving R = 5561. Displacement current dominant and
signal travels as a wave.

Assumption 3 : This shows that for all practical EM applications in the Earth,
displacement current can be ignored. Thus we will use the pre-Maxwell form of
Amperes Law, with the major contribution by JCM ignored!




C3.3 Plane, polarized EM signal travelling vertically in the Earth


Next will consider a simplified geometry of an EM signal travelling vertically in the
Earth

(16)

This can be written in component form (less concisely) as

(17a)

(17b)

(17c)


where

Geophysics 424 January 2012
Martyn Unsworth, University of Alberta, 2012

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Assumption 4 : If it assumed that the electric field is polarized in the x-direction, then
can write

and equations (17b) and (17c) can be ignored.

Thus we need to solve the second-order partial differential equation:

(18)


Assumption 5 : Now if the wave is assumed to be planar, then it will not vary in the x
and y directions, which can be expressed as and . This further
simplifies (18) to an ordinary differential equation

(19)

Can seek a trial solution of the form

(20)

where A and k are constants to be determined. Substitution gives

(21)

which gives
(22)

Since there are two possible solutions,

(23)

we need to write a general form of the solution as:

(24)

which can be expanded as

(25)


Note that each term consists of an exponential function and an oscillatory function. Need
to determine

and

by applying appropriate boundary conditions.

Boundary condition 1
This solution must remain bounded as . This is only possible if

= 0.


Boundary condition 2
Geophysics 424 January 2012
Martyn Unsworth, University of Alberta, 2012

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Can specify that at

, which requires

Thus the solution can be written as :

(26)

This expression has both real and imaginary parts, both of which are solutions.
Considering the real part, we can write:

(27)


C3.4 Skin depth

Consider the modulus of the electric field

(28)

This decays monotonically as z increases. The depth at which has decreased
from the value at by a factor of 1/e is defined as the skin depth ()

(29)

which requires

(30)
This can be arranged to give

(31)

Substituting for

gives an expression for the skin depth in metres as

(32)

This is the most important equation derived in Geophysics 424





Geophysics 424 January 2012
Martyn Unsworth, University of Alberta, 2012

14
Attenuation of a plane EM wave



Solid line : Real (in phase component)
Dashed line : Imaginary (out of phase component)



Geophysics 424 January 2012
Martyn Unsworth, University of Alberta, 2012

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What three things are incorrect in this figure?

You should be able to answer after section D has been completed.

(1)


(2)


(3)


Geophysics 424 January 2012
Martyn Unsworth, University of Alberta, 2012

16
Final note on Earth properties

The electrical and magnetic properties of the Earth are described by three parameters:

Electrical conductivity
Magnetic permeability
Dielectric permittivity

Variations in the conductivity are larger than variations in the other two parameters,
often orders of magnitude. This is why our analysis of MT focuses on conductivity
variations.

Variations in subsurface magnetic permeability will influence how EM signals travel in
the Earth. If these variations are ignored, our solutions to Maxwells equations will be
approximate.

What about variations in dielectric permittivity? At the low frequencies used in MT, we
showed that displacement current is much smaller than conduction current. The only term
where permittivity was found was in the displacement current term. Thus in MT we are
completely insensitive to variations in permittivity. No errors are caused by assuming
the permittivity is constant (at low frequency).