LESSON 1

UNIT 1T : STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF COMPUTER

IT. 1 MAJOR FUNCTIONS AND PARTS
What is a Compute!
A computer is an electronic device that operates under a set of instructions stored in
its memory unit that can accept data, process that data arithmetically and logically,
produce output after processing and store it for future use.
This definition encompasses many devices e.g. the microprocessor chip fulfils the
definition of a computer. However, the computer can take many forms and will
usually include not only the microprocessor but also devices which will make data
available for processing. These data will be processed into information by the
computer and made available as output for people to use.
1
LESSON "
What #oes a Compute #o!
Although the result of computer processing can be marvellous such as controlling the
flight of a space shuttle or keeping track of millions of credit cards or allowing a user
to perform thousands of calculation, computers are basically capable of performing
only a number of specific operations. These operations comprise of the Information
Processing Cycle.
Data is required for all computer processing. Data refers to raw facts including
numbers, words and symbols that are entered into a computer to be processed. The
computer manipulates data in a predetermined manner to create information.
Information refers to the data that has been processed into a form that is useful and
meaningful. This information can be stored in electronic format for future use.
Wh$ ae Computes so po%e&u'!
The input, process, storage and output operations that a computer performs may be
simple. However, computers are considered to be powerful devices by its ability to
perform its operations quickly, accurately and reliably.
n a computer, operations occur due to the use of electronic circuits on small
chips. !hen data flows along these circuits, it travels at close to the speed of
light. This allows processing to be accomplished at a very fast rate.
"torage capability is another reason why computers are so powerful. The
computer can store enormous amounts of data and can keep that data readily
available for processing.
Therefore the factors of speed, accuracy, reliability as well as storage are some of the
reasons that have made computers such a powerful tool.
#
LESSON (
The ha#%ae )ompo*e*ts o& a )ompute
Data processing in a computer is performed by special equipment that is referred to as
hardware. Hardware is the physical devices of a computer that we can see, touch and
feel. The hardware consists of nput devices, processing unit, output devices and
storage unit.
I*put De+i)es
nput devices are used to enter data into the computer. nput devices translate
symbols that people understand into symbols that computers can process i.e. input
devices convert people readable data into machine readable form.
Po)essi*, U*it
The processor unit of a computer contains electronic circuits that actually cause the
processing of data to occur. This is normally done by a chip called the $entral
%rocessing &nit '$%&(. The $%& controls or coordinates the activities of all other
components. t usually carries out instructions issued by the user.
The $%& consists of three ma)or components*
1. Arithmetic and +ogic &nit
#. $ontrol &nit
,. -emory
Output De+i)es
.utput is the information that is displayed by the computer. .utput from the
computer can be presented in many forms. The two most commonly used devices
are*
1. -onitor aka "creen aka /isual Display &nit '/D&( aka $athode 0ay Tube '$0T(
1 softcopy
#. %rinter 1 hardcopy 'on paper(
,
LESSON -
Au.i'ia$ Stoa,e De+i)es
"torage devices store instructions, data and information permanently. A common
au2iliary storage device in personal computers is a floppy disk. Another storage
device is the hard disk. The hard disk is a non3removable metal disk which stores
data in large capacity. The $D30.-, D/D and &"4 have also become very popular.
D/D 3 Digital /ersatile Disk
$D 0.- 3 $ompact Disk 0ead .nly -emory
&"4 3 &niversal "erial 4us
5ach computer component plays an important role. The input and output devices,
memory and storage units that surround the processing unit are referred to as
peripheral devices.
The Fou Mai* Compo*e*ts o& a Compute
LESSON /
%0.$5""
data
"T.0A65
7%&T
information
.&T%&T
%0.$5""
data information
8eyboard
-ouse
"canner
-onitor
%rinter
7%&T .&T%&T
9loppy Disk
Hard disk
$D30.-
"T.0A65
:
I*put
The i*put &u*)tio* i*+o'+es e*tei*, #ata i* huma* ea#a0'e &oms %hi)h the
)ompute a))epts i* ma)hi*e ea#a0'e &om a*# se*#s to the CPU &o
po)essi*,.
nput refers to the process of entering programs, commands, user response, or data
into the computers main memory.
The four main types of input used by a computer are*
'i( %rograms 1 a set of instructions that directs a computer to perform necessary
operations in order to process data into information.
'ii( $ommands 1 are keywords and phrases that a user inputs to direct the computer to
perform certain operations.
'iii( &ser response 1 refers to the data that a user inputs in response to a
question from the program.
'iv(Data 1 are the raw facts that are input by the user to be processed into information.
Devices involved in the input function are many and vary from human interface
devices such as keyboards to automatic real time data capture equipment such as
scanners.
%eople understand languages which are constructed using letters, numbers,
punctuation marks. However, computers understand only binary machine language
which consists of ;ero<s and one<s.
=
LESSON 1
nput devices are of two types*
1. 8eyboard 5ntry
#. Direct 5ntry
1. 2e$0oa# E*t$
2e$0oa#s
Data is input into the computer using a keyboard that looks like a typewriter keyboard
but has additional keys. 8eyboard entry is where the user reads from an original
document called source document and enters the contents of the document into the
computer by typing on the keyboard.
n keyboard entry people type input and that input appears on the monitor after being
processed by the $%&. 8eyboards are the most common way in which you will input
data.
The keys on the keyboard are divided into four categories*
'i( Typewriter keys 1 these keys resemble regular letters, numbers and punctuation
marks on the keyboard. These are the keys A 1 >, ? 1 @ along with keys
showing special characters.
'ii( 9unction keys 1 these keys are labelled from 91 1 91#. 9unction keys are usually
used as a shortcut to an operation or frequently used task. They save the user
from typing too many keystrokes.
'iii( 7umeric keys 1 these keys are labelled ? 1 @ and are used for tasks
principally involving numbers. These keys are also collectively referred to as the
numeric keypad. 7umeric keys are very useful when working with spreadsheet.
'iv("pecial purpose and $ursor control keys 1 these keys are used to help enter and
edit data as well as e2ecute commands. "ome special purpose keys are 5"$,
$T0+ 'control(, A+T 'alternate(, D5+ 'Delete(. They are used in combination
with typewriter and function keys to carry out tasks.
The cursor control keys or the directional arrow keys are used to move the cursor
or the insertion point.
A
LESSON 3
Temi*a's
A terminal is a form of input device that consists of a keyboard, monitor and a
communication link. There are three types of terminals*
'i( Dumb terminal
Dumb terminals can only be used to input and receive data but cannot process data
independently. t is used to gain access to and view information from a large
computer and input data. "uch a terminal may be used by an airline reservation clerk
to gain access to a mainframe computer for flight information.
'ii( "mart terminal
These terminals have some memory and allows the user to perform some editing or
verification before the data is sent to the larger computer, for e2ample, a bank loan
officer might o some calculation associated with a loan on a smart terminal. He would
do this before the information is stored on the banks mainframe computer.
'iii( ntelligent terminal
ncludes a processing unit, memory and secondary storage devices such as hard disk.
5ssentially an intelligent terminal is a microcomputer with a modem or other
communication links that connect the intelligent terminal to larger computers. 7early
all large organisation today have intelligent computers 'microcomputers(.
Sta*# A'o*e Compute
A stand alone computer is one that is not connected to any other computer on the
network.
B
LESSON 4
". Die)t E*t$
Die)t e*t$ #e+i)es ea# ma)hi*e ea#a0'e #ata &om pape o ma,*eti) me#ia
a*# &ee# it #ie)t'$ to the )omputes CPU to 0e po)esse#. Direct entry is a form
of input that does not require data to be keyed in by someone sitting and typing at a
keyboard. This form of entry includes pointing, scanning and voice input devices.
This reduces the possibility of human error from being introduced. t is also an
economical way of data entry.
An e2ample of an input device that uses both keyboard and direct entry is the %oint of
"ale '%."( terminal. This sort of electronic cash registers are those that you see in
department stores. !hen goods are sold, employees can record the sale using the
keyboard or they can use a hand held scanner or wand reader to read special
characters on the price tags. The reflection is changed into machine readable code and
sent to the $%&. !hether the input is done using a keyboard or direct entry the result
will be displayed on the screen.
Direct entry devices may be categorised into three areas*
'i( %ointing devices
'ii( "canning devices
'iii( /oice input devices
C
LESSON 5
6i7 Poi*ti*, #e+i)es
%ointing devices require cursors to be placed over an item to e2ecute commands.
"ome forms of direct entry using pointing devices are*
'a( -ouse
'b( Touch "creen
'c( +ight %en 'stylus(
'd( Digiti;ers
'e( %en based computing
'f( Doystick
'g( 5lectronic pen
'h( Digital camera
'i( -ouse
The mouse is the most common direct entry device. t is used to control cursor
'called the mouse pointer( on the screen and e2ecute commands. There are , basic
types of mouse*
i. The standard mouse 1 has a rubber ball inside and two or more buttons for
selecting commands. t is connected by a chord via the systems unit. !hen rolled
upon the table top the mouse simultaneously controls the movement of the
cursorEthe mouse pointer on the screen. This is made possible through the use of
rollers inside the mouse. These rollers detect the movement of the rubber ball and
the mouse sends signals to the $%& to move the mouse pointer. The $%& then
moves the mouse pointer on the screen.
Left mouse button right mouse button
(left-click) (right-click)
@
Rubber ball
LESSON 18
ii. The second type of mouse is called a trackball mouse or a roller ball mouse and
does not require a flat surface. n this mouse the mouse pointer is controlled by a
rotating ball placed on a keyboard. This type of mouse is usually found on
portable computers, for e2ample, laptops, notebooks.
iii. The newest type of mouse is called a touch surface. This mouse is controlled by
sliding your finder on the sensitive surface of a touch pad. $hoices are confirmed
using buttons placed at the bottom of the touchpad or by tapping on the surface.
These have become the more common option on portable computers.
0ecently, wireless mouses have been introduced.
'ii( Touch "creen
A touch screen is a type of monitor covered with a plastic layer. 4ehind this plastic
layer are criss3crossed infrared 'invisible( beams of light. This arrangement enables
users to select action and commands by touching the surface on the screen by a finger.
'iii( +ight %en 'stylus(
A light pen is a light sensitive pen3like device. The light pen is used by placing it
against the monitor. This closes a photoelectric cell and identifies the spot for
entering and modifying data. +ight pens are used for selecting and e2ecuting
commands. +ight pens are also called stylus. They are used by engineers for
designing, for e2ample, microprocessors and aeroplane parts etc.
1?
LESSON 11
'iv(Digiti;ers
s a device that can be used to trace or copy a drawing or a photograph. The shape is
then converted into digital data. A computer can then represent the data on the screen
and print it out on paper. A digiti;er is an input device that converts points, lines and
curves from images, drawings or photographs to digital pulses 'signals( and transmits
them to a computer.
A digiti;ing tablet enables you to create an image using a stylus. mages are
converted into digital data and processed by the computer. A digiti;ed image consists
of lines which are connected separately and can be manipulated as individual lines by
the stylus.
'v( %en based computing
A pen based computer is a small computer that lets you write directly onto a display
screen using a stylus. This is usually used in banks to recognise a person<s signature
since the software in pen based computing is able to recognise the different hand
writings. t also interprets the different alphabets on a digital data.
'vi(Doystick
t comprises of a vertical stick mounted on a base. t has one or more buttons that can
be used for selecting commands. The movement of the vertical stick translates
directly to the movement required by the pointer in the screen. Doysticks are usually
used for playing games.
11
LESSON 1"
'vii( 5lectronic pen
An electronic pen utili;es radio waves to communicate with a grid of wires
underneath a liquid crystal display '+$D(. 0adio waves are sent to the tip of the pen
and returned for position analysis.
An electronic pen looks and feels like an ordinary pen yet contains no batteries or
wires and does not need to be connected to a computer. As the tip of the pen touches
the screen , the location of the pen is determined by the wires in the grid which detects
the presence of the pen using radio waves. The software can then interpret the
movement and meaning of the pen strokes.
'viii( Digital camera
Although cameras are the most widely used methods to capture photographs, and then
later they are scanned using a scanner to turn them into digital images, digital cameras
are becoming a newer way of doing real3time image capturing. Digital cameras are
an imaging method of capturing images directly in digital form and storing them to be
processed alter. A newer form is the digital video camera which records real3time
motion in digital form.
6ii7 S)a**i*, #e+i)es
Direct entry scanning devices record images of te2t, drawings or special symbols.
These images are converted to digital data that can be processed by a computer or
displayed on a monitor. There are four categories of scanning devices*
'a( mage scanner
'b( 9a2 machine
'c( 4ar code reader
'd( $haracter and -ark 0ecognition devices
1#
LESSON 1(
'a( mage scanner
An image scanner automatically converts images on a page into electronic signals
'digital data( that can be stored on a computer. This process identifies pictures or
different typefaces by scanning each image with light and breaking it into light and
dark dots. These dots are then converted into digital data for storage.
mage scanners are widely used as input devices. They are commonly used in
desktop publishing to scan graphic images to be placed on a page of te2t.
'b( 9a2 machine
A 9acsimile Transmission -achine commonly called a fa2 machine has become a
popular office machine because they can transfer documents at electronic speeds. 9a2
machines scan the image of a document and encode it into a series of instructions
representing black and white image areas. These instructions are then sent
electronically over telephone lines to a receiving fa2 machine which converts the
signal back to an image and recreates it on paper.
The fa2 machine uses a process much like that used by an office photocopier. 9a2
machines are used by anyone who needs to send images and probably some te2t, for
e2ample, engineering drawing, legal documents with signatures, sales and
promotional materials.
"ome people may use microcomputers to send and receive fa2. n order to do this, a
fa2 board has to be installed to the computers system unit. t is also necessary to have
special fa2 software. However, many users prefer to install a fa2Emodem board that
provides the independent capabilities of a fa2 and a modem.
1,
LESSON 1-
'c( 4ar code reader
These are photoelectric scanners that read the bar codes or the vertical ;ebra stripe
marks printed on products. "upermarkets use a bar code system called a &niversal
%roduct $ode '&%$(.
The bar code identifies the product when the bar code scanner is run over the bar
code. The scanner emits light over the bar code which is reflected back of the
scanner. These reflected signals are sent to the supermarket computer which has a
description and the latest price of that product. The computer automatically transfers
the relevant detail to the %." terminal. The terminal then displays the price, products
name, amount received, change and other relevant information on the /D& and later
prints them out on a receipt.
'd( $haracter and -ark 0ecognition devices
$haracter and mark recognition devise are used to recognise any form of printed
matter or markings on items and paper by using special devices*
1. -agnetic nk $haracter 0ecognition '-$0(
#. .ptical $haracter 0eader '.$0(
,. .ptical -ark 0ecognition '.-0(
1:
LESSON 1/
1. -agnetic nk $haracter 0ecognition '-$0 (
s a direct entry method used in banks. This technology is used to read the futuristic
looking numbers at the bottom of cheques. A special purpose machine known as a
reader sorter reads characters made of ink containing magneti;ed particles.
#. .ptical $haracter 0eader '.$0(
&ses special pre3printed characters such as those printed on telephone bills that can be
read by a light source and changed into machine3readable language. A common .$0
device is a hand3held wand reader. These are used in department stores to read the
retail price printed on price tags by reflecting light on printed characters.
,. .ptical -ark 0ecognition '.-0(
This is also called mark sensing. An .-0 device senses the presence or absence of a
mark such as a pencil mark. .-0 is often used to find the score of multiple choice
tests. t is also used to enter the entries for lottery games.
1=
LESSON 11
6iii7 9oi)e i*put #e+i)e s
$onverts a person<s speech into digital code. This input device, when combined with
the appropriate software, form a voice recognition system 'speechEword recognition(
in which the computer recognises spoken voice commands. These systems enable
users to operate microcomputers and create documents by using voice commands.
-ost of these systems must be trained to a particular users voice. This is done by
matching the persons spoken words to patterns previously stored on the computer.
-ore advanced systems that recognise the same word spoken by different people have
developed. &ntil recently the list of words in voice input systems have been limited
but now there are systems that would even translate from one language to another.
/oice input devices enable users to keep their hands free for other tasks. They are
thus obvious advantage for physically disable people. There are two types of voice
recognition systemsF continuous speech and discrete words recognition systems.
6i+7Othe I*put #e+i)es
"ensors and meters are instruments that are able to directly encode physical events
into digital data. "ensors can record changes in temperature, weight, pressure, odour
and light, all of which may be useful as input.
At a computer controlled traffic signal, an electronic sensor called a pressure
transducer is buried under the street. t senses the flow of traffic and inputs the data to
the processor that controls the flow of traffic.
1A
LESSON 13
Students to draw a summary tree of the input devices.
1B
LESSON 14
Po)ess
This part of the computer is responsible for running all the programs 'e2ecuting
program instructions( and carrying out specific tasks. This device is used to carry out
processing and is known as the processor or the $entral %rocessing &nit '$%&(. The
hardware device which carries out the functions of the $%& is called the
microprocessor.
The process component of a computer system is responsible for processing data into
information and controlling the overall operations of the computer.
n a microcomputer, the $%& is on a single electronic component 'chip( called the
microprocessor inside the system unit. The system unit, which houses the $%&, is
also referred to as the computer housing or the system cabinet.
The $%& has three main components*
1. Arithmetic and logic unit 'A+&(
#. $ontrol &nit '$&(
,. -emory
1C
LESSON 15
1. Aithmeti) a*# 'o,i) u*it 6ALU7
s usually called the A+& and is responsible for all calculations and comparisons to be
done by the computer. t performs two types of operations*
Arithmetic
+ogical
Arithmetic operations are fundamental mathematic operations. These operations are
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Anytime the $%& receives an
instruction to perform one of these operations, the control unit simply transfers the
request to the arithmetic part of the A+& which performs the calculation and sends
the information back to the control unit which transfers it to the memory unit to be
output or saved.
+ogical operations of the A+& consist of comparisons of two different pieces of data.
Here these two different pieces of data are compared to see whether one is equal to
'G(, less than 'H(, greater than 'I(, less than and equal to 'HG(, greater than and equal
to 'IG(, or not equal to 'HI( another.
The A+& is sometimes referred to as the au2iliary unit.

". Co*to' U*it 6CU 7
t tells the rest of the computer system how to carry out program instructions given to
it by the user or programs. t directs the movement of electronic signals between the
memory and the A+&. t also directs the control signals between the $%& and the
input and output devices.
1@
LESSON "8
(. Memo$
-emory is where the computer holds the data and instructions that have been
processed. nformation shown on the output screen is also kept in the memory. There
are three types of memory*
'i( 0andom Access -emory '0A-(
0A- chips temporarily hold data, program instructions and information. 0A- is
also referred to as*
%rimary memory 'storage(
-ain memory
nternal memory
0A- stores three items*
data for processing
instructions for processing that data 'program(
information 'i.e. processed data(
.ne of the most important facts about 0A- is that the contents are held temporarily.
!hen you turn off the computer, the content of 0A- will vanish. Therefore, the
stored content of the 0A- is said to be volatile.
#?
LESSON "1
'ii( 0ead .nly -emory '0.-(
0.- chips have data permanently recorded onto them when they are manufactured.
0.- retains its contents even when the power is switched off. The data of the
program can be read and used but cannot be altered. 0.- is also called 9irmware of
-icrocode.
5%0.- 1 5rasable %rogrammable 0ead .nly -emory allows the user to change
'update( the contents of 0.- using special programs.
'iii( $ache
$ache memory is an area of 0A- set aside to store the most frequently accessed
information. The cache acts as a high speed holding area between the 0A- and the
$%&.
n a computer that has cache memory the $%& detects which information is
frequently accessed. t then copies that information so that it can be accessed faster
than usual.
Students to draw a summary tree of process.
#1
LESSON ""
Output
.utput devices convert machine readable information into human readable form.
.utput is the information displayed or printed by the computer for the user to see and
use. Data input into the computer and processed by the $%& remains in machine
readable form until output devices convert it into people readable form.
.utput devices used to show output are*
1. -onitor
#. %rinters
,. %lotters
:. /oice3.utput
1. Mo*ito
-onitors are the most common form of output devices today. They are used to
display the soft copy of data and information. "oft copy refers to the images on the
screen that can only be viewed when the screen is switched on and e2ist in electronic
form.
Two different characteristics of monitors are the number of colours that can be
displayed and the clarity of images produced.
mages are represented on a monitor by individual dots called picture elements or
pi2els. A pi2el is the smallest unit of the screen that can be turned on or off and made
into different shades of colour.
The density of dots 'pi2els(, that is the number of rows and columns, determines the
clarity of the image 1 the resolution. The more the pi2els on the screen, the finer the
image will be.
##
LESSON "(
"tandards
"tandards 0esolution $olours &ses
$6A 1 $olour 6raphic Array ,#? 2 #?? :
56A 1 5nhanced 6raphic Array A:? 2 ,=? 1A
/6A 1 /ideo 6raphic Array A:? 2 :C?
,#? 2 #??
1A
#=A
"/6A 1 "uper /ideo 6raphic Array C?? 2 A?? #=A
J6A 1 52tended 6raphic Array 1?#: 2 BAC B1C??????
