ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY

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UNIT IV
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POLYMERS
Introduction : the word polymer is derived from two Greek word (Poly = many; mers units or
parts)
A polymer is a large molecule which is formed by repeated linking of small molecules.
These small molecules are known as monomers from which polymer is formed and the process by
which the monomer molecular are linked to form a big molecule (polymer) is called as
polymerization
Ex: Polythylene (polythene s a polymer formed by linking together of a large number of ethane
(C
2
H
4
) molecules. Thus:
H H H H H H H H
| | | | | | | |
n C = C Polymerization -C - C - C - C - C - C-
| | | | | | | |
H H H H H H H H
| Mer | n
Ethylene (monomer) Polyethylene (Polymer)
The number of repeating units in the chain so formed is called the degree of polymerization
(D
p
). Polymers with high degree of polymerization are called high polymers and those with low
degree of polymerization are called oligopolymers High polymers have very high molecular
weights (10
4
to 10
6
) and hence are called macromolecules most of the polymers, usually, fall into
the 5,000 2,00,000 molecular mass range.
These polymers are having desirable properties like high strength, light weight, good
flexibility, special electrical properties, resistance to chemicals, and fabrication into complex shapes
in a wide variety of colors. Polymers can be converted into strong articles, flexible rubber like.
Masses, soft and resistant foams, smooth and fine fibers, swollen Jelly like food materials, to fill
cavities, to seal joints, etc.
Types of Polymerization: Two types of polymerization are generally distinguished.
(1) Addition or chain polymerization
(2) Condensation polymerization or step polymerization
(1) Addition or chain polymerization
In addition polymerization, the polymer is formed from the monomer, without the loss of any
material, (HCl, H
2
O, NH
3
) and the product is an exact multiple of the original monomeric molecule.
Such a monomeric molecule usually contains one or more double bonds.
In general addition polymerization proceeds by the initial formation of some reactive species
to another molecule, with the regeneration of the reactive feature
The addition polymerization reaction must be initiated by the application of heat, light,
pressure or a catalyst for breaking down the double covalent bonds of monomers. Some examples of
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free radical addition polymerization are given below. The current arrows represent e
-
shifts,
occurring during the reaction.
Ex : n H
2
C = CH
2
Rearrangement n H
2
C CH
2
Polymerization
Ethylene (Heat, Light, Pressure (Addition)
Monomer or Catalyst)


H
2
C CH
2

Polythylene n



(2) Condensation or step polymerization: it is defined as a reaction occurring between simple
polar group containing monomers with the formation of polymer and elimination of small
molecular like H
2
0, Hcl, NH
3
etc.
Ex: (i) Hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid condense to form a polymer, nylon 6,6.
n H
2
N + (CH
2
)
6
NH
2
+ n HOOC (CH
2
)
4
COOH
Hexamethylene Adipic Acid
diamine
Condensation polyn
-2 NH
2
O

[HN (CH
2
)
6
NH CO - (CH
2
)
4
CO ]
n

ylon- 6,6.

n H
2
N + CH - COOH + n H
2
N CH - COOH
| |
CH
3
C
6
H
5

Alanine Phenylalanine

Condensation polymerization

[HN - CH CO NH - CH CO ]
n

| |
CH
3
C
6
H
5

Polyphenylalanine

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Addition polymerization Condensation polymerization
(1) Monomer molecules will add each other to
form addition polymer with out the elimination
of smaller molecules.
(2) Number of units decreases steadily
throughout the reaction
(3) Polymerization occurs due to the presence of
unsaturation in monomers
(4) Mo1. wt of addition polymer is roughly equal
to that of all monomers
(5) Less reaction time takes place which gives
low yield.
(1) Monomer molecules combine with the
elimination of small molecule to form a
condensation polymer
(2) Monomer disappears early in the reaction.

(3) Polymerization proceeds through reactive
functional groups.
(4) molecular wt of condensation polymer is
lesser than that of all the monomers
(5) Long reaction time takes place which give
high yield

Polymerisation Mechanisms : Mechanisms of Polymerization are classified into 2 types
(1) Chain growth polymerization
(2) Step growth polymerization
(1) Chain growth polymerization : it is characterized by a self addition of monomer molecules to
each other very rapidly through a chain reaction.
Ex :
Vinyl chloride
Vinyl alcohol
acrylonitrile
allyl alcohol
Allylchloride
Ethylene
propylene
1, 3 butadiene
isoprene neoprene
Cl
HO
N
HO
Cl
Alylic
compounds
Dienes
Olefine (alkenes)
Vinyllic
compounds


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Chain polymerization consists of major steps, namely;
Chain initiation of Step
Chain Propagation Step
Chain termination Step
Depending upon the reactive speeds, the mechanism of chain polymerization can be explained by
3 methods.
(1) Free radical polymerization
(2) Ionic Polymerization
(3) Coordinate Polymerization
(1) Free radical polymerization
When the initiation of polymer chain grouth is brought about by the radicals, it is called as
free radical chain polymerization. The free radicals are formed by the decomposition of initiators.
Initiator: The compound that initiates the polymerization process with the formation of free radicals
is called as initiator.
Initiators are thermally unstable if R- Ris an initiator and the pair of e
-
s forming the bond
between 2 R groups, can be represented by dots and initiator can be written as R : R.
R: R Decomposition R

+ R

Initiators are classified into 4 types based on decomposition.
(a) Thermal initiator : The initiator which produces the initiating free radical by heating is called as
thermal initiator. The compounds having o-, -N = N-, -S-S- linkages are generally used as thermal
initiators as their bond dissociation energy is between 60 100 KJ / Mole.

CH
3
CH
3
CH
3
| | |

H
3
C - C N = N C CH
3
2H
3
C - C

+ 2N
2

| | |
CN CN CN
Azo bis isobutyl nitrile Bytynitrile (initiating free radical)

R S S R 2R

+S
2

(b) Photo initiator : The initiators which produces an initiating free radical in presence of light are
called as photo initiators.
(C) Redox Initiator : The initiator which results a free radical by the oxidation and reductions is
called as redox initiator.
Eg: Ferrous iron (Fe
2+
) catalyzed decomposition of H
2
O
2
.

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H
2
O
2
.
OH
.
+ OH
.

