LOVELY PROFESSIONAL

UNIVERSITY

TERMPAPER of HEAT TREATMENT

{MEC-045}

Topic- Mechanical behavior of

engineering materials

SUBMITTED By-
Name- Gurpreet Singh
Class- Mech. Diploma {b-tech 6yrs}
Roll no. - 30
Reg.no. - 4180070122
SUBMITTED To-
MR.MANOJ.ROY
 Mechanical behavior of engineering materials

Mechanical properties of engineering materials are such as property which defined behavior of materials
under the application of external forces of load. Mechanical property are main important to select
materials or engineering needs. Mechanical properties are listed below: ---

• ELASTICITY

• PLASTICITY
• DUCTILITY
• TOUGHNESS
• MALLEABILITY
• CREEP
• CONDUCTIVITY
• DENSITY
• HARDNESS & BRITTLENESS
 ELASTICITY
Elasticity is the amount of stretch that an object contains. It is property by virtue of which matter keeps its shape
from deforming into another.

When an external force is applied to an object the size and shape of the object may change, for example, an
appropriate force is applied to a spring can elongate it. If the force ceases to act the object may restore to its
original size and shape. An object is said to be elastic if it restores its original size and shape. This property of an
object is known as elasticity.

Modeling elasticity
The elastic regime is characterized by a linear relationship between stress and strain, denoted linear elasticity. The
classic example is a metal spring. This idea was first statedby Robert Hooke in 1675 as a Latin anagram
"ceiiinossssttuu" whose solution he published in 1678 as "Ut tensio, sic vis" which means "As the extension,
so the force."

Hooke's Law
Hooke's Law states that in an elastic material strain is proportional to stress.
The point at which a material ceases to obey Hooke's Law is known as its elastic limit.
The first part is very easy. It means that the bigger the weight (stress) you hang on the string the more it
will stretch (strain).
The second part is also easy. Whilst the elastic limit is not exceeded, the string will go back to its original
length when you take the weights off it, but if you add too much weight, the string will stretch without
going back to its original length when you take the weights off it. If you leave a very large weight
hanging on the string, it will gradually get longer and longer until it breaks. In this state the wire is
behaving as if it were a fluid instead of a solid.
For this investigation you also need to know about Young's modulus. This is the coefficient of elasticity
of stretching. It is the ratio of the stress or stretching force per unit cross sectional area to the strain or
amount of stretching per unit of length.
You can look Young's modulus up for any elastic material and see if the result you get in your
experiments fit. So make sure that you measure the length of your wire and its diameter. In fact if you
know Young's modulus for the material you are using you will be able to predict exactly how much your
wire will stretch when you hang masses on it.
 PLASTICITY
In physics and materials science, plasticity describes the deformation of a material undergoing non-reversible
changes of shape in response to applied forces. For example, a solid piece of metal or plastic being bent or
pounded into a new shape displays plasticity as permanent changes occur within the material itself. By contrast, a
permanent crease in a sheet of paper or a re-shaping of wet clay is due to a rearrangement of separate fibers or
particles. In engineering, the transition from elastic behavior to plastic behavior is called yield.

Mathematical descriptions of plasticity

There are several mathematical descriptions of Plasticity. One is deformation theory (see e.g. Hooke's law) where
the stress tensor (of order d in d dimensions) is a function of the strain tensor. Although this description is accurate
when a small part of matter is subjected to increasing loading (such as strain loading), this theory cannot account
for irreversibility.

The image above represents a shear stress component with respect to a shear strain component, under increasing
strain loading.
Ductile materials can sustain large plastic deformations without fracture. However, even ductile metals will
fracture when the strain becomes large enough - this is as a result of work-hardening of the material, which causes
it to become brittle. Heat treatment such as annealing can restore the ductility of a worked piece, so that shaping
can continue.
 DUCTILITY
Ductility is a mechanical property used to describe the extent to which materials can be deformed
plastically without fracture.