#,
LESSON "-
There are two types of monitors*
'a( Desktop monitors
'b( %ortable monitors
'a( Desktop monitors
This is the most common type of monitor for homes and office. These monitors are
typically placed directly on top of the system unit 'for desktop computers( and on top
of the desk 'for tower %$<s(. They are also referred to as $athode 0ay Tube '$0T(,
/isual Display &nit '/D&( or screen. 7owadays the desktop monitor is also of the
+$D type 'flat panel monitor(.
'b( %ortable monitors
4ecause $0T are bulky to be transported, portable monitors were developed. These
types of monitors are known as flat panel monitors or +iquid $rystal Display '+$D(.
&nlike technology used in $0T<s, portable monitors use liquid crystals to display.
#:
LESSON "/
". Pi*tes
t is used to give output on paper. nformation output on paper are called the hard
copy. 'This output is done by either a printer or plotter(.
-any types of printers are used with microcomputers*
'i( Dot matri2 printer
'ii( nk )et printer
'iii( +aser printer
'iv(Thermal printer
'i( Dot matri2 printer 'character printer, impact printer, internal communication(
A dot matri2 printer forms characters and images using a series of small pins on a
print head. These pins strike an ink ribbon that creates dots which form a character or
image on paper.
These printers are used for tasks where a high quality of image is not essential. Thus
they are often used for documents that are circulated within the organisations. "ome
dot matri2 printers have the ability to print in colour. The dot matri2 printer is usually
very large and noisy but is ine2pensive.
#=
LESSON "1
'ii( nk )et printer 'line printer, non3impact printer, internal and e2ternal
communication(
An ink )et printer forms characters and graphics by spraying small droplets of ink at a
high speed on the surface of the paper. This process not only produces a letter quality
image but permits printing to be done in a variety of colours.
nk )et printers ink are kept in ink cartridges sometimes called ink tanks. There are
separate cartridges of black and colour ink.
nk )et printers have recently become the more widely used printer. They are reliable,
quiet and ine2pensive. !hile ink)et printer can be used to print out in black, they are
best used wherever colour and appearance are important such as in advertising and
public relations.
'iii( +aser printer 'nternal and 52ternal communication,
non3impact, page printer(
The laser printer creates dot like images on the drum using a laser beam towards light
source. The characters and images that are formed on the drum are then treated with
magnetically charged ink 'toner( which is transferred from drum to paper as the paper
rolls past the drum, very similar to that of a photocopying machine.
%rinters require special paper 'heat proof( because a heat process is used to create the
finished document. +aser printers produce images with e2cellent letter and graphics
quality. t is widely used in applications requiring high quality and high quantity
output 'up to ,?ppm( and has made possible a whole new world of desktop
publishing. +aser printers can also print in colour should they be fitted with a colour
ink cartridge.
#A
LESSON "3
'iv(Thermal printer 'non impact, page printers(
A thermal printer uses heat elements to produce images on a heat sensitive paper.
.riginally these printers were used in scientific labs to record data. -ore recently
colour thermal printers have been widely used to produce very high quality art work
and graphics. $olour thermal printers are not popular because of their cost and their
requirement of specially treated paper. These printers are more specifically used
printer that produces a Knear photographic outputL.
Students to copy summary of printers from tetbook pg!
#B
LESSON "4
Othe t$pes o& pi*tes
'i( Daisy wheel printers 'impact printers(
%roduces very high quality and professional looking correspondence however they are
slower and less reliable than dot matri2.
'ii( $hain printers 'impact printers(
%roduces professional and high quality correspondences. They are very e2pensive
and are used in large organisations to print out large amount of outputs. They were
originally designed for mini and mainframe computers.
'iii( 5lectrostatic %rinters 'non impact(
These are page printers that use electrostatic or laser beams to create charges on metal
drums which are later produced on paper. The images are made up of tiny dots.
These printers output on specially treated paper and use e2pensive chemicals.
#C
LESSON "5
Impa)t a*# No* impa)t Pi*tes
7on impact printers use electronic or photographic techniques to produce outputs at a
very high speed. These printers do not come in hard contact with the paper e.g.
thermal, laser, ink3)et, electrostatic printers.
mpact printers function like a typewriter. They strike a print3head against a ribbon to
leave an impression on the paper and e2amples include dot matri2, daisy wheel, chain
printers etc.
Impa)t Pi*tes No* Impa)t Pi*tes
Dot matri2 printer nk )et printers
Daisy wheel printer +aser printer
$hain printers Thermal printer
5lectrostatic printer
$haracter %rinter
%rints out one character at a time e.g. dot matri2, daisy wheel and chain printers.
+ine %rinter
%rints an entire line of te2t at once, e.g. ink )et printer
%age %rinter
%rints an entire page at once e.g. thermal printer, laser and electrostatic.
#@
LESSON (8
(. P'ottes
%lotters are special purpose drawing devices for producing bar charts, map,
architectural drawings and even ,D drawings. %lotters can also produce high quality
multi coloured documents. They can also produce documents which are large in si;e
e.g. A,.
There are : types of plotters*
'i( %en %lotter
$reates images by using a pen or a pencil over drafting paper.
'ii( nk )et %lotter
$reates line drawings and solid colour output by spraying droplets of ink on paper.
'iii( 5lectrostatic %lotter
&ses electrostatic charges to create images made up of tiny dots on metallic drums
which is then reproduced on specially treated paper.
'iv(Direct mage %lotterEThermal %lotter 'direct imaging(
$reates image using electronically heated pins on heat sensitive paper.
,?
LESSON (1
-. 9oi)e:Output
/oice output devices make sounds that resemble human speech but are pre recorded
vocalised sound.
There are many occasions where you will hear synthesi;ed speech being used, for
e2ample, telephones, car alarm systems, mobiles etc.
9or multimedia applications, the voice output devices are typically a set of stereo
speakers or headphones. These devices are connected by a sound card which is
plugged into the system uni 'plugged onto the mother board(. The sound card is used
to capture and send back the captured sound.
/oice output is also used as reinforcement for learning, for e2ample, a student
learning a foreign language. .ne of the most powerful capability is to assist the
physically challenged.
Students to draw a summary tree of the output devices.
,1
LESSON ("
Au.i'ia$ Stoa,e De+i)es
Data may be input, processed and output but one of the most valuable features of a
computer is its ability to store 'save( that information permanently even after the
computer have been switched off. This way you can save your work for future use,
share information with others, or modify the information readily available.
"econdary storage holds information e2ternal from the $%&. t allows you to store
programs such as word processors '-" !ord(, spreadsheet '-" 52cel(. t also
allows you to store data processed by the program such as te2t in a document or
numbers in a spreadsheet.
There are two approaches to secondary storage*
1. "equential Access
#. Direct Access
,#
LESSON ((
1. Se;ue*tia' A))ess
n this method data is stored in a sequential order or as a sequence either
chronologically, alphabetically, numerically etc. An e2ample of a sequential access
media is a magnetic tape. n order to locate a piece of data saved on a sequential
access storage media, the computer will look through the entire content of the storage
device until the correct data is found.
". Die)t A))ess
This form of storage allows you to directly access information where it is stored.
"ome direct access storage devices are floppy disks, hard disk, optical disk '$D3
0.-, D/D30.-(, &"4.
0etrieving data and information is much faster with disk storage 'using direct access(
than tape storage 'using sequential access(.
9our 8inds of "econdary "torage
1. 9loppy disk 1 direct access
#. Hard disk 1 direct access
,. .ptical disk 1 direct access
:. -agnetic tape 1 sequential access
,,
Tape
??,
??#
??1
LESSON (-
1. 9loppy disk
9loppy disks are removable storage media that are inserted into a floppy disk drive
and used to store information. This type of storage is convenient, reliable and
relatively low in cost. They consist of mylar plastic that rotate within the )ackets.
Data and programs are stored as electromagnetic charges on a metal o2ide film
coating the -ylar plastic.
Data and programs are represented by the presence or absence of these charges 1
using the A"$ or 54$D$ data representation codes 'schemes( 1 referred to as
binary schemes. A newer type of binary scheme is called &ni$ode.
A"$ 1 American "tandard $ode for nformation nterchange
54$D$ 1 52tended 4inary $oded Decimal nterchange $odes
&ni$ode 1 &niversal $ode
The two most popular si;es of floppy disks are*
= M inch diameter
, N inch diameter
,:
LESSON (/
The Disk Drive
OOO diagram
The disk drive obtains stored data and programs from a floppy disk. t is also used to
store data and programs on a floppy disk. The disk drive consists of a bo2 with a slot
into which you insert a floppy disk. That slot is covered by a door called a drive gate.
A motor inside the drive rotates the floppy disk. As the floppy disk rotates, the
electronic heads called the read3write heads read data from and write data to the
floppy disk. The read write heads are mounted on the access arms.
0ead means that the read write head in the disk drive copies data 'stored as magnetic
impulses and electronic charges( from the floppy disks to the memory.
!rite means that the disk drive transfers data 1 into electronic signals to the memory
to the floppy disks.
t is important to realise that reading makes the copy of original data. t does not alter
the original data. n contrast, writing replaces any data that is e2isting or in most
cases occupy any space that is empty.
,=
LESSON (1
<o% a F'opp$ Dis= Wo=s
A floppy disk is inserted into the slot in front of the floppy disk drive and the drive
gate closes. The floppy disk is then positioned over a spindle that holds it so that the
floppy disk can revolve without slipping when the drive motor is in motion. The
floppy disk can rotate at over ,A? revolutions per minute depending on the drive.
The magnetic data signals are transferred from the loppy disk into the computer and
vice versa 'from computer to disk( by the read write heads. Data is stored in tracks
character by character using the same binary scheme that is used to store characters in
the main memory. -agnetic impulses are placed along a track to represent the bit
pattern for each character.
The read write head is on an access arm which moves back and forth on a floppy disk.
To read or write on a particular part of a floppy disk, the access arm moves the read
write head along the floppy disk. This is called the seek operation. The drive then
rotates the floppy disk into the proper position. This is called the search operation.
,A
LESSON (3
Pats o& a F'opp$ Dis=
Data is recorded on a floppy disk in rings called tracks. These tracks are close
concentric circles. They do not have any visible grooves. 5ach track is divided
further in wedge shaped sectors.
OOO diagram
"ectors are used to help in the storage of information on a disk. -ost disks are
manufactured without tracks and sectors. These are called soft sectored disk and they
must be adapted to a particular brand of microcomputer and disk drive. Thus, you
must put on the tracks and sectors yourself.
The process of creating tracks and sectors on a floppy disk and preparing it for use is
called formatting or initialising. The process of formatting can also be used to delete
the entire contents of a floppy disk.
F'opp$ Dis= Capa)it$
Description 4ytes
= M inch
Double sided, double density 'D", DD(
Double sided, high density 'D", HD(
,??kb
1.#-b
, N inch
Double sided, double density 'D", DD(
Double sided, high density 'D", HD(
B#?kb
1.::-b
,B
LESSON (4
Di&&ee*)es 0et%ee* /> i*)h a*# (? i*)h F'opp$ Dis=s
The two most popular si;es of floppy disks have distinctive differences in how the
)acket and the write protect notch are handled.
The = M inch has an e2terior made of fle2ible plastic )acket. The disk is protected by
a paper envelope when it is not in use. The write3protect notch is covered with a
removable tab which comes with the disk when you buy it.
The , N inch disk is sturdier. The e2terior )acket is made up of hard plastic )acket to
protect the fle2ible disk inside. The write3protect notch is covered by a sliding
shutter. The write3protect notch prevents the computer from accidentally writing over
the information that you want to keep.
A 3 inch Floppy Disk
Back Front
data access window
data access area
shutter
hub
hard plastic jacket
label
write-protect notch
,C
LESSON (5
Fu*)tio*s o& #i&&ee*t pats o& a F'opp$
1. !rite protect notch
%rotects the information stored on a disk. f the notch is closed by the shutter then the
information can be written onto the disk and read from the disk. This is called the
read3write mode.
f the notch is e2posed then data can only be read from the disk but no writing or
editing can be done 'write protect mode(
#. nde2 Hole
ndicates the beginning of the revolutions of the disk and is used by the drive to
revolve the disk.
,. $entre Hole
&sed by the disk drive to hold the floppy disk in place. The spindle comes and
attaches itself on this hole. The spindle ensures that the disk does not move during
reading and writing process.
:. -ylar %lastic %latter
This is where the information is stored in the form of electromagnetic charges on
tracks and sectors.
=. +iner
%rotects the -ylar plastic from damage and removes the dust which gets accumulated
on the -ylar plastic.
,@
LESSON -8
A. 0ead !rite !indowEData Access !indow
The computer can read or write information through this window. The shutter is
pulled back so that the -ylar plastic 'data access area( can be shown through the data
access window. Therefore, the data access window is simply a rectangular hold cut
onto the shutter to provide access to the data.
B. Data access areaEread3write area
This is the -ylar plastic which is visible through the data access window when the
shutter is pulled back. The access arm is placed over this area so that the read3write
heads can read data from and write data to the disk.
C. Hub
6oes inside the disk drive and fi2es itself on the motor mechanism and helps the disk
to rotate. The centre and inde2 hole are part of the hub.
@. "hutter
$overs the read3write area and protects the -ylar plastic which is e2posed through
the data access area.
1?. +abel
To show the contents of a disk, the user has to write the appropriate name and
description of the content of the disk onto the label which is pasted on top of the disk.
11. Hard plastic )acket
%rovides a safe covering for the -ylar plastic and prevents it from being damaged.
:?
LESSON -1
Ta=i*, Cae o& a F'opp$ Dis=
1. Do not touch the disks surface 'data access area(. t is easily contaminated and
will cause errors.
#. 8eep disks away from strong magnetic fields, for e2ample, telephones and
stereos.
,. Do not burn the disk.
:. Do not put heavy ob)ects on the disk.
=. Do not use rubber band or paper clips on the disks.
A. Do not e2pose the disks to e2cessive heat or sunlight.
B. Do not use sharp ob)ects on the disks.
C. 8eep disks away from chemicals or liquids.
@. 8eep disks in protective )ackets when not in use.
1?. &se felt3tip pens when writing on the label of the disk.
The best protection to save data on the floppy disk from getting lost is to make a
backup 1 a duplicate copy of a disk.
:1
LESSON -"
". <a# #is= @ #ie)t a))ess
Hard disks consist of metallic rather than plastic platters. They are also tightly sealed
to prevent any foreign matter from getting inside. Hard disks are e2tremely sensitive
devices. The read3write head writes on a cushion of air ?.?????1 inch thick. t is so
thin that a smoke particle, finger print, dust or human hair would cause what is known
as a head3crash.
A head3crash happens when the surface of the read3write head comes into contact
with the magnetic disk surface or particles on the surface of the disk. A head3crash is
disaster for a hard disk. n this case some or all of the data on the hard disk could be
destroyed.
There are , types of hard disks*
'i( nternal Hard Disk
'ii( Hard Disk $artridge
'iii( Hard Disk %ack
:#
LESSON -(
6i7 I*te*a' <a# Dis=
A hard disk consists of one or more metallic platters sealed inside a container. The
container includes a motor for rotating the disk. t also contains an access arm and
read3write heads for reading from and writing data to the disk. +ike a floppy disk
drive, the internal hard disk has a seek operation and a search operation for reading
and writing data in tracks and sectors.
The internal hard disk is housed within the systems unit. t is screwed and connected
to the motherboard to be a component of the systems unit itself. Therefore, it is also
called a fi2ed disk. nside the internal hard disk is a ,N inch metallic platter with
access arms on which read3write heads are mounted. These access arms move back
and forth.
The internal hard disk is connected to the mother board via a ribbon cable 'data
cable(. This cable communicates all data between the $%& and the hard disk.
Another cable, which is the power supply cable, connects the hard disk to the power
supply. 'A floppy disk is connected to a computer in the very same manner(.
An internal hard disk has two advantages over floppy disk*
'a( $apacity
A hard disk can hold many times the amount of information compared to a floppy
disk.
'b( "peed
A hard disk spins much faster than a floppy disk. Therefore, it can read and write at a
much faster rate.
:,
LESSON --
6ii7 <a# Dis= Cati#,e
A hard disk cartridge can be removed and transferred when they are filled.
The disadvantage of the internal hard disk is that they only have a fi2ed amount of
capacity and cannot be easily removed. Hard disk cartridges have the advantage to be
easily removed like a video cassette from a recorder. Hard disk cartridges need
special drives.
They give microcomputers faster access to large quality of data. The amount of
storage available is only limited by the number of cartridges used.
!hile a regular hard disk system has a fi2ed storage capacity, a removable hard disk
cartridge system has virtually unlimited capacity 1 you )ust need to keep on buying
additional hard disk cartridges.
6iii7 <a# Dis= Pa)=
-icrocomputers that are connected to other large computers often have access to hard
disk packs. -icrocomputer internal hard disks and hard disk cartridges typically have
one or two disk platters and two or more access arms.
n contrast a hard disk pack consists of several platters in a stack thereby offering
much greater storage capacity.
There is space between the stack of disks to allow the access arms to move in and out.
The hard disk pack has several platters placed in a stack. 5ach access arm has two
read3write heads 1 one reads the surface above it and the other reads the surfaces
below it. 9or instance, a disk pack with 11 platters will only provide #? recording
surfaces. This is because the top and bottom outside surfaces are not used at all. All
the access arms move in and out together, however, only one of the read3write heads
is activated at any given time.
Access time is the time between the computers request for the data from secondary
storage and the accomplishment of data transfer. Access time for most drives is )ust
under #= milliseconds.
::
LESSON -/
(. Opti)a' #is= @ #ie)t a))ess
.ptical disks are used for storing great quantities of data. An optical disk can hold
from B?? -b to B.1 6b of data.
n optical disk technology, a laser beam alters the surface of a metallic disk to
represent data. To read this data a laser light scans these areas and sends the data to a
microprocessor for conversion.
There are four kinds of optical disks*
'i( $D30.-
'ii( $D30
'iii( $D30!
'iv(D/D
6i7 CD:ROM
&nlike floppy and hard disks, which use magnetic charges to represent ?<s and 1<s,
optical disks use flat areas and bumpy areas called pits.
"iagram # leave around $% lines
:=
LESSON -1
The optical disk is read by a laser light that pro)ects tiny beams of light on these areas.
The amount of reflected light determines if an area represents ?<s and 1<s.
+ike a commercial audio $D, a $D 0.- is read only disk. 0ead .nly means that
the data on a disk cannot be written on or erased by a user.
.ptical disks '$D 0.-s( are used to distribute large databases, reference and
software, for e2ample an encyclopaedia which contains thousands of words and
hundreds of pictures.
$D 0.-<s are also used to contain large software application packages, for e2ample,
-icrosoft .ffice #??? is available on a single $D 0.-.
.ne advantage of the $D30.- is that the installation of software from the $D 0.-
to the internal hard disk is much faster.
6ii7 CD:R
This type of optical disk is also known as !.0- '!rite .nce, 0ead -any(. $D30
disks can be written to only once. The writing 'burning( on the disk is done using a
$D writer. After that they can be read many times but they cannot be written to or
erased. This is because the $D writer writes the information onto the $D30 and it
becomes permanent. $D30 disk are ideal to be used as archives, to permanently store
large amounts of information or for backups.
:A
LESSON -3
6iii7 CD:RW
These are also called erasable optical disks or rewritable optical disks. These disks
are like $D30 disks e2cept that they can be rewritten to many times, i.e. data that has
been written onto the disk can be erased and the same disk used over and over again.
5rasable optical disks also need $D writers.
6i+7D9D
D/D stands for Digital /ersatile Disk. D/D disks and disk drives are very similar to
$D30.-<s e2cept that more data can be packed into the same amount of space.
They are used for a variety of high capacity needs such as recording and playing full
length motion pictures, advanced multimedia games and interactive encyclopaedias.
Today D/D and D/D30! 'also known as D/D 0A-( disks are available and D/D
storage capacity has increased to 1B 64 1 enough storage for an C hour motion
picture or an entire library of encyclopaedias.
Opti)a' Dis=
Description $apacity
$D30.- A=? 1 B?? -4
$D30 A=? 1 B?? -4
$D30! A=? 1 1??? -4
D/D :.B 1 B.1 64 1 1B 64
:B
LESSON -4
-. Ma,*eti) tape @ se;ue*tia' a))ess
-agnetic tapes are primarily used for back3up purposes. t falls in the category of
sequential access storage. Therefore it is slower, however, it is an effective and cheap
way of making backups or duplicate copies of your programs and data. n some
situations magnetic tapes are also used to store large amount of information.
There are two forms of magnetic tape storage*
'i( -agnetic Tape "treamers 'for microcomputers(
-any microcomputers with a hard disk utilise a device called a backup tape cartridge
unit 'tape drive( to backup the contents of a hard disk onto a tape cartridge 'magnetic
tape streamers(.
'ii( -agnetic Tape 0eels 'for larger computers(
A reel of magnetic tape 1 used with minicomputers, mainframes and supercomputers
1 is half inch wide and around half a mile long. t stores about 1A?? to A:??
characters to an inch.
/. Othe Se)o*#a$ Stoa,e De+i)es
&"4 1 &niversal "erial 4us
&"4 drives are a new way of portable data storage. These plug and play devices
require a port called a &"4 port. &"4 drives are plugged in the &"4 port in order to
be detected and to store data. They are slowly becoming more popular than floppy
disks. &"4 dries use direct access and read and write data faster than floppy and
optical disks.
Students to draw a summary tree of the auiliary storage devices.