OH
.
+ Fe
2+
OH

+ Fe
3+

H
2
O
2
+ Fe
2+
OH
.
OH
.
+ OH

+ Fe
3+
(d) Electro initiator : The initiator that produces initiating free radical by the electrolysis is called as
electro initiator.
Eg : KNO
3
in the presence of DMF (Dimethyl formamide) on electrolysis give NO
3
and K. The NO
3

initiates the polymerization mechanism.
Dimethylformamide DMF :
O
N

KNO
3
K + NO
3

Electrolysis

Mechanism of Free radical polymerization
This mechanism involves 3 main steps.
(a) Initiation step
(b) Propagation step
(c) Termination Step
(a) Chain initiation step : This step involves the decomposition initiator molecules to give free
radicals and the formation of radicals by initiator is an endothermic reaction.
R R R

+ R

Initiator Initiating free radical
Thus, the formed free radical is highly reactive and attacks the double bond of vinyl halide
monomer. Hence, they are very sensitive to attack by a free radical. Out of 2e
-
s one e
-
is shifted to
free radical (R
.
) to form a sigma bond while other becomes unpaired. Thus the free radical site is
now shifted from initiated fragment to the vinyl halide monomer.
This process of e
-
pair coming down from its e-s level to ' level is associated with an
energy release of 20 K.cal / Mole, Because e-s are at a higher energy level than the 'e
-
s. Hence
the free radical attack on the monomer is on exothermic reaction.

R+ H
2
C = CH
2

R + H
2

CH R CH
2
-

CH
| | |
X X X
(b) Chain propagation step : In this step the radical site at the first monomer unit attacks the double
bond of fresh monomer molecule which again attacks on the double bond of another monomer to
form another new free radical and so on, until a large free radical is formed. This process is called
propagation and it continues until the growing long chain radical becomes deactivated or there is no
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further monomer molecules left for attack. The structure of free radicle chain can be represented as
follows
R - CH
2

CH + H
2
C = CH R CH
2
CH CH
2

CH + CH
2
= CH
| | | | |
X X X X X


R - CH
2
CH - CH
2
CH CH
2

CH
| | |
X X X
(growing Chain)
The structure of growing chain can be represented as follows.
R ( CH
2
CH )
n
CH
2
CH
| |
X X
Here n indicates the number of monomer units adds up in the chain growth and wavy line indicates
the polymer chain made of n number of monomeric units.
The mode of addition of monomer molecule to the growing chain can be of 4 types.
Head
|
(i) Head Tail : H
2
C = CH - Tail
|
X
HC = CH
2
+ HC CH
2
------ R HC CH
2
CH CH
2
-----R
| | | |
X X X X
(ii) Tail Tail

H
2
C = CH + HC CH
2
------ R H
2
C CH CH CH
2
-----R
| | | |
X X X X
(iii) Head - Head

HC = CH
2
+ H
2
C CH ------ R HC CH
2
CH
2
CH -----R
| | | |
X X X X
(iv) Tail - Head

H
2
C = CH + H
2
C CH ------ R H
2
C CH CH
2
CH -----R
| | | |
X X X X
(C) Chain termination step : Chain reactions can be terminated by deactivation of free radicles by
one of the following ways.
. .
. .
. .
. .
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(i) Termination by coupling: When a growing free radical polymer combines with the other free
radical growing polymer both are deactivated. Since, this process involves the coupling of 2 lone e
-
s,
this kind of termination is known as termination by coupling.
R ----- CH
2

CH + H

C - CH
2
-----R


| |
X X

R ----- CH
2
CH + CH - CH
2
-----R


| |
X X
(ii) Termination by disproportionate : In this case a hydrogen atom from one growing chain is
transferred to the other growing chain. The chain which donated hydrogen gets stabilized by the
formation of double bond. It results in the formation of polymer molecular of shorter chain length in
which one is saturated and the other is unsaturated.
R ----- CH CH + CH - CH
2
-----R


| | |
H X X

R ----- CH = CH + CH
2
- CH
2
-----R


| |
X X
(2) Ionic Polymerization : Ion initiated poly addition process is known as ionic polymerization.
These reactions are very fast and faster than free radical polymerization and are selective and
sensitive. Therefore these reactions are carried out at very low temperatures using pure initiators,
monomers and solvents.
Ionic polymerization are of 2 types
(a) Cationic Polymerization
(b) Anomic Polymerization
(a) Cationic Polymerization : Cation initiated polymerization is known as cationic polymerization.
In this a few monomers with e
-
reserving groups, and initiators are used. Some of the monomers
which are used in cationic polymerization are given below.
CH
3

CH
3
|
Isobutene H2C = C ; Methyl styrene C = CH
2

CH
3
|


Alkly vinylether CH
2
= CH O R; 1,3 Butadine H
2
C = CH CH = CH
2

Initiators : Different types of initiators are used in cataonic polymerization. They are
Protonic acids HCl, H
2
SO
4
, H
3
PO
4
, CH
3
COOH, HClO
4

Lewis Acids - BF
3
, BCl
3
, AlCl
3
, FeCl
3

.
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Co initiators : the co initiators are responsible for the initiation.
They are : R OH, H
2
O, R X, etc.
Mechanism :
BF
3
+ H
2
O initiated polymerization of isobutene is given below
(i) chain initiation step :
BF
3
+ H
2
O [BF
3
OH]
-
+ H
+

H
+
Initiating proton
[BF
3
OH]
-
Counter ion

CH
3
CH
3
|

[BF
3
OH]
-
H
+
+ H
2
C = C H
3
C C
(+)
[Bf
3
Oh]
-

|
CH
3
CH
3


(ii) Chain Propagation step : this step involves attack of carium ion on the e
-
s of the second
monomer molecule. Now charge will shift to the newly added monomer unit.
CH
3
CH
3
CH
3
CH
3
| | |

H
3
C C
(+)
[Bf
3
Oh]
-
+ H2C = C H
3
C C CH
2
C
(+)
[BF
3
OH]
-

| | |
CH
3
CH
3
CH
3
CH
3

+

CH
3



H2C = C


CH
3


CH
3
CH
3
CH
3
| | |

H
3
C C

- CH
2
C

- CH
2
C
(+)
[BF
3
OH]
-

| | |
CH
3
CH
3
CH
3


As more and more monomer molecules are added, the chain keeps on growing. During the process
e
-
s pairs of the monomer molecules are pulled in opposite direction to the growing chain.
The structure of the growing chain can be represented as follows.

