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Abstract—This paper describes a novel fault-detection so in view of the fact that apart from threatening the reliability
technique of high-impedance faults (HIFs) in high-voltage trans- of the electric power supply, these faults pose a risk of fires and
mission lines using the wavelet transform. Recently, the wavelet endanger life through the possibility of electric shock.
transform (WT) has been successfully applied in many fields. The
technique is based on using the absolute sum value of coefficients Most conventional fault-detection techniques for HIF mainly
in multiresolution signal decomposition (MSD) based on the involve processing information based on the feature extraction
discrete wavelet transform (DWT). A fault indicator and fault of post-HIF current and voltage. Several researchers in recent
criteria are then used to detect the HIF in the transmission line. years have presented results aimed at detecting HIF more effec-
In order to discriminate between HIF and nonfault transient tively. Hitherto, the algorithms developed include the current
phenomena, such as capacitor and line switching and arc furnace
loads, the concept of duration time (i.e., the transient time period), ratio method [3], the high-frequency method [4], the off-har-
is presented. On the basis of extensive investigations, optimal monic current method [5], the neural network and Kalman fil-
mother wavelets for the detection of HIF are chosen. It is shown tering method [1], [6]–[8]. S.J. Huang [9] has proposed an HIF
that the technique developed is robust to fault type, fault inception detection technique [10], [11] for distribution systems, which
angle, fault resistance, and fault location. The paper demonstrates uses a Morlet wavelet transform approach [12]. However, each
a new concept and methodology in HIF in transmission lines. The
performance of the proposed technique is tested under a variety of these techniques improves fault detection to a certain extent,
of fault conditions on a typical 154-kV Korean transmission-line but each has its drawbacks as well. Hitherto, a few techniques
system. (some available as commercial products) have been subjected
Index Terms—Fault detection, high-impedance arcing fault, to quite extensive testing in order to ascertain their effective-
transmission lines, wavelet transform. ness under different system and fault conditions.
It is well known that conventional Fourier transform-based
techniques (i.e., those which rely totally on spectrum analysis
I. INTRODUCTION of Fourier transform) do not possess the inherent time informa-
tion associated with fault initiation. The wavelet transform, on
H IGH-IMPEDANCE faults (HIFs) are, in general, difficult
to detect through conventional protection such as distance
or overcurrent relays. This is principally due to relay insensi-
the other hand, is useful in analyzing the transient phenomena
associated with transmission-line faults and/or switching op-
tivity to the very low level fault currents and/or limitations on erations. Unlike Fourier analysis, it provides time information,
other relay settings imposed by HIFs. This type of fault usually has the attribute of very effectively realizing nonstationary sig-
occurs when a conductor touches the branches of a tree having a nals comprising of low- and high-frequency components (such
high impedance or when a broken conductor touches the ground. as those commonly encountered in power systems networks)
In the case of an overcurrent relay, the low levels of current through the use of a variable windows length of a signal [13].
associated with HIF are below the sensitivity settings of the The advantages (particularly in terms of increased reliability
relay. In the case of a distance relay, which relies on an estima- and dependability) of a wavelet transform, which possesses
tion of impedance to fault based on the measured voltages and time and frequency information unlike the Fourier transform,
currents, the accuracy of the estimation (particularly in terms particularly in the detection of HIFs, are thus apparent, and
of relay overreach/underreach) can be significantly affected by one of these techniques is the subject of this paper. It should be
the high-impedance fault [1], [2]. HIFs, albeit uncommon, must noted that although wavelet analysis is more complex than other
nonetheless be accurately detected and removed. This is more signal-processing techniques, it is ideally suited for dealing
with nonstationary signals such as those encountered under
HIF arcing faults. This, in turn, enhances accuracy and reli-
Manuscript received April 24, 1999; revised February 14, 2002. This work ability in fault detection and the features can be applied to
was supported by the Korea Ministry of Science and Technology and Korea affecting fault-location techniques [14].
Science and Engineering Foundation.