:C
LESSON -5
The Ai*a$ S$stem
Data and instructions are represented electronically using two state systems called the
binary system. There are three principle binary schemes*
A"$ 1 American "tandard $ode for nformation nterchange. This is the most
widely used binary code for microcomputers and uses C bits.
54$D$ 1 52tended 4inary $oded Decimal nterchange $odes. t was developed by
4- and is used primarily for large computers and uses C bits.
&ni$ode 1 &niversal $ode. s a 1A bit code designed to support international
language like $hinese and Dapanese. These languages have too many characters to be
represented by C bit A"$ and 54$D$ codes. &ni$ode was developed by &ni$ode
nc. with support from Apple, 4- and -icrosoft.
!hen you open up a system unit of a microcomputer, you would mainly see
electronic circuitry. The most fundamental statement you can make about electricity
is that it can be turned on and off, for e2ample, a light switch maybe on or off, an
electronic switch 'circuit( may be open or closed. +ikewise, a magneti;ed spot on a
storage media or a bit travelling with the electronic circuitry may have a positive 'P(
or negative '3( charge, i.e, the presence or absence of electronic pulse.
This is the reason why a binary scheme is used to represent data and instruction. The
decimal system has 1? digits from ? 1 @. However, the binary system consists of only
two digits '?, 1(. n a computer, ? is represented by electricity being off, '3( charge
and 1 is represented by electricity being on, 'P( charge. 5verything that is entered
into the computer is converted into electronic signals 'C bit(.
$haracter A"$ 54$D$
! ?1?1?111 111??11?
:@
LESSON /8
&nit of -easure and $apacity
5ach ? or 1 in the binary system is called a bit 1 short for binary digit. n order to
represent numbers, letters and special characters, bits are combined into bit of C to
form a byte. 5ach byte represents one character and therefore*
1 byte G C bits G 1 character.
1 kilobyte G 1?#: bytes
1 megabyte G 1,?:C,=BA bytes '1?#: 2 1?#:(
1 gigabyte G 1,?B,,B:1,C#: bytes '1?#: 2 1?#: 2 1?#:(
1 terabyte G 1,?@@,=11,A#C,??? bytes '1?#: 2 1?#: 2 1?#: 2 1?#:(
E.e)ises 'don<t write this. This is the teachers note. The e2ercise will be a the back
of your book(
=?
LESSON /1
1T. " TBPES OF COMPUTERS
END:USERS
These are people who use microcomputers and has access to large computers. They
use microcomputers and pre3written programs 'word processing, spreadsheet,
databases, etc( to solve information related or decision making problems.
4y gaining computer literacy end3users can use microcomputers to improve their
productivity and their value in the work place. 4y becoming computer competent
'literate( 1 learning how to use a computer to meet your information needs 1 will
certainly increase your value as a student andEor an employee in your organisation.
FOUR TBPES OF COMPUTERS
1. -icrocomputers
#. -inicomputers
,. -ainframes
:. "upercomputers
1. Mi)o)omputes
The most widely used and the fastest growing types of computers is called the
microcomputer. -icrocomputers are small computers that are placed on top of a desk
or carried around by end3users in order to fulfil their information needs. There are
two categories of microcomputers*
=1
LESSON /"
'a( Desktop computers
These computers are small enough to fit on top or along the side of a desk and yet are
too heavy and too big to be carried around.
The desktop computer comes in two designs 1 the desktop or the towerEmini tower
case. The desktop design has a flat system unit placed hori;ontally on the desktop
with a monitor placed on top of it.
The newer and more popular designs are the tower and mini tower cases. Here the
vertical system unit is placed beside the monitor.
There are two categories of desktop computer*
'i( %ersonal $omputers '%$(
'ii( !orkstations
'i( %ersonal $omputers '%$(
Are a type of desktop computers which run comparatively easy to use application
software. They are used by a wide range of individuals from clerks to manager.
Their users are usually called end3users.
'ii( !orkstations
Are another type of desktop computers which are more powerful than %$<s and
designed to run more advanced application software. !orkstations are utili;ed by
engineers, scientists who process a lot of data.
7owadays there is not much difference between a %$ and workstations as both of
them have similar strength. t is largely the software programs that determine the
difference between a workstation and a %$.
=#
LESSON /(
'b( %ortable computers
Are microcomputers which are small and light enough to be moved easily from one
place to another. There are four types of portable computers*
'i( +aptops
'ii( 7otebooks
'iii( "ub3notebooks
'iv(%ersonal Digital Assistant '%DA, %almtop %$, Hand Held %$(
'i( +aptops
These are microcomputers that are small and looks like a standard si;e briefcase and
light enough to be moved easily from one place to another. These computers maybe
A$ powered 'battery powered( or D$ powered or both. The user of a laptop may be a
businessman or an accountant or e2ecutive who needs to work away from the desk.
nstead of a mouse a laptop uses a device called a trackball to move the mouse pointer
on the screen. 7ewer computers use touch surface pads. +aptops also have a $D
0.- drive 'optical drives( as well as ports at the back to attach to peripheral devices.
7owadays laptops and other portable devices come with a standard &"4 port and
optical disk writers.
'ii( 7otebooks
Are smaller version of laptops. 7otebooks are especially valuable in locations where
electrical connections are not available.
The key feature of a notebook is its si;e. Although smaller than a laptop it gives the
user access to all devices and capabilities of a laptop. The user of a notebook %$
might be a student, sales person or a )ournalist who uses computer for note taking.
=,
LESSON /-
'iii( "ub3notebooks
Are for frequent flyers and life on a road types. "ome sub3notebooks users give up a
full si;e display screen and keyboard in e2change for less weight. These computers
fit easily into a briefcase.
'iv(%ersonal Digital Assistant '%DA(
These computers are small enough to fit onto a persons hand and are smaller than sub3
notebooks. The typical %DA combines pen input, writing recognition, personal
organisational tools and communication capabilities in a very small package. A %DA
user might be a worker at a warehouse or a busy e2ecutive handling daily
communications.
Aa*#s o& Mi)o)omputes
The most common microcomputer in 9i)i today are 4- compatible computers. There
are also families of computers*
'i( 4- 1 nternational 4usiness -achine
'ii( Apple -acintosh
=:
LESSON //
'i( 4-
4- compatible computers have similar internal structures, can run the same program
and share hardware.
These compatible computers are sometimes called KclonesL and have designs which
are based on original 4- computer structure. They are more popular to users than
the original 4- which is also available on the market because they are much
cheaper.
There are many different brands of 4- compatible computers available in 9i)i.
"ome that are commonly used are*
Dell
$ompaq
Digital
%ride
$ompuAdd
Hewlett %ackard
A.pen
'ii( Apple -acintosh
t is relatively e2pensive and has different internal structure from 4- and 4-
compatible computers.
These families of computers are incompatible i.e. their operating systems are different
and they would not run the same programs. They also do not use the same hardware
devices. n order to use each others hardware devices or programs additional
hardware and software need to be added.
$ompatible computers are those that essential operate in the same way. Two
computers are compatible if they can communicate freely with each other, share the
same software, data and use the same peripheral devices.
A third family of computers called $ommodore was once very popular but is no
longer used today.
==
LESSON /1
#. -inicomputers
Also known as mid3range computers, minicomputers are desk3si;ed machines. They
fall between microcomputers and mainframe computers in their processing speed and
their data storing capabilities. These computers can support a number of users and
perform many different tasks at once.
They were originally developed to perform specific tasks such as engineering
calculations. +ater they became popular for business use. Their use grew rapidly as
their performance and capabilities increased. -inicomputers cost more than
microcomputers. +ower price minicomputers are also available. They are also quite
similar to %$<s but offer features that make them appropriate for business and
administrative use. These features are*
'i( more disk space
'ii( faster processing capability
'iii( sufficient memory to support time sharing systems 'serving multiple
users simultaneouslyEat the same time(.
Taking time sharing capabilities into accounts, medium si;ed companies or
departments of large companies typically use minicomputers for specific purposes.
These computers may be used for research or to monitor a particular manufacturing
process. "maller si;ed companies typically use minicomputers for their general data
processing needs such as accounting and storing databases.
=A
LESSON /3
,. -ainframes
These are large computers occupying specially wired, air conditioned rooms. They
can handle numerous users, store large amounts of data and process transactions at a
very high rate. n other words, mainframe computers have a high data storage
capacity and great processing speeds.
They are used by large organisations such as businesses, banks, universities and
government agencies to handle millions of transactions. 9or e2ample, insurance
companies use them to keep track of customer accounts.
These computers are time3sharing computers and can support hundreds of users
simultaneously.
:. "upercomputers
These computers are the most powerful category of computers and accordingly the
most e2pensive. "upercomputers are special high capacity computers used by very
large organisations. These computers have the ability to process millions of
instructions per second and issued for applications by very large and rich
organisations.
9or e2ample, 7A"A '7ational Aeronautics and "pace Agency( use supercomputers to
track and control space e2plorations and simulations. They are also used for oil
e2plorations and world wide weather forecasting.
=B
LESSON /4
SUMMARB
1. -icrocomputers
mostly used in homes
costs about 1??<s to 1???<s
processor performs about 1?? million operations per second
microcomputers come in many si;es and shapes such as*
3 Desktop %$
3 +aptop %$
3 7otebook
3 %almtop %$
52amples* Apple, -4 %$<s
#. -inicomputers
Are somewhat larger than microcomputer
&sed in business and industry for specific tasks, such as processing payroll
.ne minicomputer can carry out the processing tasks for many users
%rice tag ranging from 1??s to 1???s
&sed in medium si;ed firm or businesses
52amples* 4- A" :??, D5$ -icro /a2
,. -ainframes
Are large, fast and fairly e2pensive
The cost is about millions
-ostly used by large business or government to provide centrali;ed storage
"ervices more users '1??( than a minicomputer
52ample* 4- "ystem ,B?
:. "upercomputers
Are the largest, fastest and most e2pensive types of computer
Designed to optimi;e processing for multiple users
"olve a few very difficult problems such as predicting the wether and modelling
nuclear reactions
The speed of a supercomputer can reach one trillion instructions per second
&sed by researchers, military and scientists
The cost tops out at Q,= million
52ample* $ray 1.
=C
LESSON /5
CUIDELINES FOR CARE OF T<E COMPUTER
U*i*teupti0'e Po%e Supp'$ 6UPS7
This is the best protection against your power problems. A &%" is a device
containing a battery and other circuitry that provides a continuous supply of power to
a computer in the case of a power shutdown.
t is designed to give enough power to keep your computer working through
momentary power interruptions. t is designed to give you time to save your files,
e2it your programs and properly shutdown your computer in the event of a power
outage 'few minutes only(. Different types of &%" are available. "ome support
individual computers while others are capable of providing power to five or more
%$<s at once.
Su,e Pote)tos
ts main purpose is to ensure that in the event of a power surge, the e2cessive
electricity which could damage the computer does not reach the computer. t is a
device which ensures a clean supply of power is sent to the power supply of the
computer at a given time.
9ius 6Au,7
A computer virus is a program that attaches itself to a file and reproduces to spread
from one file to another. Therefore a virus is a rogue or malicious program that is
able to make copies of itself, attach itself to a host 'file( in order to do damage.
A virus can destroy data, display irritating messages and disrupt computer operations.
/iruses have been known to erase interior hard disk 'disk crash(. They also can
disrupt the operations of the operating system.
=@
LESSON 18
9ius Dete)tio* So&t%ae 6A*ti+iusD 9ius S)a**es7
/irus Detection "oftware finds and eradicates viruses but is not totally reliable since
new viruses emerge. f a new virus is detected, then the file is cleaned. f the repair
for that virus is not available then it is moved to a quarantine folder so that it can be
repaired once the virus scanning software is updated. &sers also have the option of
deleting the infected file. /irus scanning software will only work if you use it. Rou
can also make the software run automatically at regular intervals.
E.amp'es o& 9ius Dete)tio* Po,ams
3 8apersky
3 7orton antivirus
3 -cafee
3 Doctor "olomons
3 7.D ,#
3 A/6 antivirus
Rou should run virus detection programs periodically to check for any virus that have
found their way into your computer. Antivirus scanners should be updated regularly
to allow it to detect newer viruses. These updates can occur over the internet 'live
update(.
A?
LESSON 11
The most common way that viruses will gain entry into your computer is through*
'i( 9loppy diskE &"4 disk 1 are used in different computers and there is a high
probability that a virus would attach itself to a file on a disk. Always virus check
a floppy disk before using it.
'ii( nternet 1 when you download files from the internet always virus check them as
they would contain viruses. Downloading means copying a file from a larger
computer to your computer.
'iii( 5mails 1 you also get viruses in your computer through emails
therefore it is a wise decision to virus check your file before reading them. The
worst viruses has spread through emails e.g. the +ovebug ' +ove Rou(, -elissa,
$ode red, -y Doom etc.
i. Wom
A worm is a variant to the virus. This destructive program fills the computer with self
replicating information, clogging the system so that its operations are slowed or
stopped.
ii. ToEa* <ose Po,am
nstructions are written to destroy or modify software or data.
A1
LESSON 1"
1T. ( OPERATINC SBSTEMS
An operating system is a software that manages the overall operation of the computer
system. t is a set of programs that instructs and controls the hardware features of the
computer.
The operating systems manage the resources. The main resource they manage is the
computer hardware i.e. processors, storage, inputEoutput devices and communication
devices.
.perating systems are part of the system software. "ystem software consists of
programs that*
start up a computer
load, e2ecute, store and retrieve application programs
store and retrieve files, perform utility functions.
%art of the system software that is available on the hard disk of the computer and sold
separately on a $D30.- is called the operating system. The other part of the system
software is found on the 0.- chips inside the systems unit.
"ystem software and operating systems are available for both %$<s and large
computers such as minicomputers and mainframe. n any case systems software
perform essentially the same functions*
booting or starting a computer
interface with users and application software
resource management.
!hen a computer is turned on, the operating system is loaded into the main memory
by a set of instructions contained in 0.-. This process is called booting or initial
program loading. .nce the operating system is in the main memory the user can then
communicate with it to load application programs or perform other functions.
A#
LESSON 1(
COMMON OPERATINC SBSTEMS
9or end users, the most important operating systems are for microcomputers. There
are a variety of operating systems and each one is designed specifically for the family
of hardware with which it is used. To achieve computer competency it is important to
know something about the principle types of operating systems that have been made
available for microcomputers over the past years*
1. Disk .perating "ystem 'D."(
#. -icrosoft !indows
'a( -" !indows @=
'b( -" !indows 7T
'c( -" !indows @C
'd( other !indows .perating "ystem
,. ."E# '.perating "ystemE#(
:. Apple -acintosh
=. &ni2
A,
LESSON 1-
1. Dis= Opeati*, S$stem 6DOS7
D." was the standard operating system for many years after the introduction of
microcomputers. t was widely used, ran thousands of applications and required
ine2pensive hardware. ts original developer, the -icrosoft $ooperation, sells it
under the name -" D." '-icrosoft Disk .perating "ystem(. t was also known as
%$ D." '%ersonal $omputer Disk .perating "ystem( and used by the %$<s
manufactured by the 4-. -" D." was the standard operating system for a long
time, advertising themselves as 4- compatible software. There have been several
upgrades since -" D." was introduced 1 from version 1.? to A.#. An important
characteristic of new version was that they were backward compatible i.e. data and
information from older versions of D." would have no problems opening in the
newer version.
The reason why D." was revised so much was to add more compatibility, to take
advantage of sophisticated hardware, introduce better features and correct errors.
-" D." had a prompting system 'command based interface, command based
system( where the user is required to enter commands at the command prompt.
A#+a*ta,es
'i( !idely &sed
D." was the most popular microcomputer operating system at its time. At one time
it was installed on almost C=S of all computer '4-( used.
'ii( 7umber of applications
"ince D"." was the most widely used operating system, an enormous number of
application programs had been written for D.".
'iii( 0uns on ine2pensive hardware
D." runs on many computers, old and new. 'All 4- compatible computers support
D."(. D." does not require too much memory or hard disk space since it is
character based. Therefore computers do not need to have too much primary or
secondary memory to run D.".
Disa#+a*ta,es
'i( +imited %rimary storage
4efore an application program can be used it must be stored in the computers primary
memory. An application program designed for D." has access to up to A:? kb of
0A-. t does not recognise or need any more memory.
A:
'ii( "ingle tasking
D." can support one user and one program at any given time.
'iii( $haracter based interface
n D.", users issue commands by typing at a prompt or selecting items from a menu
by using a keyboard. The user needs to know the commands in order to use D."
'master the language(.
A=
LESSON 1/
". Mi)oso&t Wi*#o%s
The first release of -icrosoft !indows was an operating environment while the
newer releases of !indows called !indows @=, !indows 7T are powerful operating
systems.
'a( MS Wi*#o%s
&nlike !indows @= and 7T, !indows was not an operating system. t was a
program that required D." in order to run !indows. Therefore, -icrosoft !indows
was initially referred to as an operating environment.
!indows e2panded the capability of D." by creating an easy to use operating
environment. This environment required the use of mouse and icons '6&(.
!indows is designed to run on 4- and compatible microprocessors. The initial
release of !indows required a % processor or a ,CA. As newer microprocessors
were designed, !indows was also upgraded and newer versions released to suit the
capabilities of the microprocessors and accommodate new technology.
A#+a*ta,es
'i( -ultitasking
Allows a single user to run several programs at the same time on one computer, i.e.,
several applications are opened in 0A- by one microprocessor. 9or e2ample,
multitasking allows a user to run -" !ord, -" 52cel and -" Access simultaneously
'at the same time(.
'ii( 6raphical &ser nterface '6&(
Allows a user to move the mouse in order to move the pointer, position the pointer on
a graphic symbol called icons and click the mouse button in order to e2ecute
commands 'point and click environment(.
'iii( 7umber of applications
Although more programs have been built for D." there are a large number of
programs that were written for -icrosoft !indows after its introduction.
'iv(-ore memory
!indows has a memory manager that allows it to access well beyond A:? kb of
0A-.
'v( "haring data between applications
AA
!indows can share data from one application to another application e.g. data typed in
-icrosoft !ord and can be copied to -icrosoft 52cel and vice versa.
Disa#+a*ta,es
'i( -inimum system configuration
0efers to the minimum hardware requirements needed for any computer to run a
program 'operating system application software(. To effectively run !indows, a
computer system needed to have at least a ,CA microprocessor, four times more
memory than D." and a considerable amount of hard disk space.
'ii( &nrecoverable errors
This is where application programs cannot proceed any further 'the computer hangs or
Kfree;esL( and the users have to restart their computers.
The user would then encounter the message Kunrecoverable application errorL on the
screens. This means that any data not saved would be lost. "ometimes this activity
would affect e2isting data and program files on the computer 'corrupted files(.
AB
LESSON 11
607 MS Wi*#o%s 5/
&nlike !indows, !indows @= does not require D." to run.
A#+a*ta,es
'i( -ultiprocessing
"imilar to multitasking e2cept that applications are run independently by different
users and at the same time i.e. the $%& serves two different programs individually.
The demands of one program do not affect the demand of the other.
'ii( 9le2ibility
!indows @= does not require D." and is able to run with a much wider variety of
powerful computers and microprocessors.
'iii( nternet Access
!indows @= enables you to connect to the internet. n order to connect to the internet
through an "% 'nternet "ervice %rovider( your computer must have T$%E%
'Transmission $ontrol %rotocolEnternet %rotocol( which is found on all computer and
internet utilities.
%rotocols are rules that allow computers to communicate with each other. 4rowsers
are application programs which allows a user to gain access to different resources
'web pages, disk packs(
n order to gain access to the nternet, you need to have appropriate protocol installed.
Rou also need permission from your "%. .nce ready, you can use a browser to gain
access to the nternet.
'iv(5asy upgrades
K%lug and playL feature has greatly simplified the hardware installation process. f
you need to upgrade your computer to include newer hardware devices, !indows
would automatically detect your hardware upon booting and install or request the
necessary driver files onto the hard disk.
Drivers are software that enable a computer to recognise and use different hardware
devices attached. All hardware devices have their driver files installed on their hard
disk.
Also if you want to upgrade your operating system to a newer version of !indows @=
or !indows @C, all you need to do is to slot in the $D and !indows will take you
through the installation process. Rou will need to respond to some questions and the
software will install itself.
AC
Disa#+a*ta,es
'i( -inimum system configuration
+ike !indows, !indows @= also have minimum system configuration. t has to be
installed onto a computer system, it requires at least a :CA microprocessor or greater
$%& speeds :-4 or greater of 0A-, #?? -4 or greater hard disk space.
'ii( 9ewer applications
$ompared to D." and !indows few applications have been written specifically for
!indows @=. -ost applications used by !indows @= have been upgrades of newer
versions.
A@
LESSON 13
6)7 MS Wi*#o%s NT
s a very sophisticated and powerful operating system. t is not considered to be a
replacement for !indows @= or !indows @C. rather it is an advanced alternative
designed for very powerful microcomputers and networks.
A#+a*ta,es
'i( -ulti3user
!indows 7T allows more than one person 'multi3users( to use the same computer at
the same time. Different users log onto the network using the same %$Eterminal.
'ii( 7etworking
!indows 7T had networking capability and security checks built into the operating
system. This made networking relatively easy.
Disa#+a*ta,es
'i( -inimum system configuration
!indows 7T required more memory and twice the hard disk space as !indows @=.