CH
3
CH
3
CH
3
| | |

H
3
C C

- (- CH
2
C

-)
n
- CH
2
C
(+)
[BF
3
OH]
-

| | |
CH
3
CH
3
CH
3

(or)
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CH
3
CH
3
| |

H
3
C C

----- CH
2
C
(+)
[BF
3
OH]
-

| |
CH
3
CH
3


(ii) Chain Termination step : Termination of growing chain takes place by the following two ways
(a) By the domation of a proton to counter ion :
Domation of a proton to counter ion results in the formation of a double bond at the end of
the polymer molecule.



CH
3
CH
3
| |

H
3
C C

----- CH
2
C
(+)
[BF
3
OH]
-

| |
CH
3
CH
2
- H



This process of donation of a proton and reformation of the

[Bf
3
Oh]
-
H
+
is called ion pair
Precipitation.

(b) By the formation of covalent between carbonium ion & counter ion:

CH
3
CH
3
| |

H
3
C C

----- CH
2
C
(+)
[BF
3
OH]
-

| |
CH
3
CH
3


This type of polymerization when initiation is done by a proton and propagation is carried out
by a corbonium ion is called cationic polymerization.
(b) Anionic Polymerization: Negative ion initiated polymerization is know as anionic
polymersation. Monomers with e
-
with drawing group undergoes anionic polymerization.
Eg : vinyl holdes H
2
C = CH (X = Cl, Br)
|
X
Acryl nitrile H
2
C = CH
|
CN
CH
3

|
Methylacrylonitrile H
2
C = C
|
CN



CH
3
CH
3
| |

H
3
C C

----- CH
2
C =CH
2
+ [BF
3
OH]
-
H
+

|
CH
3




CH
3
CH
3
| |

H
3
C C

----- CH
2
C OH +BF
3
| |

CH
3
CH
3


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CH
3

|
Methylmethacrylate H
2
C = C
|
C = O
|
OCH
3

Initiators : High electro positive metals and their compounds such as Li, Na, K are used as initiators
in anionic polymerization.
Ex : Alkali amide NaNH
2
, KNH
2

(sodamide)
Alkyl metal oxide R O Na
Metal Hydroxides NaOH, KOH

Mechanism : NaNH
2
initiated polymerization of acrylonitrile can be shown as follows :
(A) Chain initiation Step :
NaNH
2
Na
(+)
NH
2
(-)

Ion pair
Na
(+)
NH
2
(-)
+ H
2
C = CH H
2
N CH
2
CH
(-)
Na
(+)

| |
CN CN

The chain reaction is initiated by the addition of negatively charged anion (NH
2

) on the e
-
pair of the monomer molecule and at the same time a bond is formed between the anion (NH
2

)
and the monomer molecule. The e
-
pair moves to the end of the monomer molecule, this results in the
formation of carbanion.
(B) Chain propagation step : Once the carbonion formed, it propagates the chain growth by
attacking on second monomer and so on. This step involves the transformation of e
-
s to the end of
the chain and forming a bond with new monomer unit. As more and more monomer units are
added, the chain keeps on growing.
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The Structure of growing chain can be represented as follows.
H
2
N CH
2
CH ( CH
2
CH ) CH
2
CH
-
Na

| | |
CN CN CN
(OR)
H
2
N CH
2
- CH - - -- -- - CH
2
CH
-
Na

| |
CN CN

(C) Chain termination step :
In anion polymerization the propagating anionic chain (growing chain) do not undergo
termination directly. It undergoes termination only after adding terminating reagents like NH
3
, H
2
o,
etc. In the presence of added terminating reagents the termination steps can be shown as follows.
H
2
N CH
2
- CH - - -- -- - CH
2
CH
-
Na

| |
CN CN


NH
3
-NaNH
2
H
2
O -NaOH
H
2
N CH
2
- CH - - -- -- - CH
2
CH

H
2
N CH
2
- CH - - -- -- - CH
2
CH
| | | |
CN CN CN CN

(3) Coordinate polymerization: Polymerization reactions especially of alkenes and dienes
catalyzed by organo metallic compounds fall under the categoary of co-ordination
polymerization.
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The first step in polymerization process is the formation of a monomer catalyst complex
between the organo metallic compound and the monomer where mt represents transition metals such
as Ti, Mo, Cr, Or, Rh.


In the formation of this monomer catalyst complex, a coordination bond is involved between a
carbon atom of the monomer and the metal of the catalyst. Hence, the polymerization effect by such
catalyst systems is called co-ordination polymerization
The coordinated metal carbon formed in the monomer catalyst complex acts as the active
centre from where propagation starts. The incoming monomer is incorporated at the active centre of
the metal carbon bond, from where the chain growth starts.

















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II. Step Polymerization
In this polymerization, the polymer buildup proceeds through a reaction between functional
groups, of the monomers. The reaction takes place in a step wise manner (i.e. one after another)
and hence the formation of polymer is slow (unlike in chain polymerization where the chain growth
is very rapid.
Step growth polymerization reactions proceed by the elimination of small molecules. Some
of the step polymerization reactions are given below.
(a) Poly condensation
(b) Poly Addition
(a) Poly condensation : Poly condensation is brought about the monomers containing two or more
reactive functional groups condensing with each other.
Eg : Ethylene glycol molecules undergo condensation with phthalic acid to give polyethylene Teri
phthalate.
In this reaction H
2
o. molecules are eliminated as byproducts.









From the above reaction following conclusions can be drawn regarding poly condensation.
(a) Monomers should have two reactive functional groups for polymerization to proceed.
(b) Polymerization proceeds by step wise reaction between reactive functional groups.
(c) Only one type of reaction (i.e. condensation reaction in case) between two functional groups
is involved in polymer form.
(d) The formed polymer still contains both the reactive functions groups at its end and hence it is
called as active polymer (The polymer formed in chain polymerization is called as dead
polymer)

(b) Poly addition : The polyaddition polymerization is brought about by the migration of atoms
from one monomer molecule to another or to the intermediate vinyl monomers as well as monomer
pairs with reactive functional groups can undergo polyaddition polymerization
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
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Ex : Styrene can be polymerized in the presence of Hclo
4
by this method