In material science, ductility specifically refers to a material's ability to deform under tensile stress; this is
often characterized by the material's ability to be stretched into a wire. Malleability, a similar concept,
refers to a material's ability to deform under compressive stress; this is often characterized by the
material's ability to form a thin sheet by hammering or rolling. Ductility and malleability do not always
correlate with each other; for instance, gold is both ductile and malleable, but lead is only malleable.[1]
Commonly, the term "ductility" is used to refer to both concepts, as they are very similar.
 TOUGHNESS

Also referred to as IMPACT RESISTANCE, toughness is perhaps best described as a combination of

STRENGTH and DUCTILITY. Good strength and ductility help a metal to withstand the shock of a
heavy impact. Unsurprisingly this quality is tested and measured by an instrument that strikes a metal test
sample with known force (IZOD and CHAPRY IMPACT TESTS for example), the result of these tests is
expressed in JOULES. CAST IRON is typically a very strong material, however manner in which
CARBON (in the form of GRAPHITE) is distributed through it’s metallurgical structure as FLAKES
(especially in GREY CAST IRON); means that many cast irons have a poor ability to resist shock
impact, easily shattering under force. Unlike most traditional cast iron materials, DUCTILE CAST IRON
is formulated to significantly improve DUCTILITY (by encouraging the formation of graphite NODES
instead of flakes). This makes ductile cast iron a significantly tougher material than most traditional cast
iron products. By these measures, most MILD (LCS) STEELS can be described as tough, though this
quality can vary as the CARBON content in the alloy increases (as in LOW ALLOY STEELS), and
ductility decreases.
 MALLEABILITY
Together with ductile qualities, malleability tends to be a characteristic found in high purity metals with
GOLD and SILVER being the most malleable. Instead of DRAWING, the ability of a material to be
HAMMERED determines it’s malleability. Most of us are familiar with the ability of fine gold and silver
to be worked into a LEAF sheet as thin as 0.0001mm (see also GILDING), this degree of processing is
made possible by the exceptional malleability of these metals. WORK HARDENING can occur when
malleable metals are severely COLD WORKED, therefore ANNEALING or NORMALISATION of a
design may need to be carried out to prevent cracking. REPOUSSÉ working fine gold, silver and copper
is a technique that relies heavily on the ability of these metals to be hammered out with relative ease,
other metals considered to have excellent malleability include ALUMINIUM (high purity), TIN and
LEAD. Unlike cast iron, WROUGHT IRON is considered a very malleable material.
 CREEP
Creep is the tendency for a metal to distort over a period of time. This is can be demonstrated by
suspending a LEAD pipe between two points some distance apart. Over time it likely that the pipe would
start to sag in the middle. A metal like LEAD is especially prone to this because it’s RE-
CRYSTALLISATION temperature is lower than ambient room temperatures, this means that the metal is
more or less in a permanently soft or ANNEALED condition. Creep is less evident in metals with high
TENSILE STRENGTHS, though even these can be subject to creep if inadequately supported. In
extreme cases creep can lead to PLASTIC DEFORMATION in the affected design which could
eventually cause it to structurally fail.
 CONDUCTIVITY
There are two kinds of conductivity of interest to the metalworker, ELECTRICAL and THERMAL.
Electrical conductivity refers to a metal’s ability to transfer an electrical charge, for instance we are all
familiar for example with the use of COPPER in electrical transmission cables (although SILVER and
GOLD are better conductors). Common workshop processes such as ELECTRIC ARC WELDING and
PLASMA CUTTING rely on metal’s ability to conduct electricity to either join or cut sections of
material. Electrical conductivity is measured by a material’s RESISIVITY (RESISTANCE) to electricity
and is expressed as OHMS-CENTEMETERS, with higher values indicating poorer conductivity; thus
SILVER (1.60μohm.cm) is a far better conductor of electricity than LEAD (20.60μohm.cm). As a general
rule, impurities in metals significantly reduces their ability to conduct efficiently, so most PARENT
METALS will be better conductors (electrical and thermal), than their alloy derivatives.

Thermal conductivity refers to the ability of a material to transfer heat. For example if a variety of metal
strips were held to a flame, those strips with better thermal conductivity would transfer heat more quickly
to the held end than those with poorer conductivity. Thermal conductivity is measured in WATTS PER
METER DEGREES CELCIUS (or DEGREES KELVIN), with higher values indicating better
conductivity. As with electrical conductivity, fine NOBLE metals tend to be better thermal conductors,
thus SILVER (425 W/m.K) is a far better conductor of thermal energy than LEAD (35 W/m.K).