'ii( &pgrade support
%lug and play is not supported. &pgrading and installation of hardware under
!indows 7T can be more difficult compared to !indows @=.
B?
LESSON 14
6#7 MS Wi*#o%s 54
!as one of the newer operating systems from -icrosoft and an upgrade from
!indows @=. windows @C was an advanced operating system designed for newer and
powerful microcomputers. t had better interface and network capabilities than
!indows @= but it lacked the security at networks compared to !indows 7T.
A#+a*ta,es
'i( %erformance
!indows @C is faster in any common tasks like loading and closing down
applications.
'ii( nternet ntegration
!indows @C is fully integrated with -icrosoft browser and nternet tools making
access to nternet easier and faster.
'iii( 5ase of &se
%lug and play capability is e2tended to support the newest advances in technology.
-ultiple views of an application can be viewed on separate monitors simultaneously.
'iv(-ultimedia
!indows @C has advanced video and audio capabilities. -ultimedia %$<s consists of
a $D or a D/D 0.- sound card and speakers. !ith a tuner card you can watch
television on a computer.
Disa#+a*ta,es
'i( -inimum system configuration
!indows @C requires at least a %entium processor. t also needs at least ,#-b of
memory and more hard disk space is necessary.
'ii( 9ewer applications
"ince !indows @C is a new operating system, fewer application programs have been
written specifically for it. t can however run most D.", !indows and !indows @=
and !indows 7T applications.
B1
LESSON 15
6e7 Othe Wi*#o%s Opeati*, S$stem
'i( !indows for work groups
This operating system was introduced before !indows @= and has similar features to
-icrosoft !indows ,.=1. ts ma)or feature was that it introduced basic
microcomputer networking.
'ii( !indows #???
0eleased after !indows @C. t combined the capabilities of !indows 7T and
!indows @C to one.
'iii( !indows -5 '-illenium 5dition(
'iv(!indows Home 5dition
'v( !indows J%
t has got all the features available in any previous operating system. Another feature
is that it relies more on nternet. t has quick and easy links to gain access to the
nternet to look for assistance or download important files. ts interface is very user
oriented and employs single clicks to perform common tasks. +ike !indows #???
!indows 2p is designed to easily work on a network. t has also got built3in security
features. n addition, it is made to be a very user3friendly operating system.
'vi(!indows $5 'Hand held %$<s(
'vii( !indows /ista
This is -icrosoft top of the range operating system. +ike !indows 2p, its designed to
work efficiently on networks, provides increased security as well as providing an
increased user3friendly interface. ts minimum system requirements are much greater.
B#
LESSON 38
(. OSF" 6Opeati*, S$stemF"7
t was originally developed by 4- and -icrosoft to work on all 4- range of
computers. The most recent version is ."E# !arp.
A#+a*ta,es
'i( -inimum system configuration
."E# requires nearly the same system configuration as !indows @C. $ompared to
!indows 7T, however, ."E# requires one3third memory and less than half hard disk
space.
'ii( /oice 0ecognition
."E# works as built3in voice recognition. /oice commands can be used to perform
many basic operations such as opening, closing, and deleting files.
Disa#+a*ta,es
'i( 7etworking
$ompared to !indows 7T, neither ."E# nor !indows @C have the same level of
network and security capabilities.

'ii( &pgrade support
+ike !indows 7T, ."E# does not provide the same level of support for plug and play
as !indows @C. Therefore upgrading or installation of new hardware can be more
difficult.
B,
LESSON 31
-. App'e Ma)i*tosh
The -acintosh only runs on the Apple family of computers. They offer a high quality
of 6& and are therefore very easy to use. "ome recent version of -acintosh are
"ystem C, -ac .", -ac .s J. -acintosh operating system are standard for Apple
computers. -acintosh was the first operating system to offer 6&.
A#+a*ta,es
'i( 5ase of use
The graphical user interface has made the -acintosh popular with many new comers
to computing. This is because it is easy to learn. n fact, studies shows that user
training costs are half as much for -acintosh as for D." based computers.
'ii( -ultimedia
-acintosh has established a high standard for graphics processing. This is the
principle reason why the -acintosh is popular for desktop publishing. Additionally
"ystem C includes special viewers program that support powerful three dimensional
graphics.
'iii( 5asy upgrades
+ike !indows @= and !indows @C, the -acintosh "ystem C supports plug and play.
As mentioned earlier, -acintosh was the first operating system to support this
concept.
Disa#+a*ta,es
-any characteristics that were previously considered as disadvantages may no longer
prove to be so. 7ever the less let us consider these disadvantages as*
'i( A K4usinessL machineT
Apple has had to struggle against the corporate perception i.e. its products are not for
Kserious business usersL. $orporate buyers have had a history of purchasing from
4- and other vendors of large computers. -any have viewed Apple from the
beginning as a producer of microcomputers for students, game players and hobbyists.
This however has been changing.
'ii( -ultiprocessing
&nlike !indow 7T and ."E# !arp, -acintosh "ystem C does not support
multiprocessing.
'iii( $ompatibility difficulties
B:
$ompatibility difficulties of D." and !indows with -acintosh computer was a
ma)or drawback for a long time. However, hardware and software are now available
to allow Apple 4- computers to communicate with each other.
B=
LESSON 3"
/. U*i.
t was generally developed for minicomputers by ATUT and was popular for
networking. t is now able to run on more powerful microcomputers. "ince &ni2 was
designed to be a network operating system, an important consequence is that &ni2 has
become popular with engineers 1 it has a scientific and technical orientation.
&ni2 gained its popularity after being licensed out by ATUT to universities. &ni2 is a
portable operating system, i.e., it can be used with different types of computer
systems. There are different versions of &ni2 available.
A#+a*ta,es
&ni2 has the advantage of being a portable operating system. That means that it is
used with 'Kis portableL( different types of computer systems. t is used with
microcomputers, minicomputers, mainframes and supercomputers. The other
operating systems are designed for microcomputers and are not nearly as portable.
"ome advantages of &ni2 are*
'i( -ultitasking
&ni2 enables you to do multitasking. t allows you to run several programs at the
same time, each one sharing the $%&.
'ii( -ultiprocessing
&ni2, like !indows 7T and ."E# !arp, is able to run several programs
independently and at the same time.
'iii( 7etworking
&ni2 is able to share files over electronic networks with several different kinds of
equipment. Although the other operating systems can also do this, &ni2 systems have
been successfully and reliable sharing networks for years.
Disa#+a*ta,es
&ni2 was a microcomputer operating system used by programmers and computer
science professionals, some time before the rise of the microcomputers. This means it
has certain qualities that make it useful to programmers 1 lots of supporting utility
programs and documentation, for instance. 4ut some of these features make &ni2
difficult for end users. These are*
'i( +imited business application software
This is a great barrier at the moment. There are many engineering application
programs. 4usinesses that depend on off3the3shelf programs for microcomputer will
find offerings very limited.
BA
'ii( 7o &ni2 standard
This may be the biggest stumbling block. There is no &ni2 standard. This means that
an application written for one version of &ni2 may not run on another version. The
principal microcomputer versions are ATUT<s &ni2 "ystem /, 4-<s AJ, 7ovell<s
&ni2!are #, and the &niversity of $aliforniaE4erkeley<s :.# &ni2. An organi;ation
called the JE.pen $o. is trying to create a standard. This organi;ation is a
consortium of ma)or computer suppliers led by D5$, Hewlett3%ackard, 7ovell and
"un"oft.
'iii( -ore difficult to learn
&ni2 is a very powerful and comple2 operating system. ts commands are frequently
long and comple2. 4ecause of this, many microcomputer user find &ni2 difficult to
learn and use.
BB
LESSON 3(
SUMMARB OF OPERATINC SBSTEMS
OS AD9ANTACES DISAD9ANTACES
D."
!idely used
7umber of applications
0uns on ine2pensive hardware
+imited primary storage
"ingle tasking
$haracter based interface
!indows
-ultitasking
6raphical &ser nterface '6&(
7umber of applications
-ore memory
"haring of data between applications.
-inimum system configuration
&nrecoverable errors
!indows @=
-ultiprocessing
9le2ibility
nternet access
5asy upgrades
-inimum system configuration
9ewer applications
!indows 7T
-ulti3user
7etworking
-inimum system configuration
&pgrade support
!indows @C
%erformance
nternet integration
5ase of use
-ultimedia
-inimum system configuration
9ewer applications
."E#
-inimum system configuration
/oice recognition
7etworking
&pgrade support
Apple
-acintosh
5ase of use
-ultimedia
5asy upgrades
A business machine
-ultiprocessing
$ompatibility difficulties
&ni2
-ultitasking
-ultiprocessing
7etworking
+imited business application
software
7o &ni2 standard
-ore difficult to learn.
BC
LESSON 3-
SIG AROAD CATECORIES OF DOS
Aooti*,
s when the computer loads the program files and the operating system into the main
memory. The si2 main categories of D." 'operating system( are*
1. The 4ootstrap loader
#. Diagnostic routine 'tests(
,. .perating "ystem 52ecutive
:. 4." '4asic nput .utput "ystem(
=. &tility programs
A. 9ile maintenance
1. The 4ootstrap loader
s a program that is stored permanently in 0.- and is used to read the main portion
of the operating system from the secondary storage and load it into memory '0A-(
when the computer is switched on. This process of loading the operating system from
the secondary storage 'hard disk, $D, floppy( to the memory is commonly known as
booting.
#. Diagnostic routine 'tests(
Are programs stored in 0.-. These test start3up when you switch on the computer.
They are used to test the operations of the systems components, for e2ample, the
condition of the disk drive, main memory 'memory count(, $%&, keyboard and other
parts of a computer. The purpose of this test is to make sure that the computer and all
tis components 'basic operating hardware( are working properly. f it finds any
problems, diagnostic tests will use series of beeps to inform the user.
B@
LESSON 3/
,. .perating "ystem 52ecutive
s the collection of program that help the computer to manage its resources. The
operating system e2ecutive takes care of internal matters. t controls the activities of
the system including e2ecuting programs and assigning tasks to different hardware
devices. t also interprets the commands you give to run programs and also enables
you to interact with programs when they are running. t also manages memory, data
and files.
:. 4." '4asic nput .utput "ystem(
4." control the basic input and output functions of the computer. 4." programs
are kept in 0.- on a special chip called 4." chip. 4." enables the computer to
interpret keyboard characters and transmit them to output devices or secondary
storage i.e. these programs enables a computer to interpret keyboard strokes, mouse
clicks or any other outputs and transmits the characters to the monitor, printer or any
other output devices. Therefore 4." reads data from input devices and displays it
on output devices. t also displays the data that is transferred from the secondary
storage to the screen.
=. &tility programs
These programs perform common housekeeping and repetitive tasks, for e2ample,
formatting a disk, displaying disk contents, determining disk space, copying and
deleting files and programs, naming and renaming files etc.
A. 9ile maintenance
These programs provide service routines needed to maintain files in secondary
storage. t basically allows programs to create, read and write files.
C?
LESSON 31
AOOTINC T<E COMPUTER
!henever you start up a computer, whether to use word processor or to play a game,
you will need to switch on 'if it is off(. 4y turning on a computer you begin a process
which will load the operating system into the computers main memory 'its
workplace(.
The process of having the operating system loaded into the main memory from the
secondary storage is called booting the system.
There are two ways to boot a computer*
1. $old 4oot
"witching on a computer that is currently in an off state by pressing the power button.
#. !arm 4oot
!arm boot is when the computer is started, while computer is still switched on. This
process is called reboot. A warm boot can be done by pressing the reset button, using
the restart command or pressing $trl Alt Del button together. t is oftern used when
the computer stops responding 1 KhangsL or Kfree;esL.
4ooting the system means turning on the computer so that diagnostics are performed
and the main portion of the operating system are loaded into the memory from
secondary storage. .nce the operating system is loaded into the main memory, it is
divided into , sections*
C1
LESSON 33
'i( "upervisor program
$ontains instructions which communicate with the user to cause inputEoutput
operations to occur and generally controls the operations of a computer.

'ii( 0esident program 1 internal file management
The resident program portion of the operating system contains programs for
frequently used utility functions. These programs are loaded from the 0.- and
made resident during 0A- booting. They are always available in the 0A- while the
computer is switched on, for e2ample, when a file is copied from one disk to another
by a utility program, the copy program that has been used had been loaded into the
memory to be part of the operating system during booting.
'iii( Transient program 1 e2ternal disk management
The transient portion of the memory is reserved for the instructions which performs
frequently required operation such as formatting a disk. !hen a user requires one of
the functions to be performed these instructions are loaded into the transient area from
the secondary storage and e2ecuted. !hen another command is to be e2ecuted the
required program is loaded into the transient area to overlay previous instructions.
Thus these instructions are said to be transient because they move into the area of
0A- especially reserved for them in order to perform their function. After being
e2ecuted the command remains in the transient area of 0A-. !hen a new command
is e2ecuted it overlays and replaces the previous commands in 0A-.
C#
LESSON 34
Di&&ee*)e 0et%ee* Resi#e*t po,am a*# Ta*sie*t Po,am
A resident program is one that resides in 0.- and a transient program is one that has
to be loaded from the secondary storage. The resident programs are loaded and made
resident in 0A- 'a portion of 0A-( is reserved by the operating system e2ecutive
when the computer is booting up.
Transient programs on the other hand are not loaded into the 0A-. During booting
the operating system e2ecutive simply reserves space in 0A-. 5very time the
transient command is e2e:cuted from the secondary storage, the old program 'if any(
in the transient memory is overlayed by the new command being used. nitially the
transient memory is empty.
I*te*a' a*# E.te*a' DOS )omma*#s
n D." there are internal commands which relates to resident programs because they
are resident in 0.- and have to be loaded into the computer memory when the
computer is booting up.
There are also e2ternal D." commands which relate to transient programs because
they are kept in the secondary storage with the operating system and only loaded into
the 0A- every time they are used.
nternal and e2ternal commands are processed and e2ecuted by a file 'program called
command.com(. The command.com file is an operating system file that is loaded into
the memory during booting. ts function is to process and e2ecute all the instructions
issued by the user. 9or this reason it is also known as the command processor or the
command interpreter.
The entire operating system cannot be kept in 0.- because of limited space. t also
cannot be kept in 0A- when the computer is running for the same reason. That is
why the operating system is installed to the secondary storage. "o when the computer
is booted only the main portion of the operating system is loaded into the 0A-. The
remainder of the operating system stays in the secondary storage. 5very time e2ternal
commands are e2ecuted by the user, they are fetched from the secondary storage and
e2ecuted in 0A-.
C,
LESSON 35
I*te*a' Comma*#s
nternal commands are processed by a file called command.com. The command.com
file holds all the internal commands. t is loaded into the 0A- and made resident
during booting. Rou cannot see the internal command because they are hidden or
embedded in the command processor.
52amples of internal commands are*
$+" 1 clears the screen
D0 1 displays the contents of the directoryEfolder
$.%R 1 copies filesEdirectoriesEfolders
D5+ 1 deletes files
DAT5 1 shows date
T-5 1 shows time
TR%5 1 displays contents of a file
E.te*a' Comma*#s
These commands are not resident in memory. They are found on the disk in which
the operating system is stored. 9iles with e2tension .com, 'e2cept command.com(,
.e2e, .bat are considered to be e2ternal commands.
"ome e2amples of e2ternal commands are*
9ormat
$H8D"8
ATT04
Diskcopy
4ackkey deskey
0estore
C:
period
C ,
LESSON 48
DOS Fi'e*ames a*# E.te*sio*s
A file is a collection of te2t, data or instructions that are treated and kept as single unit
by the computer. Dust as each folder in a file cabinet has a label, each file on the disk
should also have a name. files are stored in directories. A directory must also have a
nameF a root directory is the only e2ception.
A filename has two main parts 1 a filename and an e2tension. The filename and
e2tension are separated by a dot 'period(. A filename can be C characters in length.
The e2tension on the other hand can only be , characters long. 52tensions are option
but they are considered to be useful tools to describe the contents of a file to you and
the operating system.
Directories on the other hand do not need an e2tension but their names can only be C
characters long.
9ilename.e2tension

C=
LESSON 41
Nami*, Fi'es a*# Die)toies
9ilenames are not case3sensitive. t does not matter if you type in upper case or lower
case. They can only use alphabets, numbers from ? 1 @ and some special characters.
D." filenames do not contain any spaces. They can only use the following special
characters*
1. V 3 caret
#. W 3 tilde
,. X 3 e2clamation
:. S 3 percent
=. U 3 ampersand
A. Y 3 hash
B. Z [ 3 brackets
C. \ 3 at symbol
@. 1 3 hyphen 'dash(
1?. ] 3 single quote
11. < 3 apostrophe
9ilenames cannot hold the following special characters*
1. 3 space
#. , 3 comma
,. ^ 3 backslashEbackswitch
:. . 3 fullstopEperiod
T$pes o& Fi'es
9iles can be classified as in different kinds of files*
1. 0ead3!rite 9iles
s a file that can be read from and written to.
#. Hidden 9iles
Are files that are not displayed in directories. These are usually operating system
files that do not concern the user.
,. 0ead3.nly 9iles
These files can only be read from but not written to.
LESSON 4"
CA
Commo* Fi'e E.te*sio*s
52tensions are optional but it is a good idea to use them since they are useful for
describing the contents of a file to a user. 9or e2ample +A41.doc indicates that this is
a document file that has been saved in -" !ord, +A41.2ls indicates the worksheet
file has been saved in -" 52cel.
The following are commonly used for e2tension filenames*
1. .e2e 'e2ecutable(
#. .com 'command(
,. .bat 'batch(
These e2tensions are used for files which e2ecutes files '.e2e(, contains application
data '.com( or instructions of paths to files '.bat(. if you type a filename containing
one of these e2tensions at the command prompt in D." they will*
A. e2ecute programs '.e2e(
4. run the programs held in the file '.com(
$. carry out the instructions in the file '.bat(
.ther e2amples of commonly used file e2tensions are*
1. .t2t 3 te2t have no formatting
#. .sys 3 system files for booting
,. .doc 3 document files 'word processor(
:. .pas 3 pascal files 'programming(
=. .bas 3 4A"$ '_basic programming(
A. .2ls 3 spreadsheet
B. .mdb 3 database
C. .;ip 3 compressed file e.g. win;ip
@. ppt 3 powerpoint presentation files
1?. .gif 3 graphic interchange format 'picture file(
11. .)pg 3
1#. .mpg 3 motion picture group 'video(
1,. .wma 3 !indows -edia Audio 'audio file(
1:. .wmf 3 !indows -edia 9ormat 'audio(
1=. .rar 3 compressed file 'win rar(
1A. .dat 3 data file
1B. .mp, 3 mpeg, audio
1C. .cda 3 compact disk audio
1@. .htm 3 html format 'internet(
#?. .vob 3 video files
#1. .pdf 3 %ortable document format 'Adobe 0eader files(
LESSON 4(
Opeati*, s$tems #e+i)es:
CB
1. %07 3 printer
#. "$07 3 screen
,. $.7 3 console 'keyboard(
:. $.- 3 communication port
Some 0asi) tas= a)hie+e 0$ opeati*, s$stems ae:
1. %rovides files sharing, data locking and file security 'password firewall(
#. Disk formatting
,. %rovides a range of communications 1 connect to a +ocal Area 7etwork '+A7(
and the internet.
:. Database management
=. 6ives peripheral access
A. nput, output management
B. DirectoriesEfolders and files 1 manage location of information 'files( on disk.
C. $ontrols programs flow.
@. %rovide network with programs.
1?. $heck errors that occur when reading from and writing to a disk.
E.p'ai* %hat the opeati*, s$stem #oes %he* the app'i)atio* po,am is u*:
!hen a command is given to the application program to be loaded, the operating
system finds the program and transfers it to 0A-. t then releases control to the
application program and waits for further instructions.
CC
LESSON 4-
Stat:up Fi'es
There are a few important files that D." looks for and needs to start3up or boot a
computer. 9irstly there are , system files, two of which are hidden and which must be
in the route directory in the boot disk.
Aoot #is= refers to the disk that holds the operating system 'start3up files(. These
files are*
1. -"D.".sys '-icrosoft Disk .perating "ystem(
#. ..sys 'nputE.utput(
,. command.com
1. -"D.".sys

$ontrols files management routines, screen, graphics, printers etc
#. ..sys
nterfaces between D." and 0.-34." services
,. command.com
Accepts, interprets and e2ecutes internal and e2ternal programs. t also displays the
command prompt. These files are essential and must be present to boot the computer.
f one or more is missing then the computer will not boot up.
Apart from these , files, D." 'operating system( requires two other files to assist in
the start up process. The user can use and edit these files in order to customise his
work environment.
C@
LESSON 4/
These two files are*
1. Autoe2ec.bat 'auto e2ecute configurations(
#. config.sys
These batch files and system files are located in the root directory of your start3up
disk. 5ach time your start up your computer system D." carries out the commands
in the A&T.5J5$.bat file. Rou run the A&T.5J5$.bat file without restarting the
computer by typing A&T.5J5$.bat at the command prompt.
$*^IA&T.5J5$.bat
A typical A&T.5J5$.bat file may look as follows
@echo off prompt$P$G
PathC:\DOS, C:\windows,..\winword, C:\ quickmenu.qm
1. A&T.5J5$.bat files
The A&T.5J5$.bat files contains paths to application sand programs that you need
to be e2ecuted automatically and loaded into 0A- when the computer is booting up.