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Plastics : Plastics are high molecular weight organic materials, which can be moulded or formed
into stable shapes by the application of heat and pressure
Plastics derive their name from their existence, at some stage of their formation or
fabrication, as plastic masses capable of being shaped by flow induced by heat or pressure or both
The term plastic must be differentiated from the resin. Resin are the basic binding materials,
which form a major part of the plastics, and which actually has undergone polymerization and
condensation reactions, during their preparation. However, the terms Resin and Plastic are now a
day considered synonymous.
Importance of plastics:
In recent years, plastics have attained great importance in every walk of our life, due to their
certain unique properties like.
1. Lightness in weight : Their spe ic gravity varies from 1 to 2.4
2. Good thermal and electrical insulation; i.e., they posses very low thermal and electrical
conductance.
3. Plastics are highly resistant to corrosion
4. Easy workability : casting, moulding, drilling, sawing, machining, etc. of plastics can be
easily done. Moreover, they can be easily fixed in position.
5. Adhesiveness : Adhesives made out of plastic resins, produce very thin films, which are quite
strong, durable and adhesive. Moreover, they possess a large covering capacity for adhesion.
6. Low fabrication cost into desired shaped products
7. Decorative surface effects : plastic surfaces possess shining and glossy surfaces, which appeal
eyes.
8. Easy moulding even into intricate and complicated form and shapes.
9. Insect resistant : They are not affected by insects, moth, fungi, vermin. Etc.
10. Low thermal expansion coefficient : They expand / contract little on increasing / decreasing
temperature of surroundings.
11. Chemical inertness to the action of light, oils acids, and dampness
12. Transparency : Some plastics are highly transparent and translucent. They can be ground and
used as optical lenses.
13. Low maintenance cost: They do not require any protective covering such as of paints, and the
maintenance of exposed plastic surface is very easy.
14. Low softening points : Most of the plastics have low softening points, even as low as 50
0
c.
15. High refractive index
16. Ability to take variety of colours, shades etc. and the shades/ colours do not fade easily
17. Good shock absorption capacity some plastics absorb shocks better than even steel.
18. Plastics like Teflon are highly resistant to abrasion
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
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19. Dimensional stability : plastics, in general, have good dimensional stability.
20. Impermeable to water : they do not absorb water
21. Capable of being made to order: such as
(a) Hard or soft
(b) rigid or pliable
(c) tough of fragile
(d) opaque or transparent
(e) Brittle, malleable or elastic
(f) Carvanle, wearable or pourable
22. Good strength : some plastics have tensile strength upto 5,500 kg / Cm2
23. Toughness: Some plastics can be made so tough that a bullet may pierce it without breaking or
cracking it.
24. Absorbent of vibration and sound

Resin : Resins are the basic binding materials in the plastic, which account a major part of the
plastic and which determines the type of treatment needed in the moulding operations.
Two types of resins are usually distinguished from engineering point of view.
(i) Thermoplastic resins
(ii) Thermosetting resins
On the basis of the type of the resin used in its preparation, the plastic itself is called
thermoplastic or thermosetting plastic.
(i) Thermoplastic resins
Thermoplastic resins soften on heating and become plastic so that it can be converted to any shape
by molding, on cooling, they become hard and rigid. On re heating. They soften again and the
material can be remolded to any desired shape. Thus, their softness and hardness are temporary
phenomena which are attainable by heating or cooling. The resins that are formed by addition
polymerization are thermoplastic and have linear long chain polymeric structure without any cross
linkages.
In thermoplastic resins, the chemical structure or the molecular weight are not changed during the
heating or molding operations. Only the secondary bonds between the individual molecular chains
are broken on heating which results in their softening and flow properties. On cooling, these
secondary bonds are re established as a result of which they become hard again obviously,
thermoplastic resins are weaker, softer and less brittle as compared to thermosetting resins.
The molecular weights of thermoplastic resins are smaller than those of thermosetting resins. Also
their inter molecular forces are weaker than in thermosetting plastics. That is why thermoplastics
swell or dissolve in some solvents.
Ex: Polythylene, polystyrene, polyvinyls (such as nylons), cellulose derivatives.
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
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(ii) Thermo setting resins :
Thermo setting resins are those which set upon beating and cannot be reformed when once they
are set. In general, those resins which are formed by condensation are thermosetting. The
thermosetting resins have three dimensional network structure and have very high molecular weights.
These resins have predominant covalent cross links between the long chain molecules which
are responsible for the three dimensional network structure. When these materials are moulded,
additional cross linkages are formed between the long chains leading to further increase in
molecular weight. When cross linkages are formed, the thermosetting resins acquire some of their
characteristic properties such as hardness, toughness, non welling and non softening properties,
brittleness, etc. the strength of these bonds are retained even on heating and hence they cannot be
softened or remolded or reclaimed when once they are cured as can be done in the case of
thermoplastic resins.
Ex: Phenol formaldehyde (bakelite) urea and melamine formaldehydes, polyesters, silicones, etc.