C.-H. Kim, H. Kim, Y.-H. Ko and S.-H. Byun are with the School of Electrical This paper describes a new fault-detection technique which
and Computer Engineering, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon-city, 440-746, involves capturing the current signals generated in a transmis-
Korea and NPT Center, Korea (e-mail: chkim@yurim.skku.ac.kr) sion line under HIFs. It is shown that the technique improves the
R. K. Aggarwal and A. T. Johns are with the Department of Electronic and
Electrical Engineering, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, U.K. performance of HIF detection by employing the absolute sum
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2002.803780 value based on the DWT. The detection process is performed
0885-8977/02$17.00 © 2002 IEEE
922 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 17, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2002
(2)
(3)
(4)
By selecting or ( ) and
, the DWT can be implemented by using a multistage
filter with the mother wavelet as the lowpass filter and its
dual as the highpass filter . Also, downsampling the output
of the lowpass filter by a factor of effectively scales
the wavelet by a factor of 2 for the next stage, thereby simpli-
fying the process of dilation.
The implementation of the DWT with a filter bank is com-
Fig. 2. Typical fault current waveform at relaying point (“a”-earth HIF, fault
, 10 km, Z = 300
).
at V
putationally efficient. The output of the highpass filter gives the
detailed version of the high-frequency component of the signal.
Also, the low-frequency component is further split to get the
through signal decomposition, thresholding of the wavelet
other details of the input signal. By using this technique, any
transform coefficients, and duration time. Threshold value is wavelet can be implemented [13].
determined by weighting the absolute sum value for one period
in a moving window scheme and this forms the basis of a
III. FAULT-DETECTION TECHNIQUE USING THE DWT
sophisticated decision logic for the limitation of a trip decision.
The results presented in this paper relate to a typical 154-kV A. Typical Waveforms Through Wavelet Transform Realization
Korean transmission line, the faulted signals of which are Fig. 1 shows a typical 154-kV Korean Transmission System
attained using the well known Electromagnetic Transients used in the simulation studies presented herein. It consists
Program (EMTP) software. The simulation also includes an of a 26-km line length terminated in two sources of 240 and
embodiment of a realistic nonlinear HIF model [15], [16]. The 180 MVA at ends P and Q, respectively; the nominal power
relay performance is then examined for HIF signals under a frequency is 60 Hz. The simulation of the power system has
variety of different system and fault conditions encountered been carried out using the well known EMTP. Within the sim-
in practice. ulation, an emulation of the nonlinear high-impedance arcing
faults has also been embodied [16]. Fig. 2 typifies the actual
II. DISCRETE WAVELET TRANSFORM current waveform (measured at end P but which has been scaled
Analogous to the relationship between continuous Fourier down through a CT) and is for an “a”-earth HIF at 10 km from
transform (FT) and discrete Fourier transform (DFT), the con- line-end P and is for a fault near , the distortion observed
tinuous wavelet transform (CWT) has a digitally implementable in the faulted “a” phase can be directly attributed to the highly
counterpart known as the DWT, and is defined as complex and nonlinear characteristics of the HIF arc path.
To aid the development of the fault-detection technique using
the DWT, wavelet transform realization has been employed
(1)
which determines a coefficient of d1 (detail one) using dif-
ferent mother wavelets from an actual current waveform. The
where is the mother wavelet, is the input signal, and mother wavelet considered is Daubechies (db)4, biorthogonal
the scaling and translation parameters “ ” and “ ” are functions (bior)3.1, coiflets (coif)4, and symlets (sym)5. Fig. 3 depicts
of integer parameter . The result is geometric scaling (i.e., the coefficient of d1 for different mother wavelets with the
) and translation by . DWT realization. The behavior of the DWT for this actual fault
This scaling gives the DWT a logarithmic frequency coverage current waveform is illustrated in Fig. 3(a)—(d) as expected.
and this is in marked contrast to the uniform frequency coverage All of the coefficients of d1 increase on fault inception and
of, for example, the short-time Fourier transform (STFT) [13]. there are small discernible differences in the DWT outputs
KIM et al.: HIGH-IMPEDANCE ARCING FAULTS IN TRANSMISSION LINES USING WAVELET TRANSFORM 923
Fig. 3. Coefficient of d1 under “a”-earth HIF using DWT (a) db4 mother wavelet. (b) sym5 mother wavelet. (c) bior3.1 mother wavelet (d) coif4 mother wavelet.