#. $.796.sys
-"D.".sys carries out a group of commands that loads device drivers and reserves
space in the systems memory for information processing. The program that contains
these commands is the config.sys files. +ike the autoe2ec.bat file, the config.sys file
is loaded during setup when the operating system is being installed, and e2ists in the
root directory of a computer.
t is automatically updated whenever a new hardware device is added. A typical
config.sys file looks like this*
Device G $^D."^setver.e2e
Device G $^D."^Himem.sys
9ile G ,?
"tacks G @#=A
Device G $^D."^mouse.sys
@?
LESSON 41
S$stem Pompt
The $ drive 'c(, A drive 'A*(, D drive 'A*( or the 5 drive '5*( is referred to as the
system prompt or the command prompt. 4y default the command prompt refers to the
$* drive 'hard disk(. This is because the system is prompting to the user the disk
which is currently in use 'boot disk(.
!hen a system prompt is shown, D." is at what is often called command level,
because it is waiting for a command to be entered by the user.
The system prompt identifies two things*
1. The current drive D." is looking at. The $* prompt '$*^( tells you that D." is
current looking at the hardisk. n case of a floppy disk it would be the A* prompt
'A*^I(. 4ut it is always called the system prompt.
#. The current directory of the current path, for e2ample, $*^ prograW^-"
!ordI. The current drive is the $* drive, the current directory is %rogram files
and the current sub directory is -" !ord.
4y default when you boot your computer your current directory becomes the directory
in which your operating system is stored $*^!indowI or $*^D."I.
@1
LESSON 43
Die)toies 6)a''e# &o'#es i* Wi*#o%s7
%art of a structure for organising files on a disk is called directory. A directory can
contain files and sub directories. These sub directories in turn contain other sub
directories and files.
All directories have a root directory that is created when the disk is formatted for use
by the operating system. f you do not create directories, files will be unorganised,
making it difficult to quickly locate a file. Therefore, directories are essential to the
organisation of a disk, especially the hard disk.
However it is becoming increasingly important to organise data on floppy disks and
optical disks using directories because of disk space.
Directories are like file folders in which you store files which have something in
common. "ome directories are further divisions within the directory. The operating
system lets you format a disk and create directories and sub directories. 4oth
directories and sub directories are used to store files and other subdirectories.
+ike filenames, each directory must be assigned a unique name. The same rules that
apply to filenames also apply to directories. However directories do no have
e2tensions. Two directories cannot have the same name. Two subdirectories within a
directory or a sub directory also cannot have the same name. directories and sub
directory names can only have C characters.
@#
subdirectories
subdirectories
0oot directory
Directories
5nglish.doc
LESSON 44
The Die)to$ Tee
The structure of directories, subdirectories and files is called a directory structure or a
directory tree. A directory structure resembles a filing cabinet and is only used to
organise your files. They can only have C character long names e2cept for filenames.
files
The organisation of directories, subdirectories and files are represented using
directory tree.
All directories branch out from main or root directory. "ub directories branch out
within directories. 9urther sub directories branch out form sub directories.
9iles can be stored in the root directory, directory or sub directory. n any case, each
file must have a unique filename. f you give a new file the same name as a file
already e2isting in the same directory, the contents of the original file will be replaced
by the new file. 7ewer D." versions have the ability to safeguard the accidental
overwriting of files.
$*
-" .99$5 !7D.!"
-" !.0D -" 5J$5+
H.-5!.08
-yfile.doc
@,
LESSON 45
Root Die)to$
5very disk has at least 1 directory. !hen you format a disk, D." creates a root
directory where other directories, sub directories and files would be stored. n your
root directory you can use directories to organise your work. Rou can also create
directories within the directories. To even further organise your work you can create
more sub directories within the sub directories. All directories and subdirectories
contain files.
Path Names
The root directory of a disk leads to other directories, subdirectories and files.
"ometimes programs require that you spell out the path name so that hey know the
e2act location of the file that you are referring to. A path name follows the following
sequence*
@:
%+A7.e2e
0..T D05$T.0R
0..T D05$T.0R
D05$T.0R
D05$T.0R
D 05$T.0R
D 05$T.0R
D05$T.0^R
D05$T.0^R
-".99$5
-".99$5
"&4D05$T.0R
"&4D05$T.0R
"&4D05$T.0R
"&4D05$T.0R
-"!.0D
-"!.0D
"&4D05$T.0R
"&4D05$T.0R
D.$&-57T"
D.$&-57T"
"&4D05$T.0R
"&4D05$T.0R
9+5"
9+5.e2t !.08.2ls
9+5.e2t
!7.e2e
LESSON 58
52ample
Drive*^Directory^"ubdirectory^9ile.e2t
$*^-" .ffice^-" !ord^!inword.e2e
A*^wonder^game.e2e
D*^setup.e2e
Fomatti*, a
Dis=
4efore a new disk can be used it must be formatted 'initialised( or converted into a
state so that it can be used by the computer. "ome disks are shipped from the
manufacturer in a blank format 'unformatted( so that they can be used by a wide
variety of computer families< i.e. 4- and Apple computers. These unformatted disk
are referred to as soft sectored disk. 7owadays many disks are available in 4-ED."
formats.
9ormatting prepares a new disk to accept D." '."( information and files. t sets up
and labels tracks 'concentric circles( and sectors 'divisions of tracks( to accept
information and store data on the disk. t also checks the tracks for any bad sectors
that cannot be used to store information and marks that area so that it cannot be used.
9ormatting also sets up the area of disk where directories and files would be
maintained 1 kept track of 1 using the file allocation table '9AT(. The first sector also
contains boot sector.
Any disk old or new can be formatted. However if you format a used disk all the
directories, subdirectories and files would be erased.
@=
$*
D05$T.0R -".99$5
"&4D05$T.0R -"!.0D
!7!.0D.e2e
LESSON 51
U*#esta*#i*, Die)toies
1. $reating Directories 1 -D 'make directory(
To create a directory or subdirectory on a disk at any level 1 root directory, directory
or subdirectory 1 the -D command is used. -D is an internal D." command.
52ample
$*^I-D white
$*^I-D black
$*^I-D 0ed
@A
$*
!HT5 4+A$8 05D
LESSON 5"
#. $hanging Directories 1 $D 'change directory(
5ven though you have created , directories, you are still in the root directory. The
directory or subdirectory that you are currently present in is always called the current
directory. 4y default when you first access a disk you start in a root directory which
becomes your current directory. The windows command prompt is as follows*
c*^windows. Therefore by default the current directory is windows.
To change from a root directory to another directory or from the directory to the
subdirectory we use the internal command $D.
52ample
$*^I$D white
$*^whiteI
@B
$*
!HT5 4+A$8 05D
LESSON 5(
,. $reating "ubdirectories 1 -D 'make directory(
!hen creating subdirectories the current directory must always be a directory under
the root directory in which a new subdirectory has to be created. t can also be a
subdirectory in which another subdirectory is needed.
The -D command will again be used to create subdirectories.
52ample
$*^IwhiteI-D 6reen
$*^IwhiteI-D .range
$*^IwhiteI$D 6reen
$*^IwhiteI-D 6reen
$*^Iwhite^6reenI
:. -oving back in directories
To move back one level to the previous directory or subdirectory we need the $D..
command. n order to move right back to the root directory we keep on issuing the
$D.. command until the current directory is the root directory.
%resently your current directory is 6reen. To move back to the previous directory
called white, we have to use the $D.. command. This will make white your current
directory. ssuing the $D.. command will make the root directory your current
directory.
$*^Iwhite^6reenI$D..
$*^IwhiteI$D..
$*^I
$D^
@C
$*
!HT5 4+A$8 05D
6reen .range
To return from any level of directories or subdirectories from anywhere within the
directory structure straight to the root directory, the $D^ is used.
$*^white^6reenI$D^
$*^I
@@
LESSON 5-
=. -oving a directory or subdirectory 1 -./5
To move a directory and subdirectory we need to use a move command. n order to
use the move command, you should be one level above the directory or subdirectory
to be moved. 9or e2ample move the contents of the sub directory orange to pink.
$*^I$D white
$*^IwhiteImove orange pink
$*^whiteI
1??
$*
!HT5 4+A$8 05D
6reen .range
-ove
$*
!HT5 4+A$8 05D
6reen %ink
LESSON 5/
A. 0emoving a directory or subdirectory 1 0D 'remove directory(
To remove a directory or subdirectory the 0D command is used. n order for a
directory or subdirectory to be deleted there should not be any subordinate directories
or subdirectories.
f there are subordinate subdirectories then first you will have to remove the
subdirectories before you can proceed with the deletion of the intended directory and
subdirectories. 0emoval of directories and subdirectories can be made only from 1
level above it. The root directory cannot be removed.
52ample
$*^whiteI0D %ink
$*^whiteI
4ecomes*
1?1
$*
!HT5 4+A$8 05D
6reen %ink
$*
!HT5 4+A$8 05D
6reen
LESSON 51
B. 0ename a directory 1 057A-5
To rename a directory or a subdirectory the rename command is used. Rou need to be
one level above the directory or subdirectory to rename it. 0enaming only changes
the name of the directory or subdirectory. t does not transfer the file to a new
location.
HpromptI Hold nameI Hnew nameI
$*^whiteIrename 6reen yellow
$*^whiteI
1?#
$*
!HT5 4+A$8 05D
LESSON 53
DOS Comma*#s
Wi'# )a#s
Are symbols used to represent characters in a file. "ome e2amples of wildcards are*
1. Asterisk 'O(
0epresents 1 or more characters that a group of files have in common.
#. _uestion mark 'T(
0epresents a single character that a group of files have in common.
I*te*a' Comma*#s
1. 'a( D0 'Directory(
This command displays the directories, subdirectories and filenames within any
directory or subdirectory.
The disadvantage of this command is that the contents of the directory are one screen
load. That is, all the contents will be scrolled up and only the last portion of the
directory listing would be shown.
HpromptI dir
52ample* c*^I dir
c*^!indowsIdir
This command would display the date the file was created, the time the file was
created, whether a directory or a file si displayed, the si;e of the file and the file or
directory name in columns.
leave & lines to write an eample from the computer.
1?,
LESSON 54
'b( D0E% 'DirectoryE%ause(
Displays files and directories screen load by screen load. This command pauses after
displaying its contents at each screen load while giving the directory listing. To view
the ne2t screen load of directory listing the user has to press a key.
This command displays the directory listing in the e2act same manner as the D0
command 'using columns( but pauses after each screen load of listing.
HpromptI D0^%
52ample* c*^ID0^%
c*^!indowsID0^%
'c( D0E! 'DirectoryE!ide(
Displays all the directories and files that e2ist within the current directory in columns.
This command is used if the user needs to view only the names of directories and
subdirectories and filenames but not any other information. This information is
displayed in columns. -ore files and directories are displayed this way.
The drawback of this command is that if there are more files and directory names then
what can fit on a screen then the upper portion of the directory listings will not be
shown.,
HpromptI D0^!
52ample* c*^ID0^!
c*^!indowsID0^!
leave & lines to write an eample from the computer.
'd( D0E!E% or D0E%E!
These commands are used to display the files and directory names if the contents of a
directory or a subdirectory do not fit on the screen by using the D0^! or D0^%.
HpromptI D0^!^%
52ample* c*^ID0^!^%
c*^!indowsID0^!^%
1?:
LESSON 55
&sing !ildcards
!ildcards are used to display directories or filenames that have one or more
alphabets, numbers or symbols common.
'i( $*^ID0 O.O
Displays all files and directories and their e2tensions in a directory or subdirectory.
"ame as the D0 command.
'ii( $*^windowsID0 "O.O
Displays all files and directories starting with the letter s where the remainder of the
name can be made up of any alphabet, symbol or numeral and any e2tension.
leave & lines to write an eample from the computer.
'iii( $*^windowsID0 "O.dat
Displays all files and directories starting with the alphabet s where the remainder of
the filename can be made up of any alphabet, numeral or symbol and the e2tension
should be .dat.
leave & lines to write an eample from the computer.
'iv($*^windowsITTT.O
Displays all the files, directories and subdirectories with only , characters for
filename and any e2tension.
leave & lines to write an eample from the computer.
'v( $*^windowsIsTTT.dat
Displays all files and directories starting with the letter s and the remaining , letters of
the filename being number, symbols or any special characters and the e2tension is
.dat. All together there are : characters in the filename.
leave & lines to write an eample from the computer.
1?=
LESSON 188
#. $opy
This command is used to copy files from one location to another.
HpromptI copyHsourceIHdestinationI
52ample* c*^I copy $.796.sys A*
c*^I
$opies the file called $.796.sys from the root directory to the A*^'drive(.
52ample* $*^!indowsIcopy pbrush.e2e A*^%rints
$opies a file called pbrush.e2e from the !indow directory in the c*^ to a directory
called %rints in the A*^.
52ample* $*^IcopyA*^letter.docA*
$opies a file called letter.doc from the A*^'drive( to the $*^'drive(
52ample* $+^Icopy sO.e2e A*
$opies all files starting with the alphabet s and the e2tension .e2e to the A*^.
1?A
LESSON 181
,. 0enaming files
HpromptI renameHoldfilename.e2tensionIHnewfilename.e2tensionI
52ample* $*^I rename pro)ect.doc homework.doc
0enames a file called pro)ect.doc in the $*^ to homework.doc.
52ample* $*^I rename A*^ midyear.doc e2am.doc
0enames a file in the A*^ called midyear.doc to e2am.doc.
:. Deleting files
The delete command deletes a file or a group of files.
HpromptI D5+Hfilename.e2tensionI
52ample* $*^D5+ te2t.doc
Deletes a file called Te2t.doc from the $*^
52ample* $*^D5+ pO.t2t
Deletes all files starting with the letter p and with e2tension .t2t in the $*^
=. 9ormat
$*^I9.0-AT A*
This command formats the contents of the destination drive. Rou cannot format a
drive within itself. Rou have to be in another drive to do so.
1?B
LESSON 18"
A. "can disk
$*^Iscandisk
.r
A*^Iscandisk
This utility deletes, diagnoses and repairs disk errors. "can disk can repair file system
errors 'such as cross links and lost clusters( in addition to physical drive errors.
B. Diskcopy
$*^Idiskcopy
.r
A*^Idiskcopy
$opies the entire contents of a floppy disk onto another floppy disk. The diskcopy
command overwrites the e2isting contents of the destination disk as it copies the
contents from the source disk.
!hen using the diskcopy command you will be first asked to insert the floppy disk
into the floppy drive. The computer will then copy the content of the source floppy
into its memory. Rou will then be asked to remove the source disk and insert the
destination disk. The computer will then write the contents of the source disk from its
memory to the destination disk.
C. Defrag 'defragment(
$*^Idefrag
.r
A*^Idefrag
A program that reorganises the contents of the disk to minimi;e the time it takes to
access these programs and files. This command is used to optimise disk performance.
@. +abel
$*^Ilabel
.r
1?C
A*^Ilabel
This command allows you to assign volume label to the current drive. A volume label
is used to name and identify the disk currently in use.
1?@
LESSON 18(
1?. 4ackup
HdriveI4ackupHsourceIHdestinationI
52ample* $*^I4A$8&% $*^pro)ect^computer.doc A*
4acking up your files safeguards them against the loss of data, if your hard disk fails
or you accidently overwrite or delete data. using backup you can return to older file
versions, move backup files around the hard disk and transfer data from one computer
to another.
After you have backed up you will need to use the file again. n order to do this, you
use the restore command.
HdriveI05"T.05HsourceIHdestinationI
52ample* $*^I05"T.05 A*^computer.doc $*
11. &ndelete
5nables you to recover previously deleted files. Does not work with all versions of
D.".
HdriveI&7D5+5T5HpathI
52ample* $*^I&7D5+5T5 timebook.doc*
1#. &nformat
0ecovers information that might have been formatted.
$*^I&79.0-AT A*^
.r
A*^I&79.0-AT $*^
1,. /50 '/ersion(
This command displays the version of D." used by the current drive.
$*^ver
1:. Time
11?
This command displays the system time.
$*^IT-5
1=. Date
This command can display and change the system date. "ome computers have the
date format as --EDDERR 'American "ystem(.
$*^I DAT5
111
LESSON 18-
IT. - APPLICATION SOFTWARE
"oftware is another name for program. Therefore, software and programs are
interchangeable words. %rograms are instructions that tell the computer how to
process data into the form you want.
App'i)atio* so&t%ae refers to programs which are written for specific and general
task which are not related to the computer system itself.
There are two kinds of software*
1#. "ystem software
1,. Application software
1. S$stem so&t%a e
5nables application software to interact with the computer system. "ystem software
is sometimes called background software. This is because the operation of the
software is not visible to the user. t includes programs that help a computer manage
its own internal resources 'also booting programs(.
The most important part of the system software is the operating system which actually
interacts with the application software and computer and manages the overall
operations of the computer system software.
". App'i)atio* so&t%ae
t is described as end3user software. These programs are written for specific and
general tasks which are not related to the computer system itself. Application
software can be thought of programs that the user interacts with. Application
software can be bought of the shelf at computer stores, ordered from overseas or even
developed by programmers.
11#
LESSON 18/
There are two categories of application software*
'i( "pecial purpose programs
'ii( 6eneral purpose programs
6i7 Spe)ia' pupose po,ams
Are dedicated to performing specific tasks such as payroll, accounting, inventory,
calculation, stock analysis, games, etc. "ome categories of special purpose software
are as follows*
'a( -anagement software
ncludes pro)ect management decision 1 modelling and statistical analysis programs.
4asically these programs are used by administration and management to analyse data
with which to form decisions.
'b( Accounting programs
0anges from personal finance systems '_uicken, _uickbook %ro, -R.4 etc( and
income ta2 programs to comple2 accounting systems 'sunsystem, A$ %ac, %latinum
etc(. nventory systems and payroll systems are also part of accounting programs.
'c( 5ntertainment programs
$onsists primarily of computer games and movies.
'd( 5ducational programs
This category includes computer aided instructions and computer based training.
"pecial purpose software packages have been developed in response of scientific
needs of individuals, professionals, businesses and end3users. "pecial purpose
programs contains built3in problem solving features specially designed for particular
tasks.
11,
LESSON 181
6ii7 Ce*ea' pupose po,ams
Are used for a variety of tasks, for e2ample, word processing, spreadsheet,
calculations, database, graphics and presentation and communication programs. A
user defines a problem and process and uses a general purpose program to assist in
preparing a solution.
'a( !ord %rocessor 'Document processing tool(
A word processor is a program which is used to prepare a document electronically. t
allows you to enter te2t using a keyboard, edit the te2t, save it and print it. Therefore
the basic steps for a word processor are*
iii. $onceive
iv. !rite
v. 5dit
vi. "ave
vii. %rint
The key advantage of a word processor is the users ability to make changes e.g.
formatting, spell check, etc. in word processing you can retrieve a sav ed document
and make changes to it.
52amples of word processing software are*
-icrosoft !ord
$orel !ord %erfect
!ord "tar
-ulti-ate
+otus !ord %ro
-icrosoft !orks !ord %rocessor
'b( "preadsheets
s a programs that acts like an electronic worksheet. t allows you to organise
numeric data in a worksheet or table format. t enables users to manipulate numbers
and te2t in rows and columns and perform calculations on them using formulas and
functions. The very first spreadsheet was called /isi$alc.
Data in an electronic worksheet is organised in hori;ontal rows and vertical columns.
The intersection of a row and column is called cells. These cells may contain , types
of data*
i. +abels
Are used to identify data in a spreadsheet and may contain numbers and alphabets.
ii. /alues
11:
Are represented using numbers of different types e.g. currency, percentage, numeric
etc.
iii. 9ormulas andEor functions
9ormulas are used to automatically calculate the results of the contents of several cells
which may hold values and other formulas and functions. 9ormulas are designed by
the user. 9unctions are pre3designed commonly used formulas to assist in calculation.
To use functions you simply select the range of cells and chose the function. The
calculation will be done automatically.
The reason why formulas and functions are used is that if one of the values in the
range of cells reference by the formulas or function are changed, the result would also
automatically change. 0ecalculation is automatic. A range of cells are a collection of
two or more ad)acent or isolated cells.
52amples of spreadsheet software are*
-icrosoft 52cel
+otus 13#3,
$orel _uattro %ro
"ymphony
-icrosoft !orks "preadsheet
11=
LESSON 183
'c( Database
A database is a program that is used for computeri;ed record keeping. t allows you
to create electronic files in the computer, retrieve and manipulate and update the data
that is stored in files. The data in a file is called records.
The database provides a place to store information and a way to organise that
information so that it can be accessed and utilised in an orderly manner.
Databases can be used to store records relating to inventory, mailing lists, personal
address books, student records, employee records etc. the program used to create,
update and maintain databases is called a database management system 'D4-"(.
52amples of database software are*
-icrosoft Access
+otus %arado2
Dbase / 'D."(
0base 'D."(
0efle2
.racle '+arge D4-"(
'd( 6raphics and presentation programs
This category includes drawing software, for e2ample, -" %aint, $omputer Aided
Design '$AD(, analytical graphics and presentation programs. 6raphic and
presentation programs used to manipulate or enhance images and create presentation
and publications that would appeal to its viewers.