Compounding of plastics : [constituents of plastics]
It is unusual for a finished high polymer article to cons solely of high polymeric material alone.
Usually, the high polymer material is mixed with 4 to 10 ingredients, each of which either discharged
a useful function during molding or imparts some useful property to the finished artifact. This is
called a mix. The main types of compounding ingredients and their functions are described below.
(a) Resin Resin is the binder, which holds the different constituents together. Thermosetting resins
are, usually, supplied as linear polymers of comparatively low molecular weight, because at this
stage they are fusible and hence, moldable, the conversion of this fusible for into cross linked
infusible form takes place, during molding itself, in presence of catalysts. etc.
(b) Plasticizers : Plasticizers are materials that are added to resins to increase their plasticity and
flexibility. Their action is considered to be the result of the neutralization of part of the
intermolecular forces of attraction between macromolecules of resins. Thus, they impart greater
freedom of movement between the polymeric macromolecules of resins, thereby increasing the
flexibility and plasticity of the compounded material, but at the same time reducing its strength and
also decreasing its chemical resistance.
Most commonly used plasticizers are vegetable oils (non drying type camphors, esters (of stearic or
oleic or phthalic acids) and some phosphates (like trycresy1 phosphate, tributyl phosphate, tetrabutyl
phosphate and triphenyl phosphate.
(c) Filters : Filters are added to give to the final plastic better hardness, tensile strength, opacity,
finish and workability; besides reducing the cost, shrinkage on setting and brittleness.
Those fillers which enhance mechanical strength are called reinforcing fillers
Sometimes fillers are added to impact special characters to the products. For example
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Page 19
(i) carborandum, quartz and mica are added to provide extra hardness
(ii) Bairum salts are added to make the plastic impervious to x rays
(iii) Addition of asbestos provides heat and corrosion resistances.
Most commonly used fillers are wood flour, asbestos, chine clay, talk, gypsum, saw dust, ground
cork, marble flour, paper pulp, corn husk, mica, carbon black, pumic powder, cotton fiber, metallic
oxides (like ZnO, PbO) and metal powders (like Al, Cu, Pb) the percentage of fillers varies and can
be upto 50% of the moulding mixure.
Reinforcing fillers : Those fillers which enhance mechanical strength are called reinforcing fillers.
For example addition of carbon black to neutral rubber brings about a 40% increases in
tensile strength and also greatly enhanced abrasion resistance. Similarly, addition of 50% of
cellulosic fillers (such as cotton floc, lamination of paper, fubric or wood) enhances the impact
strength of moulded article from phenol formaldehyde.
(d) Lubricants: Lubricants like waxes, oils, stearates, oleates and soaps are employed to make the
molding of plastic easier and to impact a flawless, glossy finish to the products. Lubricants prevent
the plastic material from sticking to the fabricating equipment.
(e) Catalysts or accelerators : Catalysts or accelerators added only in the case of thermosetting plastic
with the object of accelerating the polymerization of fusible resin, during moulding operation, into
cross linked infusible form. Catalysts used for compounding include hydrogen peroxide, benzoyl,
peroxide, acetyl sulphuric acid; metals like Ag, Cu and Pb; metallic oxides such as zinc oxide (zno),
ammonia and its salt.
(f) Stabilizers: The purpose of adding stabilizers is to improve the thermal stability during
processing. For example, vinyl chloride and vinylidene chloride polymers show a tendency to
undergo decomposition and discoloration at molding temperatures. So during their molding, heat
stabilizers are used.
Stabilizers Commonly used are:
(1) Opaque molding compounds, like salts of lead, e.g. white lead, lead chromate, litharge, red lead,
lead silicate and lead naphthenate
(2) Transparent molding compounds like stearates of lead, cadimium and barium.
(g) Coloring of Plastics: Coloring appeal is often of prime importance in high polymer artifacts.
The main coloring materials are organic dyestuffs and opaque inorganic pigments.
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Page 20
FABRICATIOOF PLASTICS
Many methods of fabricating plastics into desired shaped articles are employment. The methods,
usually, depend upon the type of resins used, i.e., whether thermosetting or thermoplastic commonly
used plastic fabrication methods are described below.
Fabrication of Plastics



Casting Blowing Lamination Molding


Compression Injection Transfer Extrusion
Molding Molding Molding Molding

1) Casting : This is a simple method of forming, used for both thermoplastics and thermosetting
plastics. It consists of pouring the molten resin in a suitable mould (usually made of Pb) and
curing at about 70
0
c for several hours at atmospheric pressure. For phenolic resins the curing
time is about 50 hours. Cast phenolics may be transparent and translucent, colour well and are
finding wide application. The products formed are free internal stresses end can take a high
polish.
2) Blowing : In this process, the softened thermoplastic resin is blown by air or stream into a closed
mould, just like industrial glass blowing.
3) Lamination : Laminated plastics are generally prepared from sheets of cloth wood or paper by
impregnating then piled one over other until the desired thickness is obtained, heated to remove
the excess of the solvent; and pressed together between two highly polished steel surfaces to get
the laminated product. Laminated plastics have high tensile strengths and impact resistances.
4) Moulding : Moulding is an important method of fabrication of plastics and is done in several
ways as given below. Generally, the moulding of the plastic is done around a metal insert so that
the finished product has a metal part firmly bonded to the plastic. Several ways of moulding
methods are as follows.
A. Compression moulding
B. Injection Moulding
C. Transfer Moulding
D. Extrusion Moulding.
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Page 21
A). Compression molding: This method is applied to both thermoplastic and thermosetting resins.
The predetermined quantity of plastic ingredients in proper proportions get fill between the tow
half pieces of mould, which are capable of being moved relative to each other.
Then high pressures of the order of 100 to 500 Kg / Cm
2
and temperatures of the order of 100
200
0
c are applied to complete the curing process. The cavities get filled with fluidized plastic. Two
halves are closed very slowly. Finally, curring is done either by heating (in case of thermosetting) or
cooling (in case of thermoplastics). After curing the moulded article is taken out by opening the
mould parts.







*Compressing moulding of plastics*
B) Injection Moulding : This method is applicable mainly to thermoplastic resins. In this the
moulding plastic powder is fed into a heated cylinder, from where it is injected at a controlled rate
into the tightly locked mould by means of a screw arrangement or by a piston plunger. The mould
is kept cold to allow the hot plastic to cure and become rigid. When the material have been cured
sufficiently, half of the mould is opened to allow the injection of the finished article without any
deformation, etc. heating is done by oil or electricity. The temperatures used are 90
0
c to 260
0
c



ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Page 22
Advantages : This method is the most widely used for molding of thermoplastics, because of high
speed production, low mould cost (since fever cavities are needed), very low loss of material and low
finishing cost.
C) Transfer Molding : It is a method, which used the principle of injection moulding for
thermosetting materials. In this, the molding powder is placed in a heated chamber. Maintained at the
minimum temperature at which the molding powder just begins to become plastic. This plastic
material is then injected through on orifice into the mould by a plunger, working at a high pressure.
Duet to the very great friction developed at orifice, the temperature of the material, at the time of
ejection from the orifice, rises to such an extern that the moulding powder becomes almost liquid and
consequently it flows quickly into the mould, which is being heated up to curing temperature
required for setting. The moulded article is then ejected mechanically.








Advantages : 1) Since the mix flows into the mould vavity in a highly politicized, so very dificate
articles may be handled without distance or displacement. Fine wires and glass fibers may be
inserted into the mould.
2) Article produced is free from Flow Marks
3) Even Thick pieces curve almost completed and uniformly.
4) Even thick pieces cure almost completely and uniformly
5) Owing to uniform and through cure, shrinkage and distoration are at a minimum and hence, the
mechanical strength and density of fabricated pieces is higher
6) Finishing cost of Fabricated article is almost entirely eliminated
7) Mould cost is less, since it involves very low abrasive action.
D) Extrusion: This method is used mainly for continuous moulding of thermoplastic materials into
articles of uniform cross section like tubes, rods, strips, insulated electric cables. In this method,
the material of the required composition is forced by a screw conveyer into a heated chamber where
it softens, and then is forced through a die having the required shape. The finished product that
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Page 23
extrudues out is cooled by atmospheric exposure or by blowing air or by spraying water as it is
carried away by a long conveyer.

ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Page 24
Differences between Thermoplastics & Thermosets
Thermoplastics Thermosets
1. These resins become soft on heating and
rigid on cooling reversibly

2. The heating and cooling do not alter the
chemical nature of these resins because the
changes involved are purely of physical
nature.

3. These are formed by chain polymerization

4. They consist of long chain linear polymers
with weak secondary vander waals forces
attraction between
5. They are softened on heating readily
because the secondary force of attraction
between the individual chain can break easily
by heat, pressure or both
6. They can be reshaped

7. These are soft, weak and less brittle
8. These resins are usually soluble in organic
solvents
9. Polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride are the
examples.

During fabrication process these resins are
moulded once they are solidified they cannot
be softened
These resins are permanent setting resins




These are formed by step polymerization

They have three dimensional network
structure


They bonds retain their strength on heating
hence they do not soften again on heating.


Cannot be reshaped

These are hard, strong and more brittle
Due to strong bonds and cross links, they are
insoluble in almost all organic solvents.
Bakelite, Nylons, etc, are the examples.


ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Page 25
Polyethenic or vinyl resins:
Polyethenic or vinyl resins are obtained by the polymerization of monomers containing the
ethylenic bond (-c =c-) Important members of this type of resins are given below.
(i) polyethylene (or) polythene: ( P E)
P E is a versatile plastic made from ethylene gas. Ethylene can be obtained
(a) As a by product from the cracking of hydrocarbons in oil refining
(b) By the dehydrogenation of ethane.
H H
| | Dehydrogenation
H C CH H
2
C = CH
2

| | -H
2

H H

Ethylene

(C) By the dehydration of ethyl alcohol.
H H
| | Dehydration
H C CH H
2
C = CH
2

| | -H
2

H H

Ethylene
Ethyl Alcohol
Preparation of PE : It is obtained by the polymerization of ethylene. The gas is first liquefied under
high pressures (up to 1500 atm) and then pumped into a heated pressure vessel, maintained at 150
.

to 250
.
C. During polymerization, the ethylene molecules are activated by the breaking of one of the
coordinate double bonds, leaving in active electron on each of the two carbon, atoms, under suitable
conditions, these activated molecules join together to form a very long chain polymeric hydrocarbon
molecule. Polymerization
n (H
2
C = CH
2
) [ H
2
C CH
2
]
n

Ethylene Polyethylene (PE)
By using free radical initiator, low density polythe (LDPE) is obtained, while by using ionic
catalysts, high density polyethylene (HDPE) is obtained.
Properties :
(1) Polyethylene is a rigid, waxy, white, translucent, non polar material, exhibiting considerable
chemical resistance to strong acids, alkalis and salt solutions at room temperature.
(2) It is good insulator of electricity
(3) It is swollen and permeable to most oils and organic solvents, particularly Kerosene.
(4) The high density Polythene (HDPE), which is completely linear, has better chemical
resistance, particularly to organic solvents, a higher softening point (125
0
to 135
0
C) and greater
rigidity than the low density polythene (LDPE), but it has a low impact strength and is relatively
brittle.
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Page 26
Uses :
1. It is used as films and sheets for packaging applications, including bags and wrappings, table
clothes etc.
2. It is also used for making high frequency insulator parts, bottle caps, flexible bottles, Kitchen and
domestic appliances, toys etc.
3. It is used for production of house wares and cable insulation, for coating paper, for preparing
bottles, industrial containers, pipes for water supply, etc.

(II) Polyvinyl Chloride : (PVC)
It is prepared from the monomer, vinyl chloride. Vinyl chloride, so needed is generally
prepared by treating acetylene at 1 to 1.5 atm with hydrogen chloride at 60 80
0
C, in presence of
metal chloride as catalyst.
HC = CH + HCl H
2
C = CH Cl
Acetylene Vinyl chloride
PVC is obtained by heating a water emulsion of vinyl chloride in presence of a small amount of
benzyl peroxide or hydrogen peroxide in an autoclave under pressure.
Cl Cl
| Polymerization |
H
2
C = CH [ H2C CH ]
n

Vinyl chloride Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

1. PVC is colourless odourless, non inflammable and chemically inert powder, resistant to light,
atmospheric oxygen, inorganic acids and alkalis, but soluble in hot chlorinated hydrocarbons
such as ethyl chloride.
2. Pure resins possesses a high softening point (1480C) and a greater stiffness and rigidity
compared to polyethylene, but is brittle.
Uses :
1. Regid PVC or unplasticized PVC have superior chemical resistance and high rigidity, but is
brittle. It is used for making sheets, which are employed for tank linings, light fittings, safety
helmets, refrigerator components, tyres, cycle and motor cycle mudguards.
2. Plasticized PVC obtained by adding plasticizers such as dibutyl phthalate, dioctyl phthalate,
tricresyl phosphate, etc.) is used for making continuous sheets. Employed for packing rain coats,
table cloths and curtains, electrical insulation like covering of electric cables, toys, tool handles,
toiled goods, radio components, plastic coated cloth chemical containers, thermal insulating
foam (used in buildings, cinemas and aircrafts), conveyor belts (used in coal mines), etc.
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Page 27

(III) Polystyrene (PS) :
It is prepared by polymerization of styrene monomers. The monomer, styrene is prepared from
benzene and ethylene under pressure at 90
0
C in presence of a catalyst (Alcl
3
). The resulting ethyl
benzene is dehydrogenated to slyrene by passing over an iron oxide or magnesium oxide or
aluminium oxide catalystatabout 600
0
C. The styrene is then refined by distillation.

Poly styrene (PS) is prepared by polymerization of styrene in presence of benzoyl peroxide catalyst.
Properties :
1. Poly Styrene is transparent, and excellent moisture resistant. Its high refractive index (1.60)
renders it useful for plastic optical components.
2. It is highly electric insulating, highly resistant to acids and good chemical resistant.
3. It has the unique property of transmitting light through curved sections.

Uses : It is used in moulding of articles like toys, combs, buttons, buckles, radio and television
parts, refrigerator parts, battery cases, high frequency electric insulators, lenses, indoor lighting
panels, etc.

ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Page 28
Phenolic Resins (or) Phenoplasts :
Phenolic resins (or) Phenoplasts are condensation polymerization products of phenolic
derivatives (like phenol, resorcinol) with aldehydes (like formaldehyde, furfural). Most important
member of this class is bakelite or phenol formaldehyde resin.
Bakelite (or) Phenol formaldehyde resin:
It is prepared by condensing phenol with formaldehyde in presence of acidic / alkaline
catalyst. The initial reaction results in the formation of o- and p- hydroxyl methyl phenol, which
reacts to form linear polymer, novolac. Thus;






During moulding, hexamethylene tetramine [ (CH
2
)
6
N
4
] are added. The addition of hexomethylene
tetramine provides formaldehyde, which converts the soluble and fusible novolac into a hard,
infusible and insoluble solid of cross linked structure.

ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Page 29

Properties :
(1) It is set to rigid, hard, scratch- resistant to non oxidizing acids, salts and many organic
solvents, but are attacked by alkalis, because of the presence of free hydroxyl group in their
structures.
(2) Bakelite possess excellent electrical insulating character.
(3) Phenolic resins withstand very high temperatures and hence are used in missile cones.
Uses :
(1) For making electrical insultator parts like switches, plugs, switch boards, heater handles, etc.
(2) For making moulded articles like telephone parts cabinets for radio and television
(3) For impregnating fabrics, wood and paper.
(4) As adhesives (e.g. binder) for grinding wheels
(5) In paints and varnishes.
(6) As hydrogen exchanger resins in water softening.
(7) For making bearings, used in propeller shafts for paper industry and rolling mills
(8) Bakelite can withstand at very high temperatures and hence is used in missile nose cones.

Polyamides : [ylons]
Polyamides are the polymers, which contain many repeating amide groups in the main
polymer chain. They have general formula of
O H H H O O
|| | or | | || ||
C (R)
x
N N (R)
x
N - C (R)
y
C
n n

All polyamides are known as nylons. There are different types of nylons and are usually indicated by
a numbering system. This number gives the no. of carbon atoms present in the monomer molecule.
Aminoacid polymers are designated by a single number, as nylon : 6 for polycaprolactum. Nylons
obtained from diamines and dibasic acids are designated by two numbers First number indicates the
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Page 30
number of carbon atoms in diamines molecules and second number indicates the no. of carbon atoms
in dibasic (or) dicarboxylic acid. For example, a polymer made from hexamethylene diamine and
adipic acid is written as Nylon 6:6.
Some of the nylons which are of commercially important are nylon 6;6, Nylon 6, Nylon 11.
ylon 6, 6: It is prepared by 4 steps.


ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Page 31


ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Page 32
Properties of ylons :
1. they are translucent, whitish, high melting (160 264
0
C) polymers.
2. They possess high temperature stability and good abrasion resistance.
3. They are insoluble in common organic solvents. (like methylated spurut, benzene and
acetone) and soluble in phenol and formic acid.
4. Their mouldings and extrusions have good physical strengths (especially high impact
strength) and self lubricating properties.
5. They absorb little moisture; and are thus drip dry in nature.
6. They are very flexible and retain original shape after use.
Uses of ylons :
1. Nylon 6;6 is primarily used for fibres, which find use in making socks, ladies hoses, under
garments, dresses, carpets, etc.
2. Nylon 6 and Nylon II are mainly used for moulding purposes for gears, bearings,
electrical mountings, etc. Nylon bearings and gears work quietly without any lubrication.
3. They are also used for making filaments for ropes, bristles for tooth brushes and films, tyre
cords, etc.
Polycarbonates
Polycarbonates (PC), known by the trademarked names Lexan, Makrolon, Makroclear and others,
are a particular group of thermoplastic polymers.
Polycarbonates are polymers containing carbonate groups (O(C=O)O). Most polycarbonates of
commercial interest are derived from rigid monomers. These are temperature resistance, impact
resistance and optical properties position polycarbonates between commodity
plastics and engineering plastics.
Polycarbonates (PC) are prepared by interaction of diphenyl carbonate with bisphenol A
O
n
2
CO
+
n
HO OH O *
O
O *
n
2n
OH
Diphenyl carbonate Bisphenol A
Polycarbonate Phenol

Properties
Polycarbonates are characterized by high impact and tensile strength over a wide range of
temperature. However they are soluble in organic solvents and alkali solutions.
Uses:
For preparing moulded domestic ware housing for apparatus and electrical insulator in electronic and
electronics industries.

ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Page 33
SILOCOES: Silicone resins contain alternative Silicon-Oxygen structure

Preparation: Preparation of monomers: Monomers can be prepared as follows
Reacting silicon with alkyl halide

The reaction product is fractionally distilled to get different Organo-Silon chlorides, which are then
polymerized by controlled hydrolysis. Dimethyl-Silicon Dichloride is bifunctional can give very
long chain polymer

ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Page 34
Types of Silicon and their Uses:
1. Liquid Silicones or Silicon oils: Relatively low molecular weight silicones, generally of
dimethyl silicones. They posses great wetting-power for metal, low surface tention and
show very small change in viscosity with temperature
Uses: High temperature lubricants, antifoaming agents, water-repellent finishes for lather
and textiles, heat transfer media. Also used in cosmetics and polishes
2. Silicon greases: Modified silicon oils, obtained by filler like silica, carbon black, lithium
soap etc.
Uses: Used as lubricants in situation where very high and very low temperatures are
encounter.
3. Silicon Rubbers: Obtained by mixing high molecular weight dimethyl silicon polymers
with fillers (silicon dioxide) and peroxide containing curing agents. Peroxide cause the
formation of dimethyl bridge (cross-link) between methyl groups of adjacent chains.

Properties:
i. They possess exceptional resistance to prolonged exposure to sunlight, weathering, most
ii. common oils, boiling water, dilute alkalis and acids.
iii. They remain flexible in the temperature range of 90-250oC, hence used in tyres of fighter
iv. aircrafts, since they prevent the damage on landing.
v. Upon decomposition they converted into non-conducting silica (SiO2), instead of carbon
tar
Uses:
i. As a sealing materials in search-lights and in aircraft engines
ii. Manufacturing of tyres for fighter aircrafts
iii. For insulating the electrical wiring in ships
iv. In making lubricants, paints and protective coatings and water-proofing
v. Adhesive in electronic industries, insulation for washing mechines, electric blankets for iron
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Page 35
vi. board covers, artificial heat valves and padding for plastic
vii. For making boots for use at very low temperature as they less affected by temperature
viii. variations: Neil Armstrong used silocone rubber boots when he walked on the moon
4. Solid silicon resins: are cross-linked silicons, obtained from b- and tri-functional silicon
halides
Properties: They are thermosettings, possess good electrical insulating properties and out
standing heat-resistance, water-repellent, chemically hight thermal stability
Uses : For making high voltage insulators, high temperature insulating foams