Thermal conductivity clearly has a bearing on how a metal behaves when heated, which has implications
for CASTING, FORGING, WELDING and similar workshop processes. If we were to take a common
fabrication material, COPPER and weld a section of 100 x 100 x 6mm plate to another section the same
size, a far larger heat input would be required to form a FULL FUSION JOINT (ie fully melt the copper
parent metal), than if we were to join (sections of the same dimensions) in a second common fabrication
material - STAINLESS STEEL. The discrepancy arises because as a good conductor of thermal energy,
copper dissipates heat directed from the welding torch away from the joint area, this can make it more
difficult to attain a WELDPOOL. Stainless steel is a relatively poor conductor of heat, so the heat
directed from the welding torch is better focused in the area it is directed to, this in turn allows a good
weldpool to form at lower power inputs.

Whilst the more efficient conductivity of COPPER would seem to be a disadvantage over STAINLESS
STEEL when welding, there is a ‘flip side’. The ability of copper to disperse heat at a more efficient rate
and therefore expand and contract more evenly, means that copper is far less prone to distortion during
hot processes (like welding), than stainless steel. The focused heat input when welding poorer conducting
stainless steel can cause localised thermal expansion of the material, which in turn translates to an
increased likelihood of stressing the design with accompanying buckling, warping, bending and other
undesirable DISTORTIONS.

The thermal expansion of metals and other materials is technically measured as a COEFFICIENT (either
LINEAR or CUBICAL). The coefficient of linear expansion is calculated as the proportion of it’s
original length that a bar of material will expand when heated by one degree (°C), by the same token
LINEAR CONTRACTION can be calculated by cooling one degree. [ref 1] These factors do have a
significant bearing on some workshop processes and in part explain the variations in difficulty when
welding different metals and alloys. In extreme cases, such as when welding some CAST IRON
materials, a combination of BRITTLENESS and THERMAL EXPANSION characteristics can result in
severe cracking or fracturing of the design.
 DENSITY

The density of a metal is useful for some comparative purposes, for example it can offer an insight into
STRENGTH/WEIGHT RATIOS. Density is simply the MASS of a UNIT VOLUME, for example:
GRAMS PER CENTEMETER CUBED (g/cm³). [ref 2] By this measure we can conclude that a HEAVY
METAL, such as LEAD (11.370 g/cm³), is of a far greater density than a LIGHT METAL such as (pure)
ALUMINIUM (2.790 g/cm³).

The density of ALLOYS varies according to their precise composition; however we can draw some
general conclusions by comparing known data. LOW CARBON (0.2%) STEEL (LCS), for example has a
density of about 7.86 g/cm³, some three times that of most ALUMINIUM alloys (see above). The
TENSILE STRENGTH of 0.2% LCS is 400 N/mm² compared to the average tensile strength of an
aluminium alloy which is about 200 N/mm². Taking this data at face value we could say that steel is
stronger than aluminium; however if we multiply the strength value of aluminium by a factor of 3 (the
nominal difference in densities), the result is 600 N/mm², which tells us that the strength/weight ratio of
the average aluminium alloy is superior to that of LCS.
 HARDNESS & BRITTLENESS

Hardness is a property of metals that is measured by an INDENTATION test. This generally involves
forcing a shaped head such as a ball or pyramid into the surface of the material being tested. The force
used to make the indentation is of a known quantity, and the indentation head is a standardised shape and
size; this makes it is possible to calibrate the indentation in the test piece and compare it to those made in
other materials. BRINELL HARDNESS is a common scale used to describe a metal’s hardness, to obtain
a Brinell Hardness Number (BHN), a 1.6mm ball shaped head is forced into the metal sample under a
load of 123 N (NEWTONS). A rather complex formula is then used to translate the data gained from the
test into a numerical value. There are also a number of other hardness tests including DIAMOND
PYRAMID and ROCKWELL. Tables are available to convert one value to another.