52amples of drawingEgraphic programs are*
Adobe 9reehand
/isio
-icrosoft %aint
Auto $AD
Adobe %hotoshop
-" %ublisher
%rint shop
52amples of presentation programs are*
-" %ower%oint
$orel %resentations
11A
LESSON 184
'e( $ommunication programs
Allows you to link your personal computer and communicate with other computers
over the nternet. n order to connect to a nternet you need to have a special software
called browser. t enables you to gain access to different computers and use their
resources.
Apart from communicating with computers on the nternet, you can also send emails
'electronic mails(. 5mails use special software to send messages to recipients who
can respond to your electronic messages by using their own communication software.
Rou can also send emails by connecting to the nternet and using email services
offered by online service providers.
52amples of browsers are*
-icrosoft nternet 52plorer
7etscape 7avigator
-o;illar 9ire 9o2
52amples of 5mail programs*
-icrosoft .utlook
7etscape $ommunicator
'f( ntegrated "oftware
s a collection of programs where two or more application software 'general purpose(
are combined to form a package. ntegrated software are also called integrated
packages or bundled software, for e2ample, the -icrosoft .ffice "uite and $orel
.ffice "uite are integrated packages which provide a word processor, spreadsheet
program, a database program, and a communication program to the user as a package.
An integrated package usually consists of general purpose programs that share a
common interface. As a matter of fact, most general purpose programs developed by
a publisher will share a common interface. Rou can switch from one program to
another with ease. Data can be freely and easily shared between all applications in an
integrated software.
52amples of integrated software are*
-icrosoft .ffice
$orel .ffice "uite
-icrosoft !orks
.pen.ffice.org
LESSON 185
-ost applications have features that are common to other applications sold by the
same publisher. -ost end3user programs are designed with similar features.
11B
"ome features that are present in all applications in an integrated package are as
follows*
Featues Des)iptio*
1. /ersion and 0elease ndicates ma)or and minor changes in software.
52ample -" !ord B.?, -" !indows =.?11 etc.
The number before the dot represents the
version and the number after the dot represents
the release. 5very time a minor change is made
the release number is changed and every time a
ma)or change is made the version changes.
#. nsertion %oint 'cursor( "hows the location where the data can be
entered.
,. -enu 4ar %resents all commands available for selection in
a program.
:. Tool 4ar A collection of icons which gives shortcut
access to most frequently used commands which
are offered by the menu bar. cons represent
frequently used command and are placed on a
bar for easy access.
=. "hort3cut keys Are special combinations of key for commonly
used tasks. 52ample $T0+ P c G $opy, $T0+
P 2 G $ut, $T0+ P v G %aste, "hift or G
highlight te2t, $T0+ P Home G Top of
document etc.
A. !R"!R6 !hat Rou "ee s !hat Rou 6et. This feature
enables you to find the output as you work on a
program. !hatever content is displayed in the
screen is e2actly how they would be printed out.
B. Help To assist a user when he encounters a problem
or needs to learn a new method.
C. Dialogue 4o2es Displays a set of options available for a certain
task. "ometimes used to accept additional data.
@. %ull down -enus 'drop
down -enus(
This feature is available only from the menu bar.
!hen you click on one of the menu bar buttons,
a pull down 'drop down( menu will appear
showing you the different commands available.
1?. "croll 4ar "ometimes you are not able to view the entire
document on one screen. The vertical and
hori;ontal scroll bars enable a user to scroll and
view different parts of a document or
application.
11. "hort3cut -enu This menu is displayed when a user right clicks
anywhere on the window or on the desktop. t is
used to display a set of convenient shortcuts.
1#. 5dit The ability to change any data that is entered
into a program.
1,. $ut, $opy and %aste -oves 'cuts, removes(, or copies a selection of
11C
te2t, data or ob)ects and pastes them in another
location in the same application or in another
application. $ut relocates the contents to
another location. $opy makes a duplicate of a
selection.
1:. &ndo, 0edo Allows the user to reverse any changes he has
made in an application. The redo feature brings
back any feature that you have undone.
1=. $lipboard A small portion of the memory used to hold
temporarily used data or ob)ect that has been
copied using copy operation or removed using
cut operation.
1A. "ave and %rint $ommon to all applications is your ability to
save or store you work as a file on a disk. This
allows you to open and use the file at a later
time in case you want to add or modify the
document. n addition, all applications allow
you to print a hard copy of your file on paper.
11@
LESSON 118
1T./ LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTERS
4asic things a computer cannot do*
1. $omputers cannot do anything unless they are programmed with special
instructions.
#. $omputers cannot think and reason and therefore let the ability to make decisions
and form )udgements.
,. $omputers can not perform calculations on infinite numbers e.g. the value of pi,
find the value of pi, the e2act value of pi.
:. $omputers cannot input data itself. t requires users to input its data.
=. $omputers cannot do any arithmetic with any bases other than base 1?.
All the programming 'giving instructions( in a computer must be done by humans
because a computer cannot decide how to be programmed. Also, all inputs must be
provided by humans because the computer cannot provide its own inputs.
$omputers cannot interpret the information they generate from the data that is input
since they cannot think or reason. 9or e2ample, they can be used to keep track of a
series of measurement in a scientific measurement but cannot interpret the ideas
suggested by the data. t needs a user or a program to instruct it how to present the
information.
Therefore, a computer is used to provide a solution, not make decisions. This is done
after following the instructions given by humans in the form of input and programs.
$omputers may have high processing speeds, large amount^s of primary and
secondary memory but there are limitations that are faced by a computer.
1#?
LESSON 111
Fou Aasi) Cate,oies o& Compute Mista=es 6Compute Eos7
:. Hardware 5rror
=. "oftware 5rror
A. nput 5rrors
B. .utput 5rrors
1. Hardware 5rror
5rrors cause due to hardware failure. These errors occur due to power fluctuations,
natural causes, improper connections by users, damaged devices etc. 9or e2ample
hard disk crash, floppy drive inaccessible, cables and plugs not connected properly,
disk not formatted, etc.
#. "oftware 5rror
Threes are normally created by programs. These errors occur usually if the program
refuses to carry out required functions or operations for some reason. f programs are
not developed properly then these errors are bound to happen. f software files are
missing from the application itself or not properly installed then the program will not
run, for e2ample, if the program halts 'hangs, free;es( or does not respond in the
middle of e2ecution, does not process data accurately, starts giving error messages,
does not load properly, etc.
,. nput 5rrors
These are errors that arise during the input of data. These errors normally occur when
the user is using a keyboard 'although sometimes direct entry devices could enter
incorrect data(. f you input wrong information into the computer, the computer will
report an error message 'in special purpose programs( or produce the wrong input.
:. .utput 5rrors
Are any errors which restrict the computer from giving valuable output, for e2ample,
the printer is not functioning properly, problems with the display on the monitor.
1#1
LESSON 11"
Ca0a,e I*D Ca0a,e Out 6CICO7
This term refers to processing information that has been distorted due to invalid or
inaccurate input. 66. is commonly used in the computer industry. t means that a
computer provided with inaccurate input will most certainly give inaccurate outputs.
Therefore, if you want a computer to produce the desired results then you must
obviously input the correct data.
Ta=i*, Cae o& a Compute La0
$ertain factors have to be kept in mind in order to maintain a good computer lab.
"ome of these factors are*
1. $ontrolled environment
#. 4ackups
,. Data $leanup
:. "torage of diskettes
=. 8eyboard
A. -ouse
B. /isual Display &nit '/D& 1 -onitor(
1. $ontrolled environment
This normally refers to the setup of the lab. This is where all the elements of the
computer system are monitored and kept under control to prevent the computers from
facing any forms of damage.
A controlled environment would include the following features*
'i( Air conditioning
To maintain a cool environment and in the process keep the computer and other
devices cool.
'ii( Dust 9ree
To ensure that computers are free of dust. Dust can damage parts of a computer.
'iii( %ower "tabilisers
To maintain power in the lab '&%" 1 constant power, surge protectors 1 clean power(.
1##
LESSON 11(
#. 4ackups
$ertain housekeeping tasks are essential to maintain the working environment of your
comtpuer lab. .ne of these tasks include doing regular backups. "ome issues that you
should keep in mind when doing backups are*
regular backups
testing the restore function
using the correct backup
restore versions of the program
off3side storage or backup
data and software backup
4ackup is making additional compressed copies of data and software in order to
ensure security against the loss of the original data and programs.
,. Data $leanup
This is another housekeeping task. Data clean ups need to be done in a computer in
order to free secondary storage space. The following tasks are done when doing data
cleanup*
'i( ntegrity checks
&sually perform in larger computer installations where many databases are used. t is
done to ensure the e2istence of all data is up3to3date and correct. These checks
highlight the e2istence of unnecessary copies of data.
'ii( Delete redundant files
'iii( Disk check 'performance(
:. "torage of diskettes
Disk must be kept in cool and humid free facilities
&sers must ensure the proper handling of disks to safeguard from any physical
damage.
Disks must be labelled appropriately to ensure easy identification.
1#,
LESSON 11-
=. 8eyboard
care must be taken not to damage the keyboard. The buttons on the keyboard
must be pressed gently.
Activity such as eating and drinking must be strictly prohibited.
8eyboards must be cleaned regularly with a clean dry cloth.
A. -ouse
The mouse is an integral element in 6& since it is used to e2ecute instructions.
Always use a mouse pointer which is free from dirt 'ensure that you have clean
hands when you use the mouse so that the dirt from your hand does not rub onto
the mouse pad(
The rollers inside the mouse should be free of dirt built regularly, to ensure good
performance and long life. f you regularly clean those then your mouse will have
a long life.
Do not press the buttons too hard.
B. /isual Display &nit '/D& 1 -onitor(
9or a ma2imum performance, a /D& must be cleaned regularly.
Anti3glare screen 'glare3reducers, screen filters( reduces brightness and contrasts.
The screen display should be aligned properly.
1#:
LESSON 11/
"P.1 WORD PROCESSINC
!ord processing software is used to prepare documents electronically. t allows you
to enter te2t and format that te2t to your liking. All characters and pictures that are
displayed on the document are done using the 0A-. A copy of the document can
also be stored on a disk.
The key advantage of a word processing software is its ability to make changes to the
content of the document e.g. spell check, changing margins, adding and deleting
words and entire paragraphs and setting tables, etc.
After a document is complete it can be stored on a disk. The document can be later
referenced by the user as many times he wishes. $opies of the documents can also be
printed out. %reviously stored documents can be combined to make new documents.
Therefore, word processors are a computer program that facilitates creation, editing,
formatting, saving and printing of te2t. 6raphics can also be added to a document.
The main advantage of a word processor is that it reduces the time required to prepare
and produce written documents. All editing is done on the screen saving precious re3
typing time. This promotes efficiency.
52amples of a word processor are*
-icrosoft !ord
$orel !ord %erfect
!ord "tar
-ulti-ate
+otus !ord %ro
1#=
LESSON 111
-a)or $apabilities of !ord %rocessing
1. !ordwrap 1 this feature allows te2t to automatically start on a new line when the
current line reaches the end margin during typing. &sers do not have to press
enter to create a new line.
#. $ut and paste 1 allows the user to move entire blocks of te2t and insert it in other
locations. The cut and paste feature refers to the method of selecting the required
te2t or graphics, removing it 'cut( and pasting it elsewhere in the document.
,. $opy and paste 1 involves selecting te2t or graphics and making a duplicate copy
'copy( which is pasted elsewhere in the document. n this feature the original te2t
and graphics remain in their original locations.
:. "earch and replace E 9ind and replace 1 allows a user to search for a word or a
block of te2t 'phrase( and replace it. This allows a user to save time that would
otherwise have been wasted looking for that information. The find feature can
also be used alone.
=. "pell $heck E "pelling and 6rammar $heck 1 allows you to check for spelling
grammar in a document by comparing words and phrases to the word processors
dictionary. &sers share the choice of changing the spelling, ignoring the changes
e.g. foreign names. The user can also add the new words to the dictionary.
A. 9ormatting 1 word processors allow a user to format 'change the appearance of
te2t( documents in an appealing way e.g. bold, underline, italic, coloured te2t, font
si;e, font style, highlight etc.
B. Alignment 1 te2t and paragraphs can be aligned to the margin in various ways to
make it presentable e.g. algin left, align right, centre, )ustify.
C. !ord count 1 allows you to count the number of words and characters in a
document.
.ther capabilities of !ord processing are*
columns
thesaurus
mail merge
tab setting 'tab stops(
page setup
adding and removing borders
inserting files
inserting clipart
1#A
1#B
Title 4ar
-enu 4ar
Drop Down -enu
"hortcut 8ey
Tool 4ars
Task 4ar
Tool 4ars
LESSON 113
1#C
!hite "pace
9ormatting Toolbar
"tandard Toolbar
0uler
"croll bars
LESSON 114
"P." MAIL MERCE
-ail merge is the process of taking two files and merging them together. -ail merge
is largely used to merge letters and their addresses. t can also be used to create
labels. There are two files required to do mail merge*
'i( %rimary file
'ii( "econdary file
The primary file contains the basic form letter. This form letter is the main body of
your letter which contains the actual correspondence and the merge codes 'field
codes(. The merge codes control what information is used from the secondary file
and where it is entered into the document after merging. The primary document is
also known as the main document.
The secondary file is also known as the address file and contains the information
needed to complete the form letter that is contained in the primary file. t will contain
recipients details, for e2ample, name, address, phone contact and any other relevant
data. 5ach piece of data in a secondary file is called a field, for e2ample, the
recipients name is one field of data, the street address is another field and the phone
contact another field. The collection of fields about a single recipient 'sub)ect(
needed to complete a mail merge process is a record.
1#@
LESSON 115
How to merge
9irst prepare a primary file. The primary file is simply a letter to mass audience.
4lank spaces should be left at the locations where the merge codes are supposed to
appear. After the primary file 'letter( has been created it should be saved with an
appropriate filename. nstead of creating a new file you can also use a letter which
has been typed previously.
"econdly prepare a secondary file. The secondary file consists of the addresses of the
recipients. The fields of the secondary file should be selected properly 'if you are
creating a new secondary document(. t will contain name and address of the
recipients and other relevant information that will replace the merge codes in the
primary file after the merge process is completed. A secondary file can also be used.
After finishing both the files, the mail merge process continues. Here, the secondary
file fields are inserted in the required locations within the primary document. These
are called merge codes. .nce the merge codes are in place the user has an option of
viewing the entire mail merge as individual documents, one after the other or all at
once. The merge can be saved, printed or fetched using computer software or even
email.
Advantages of merging
'i( t is easy because we don not have to type each document several times.
'ii( "aves a lot of time since several copies are made after merging.
'iii( t is fast.
Disadvantages of merging
'i( 7ot many people are aware of merging.
'ii( f one information is wrong then the whole document is spoiled.
'iii( &ntil recently many word processors did not contain the mail merge option
'iv($reates problems if there is a large amount of mail and not enough memory.
%rimary fileEdocument
s the document where the main information or correspondence is given. t consists
of the actual letter intended for the reader. There are blank spaces in the primary
document which would contain fields from the secondary document 1 merge
codesEmerge fields. These fields are replaced with information from the secondary
file. The primary document is also known as the primary file, data file, form letter or
the main document.
1,?
1,1
LESSON 1"8
Samp'e o& a pima$ #o)ume*t
$ourts Home$entres
%. .. 4o2 1,#
"uva.
HH7ameII
HH4o2 7o.II
HHAddressII
Dear HH7ameII,
05* .&T"TA7D76 %AR-57T
%lease be informed that your payment is behind by QHHamountII. 9ailure to pay up by the end of the
month could result in the repossession of your hire purchase product.
Thank you.
Rours faithfully,
`````````
-anaging Director
Samp'e o& a Se)o*#a$ &i'e
7ame 4o2 7o. Address Amount
0. "ingh =B#A 7ausori =??.??
8. "eniloli ### 7asinu =?.#=
D. 7air 1##= "uva #.1=
A. $hand ,# 7akasi ?.#?
A Comp'ete# Mai' Me,e Do)ume*t
$ourts Home$entres
%. .. 4o2 1,#
"uva.
0. "ingh
=B#A
7ausori
Dear HH7ameII,
05* .&T"TA7D76 %AR-57T
%lease be informed that your payment is behind by Q=??.??. 9ailure to pay up by the end of the month
could result in the repossession of your hire purchase product.
Thank you.
Rours faithfully,
`````````
-anaging Director
1,#
LESSON 1"1
"T.1 <ISTORB OF COMPUTERS
Ea'$ Computi*, De+i)es
The early computing devices were*
=. The abacus
A. 7apier<s bone
B. "lide 0ule
1. The abacus
This is the world<s oldest known computing device. t was used by the $hinese as
early as 1A?? 4$ and is still used today. The abacus is an instrument which uses
beads and computes numbers that represent the numerical unit of notation 'units,
tenths, hundredths, etc(. 4asically an abacus is a calculating device that is used to
perform calculation on numbers using beads.
#. 7apier<s bone
Dohn 7apier, a "cottish -athematician, invented a computing device that facilitated
the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division on a series of
calculating sticks made of ivory which became known as 7apier<s bones. These were
marked in a manner similar to the multiplications tables used today 'portable
multiplication table( therefore 7apier<s bone made the process of multiplication,
division, addition and subtraction much easier. 7apier<s bones, engraved in ivory,
were movable multiplication tables 1 the first modern step towards the mechanisation
of calculating device.
,. "lide 0ule
&sing the principles of 7apier<s bone !illiam .ughtred '1A#1(, an 5nglish
-athematician, developed the first slide rule. t was simply a circular rule that
transferred the logic of 7apier<s bones onto a set of rotating scales. This device is
considered to be one of the earliest and long calculating devices
1,,
LESSON 1""
Ce*eatio*s o& Computes
FIRST CENERATION 615/1 @ 15/47
I*putD Stoa,e a*# Output
The first generation of computers are considered very primitive from today<s
perspective. 9or input, punched cards were used. Although &7/A$ could accept
input from magnetic tapes, the punched cards were also used to store information.
"torage on punched cards were done by a series of punched holes on the cards where
each character was represented by a column. An ordinary punched card had about C?
characters. f a mistake was made, the whole card was damaged and as a result would
be thrown away. .ne column was used to represent one character. A key punch was
also used to do data entry.
Po)ess
Data was processed using vacuum tubes also called valves. A vacuum tube is an
electronic switchEdevice that controls the flow of electronic signals in different
directions. Therefore it was used to construct the processing units of the first
generation of computer. The functions of the processing units in the 1
st
generation
were isolated to the different computers itself.
The problems with vacuum tubes were that*
they failed frequently because they heated up quickly and got damaged.
they were also very large contributing to the immense si;e of earlier computers.
they were quite slow in transmitting data to different parts of the computer.
9irst generation computers were therefore very large and produced heat 4urning out
the vacuum tubes which needed to be replaced at a very high cost. They also used up
a lot of electricity making computers very e2pensive to maintain. These computers
had difficulties operating for more than a few hours and were prone to failure.
.ne of the first complete digital automatic computer was 57A$ '5lectronic 7umeric
ntegrator and $alculator(. The 57A$ was used for military purposes.
The commercial computer industry began with the &7/A$ '&niversal Automatic
$omputer(. The &7/A$ used less vacuum tubes than 57A$ and therefore was
much faster and reliable. The &7/A$ was made commercially by Dohn %resper
5ckert for the 4ureau of $ensus to keep census records. Dohn %resper 5ckert had
previously worked with Dohn !. -auchly on the 57A$ and together they formed
the company that built the &7/A$. 9or memory the first generation computers used
magnetic drums.
1,:
LESSON 1"(
La*,ua,e
Data was input using machine language and later in 1
st
generation Assembly language
was sometimes used. The use of Assembly language continued in #
nd
generation.
-achine language contained instructions composed of series of ?<s and 1<s.
4inary schemes were used to combine the ?<s and 1<s of machine language to
represent alphabets, numerals and special characters.
SECOND CENERATION 615/5 @ 151(7
I*putD Stoa,e a*# Output
The second generation of computers still maintained the use of punched cards for
input but newer storage devices had been introduced. The key punch was still in use.
This generation saw the introduction of magnetic tape reels and streamers. %rinters
were also introduced thus output was largely dumped through printers.
Po)ess
"econd generation computers were made using transistors instead of vacuum tubes.
Transistors were smaller, more reliable, used less energy and produced less heat.
$omputers made with transistors operated much faster and were much smaller than
the 1
st
generation of computers.
Transistors are devices that can also be used to control the flow of electricity in
electronic circuits but are less prone to heating and therefore last longer.
La*,ua,e
n contrast with first generation machines and assembly language, the second
generation saw the development of high level programming languages. These
languages enabled the programmer to enter instructions into a computer using 5nglish
sounding commands and could be used on different computers.
These languages used compilers to translate the 5nglish like language into machine
language. Two languages introduced during second generation are*
11. $.4.+ 1 $ommon 4usiness .riented +anguage 1 used to write programs for
business.
1#. 9ortran 1 9ormula Translation 1 used by scientists and engineers for comple2
tasks and calculations.
The first and second generation of computers were large, e2pensive, targeted for
businesses for huge budgets, business co3operations and government departments.
The first two generations used a system of data processing called 4atch processing.
1,=
4atch processing is the collecting of data over time into a file 'transaction file( that is
later processed as a collection called 4atch. During batch processing, a computer
program reads a file and processors 'updates( the old data 'master file( with the new
data without any interaction from users, clerks or any other individual, for e2ample a
bank savings account 'passbooks(, credit cards etc.