POLYPHOSPHAZIES
Inorganic polymers contain phosphorous atoms.
General structure

The starting material for the preparation of phosphazenes is generally hexachlorocyclotri
phosphazene (phosphonitrilic chloride trimer). This monomer is synthesized from phosphorus
pentachloride and ammonium chloride. This reaction is a high temperature, melt polymerization
reaction. Trimer is the principal product obtained in the synthesis of chlorocyclophosphazenes.
Between 230
o
C and 350C, as the temperature increases, the rate of polymerization increases. In
addition, as the temperature goes up, the rate of crosslink formation also increases.
n (PCl)
5
+ NH
4
Cl
P
Cl
Cl
N H Cl
n
+
(PCl
2
N)
3
(PCl
2
N)
4
+
n (PCl
2
N)
4 P
Cl
Cl
N Cl Cl
4n-4
+
[P
4
+ 2N
2
+3Cl
2
]
250
o
C
Vacuum
chain polymer

Properties
These polymers xxhibits high elasticity and can be stretched many times reversibly.
Freshly prepared samples soluble chloroform, but not in petroleum ether. When their solutions are
allowed to stand, they slowly gel and get cross linked.
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Page 36
Their storage in the absence of air does not cause in elastic properties, but makes them brittle. This is
because the action moisture (of air)forming oxygen bridges from chain-to-chain there by leading to
reduction in the average length of chain segments at lattice sites. Thus:
P
Cl
Cl
N P N
Cl
Cl
P N
Cl
Cl
n
P
Cl
Cl
N P N
Cl
Cl
P N
Cl
Cl
n
+
H
2
O
HCl
P
Cl
Cl
N P N
Cl
O
P N
Cl
Cl
P
Cl
Cl
N P N
Cl
P N
Cl
Cl
cross link


P
Cl
Cl
N P N
Cl
Cl
P N
Cl
Cl
n
P
Cl
Cl
N P N
Cl
Cl
P N
Cl
Cl
n
+
+3 NH
3
-2NH
4
Cl
P
Cl
Cl
N P N
Cl
NH
P N
Cl
Cl
P
Cl
Cl
N P N
Cl
P N
Cl
Cl
cross link


Polydimethoxy Phosphazine and Polydiethoxy Phosphazine are prepared by treating
phosphonitrile dichloride with sodium methoxide or sodium ethoxide respectively. Thus
P
OCH
3
H
3
CO
N
n
P
Cl
Cl
N
n
P
OCH
2
CH
3
H
3
CH
2
CO
N
n
NaOCH
3
NaOCH
2
CH
3
Phosphonitriledichloride Polydimethoxy Phosphazine
Polydiethoxy Phosphazine

Properties
They are colorless transparent and film forming thermoplastics
On heating above 100oC they are slowly form cyclic polymers,[-P(OR)
2
N-]
3
or [-P(OR)N-]
4
. Where
R-CH
3
or C
2
H
5

Polyphosphazene Applications
Although polyphosphazenes can be customized for virtually any application, most activity can be
grouped into four segments: Fuel Cell , Medical, High Performance, and Membrane.
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Page 37
Fuel Cell: Polyphosphazene is currently the highest performing membrane material for Methanol
based Proton-Exchange Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells. This fuel cell type is ideal for miniature
power supply and is a leading candidate for automotive applications.
Medical: Polyphosphazenes make ideal medical polymers because of their biocompatibility,
capability for intricate customization, high affinity for water, and the ability to accept grafts of
influencing substituents. Medical applications include: Drug Delivery, Biological Membranes,
Coatings, and polymeric medical devices and components such as prosthetics and implants.
High Performance: Polyphosphazenes are used as flame retardants, additives, performance polymers,
and in specialty applications. The exceptional performance of polyphosphazene derivatives under
extreme temperature conditions, their inertness to chemical environments, and their non-
flammability, make them premiere materials for applications in hostile landscapes.
Membrane: Polyphosphazenes are being used to make membranes more thermally, mechanically,
and chemically stable, as well as to enhance selectivity and overall performance.

Engineering Plastics
Plastics : Plastics are high molecular weight organic materials, which can be moulded or formed
into stable shapes by the application of heat and pressure
Engineering plastics are a group of materials obtained from high polymer resins, which possess:
(i) Plasticity at some stage of their processing
(ii) High load-bearing characteristic
(iii) High mechanical strength
(iv) High dielectric constant
(v) Readily mouldable characteristic into complicated shapes
(vi) Rigidity
(vii) High abrasion resistance
(viii) Dimensional stability
(ix) Fairly good thermal stability
(x) Light weight
(xi) High performance properties, which permit them to be used in the same manner as
metal, alloys and ceramics
Engineering plastics can replace the metal and also used along with metals
The economy like reduction in cost and weight and ease of fabrication made them
engineering materials of construction
They are having immense applications in Automobiles, defense, electricals and electronics,
telecommunication, textiles, satellite robots, mountaineering, computer components etc.
ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY
Page 38
Some of the engineering plastics with special characteristic and uses are
1. Polyamides or Nylons are easily mouldable, tough, strong, abrasion resistance, good
chemical resistance, and of coefficient of friction. Aromatic polyamides (kevlars) are high
temperature resistant. They find application in gears, automobiles tyres, watch straps,
unlubricated bearings, high tensile ropes etc.
2. Polycarbonates (Lexan, merlan) possess high impact and tensile strength over a wide rang of
temperature, stiffness, transparency also used for making electrical insulators, housing
apparatus, industrial plugs, sockets, switches, crash helmets, cooking utensil covers and so on
3. Polyurethanes (like perlon-U) possess excellent flexibility, toughness, even at subzero
temperature, excellent resistance to abrasion and solvents. They used in defence,
oceanographic research, plastic foam etc
4. Solid silicones possess good electrical insulating properties and out standing heat resistance,
chemical inertness, good water-repellency to weathering effects.
5. Polyacetals possess low coefficent of friction, stiffness, resistance to creep. They find use in
gears, links in chains, bearing, pump impellers, conveyor belt etc.
6. Teflon possess extreme toughness, very high softening point, excellent chemical resistance,
very low coefficient of friction, extremely good mechanical properties, very good electrical
insulator. Used as electrical insulating material in motors, cable, transformers, electrical
fittings etc.