Hardness, STRENGTH and BRITTLENESS are not one and the same thing, however when it comes to
metals at least, these three qualities often to go hand in hand. CAST IRON is a typical example of this
combination. When properly designed for a structural application, most cast iron materials are
exceptionally strong and able to carry massive loads (consider early bridges and architectural structures
such as the Crystal Palace), whilst retaining an elegant and light quality that was almost impossible to
achieve using building materials such as stone. Cast iron is also HARD with a typical hardness range of
BHN 150-250, compared to LOW CARBON STEELS which are generally fall between BHN 150-200.
Unlike mild steels though, many cast iron materials are prone to fracture especially under SHOCK
LOADING (SHARP IMPACT), or FOCUSED HEATING (when welding for example). Hard materials
are often difficult to form into shapes by common fabrication techniques; instead many hard materials are
cast into moulds instead. Hard materials are also useful for cutting purposes, although as we have seen
cutting tools may function better in use when TEMPERED.

The hardness of metals used to cast or fabricate art and design works is an especially important factor
when incising or CHASING a design into a metal’s surface. This method of working is often used in
jewellery making, with the jeweller using CHISEL like tools to cut into a metal’s surface. Fine metals
such as GOLD and SILVER are well suited to this process as they are exceptionally soft materials (fine
gold BHN 18.5, silver BHN 25), although many jewellery metals are alloyed to increase their hardness.
Sculpture foundries also use chasing techniques to replace detail in welded and repaired sections of
castings; the relatively recent conversion by many art foundries from LEADED GUNMETALS to
SILICON BRONZE has led to the greater use of mechanised chasing tools in part due to the difference in
hardness between the these two alloys (BHN 60 for leaded gunmetal, BHN 85 for silicon bronze)
 MATERIALS IN INDUSTRY

Radical materials advances can drive the creation of new products or even new industries, but stable
industries also employ materials scientists to make incremental improvements and troubleshoot issues
with currently used materials. Industrial applications of materials science include materials design, cost-
benefit tradeoffs in industrial production of materials, processing techniques (casting, rolling, welding,
ion implantation, crystal growth, thin-film deposition, sintering, glassblowing, etc.), and analytical
techniques (characterization techniques such as electron microscopy, x-ray diffraction, calorimetry,
nuclear microscopy (HEFIB), Rutherford backscattering, neutron diffraction,small-angle X-ray scattering
(SAXS), etc.).

Besides material characterisation, the material scientist/engineer also deals with the extraction of
materials and their conversion into useful forms. Thus ingot casting, foundry techniques, blast furnace
extraction, and electrolytic extraction are all part of the required knowledge of a metallurgist/engineer.
Often the presence, absence or variation of minute quantities of secondary elements and compounds in a
bulk material will have a great impact on the final properties of the materials produced, for instance,
steels are classified based on 1/10th and 1/100 weight percentages of the carbon and other alloying
elements they contain. Thus, the extraction and purification techniques employed in the extraction of iron
in the blast furnace will have an impact of the quality of steel that may be produced.

The overlap between physics and materials science has led to the offshoot field of materials physics,
which is concerned with the physical properties of materials. The approach is generally more
macroscopic and applied than in condensed matter physics. See important publications in materials
physics for more details on this field of study.

The study of metal alloys is a significant part of materials science. Of all the metallic alloys in use today,
the alloys of iron (steel, stainless steel, cast iron, tool steel, alloy steels) make up the largest proportion
both by quantity and commercial value. Iron alloyed with various proportions of carbon gives low, mid
and high carbon steels. For the steels, the hardness and tensile strength of the steel is directly related to
the amount of carbon present, with increasing carbon levels also leading to lower ductility and toughness.
The addition of silicon and graphitization will produce cast irons (although some cast irons are made
precisely with no graphitization). The addition of chromium, nickel and molybdenum to carbon steels
(more than 10%) gives us stainless steels.
 CASTING

Casting iron in a sand mold

Casting is a manufacturing process by which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which
contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is also
known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting materials
are usually metals or various cold setting materials that cure after mixing two or more components
together; examples are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay. Casting is most often used for making complex
shapes that would be otherwise difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods

Casting is a 6000 year old process

 ROLLING

Rolling is a combination of rotation (of a radially symmetric object) and translation of that object with
respect to a surface (either one or the other moves), such that the two are in contact with each other
without sliding. This is achieved by a rotational speed at the cylinder or circle of contact which is equal to
the translational speed. Rolling of a round object typically requires less energy than sliding, therefore
such an object will more easily move, if it experiences a force with a component along the surface, for
instance gravity on a tilted surface; wind; pushing; pulling; an engine. Objects with corners, such as dice,
roll by successive rotations about the edge or corner which is in contact with the surface.