This system is time consuming and inefficient. n the first two generations of
computing batch processing was only done on the large computers that were
available, these computers were referred to as mainframes. This system is still in use
today.
1,A
LESSON 1"-
T<IRD CENERATION 6151- @ 15317
I*putD Stoa,e a*# Output
Data was input into computers in this generation with the use of keyboards and a
video display was used for output. -agnetic tapes being used for data storage
became widespread, disk packs and printers were still popular with users.
Po)ess
n this generation the key technological innovation was the development of computers
based on integrated circuits '$(. An integrated circuit is an electronic circuit that
packs many 'thousands( transistor on small silicon chip and is used to process data.
ntegrated circuit use a material called silicon 'which is a semi3conductor( that
conducts electricity with only a little 'semi3resistance(. ntegrated circuits 'chips( are
found on the computers memory. 0.- chips also use this technology.
This was a better method because in operating several circuits onto one chip enables
the chip to occupy less space and work much faster. This technology made it possible
for the production of small3in3si;e but power minicomputers.
4ecause of this innovation 'integrated circuits( computers came to support capabilities
such as*
:. -ulti3programming
A computer system in which two or more programs are e2ecuted concurrently by one
computer 'operating system(. n actual effect he programs take turns running. Here
the user would be under the illusion that he or she is the only person using the
program. Here the operating system interrupts and switches rapidly back and forth
several programs while they are running.
=. Time3sharing
Allows the concept of multi3programming to be possible. Here multiple users access
the same or different programs on a computer from their own computers. Time
sharing is typically found on large computer systems where many users need to access
one central computer at a time.
n time3sharing, the attention of the $%& is shifted among the users on a timed basis
that is controlled by the operating system.
Time sharing is available on all computers today. &sing time sharing many users can
access the computer simultaneously therefore a computer can also be accessed
remotely by the use of terminals.
Terminals are devices usually equipped with a /D&, a keyboard and a
communication line to a larger computer which allows it to access data.
1,B
nstead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with ,
rd
generation computers
using keyboards and terminals. The operating system was also introduced in the ,
rd
generation.
Another ,
rd
generation innovation was the stands for computer networking resulting in
the nternet.
1,C
LESSON 1"/
La*,ua,e
The languages used in this generation were command based. $.4.+ and 9ortran
were still in use 'their use continued well into the fourth generation(. 7ewer language
like %ascal was introduced. +anguages like 4A"$ and &7J were also introduced
in this generation.
The ma)or land mark in the ,
rd
generation was 4- "ystem ,A?. this family of
computers allowed small businesses to start off with a small but relatively ine2pensive
computer system. 4- "ystem ,A? was the first in the range of compatible
computers i.e. unlike previous computer devices, programs and data on one 4-
"ystem ,A? could easily and conveniently be used by another 4- "ystem ,A?
computer. 4- "ystem ,A? was the first family of mini computers.
'Compatible computers are computers that can use the same programs and
hardware. The computers have similar internal architecture 'design().
FOURT< CENERATION 61531 @ pese*t7
I*putD Stoa,e a*# Output
This generation is the current generation of computers. Data is input using numerous
devices 1 keyboards, scanner, mouse etc.
There are also many ways to output information using printers, monitors, plotters etc.
"torage units used today vary from magnetic tapes to floppy and hard disks, to disk
packs and optical disks and from recently &"4 disks. This generation consists of
portable computers. t also has huge networks where data is communicated very
easily and quickly '+ocal Area 7etwork(. The intelligent terminal 'microcomputer(
was also introduced in this generation.
Po)ess
The ma)or innovation in this generation was the introduction of microprocessors.
%reviously the arithmetic unit, the logic unit and the control unit were housed on
different integrated circuits.
The microprocessor holds the components of the $%& together on a single silicon
chip, having the ability to handle more work at a faster rate. A microprocessor
consists of thousands of integrated circuits 'millions of transistors( on a silicon chip.
The microprocessor was used to package the entire $%& of the computer 1 complete
with the A+&, $& and some memory 1 onto one silicon chip 'it was initially referred
to as large scale integrated circuits(. The first microprocessor was the ntel :??:
produced by the ntel $orporation in 1@B1.
The introduction of microprocessor enabled the invention of smaller computers 1 the
microcomputer. The first %$ 'personal computer( was produced in 1@BB by Apple
1,@
$orporation founded by "tephen Dobs. This was first in the family of Apple
computers. Apple went on to introduce Apple +isa which was one of the first
computers to use 6& but it was not a success. +ater Apple produced Apple
-acintosh which is acknowledged as the first computer to use a 6& .peration
"ystem 1 -acintosh '1@C:(.
After Apple computers released its %$, 4- introduced its own family of
microcomputers. The 4- %$ range of 4- microcomputers was released with an
operating system called %$3D." '-"3D."( in 1@C1.
1:?
LESSON 1"1
La*,ua,e
nitially all software were command based, so an important innovation in the :
th
generation was the graphical user interface '6&(, where the users would interact with
programs that would run in their re3si;eable window and by using a mouse, users can
choose options by pointing and clicking on symbols called icons or ob)ects that
represent program functions.
-any application languages have been introduced in this generation. The very first
spreadsheet software called /"$A+$ was introduced for the microcomputer. t was
a character based program. -icrosoft also introduced the -"3D." operating system
'a character based and command based interface( for 4- %$<s and compatible
computers.
After the introduction of 6&, Apple came out with the Apple -acintosh and in 1@C=
-icrosoft introduced its !indows range of operating systems which ahs been the
largest and the most popular operating system today.
DIFFERENCE AETWEEN COMPUTER CENERATIONS
1
"T
6eneration #
nd
6eneration ,
rd
6eneration :
th
6eneration
/acuum tubes
'valves(
Transistors ntegrated $ircuits -icroprocessors
The microprocessor was used to package the entire $%&, complete with the A+&, $&
and the memory on one silicon chip.
FIFT< CENERATION
The development of Artificial intelligence 'A( is being though of the start of fifth
generation.
Artificial ntelligence can be defined as computer systems that can mimic 'copy(
human thought processes and actions. True A that corresponds to the human
intelligence is still a long way off. However, several tools that imitate human
problem solving skills have been developed. These tools would be combined to assist
human effort to create artificial intelligence. "ome areas are*
'iv(52pert "ystems
'v( 0obotics
'vi(7atural +anguages
'vii( /oice 0ecognition
'viii( $omputer /ision
1:1
LESSON 1"3
'i( 52pert "ystems
Are computer programs that provide advice to decision makers who would otherwise
rely on human e2perts. The users of e2pert systems type their question into the e2pert
system using a program called an inference engine and they are given a professional
responseErecommendation by e2pert systems.
The e2pert system stores its knowledge n a knowledge3base. t is also referred to as a
knowledge base system. The knowledge base consists of te2t book knowledge that
would have been prepared by human e2perts.
'ii( 0obotics
0obotics is a field of study concerned with the development of robot and its
associated functions. 0obots are computer controlled machines that mimic the motor
activities of human. They are usually used to e2ecute repetitive functions and do
monotonous work, also used for dangerous works. Artificial intelligence robots will
also assist in its motor movement.
'iii( 7atural +anguages
t is where a user would be able to communicate directly with the computer 'A( in his
own spoken language and the computer would be able to understand and process the
information given by the human. 7atural language is the everyday language spoken
by human beings. The artificial intelligence will also communicate in their own
natural language.
'iv(/oice 0ecognition
Are programs which the computer will use to identify and interpret different human
voices that are used to give instructions. Here the computer will be able to
differentiate between the different voices automatically.
'v( $omputer /ision
This would allow the computer to have the ability to KseeL and interpret different
ob)ects and distinguish the difference between them. Therefore, the intention of
scientists who wish to introduce the fifth generation of computers is to design a
computer which has human qualities. "cientific research has been done on different
levels with the purpose of*
teaching the computer to KthinkL, Kmake decisionsL and KlearnL
making computers easier to use
finding practical applications for the e2isting technology.
The goal of fifth generation is to develop services that respond to natural languages
and are capable of learning and self organisation.
1:#
1:,
LESSON 1"4
Summa$
1
st
6eneration
#
nd
6eneration ,
rd
6eneration :
th
6eneration =
th
6eneration
%rocessing
&nit
/acuum
tubes
'valves(
Transistors ntegrated $ircuit
'$(
-icroprocessor T
"torage 3 punched
cards
3 magnetic
tapes
3 tape
printouts
3 punched cards
3 magnetic tapes
3 disk packs
3 magnetic tapes
3 disk packs
3 floppy disk
3 hard disk
3 optical disk
3 magnetic
tapeEreels
3 &"4
T
-emory -agnetic
drums
-agnetic drums 3 0A-
3 0.-
3 0A-
3 0.-
T
nput 3 punched
cards
3 key punch
3 punched cards
3 key punch
3 keyboards 3 keyboards
3 direct input
devices
3 voice input
.utput 3 punched
cards
3 tape
printouts
3 printers
3 /D&
3 monitor
3 printer
3 plotter
3 voice output
3 voice output 3 voice
output
+anguage 3 binary
language
'machine(
3 Assembly
language
3 high level
programming
languages*
3 $.4.+
3 9ortran
3 &ni2
3 /ery high level
programming
language*
3 %A"$A+
3 4A"$
3 0%6
3 %roblem
oriented
language*
3 /"$A+$
3 D."
3 -acintosh ."
3 7atural
language
1::
LESSON 1"5
PEOPLE IN <ISTORB
1. Au,usta A#a @ Cou*tess o& Lo+e'a)e 6141/ @ 14/"7
!as the daughter of the poet +ord 4yron. "he worked closely with $harles 4abbage
and proposed the idea that it would be possible to program the analytical engine with
a single set of cards for recurring sets of instructions 'the conditional loop and
subroutine(.
"he is attributed to have written the first program 1 a detailed sequence of instruction
1 for the analytical engine to perform comple2 calculations. Although the analytical
engine was never completely built. Augusta Ada<s contribution was so important that
she is regarded as the worlds first programmer.
The programming language Ada 3 used largely to program weapon system 3 was
named after her.
". Joh* 9o* Neuma** 6Cema* Mathemati)ia*7 6158( @ 15/37
%roposed a computer design called 5D/A$ '5lectronic Discrete /ariable Automatic
$omputer( '1@:A(. The main feature of his design was that both the program and data
were stored in an internal memory using a binary scale. This design was referred to
as the stored program concept. t was also called the first draft.
This formed the basis of modern day computing where both the data and programs are
stored in the same location during use i.e. 0A-. 7eumann also worked on the
57A$.
(. Joh* Pespe E)=et 61515 @ 155/7
He built the first commercially available computer, called the &7/A$ '&niversal
Automatic $omputer(, for the 4ureau of $ensus '1@=1( which was used to record and
process census data.
4oth Dohn %resper 5ckert and his partner Dohn !. -auchly were on the team who
built 57A$. 5ckert later built Dohn /on 7eumann<s design of the stored program
concept computer, 5D/A$, but could not finish it on time. Therefore, the first stored
program computer was called 5D"A$ 'built in 5ngland(.
The ma)or feature of the &7/A$ was that it used less valves and therefore was
much smaller in si;e, processed data faster and cost less.
1:=
LESSON 1(8
-. Stepha* Jo0s
.ne of the founders of Apple computers. Apple produced the fist completely
assembled commercial microcomputers and made them available on the commercial
market '1@BB(. Aplle ws also responsible for introducing and making popular 6&
based productsEprograms 'Apple +isa, Apple -acintosh(.
/. <ema** <o''eith 61418 15"57
A statistician who made the first tabulating machine which was practically used to
tabulate the 1C@? $ensus. All data collected were transcribed on punched cards.
The Tabulating -achine 'the first electromechanical punched card system( was based
on Doseph -arie Dacquard<s invention called the Dacquard<s loom.
After the success of the tabulating machine in processing and storing the census data,
Hollerith formed the Tabulating -achine $ompany 'T-$( which later went on to
become part of 4-.
1. Cha'es Aa00a,e 6Fathe o& Computes7 61351 @ 15317
Designed mechanical calculators and computers. These machines were built with
gear wheels and levers. His first achievement was a working difference engine which
was used to do simple arithmetic calculations. This research was funded by the
government and even though the difference engine worked, 4abbage never quite
finished it.
!hile he was working on the difference engine, he started work on his real dream 1
the Analytical 5ngine. The Analytical 5ngine was a general purpose machine that
would be capable of performing any type of digital calculations. Although the
analytical engine was never finished, its principles and procedures mapped out the
basis of all digital modern computers 'Automatic computers(.
3. A'aise Pas)a' 611"( @ 111"7
nvented the %ascaline which is thought to be the first automatic calculator. The
machine could add and subtract and was based on very precise interconnected gears.
The %ascaline required its user to interpret results from the machine, which made it
very difficult to use 1 a reason why it was not too popular. Another reason was that
the %ascaline was in 9rench.
1:A
LESSON 1(1
De&i*itio*s
1. De#i)ate# Ma)hi*es 3 are computers which are used for only one particular task
in a computer network. 9or instance, a dedicated file server would only have the
purpose of storing files, internet server, printer server, etc.
#. Ja);ua#Hs Loom 1 Doseph -arie Dacquard invented the punched card loom that
would help make silk weaving easier. Dacquards loom was not a computer but
was used for weaving clothes 1 but it was a ma)or influence in the computing
industry because of the ideas of using punched cards as input and output devices.
,. EDSAC 1 5lectronic Delay "torage Automatic $omputer 1 the first working full
scale stored program computer. A group of developers led by -aurie /. !ilkes
'$ambridge &niversity 1@:@( developed the first working stored program
computer. He used the ideas suggested by Dohn /on 7eumann 'who suggested
the stored program concept and a design of stored program computer 1 5D/A$(
and made it possible.
1:B
LESSON 1("
R5A0 7/57T.0 7/57T.7 AD/A7TA65 D"AD/A7TA65
1A?? 4$ $hinese Abacus 3 3
1A1= Dohn 7apier 7apier<s 4ones 3
computing device
that facilitated the
operation of
multiplication and
division
3 3
1A#? !illiam
.ughtred
'5dmund
6unter(
"lide 0ule 3 3
1A:# 4laise %ascal %acaline 1 a
calculating machine
that was difficult to
interpret.
3 3 52pensive
3 required
considerable skill
to interpret
3 in 9rench
1AB, 6odfried +eibni; +eibni; wheel 1 a
cylinder with stepped
teeth which is
thought to be the first
general purpose
calculating device 'P,
3, , (
3 3
1C?1 Doseph -arie
Dacquard
Dacquard<s loom 1
used punched cards
to program a loom.
3 3
1C## $harles 4abbage Difference 5ngine 1
used to do simple
arithmetic
calculations and
display results.
3 3
1C,, $harles 4abbage Analytical engine 1
could perform any
type of digital
calculations
3 3
1C,, Augusta Ada 9irst programmer 1
proposed the idea to
program 4abbage<s
analytical engine.
%erformed
comple2
calculations by
using loops and
subroutines
3
1C=: 6eorge 4oole 4oolean algebra 1
introduced the
principles of 4oolean
logic and the
mathematic of
variables and values
and the theory of
logic based on ,
operations A7D, .0,
7.T.
3 3
1CC# Hermann
Hollerith
The punched card
tabulating machine
usd to transcribe
census data onto
3 3
1:C
punched card.
1@11 Dames %owers "imultaneous
punching machine
3 3
1@:# Dohn /incent
Antasoft
5lectronic tube
computer called A4$
1 Antasoft 4erry
$omputer
9irst tube
electronic digital
computer
3
1@:: Howard H.
Aiken
-ark 1 1 9irst
general purpose
electromechanical
computer.
3 3
1@:= Dohn %resper
5ckert
57A$ 1 1
st
digital
computer
3 4ulky, gave
enormous amount
of heat.
1@:A Dohn von
7eumann
%roposed 5D/A$
which used ideas
based on his stored
program concept.
3 3
1@:C Transistors
1@:@ -aurice !ilkes 5D"A$ 9irst complete
stored program
computer
1@=1 Dohn %resper
5ckert,
Dohn !.
-auchly
&7/A$ 1 for the
4ureau of $ensus 1
used vacuum tubes,
the first
commercially
available computer.
9aster than
57A$
3
1@=1 0emington 0and
'owned by
5ckert and
-auchly(
nstalled the first data
processing system
3 3
1@=,, 1@=: Thomas D.
!atson
-odel B1, -odel A=
for 4-.
3 3
1@=@ ntegrated $ircuits
1@A= 4- 4- "ystem ,A? 1
first family of
compatible
computers. "tarts ,rd
generation
&sed integrated
circuits
3
1@B1 ntel 9irst microprocessor
1 ntel :??:
1@B, 9irst internal hard
disk 1 !inchester
disk
1@B= 1
st
"upercomputer 1
$ray 1
1@BB "tephen Dobs
"teve !o;niak
'Apple $omputer
$orporation(
Apple 1 first
commercially
assembled
commercial %$.
1@B@ /isicalc 1 1
st
electronic
spreadsheet '1
st
commericail
application program(
forerunner to end3
user program
1@C1 4- 9irst 4- %$
1:@
1@C: Apple
$orporation
Apple -acintosh 9irst 6&
operating system
1@C= -icrosoft !indows 1.?
1@@# -icrosoft !indows ,.11,
!indows for
workgroups
'networkable(
1@@, 4- =CA range of
processors called
%entium.
1=?
LESSON 1((
"T." APLICATION OF COMPUTERS
$omputers can serve as tools in many different areas. "ome common areas are as
follows*
##. 5ducation
#,. -edicine
#:. +aw and law enforcement
#=. $ommerce 3 5conomicsEAccounting
#A. Airlines
#B. 6overnment
#C. nsurance
#@. Art and -usic
,?. "pecial 5ducation
1. E#u)atio*
$omputers can be used by students and teachers as a new way of information
gathering 'research( and learning. An e2ample of how this is made possible is
through the popularity of the nternet as a tool for information gathering.
0apidly growing computer technology has enabled the creation of interactive
education. The introduction of multimedia, where computers are used along with $D3
0.-" and stickers to display graphics and sound, has made interactive education a
reality. The information in interactive education media uses hyperte2t. Hyperte2t
connects a user to other pages of information when they are clicked upon.
$omputers in education can be used at different levels of educationF at primary level
where students can learn through pictures, music and sounds and at secondary and
tertiary levels where students gain access to large amounts of information from $D3
0.-" 'hypermedia databases( or the nternet.
&sing computers in education is interesting learning for students because of their
usually appealing interfaces and the different ways in which students have to interact
with the computer itself.
$omputers are equipped with graphics, speech synthesi;ers and speech recognition
software which can be used to create an e2citing educational environment which
would hold the students attention.
1=1
LESSON 1(-
". Me#i)i*e
Doctors and nurses depend heavily on computers to assist and do much of their tasks.
Having a computer to store and retrieve information is already a natural part of the
information process.
'i( %atient -onitoring in ntensive $are &nit '$&(
s an early e2ample of a computer controlled patient monitoring system where critical
patients are connected to a wide variety of sensors to measure vital science of the
body, for e2ample, pulse, heart rate, breathing, brain activity etc.
%atient monitoring is not only confined to $& patients. Active patients can also
carry portable monitors, implants or controlled devices to keep track of different
details 1 all results of advancement in computer technology, e.g. an implant which
measures the level of insulin in a diabetes patient.
'ii( Diagnostic "ystem
Doctors face with specialised problems can consult special systems to diagnose
complicated diseases and disorders, for e2ample, cases of brain infections, lung
disorders, cancers and tumours.
These e2pert systems are a very effective way to diagnose patients and although most
of them are still in the e2perimental stages, they still have proven to be invaluable.
'iii( -edical maging
$omputers are able to analyse vast quantities of data resulting from imaging systems,
such as J30ays and -agnetic 0esonance maging '-0(. These are used to give
images of the skeletal and the organic structure of the human body as well as images
of a patients brain to be analysed by human e2perts.
&sing techniques such as 23rays and 6amma rays and ultrasound to obtain data about
a patients internal structures is also referred to as computer based scanning systems.
'iv(Therapy
Therapists who treat people with speech or hearing problems as well as other
impaired patients can use computers in the rehabilitation process. "pecial programs
are designed to run on %$<s to assist disabled individuals to achieve a limit of
independency, for e2ample, computers which have 4raille keyboards, voice input and
output etc. &ser paced learning could enhance education prospects for the disabled.
1=#
LESSON 1(/
'v( Heart 0esearch
-icroprocessor technology are now being integrated into implantable device such as
pacemakers to provide precise controls of the hearts function. These battery powered
devices are now powered by body heat.
(. La% a*# 'a% e*&o)eme*t
+aw firms today have the need to manage, process and interpret large and comple2
amount of information. +egal documents such as briefs, transcripts, laws, codes and
rules are increasingly available in the electronic version. A wealth of historical legal
data are available through computer based retrieval systems.
$omputers are also used in crime prevention for purposes such as matching finger
prints, checking to see if a vehicle is stolen by looking at the database etc. $riminal
record of people are also kept on computer and retrieved quickly whenever needed.
-. Comme)e : E)o*omi)sFA))ou*ti*,
.ne of the earliest applications of computers was Accounting and 4ook3keeping
activity which was concerned with recording and processing basic transactions of an
organisation. &sing information that has been entered into a computer can be
represented in many forms such as reports, charts, diagrams, illustrations etc., all tools
greatly utili;ed by Accountants and 5conomists.
"ome e2amples of how computers make data transfer easier are*
'i( 59T%." '5lectronic 9und Transfer %oint of "ale(
s the process by which money is transferred automatically by a computer from a
customers account to that of a teller. This system is largely available in supermarkets
and retail stores and eliminates the problem of carrying too much cash.
'ii( AT- 'Automatic Teller -achine(
A #: hour service machine, an AT- is a computeri;ed device for handling routine
teller transactions automatically. AT-<s can handle withdrawals, deposits, funds
transfer and even make payments.
AT-<s use a method called real time processing where data is transferred from and
updated in a computer system as it occurs 'real time(. t is not kept in a separate file
to be processed later.
$omputers are also used for communication in business through the use of emails.
1=,
LESSON 1(1
/. Ai'i*es 6A+iatio*7
$omputers are used in Airlines to control the functions and monitor the positions of
the aircraft. They help pilots and navigators locate positions of planes and monitor
flight paths, detect potential collision and assist pilots to control the aircraft 'auto3
pilots(, to help a pilot land the aircraft at night or in poor weather conditions. They
also teach pilots how to fly )ets and planes without ever having to leave the ground
'flight simulation(, determine how much fuel a plane might carry etc. These are some
of the functions of computers in aviation.
$omputers are also used largely for airline reservation and ticketing systems. At any
given time it is known to the users of the computer systems how many people are
booked on one flight and how many seats are available.
$omputers are also used in the manufacture of aircrafts. -uch design and testing of
different components of an aircraft are done using computers.
1. Co+e*me*t
$omputers are used for record keeping, collection, analysis and reporting of
information by government. 52amples of some uses of computers in government are*
keeping of ta2 records by 9i)i slands 0evenue and $ustoms Authority '90$A(
keeping record of island si;e, titles and categories by the +and Department '9i)i
+and nformation "ystem 1 9+"(
9i)i %olice force to keep records of prisoners.
The reserve bank keeps records of foreign and local currency and at the same time
measure and forecast the economic condition of a country.
7+T4 1 uses a new system '"A%( to keep track of all native land leases and
relevant details regarding these leases.
Hospital 1 to keep patient records
+TA 1 to keep track of driver and vehicle records
-ilitary 1 to record details about army personal
T" 1 to record detail about all civil servants and government workers, maintain
government<s website and network.
3. I*sua*)e
nsurance companies use computers to keep track of clients and to bill them.
&sing computers, insurance agents can present different insurance and loan schemes
in a more easy to understand form. &se of computers enables companies to keep
information about clients and to update and present their service in an appealing way.
$omputers also help add value to services because clients records are processed
immediately and thus accurate and up3to3date record are presented to clients
whenever needed.
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LESSON 1(3
4. At a*# Musi)
$omputers have become a very important part of art and music.
'i( Art
$omputers have assisted Art in many forms. t has replaced pen and paper as a
drawing tool. &sing computers, different colours can be mi2ed by manipulating the
light of the monitor to provide many different types of shades for drawings and
artwork.
$omputers have also been used to enhance and restore drawings and paintings.
$omputers are also used in movies to create spectacular effects 'special effects(, for
e2ample, scenes from other planets, special effects in recent times, feature length
films. $omputers are also used to combine real life actors with background scene.
"ometimes they are used to manipulate movement or enhance action sequences.
'ii( -usic
"ound is a communication medium that can e2press ideas which cannot be e2pressed
by any other art. "ound can include the human voice, sound of nature or synthesi;ed
sound such as beeps from a computer to give you feed back.
n entertainment, music is an integral part and the ability to produce quality music and
quality sound has been a great task for entertainers. The invention of some new types
of devices have made the medium of sound very appealing both within the
entertainment industry and outside it.
A synthesi;er is a device that electronically generates sound instead of picking it
up from a microphone. These sounds are pre3programmed or pre3recorded.
-D '-usic nstrument Digital nterface( is a system that enables a synthesi;er,
musical equipment and computer to be connected together. -D enables users to
control the creation of sound on a synthesi;er and other musical devices. !hile a
composition is being played out on the synthesi;er and other devices, -D will
help the computer to keep track of the other relevant information, for instance the
intensity of the sound. -usicians can then make changes or enhancements using
the computer.
$omputers are sometimes used to modify the sounds that are produced.
5. Spe)ia' E#u)atio*
$omputers have been used to improve the quality of life through various means for
physically challenged people.
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'i( "pecial 5ducation
The use of speech recognition devices, synthesi;er and 4raille keyboards along with
multimedia have helped handicapped people to better educate themselves.
'ii( -obility
$omputers have been attached to wheel chairs to allow physically challenged people
to control the movement of their wheel chairs much more easily and efficiently.
'iii( 4io -edical 9ield
$omputers are used to design better artificial fields for the physically disabled.
-icroprocessors have also been built into artificial links to make the motor activities
of people easier.
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LESSON 1(4
(T.1 COMPUTERS AND INFORMATION PROCESSINC
Aim
To assist the student to recognise how the computer can manage, store and retrieve
vast amount of information.
I*&omatio*
!hat is nformationT
nformation can be described as processed or meaningful dataF data in conte2t or any
collection of alphabets, numbers and symbols that is meaningful to the person using
it.
Data are facts that are gathered and entered into a computer to be processed.
%rocessed data is meaningful and is called information.
Data may be made up of numbers called numeric data that are called alpha3data or a
combination called alpha3numeric data.
52amples of these data are*
1. 7umeric data 1 1??, 1#:, 1=???
#. Alpha data 1 all alphabets and symbols 'A 1>, Y, \, etc(
,. Alpha3numeric data 3 Q1??.??
Computes @ A Po0'em So'+i*, too'
!hile computers affect our lives in many ways, what they basically do is solve
problems. They are there as problem solving tools providing computer solutions to
many repetitive tasks that normally would require a lot of time and manual labour.
Three elements are required to produce a computer solution* hardware, software and
data. This can be represented in the following equation*
Hardware P software P data G "olution
1=B
LESSON 1(5
Data Po)essi*,
Data processing is the step of processing data to produce information. t is also the
activity of manipulating data in one or more of the following procedures*
'a( $ollecting data 1 data may be collected from a number of sources to be processed.
'b( .rganise data 1 data must be arranged into relevant categories so that the
relationship between various facts can be seen.
'c( $ombining data 1 this involves combining of similar data to reduce the number of
data items to be processed.
'd( "orting data 1 this involves the arrangement of data in the order that is needed, for
e2ample, alphabetically, ascendingEdescending, chronologically etc.
'e( -anipulating data 1 this involves the performing of calculations on data, for
e2ample, finding the average of a set of numbers, finding the percentage of
students who have passed the e2am.
'f( "ummarising data 1 data is summarised based on the contents of relevant
categories.
Data processing produces information which is required to form conclusions and
make decisions based on plans of actions. 6ood decisions are based on sufficient and
timely information. nsufficient information usually do not help in making good
decisions. 4ecause the computer can handle large amount of data efficiently and
present summaries of information effectively e.g. in the production of tables and
graphs, it is considered to be essential for decision makers.
1=C
LESSON 1-8
App'i)atio*s o& Computes
$omputers are used in many different fields. 5ach of their fields have its own
application of computers. "ome places in which computers are commonly used are
business, government and home.
'a( 4usiness
$omputers are largely used in the business sector. "ome activities that computers are
used for are*
'i( nventory
'ii( Accounting
'iii( Database management
$omputers are also used in areas such as spreadsheets, graphics, mailing list
management, word processing, databases, publishing, banking, air reservations etc.
'b( 6overnment
The government also rely greatly on computers. "ome common ways in which
computers are utilised in the government are*
'i( Database management
'ii( Data analysis
'iii( !ord processing
"ome e2amples of how computers and electronic databases are used to keep track of
government activities are as follows*
The 9i)i sland 0evenue Authority keeps ta2 records using computers
$ivil servants and other government employees salaries are processed using
computers at the information technology centre.
-inistry of +and has 9i)i +ands nformation "ystem '9+"( which keeps records
of land titles, categories, si;es, etc.
The ma)or uses of computers in government are for collection of information,
analysing and reporting of economic and demographic statistics.
'c( Home
n homes computers are used for*
writing using word processors
calculating home budgets using spreadsheets
entertainment in the forms of games, movies and other hypermedia databases
LESSON 1-1
Commo* Uses o& Data0ases
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1. I*+e*to$ 3 is essential in business if it is to be efficient and profitable. An
inventory management program keeps a record of every item in a business. 5ach
record contains all necessary information about an item. 9or e2ample, item D
number, item name, cost of item, retail price, e2piry number, etc.
An inventory program enables the following*
immediate access to the status of an item
printing of daily, weekly and monthly summary of each item 'these printout
indicates the sales by for each item, total sales, profit made on each item, which
items are selling faster(, etc.
#. A))ou*ti*, 1 an accounting program can assist users in the preparation of
formatting of records and summary of financial transactions.
0ecords such as accounts payable, accounts receivable, customer accounts,
payroll and general ledger can be updated automatically. An accounting software
can also provided summaries and analysis for future business plans.
"mall 4usiness Accounting "oftware -edium to +arge 4usiness "ystems
-R.4
_uick4ook
_uicken
%latinum
"un "ystem
A$$ %ac
,. Mai'i*, List Ma*a,eme*t 1 mailing list are part of many businesses and are
used to promote, advertise and do customer billings, etc. a mailing list
management program is used to keep records of names, addresses, telephone
numbers, postal contacts and other useful information about individuals and
organisations. These information need to be accurate 'cross3checked regularly
and current(.
A user may add or delete names from a mailing list at any time and also make the
program sort list according to a given criteria, for e2ample, surnames, payments
due, items sold, etc.
The program can also printout mailing labels for every name and address on the
list. -ailing list management programs are also used as the secondary file when
the large organisations do a mail merge tho their clients.
LESSON 1-"
:. Li0aies 1 many large libraries all over the world now have their bibliography
computerised using special programs. The computers secondary memory stores
all the information that were previously kept on cards, for e2ample, titles, authors
name, etc. and the users access these information through computer terminals
which are connected to the secondary storage. &sers therefore have direct access
to information about available books etc.
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Through the use of computers libraries do not have to store original materials, for
e2ample, important documents, newspapers, artwork, etc. The librarians work is
also made easier as the user can locate and retrieve materials themselves using the
terminal system.
=. Aa*=i*, 1 computers are making work easier for bank customers through the use
of AT- 'Automated Teller -achines(. !ith the use of cards and personal
identification numbers '%7( a customer may perform cash withdrawals, deposit
money, query hisEher account, transfer money from one account to another, make
payments etc. at the end of the transaction, the customer receives a paper copy
confirming the activitiesEtransaction. AT-<s work day and night and allow their
customers to access their accounts regardless of the time and area they are in.
4anks also hold customer information and account information in computers.
This provides tellers with a quick and easy way to access and update client
particulars. &ses of computers have enabled services such as 59T%." electronic
banking, credit cards, home banking, etc, a possibility.
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LESSON 1-(
(T." INFORMATION RETRIE9AL
'i( $haracter 1 a character can be a letter of the alphabet, numbers, or symbols.
$haracters are usually combined to present data and every individual element in
a database is called a character. 9or e2ample a, C, :, Y, G. A space is also a
character.
$haracters are combined to create fields. The si;e of a field is determined by
how many characters are there in the field.
'ii( 9ields 1 a field is usually an important feature on the sub)ect whose data is
stored in a record. A field is a set of related characters, for e2ample, surname,
first name, D number, etc.
'iii( 0ecord 1 a record contains a number of fields which is related, i.e., a record will
contain information on a particular sub)ect. 9or e2ample, in a file of student
grades a record may contain the following fields*
student name
D number
9orm
"ub)ects
6rade
'iv( 8ey field 'primary key( 1 a key field is a field that can be used to locate a
particular record. A key field uniquely identifies a record, for e2ample, in the
previous list the best key field would be the D number because each individual
student will have a unique D therefore making each different.
"ometimes one key field is not enough to identify a record. 9or e2ample, in an
airline reservation system a passengers name is not a useful primary key because
there can be more than one passenger with the same name on the same flight. n
the same way a flight has so many passengers on it and the same flight goes up
many times each day making flight number an unsuitable key field, but a
combination of passengers name, flight and date of flight will be able to
uniquely identify a record.
'v( 9iles 1 is a collection of data stored in a secondary storage device. t is
composed of a number of related records containing information about a
particular sub)ect. 9or e2ample, a file of student grades will contain a record for
each student, )ust like a paper file containing pages of gathered information
about a particular sub)ect.
'vi( Database 1 is a collection of related ifles that can be retrieved when needed. t
is usually stored in the secondary storage devices, for e2ample, a hard disk,
magnetic tape or a floppy disk. The data in a database is accessed using a
database management system 'D4-"(.
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'vii( Database -anagement "ystems 1 A D4-" is an application software that is
used to create a database, edit and control the access of information in a
database. t is a program that manages the functions of a database.
"ummary
character 1 single alphabet, symbol or numbers
field 1 a collection of logically related characters
record 1 a collection of related fields ' on a particular sub)ect(
file 1 a collection of related records 'n a particular sub)ect(
a database 1 a collection of related files.
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LESSON 1--
Data0ase Ma*a,eme*t S$stems
A D4-" has five functions*
1. $reate files
#. &pdate files
,. -aintain files
:. %rovide access to files 'nterface(
=. $ontrol the integrity and security of files
1. $reate files
A D4-" provides a structure for data in the database and identifies the relationships
among the data.
#. &pdate files
A D4-" allows for the updating in the entry of new data and it sees that new data
conform to the defined structures already e2isting.
,. -aintain files
A D4-" corrects errors of misspelling, omission in the content, e.g. filename or data.
t also allows for changes in the structure of the database in cases where important
information may have been left out or useless information included.
:. %rovide access to files
Data may be accessed through the use of command languages where the user types in
the commands. This systems are also called prompting systems
Data may also be accessed through menu based systems where the users select
commands through menu 'made possible through 6&(. Almost all databases today
utili;e the menu systems. Depending on the users needs information can be retrieved
in various forms.
=. $ontrol the integrity and security of files
-ost systems perform the following to control the integrity and security of files*
3 -aintain conformity to the database definition by, for e2ample, comparing new
entries to the database definition to see that no errors are made.
3 $ontrol updating particularly when many users access the database
simultaneously.
3 Assure the e2istence of data in the case of technical problems which may cause
loss of data. This may require complicated techniques in restoring data.
3 $ontrol access to data to ensure that users can only see the data that they have
legal access to 'authori;ed users(.
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LESSON 1-/
Resou)e Lo)=i*,
0efers to maintaining a database so that its data are accurately accessed and problems
which can arise from having two or more users working simultaneously on the data
can be prevented, for e2ample, double booking of a plane seat.
Co*te*t Eo a*# Stu)tua' Eo
$ontent error refers to wrong input or misspellings whereas structural error refers to
errors or flaws in the programming or definitions of the database.
$ommunication with a database may be through a menu system 'menu driven system(
or by issuing commands in a prompting system 'command drivenEcommand based
system(. Access to a database must be controlled in order to maintain integrity and
security of data.
Comma*# Aase# S$stems
6ives the user other options but do not remind them of those available options.
$ommand based systems offer a character based interface where the user has to
master the various commands in the language used in order to use the program
effectively. These systems require languages like D." and &7J.
Me*u Aase# S$stems
Are easier to learn and they will always provide the users with a list of available
options via a menu. -enu based systems were initially available as character based
interface but have been made more popular through the introduction of 6& operating
system '!indows, -acintosh, +inu2(.
-enu based interface makes it easier to locate available options. The user does not
necessarily have to master the language. Therefore a menu based system is one where
available commands are kept and e2ecuted through a menu.
1A=
LESSON 1-1
(T.( MANACINC INFORMATION
t is important that we identify relevant information for the creation of database*
dentify important information to act as fields in a database
This is made possible through the use of data processing techniques where it is
important that relevant data is recognised.
t is necessary that relevant and important information are chosen as fields.
The choice of fields is an important step in a database design. t is imperative to
ensure that the fields satisfy the overall requirements of the database. .nce a
database has been created it is wise to refrain from inserting new field since a lot
of records would have to be updated.
Therefore, a good database is one whose fields have been appropriately thought
up and designed 'structured( and does not need any addition or removal of fields.
9ields should be categorised according to the following data types. These data
types would be used to identify the type of data entering the associated fields*
'i( $haracterEte2t 1 contains characters, alphabets, numbers and special characters
and other entries that do not need calculations to be done upon them. The
number of characters in a field needs to be identified.
'ii( 7umeric 1 this data type is used to represent numbers. These fields are designed
according to future calculations.
'iii( DateETime 1 contains date andEor time usually in the form of mmEddEyy or
ddEmmEyy. This field does not allow any entry apart from date or time.
'iv( +ogical 1 contains ]y< and ]t< for yes and true or ]n< and ]f< for no and false.
'v( $urrency 1 this data type is used to represent fields that hold monetary value.
'vi( -emo 1 contains comments made about records and other fields within the
database.
1AA
LESSON 1-3
Data 5ntry
.nce fields have been defines, a structure is set for the database 'data dictionary(.
llegal entries 'entries that do not comply with the field structure( will not be
accepted. n designing the fields of the database the format of the field should be kept
in mind.
A Mo#e' Data0ase
Stu#e*t I*&omatio* Data0ase
"tudent Academic
9ield 7ame Type Description "i;e
9irst 7ame Te2t $ontains students first name #?
.ther 7ames Te2t $ontains students other names ,?
Date of birth DateEtime !hen the person was born C
Test 1 7umeric -arks of first test ,
Test # 7umeric -arks of second test ,
Test , 7umeric -arks of third test ,
%assE9ail +ogical ]y< for pass, ]n< for fail 1
$omment -emo $omments on conduct
Soti*, Re)o#s
Database entries in a file can be displayed in any logical order. The sorting tool can
rearrange records in both ascending and descending order. "orting can be done by
specifying one or multiple fields and will be effective on any field other than data
type memo. 0ecords are kept together when sorted.
1AB
LESSON 1-4
T%o pats o& a Data0ase
'i( Data Dictionary 'design view(
A data dictionary contains the description of the data used in a database for a
particular item of data. t defines the name used for a field 'fieldname(, data type
'te2t, memo, etc( and description.
t also specifies the property of each field, the number of characters in each field 'field
si;e(, the caption whether it is a key field etc. The design view of -" Access
displays the data dictionary for a database 'it contains the records entered by the user
which can be seen in the datasheet view in -" Access(.
'ii( _ueries
A query is used to ask a question is a database. _ueries are used to find and display
selected fields from records in a database. These records usually meet complicated
criteria which are designed by the user. _ueries are designed for situations where the
user needs to know which record have fields in common.
_ueries are often preferred as sources for reports.
52ample 'leave 1? lines(
Repots
Are used to display the user selected information 'fields from the database( reports are
usually printed out in hard copy for presentation and to be filed.
0eports are best designed using queries but tables can also be used. The reason why
queries are best used in reports is that usually only some fields are required for a
report so if a query is created its entire contents can be used to create a report making
the process much faster. "ome reports are produced regular therefore it is a good idea
to have their own query.
Fi'tei*,
Another way to locate information is to apply a filter to the database. A filter displays
the subset of records that meet certain conditions of criteria. 9or e2ample if you were
to enter the criteria of 7ew Rork in a city field, only these records would be
displayed. nformation is located and then displayed either by finding records
filtering through the records or query the database.
Fi'te po,ams allow parents as well as organisations to blockout selected sites and
set time limits. These programs can monitor use and generate reports detailing the
total time spent on the internet and time spent at individual website, chat groups and
news groups e.g. cyber patrol, cyber sitter and net nanny.
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Table* 4ook Details
Table* "upplier Detail 'leave 1= lines(
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LESSON 1-5
The Nee# &o Data0ases
Databases are necessary because organisation have different files on the same sub)ect.
These files need to be integrated together to provided purpose and meaning to the data
kept in within. Therefore databases are used to integrate individual items of data and
transform them into useful information.
9or both individuals and organisations, there are many advantages of having
databases.
9our advantages of having databases are*
1. "haring
n organisations, information from various departments can be readily shared with
other departments and users.
#. "ecurity
&sers are given passwords or access to only the kind of information they need to
know. 9or e2ample, the payroll department may have access to employees pay rate
but other departments may not. Access is restricted to authorised users only.
,. 9ewer 9iles
!ith several departments having access to one file, there are fewer files in the
information system. 52cess storage 'e2tra copies of information( called data
redundancy is also reduced. -icrocomputers are linked by networks to file servers
which give access to databases located on and shared to the servers.
:. Data ntegrity
.lder filing systems did not have data integrity i.e. a change made in a file in one
department might not be made in another copy of the file holding the sae information
in another department. This can cause serious problems and conflicts when data is
used for important decision affecting both departments.
Data integrity is when changes made in one file to a particular data updates are made
in other files which contain the same data as well.
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LESSON 1/8
Disa#+a*ta,es o& #ata0ases
1. $ost of initial conversion is very high as new equipment 'hardware and software(
and e2pertise are needed.
#. $omple2ity of design
,. &sers need special training to use database
:. /ulnerability 3 data in a database can be stolen by hackers and crackers, lost due
to virus, destroyed during a fire or natural disasters etc.
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