One of the most practical applications of rolling objects is the use of ball bearings in rotating devices.
Made of a smooth metal substance, the spherical bearings are usually encased between two rings that can
rotate independently of each other. In most mechanisms, the inner ring is attached to a stationary shaft (or
axle). Thus, while the inner ring is stationary, the outer ring is free to move with very little friction. This
is the basis for which almost all motors (such as those found in ceiling fans, cars, drills, etc) rely on to
operate. The amount of friction on the mechanism's parts depends on the quality of the ball bearings and
how much lubrication is in the mechanism.

Rolling objects are also frequently used as tools for transportation. One of the most basic ways is by
placing a (usually flat) object on a series of lined-up rollers, or wheels. The object on the wheels can be
moved along them in a straight line, as long as the wheels are continuously replaced in the front (see
history of bearings). This method of primitive transportation is efficient when no other machinery is
available. Today, the most practical application of objects on wheels are cars, trains, and other human
transportation vehicles.
 WELDING

Welding is a fabrication or sculptural process that joins materials, usually metals or thermoplastics, by
causing coalescence. This is often done by melting the workpieces and adding a filler material to form a
pool of molten material (the weld pool) that cools to become a strong joint, with pressure sometimes used
in conjunction with heat, or by itself, to produce the weld. This is in contrast with soldering and brazing,
which involve melting a lower-melting-point material between the workpieces to form a bond between
them, without melting the workpieces.

Gas metal arc welding

Many different energy sources can be used for welding, including a gas flame, an electric arc, a laser, an
electron beam, friction, and ultrasound. While often an industrial process, welding can be done in many
different environments, including open air, under water and in outer space. Regardless of location,
however, welding remains dangerous, and precautions must be taken to avoid burns, electric shock, eye
damage, poisonous fumes, and overexposure to ultraviolet light.

Until the end of the 19th century, the only welding process was forge welding, which blacksmiths had
used for centuries to join metals by heating and pounding them. Arc welding and oxyfuel welding were
among the first processes to develop late in the century, and resistance welding followed soon after.
Welding technology advanced quickly during the early 20th century as World War I and World War II
drove the demand for reliable and inexpensive joining methods. Following the wars, several modern
welding techniques were developed, including manual methods like shielded metal arc welding, now one
of the most popular welding methods, as well as semi-automatic and automatic processes such as gas
metal arc welding, submerged arc welding, flux-cored arc welding and electroslag welding.
Developments continued with the invention of laser beam welding and electron beam welding in the
latter half of the century. Today, the science continues to advance. Robot welding is becoming more
commonplace in industrial settings, and researchers continue to develop new welding methods and gain
greater understanding of weld quality and properties.
 Glassblowing
A stage in the manufacture of a Bristol blue glass ship’s decanter. The blowpipe is being held in the
glassblower's right hand. The glass is glowing yellow.

Glassblowing is a glassforming technique that involves inflating the molten glass into a bubble, or
parison, with the aid of the blowpipe, or blow tube. A person who blows glass is called a glassblower,
glassmith, or gaffer.

Principles

As a novel glass forming technique created in the middle of the last century B.C., glassblowing exploited
a working property of glass which was previously unknown to the glassworkers – inflation. Inflation
refers to the expansion of a molten blob of glass by introducing a small amount of air to it. This property
is based on the liquid structure of glass where the atoms are held together by strong chemical bonds in a
disordered and random network, therefore molten glass is viscous enough to be blown and gradually
hardens as it loses heat. In order to increase the stiffness of the molten glass, which in turn facilitates the
process of blowing, there is a subtle change in the composition of glass. With reference to their studies of
the ancient glass assemblages from Sepphoris of Israel, Fischer and McCray[5] postulated that the
concentration of natron, which acts as flux in glass, is slightly lower in blown vessels than those
manufactured by casting. Lower concentration of natron would have allowed the glass to be stiffer for
blowing.