for the four different mother wavelets that are considered. 2) the classification ability between the faulted phase and the
The performance of the DWT realization was evaluated under healthy phase.
different fault types, fault inception angle, and fault location, In order to select the most suitable mother wavelet, the
and some of the results will be shown. It should be mentioned maximum sum value (this is over a 1-cycle period at power
that due to a limitation of space, only the coefficient associated frequency) of d1 coefficients based on wavelet analysis is
with “a”-earth HIF at 10 km is shown. adopted for this work. Consider, for example, the waveforms
shown in Fig. 4 which illustrate the maximum sum value of d1
coefficients of the three-phase current signals (as measured at
B. Selection of Mother Wavelet for HIF Detection the relaying point) for an “a”-earth HIF at a distance every 1
km from end P in Fig. 1. First of all, considering Fig. 4(a) (this
As a second step in fault-detection technique, selection of the
is based on the db4 mother wavelet), it is clearly evident that
mother wavelet is essential to enhance the performance of HIF
the maximum sum value of d1 coefficients is significantly
detection technique to extract the useful information rapidly.
larger for the faulted “a”-phase than for the two healthy
For the technique considered here, this process leads to an ac-
phases “b” and “c.” This is also true when employing sym5
curate classification between the faulted phase and the healthy
and bior3.1 mother wavelets [as evident from Fig. 4(b) and
phase in the first instance, thereby significantly improving the
4(c)], although the levels are somewhat smaller in the case
performance and speed of the HIF detection process. As men-
of the former. However, when employing the coif4 mother
tioned in the foregoing section, the mother wavelets considered
wavelet, although there is a discernible difference between the
are db4, bior3.1, coif4, and sym5. For comparison of the perfor-
levels attained for the faulted “a” phase and the two healthy
mances attained using different mother wavelets, two conditions
phases, in comparison to the previous three mother wavelets
are compared as follows.
considered, they are significantly lower. Also, equally important
1) a significant magnitude of d1 coefficient for detecting the is that the differences in magnitudes between the faulted and
fault; healthy phases in the case of coif4 is much smaller than the
924 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 17, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2002
Fig. 4. Variation in the maximum sum value of d1 coefficients for three-phase current signals (a) db4 mother wavelet (b) sym5 mother wavelet (c) bior3.1 mother
wavelet (d) coif4 mother wavelet.
corresponding other types of mother wavelets as apparent from sample number that signifies the duration time for which a
the graphs shown in Fig. 4, and this is true for all fault positions. transient event (such as HIF) has to persist continuously. This
Thus, with regard to the selection of the mother wavelet, the is to discriminate between HIF and nonfault transient events
simple criterion adopted herein is based on the magnitudes of such as capacitor and line switching, arc furnace loads, etc. As
the summated coefficients d1 and the differences in magnitudes can be seen, when is greater than or equal to FC, the
between the faulted and healthy phases. In this respect, after value of FI is incremented and as soon as it attains the level ,
a series of studies employing the foregoing d1 coefficients this indicates an internal fault and a trip signal is initiated. As
distribution approach, the db4 and sym5 are appropriate for shown in Fig. 5, the absolute sum value is based on
detection of HIF in transmission line. The db4 mother wavelet summating the d1 coefficients over a 1-cycle period and the
is chosen for this study. sampling rate employed is 3840 Hz (i.e., 64 samples/cycle at
60 Hz). The summated values associated the three phases are
C. Fault-Detection Algorithm compared with a preset threshold level FC. The whole process
Fig. 5 shows the fault-detection procedure of the proposed is based on a moving window approach where the 1-cycle
technique, where FI is a counter that signifies the sample window is moved continuously by one sample.
number (and, therefore, the time period) for which useful infor- It is apparent from the foregoing decision logic that the
mation through DWT realization under HIF persists. criteria for the protection relay to initiate a trip signal is
is the sum value of the detailed output (d1 component) for a such that must stay above the threshold level FC
1-cycle period and is represented as an absolute value, fault continuously for samples (after fault inception). In this
criterion (FC) is the signal magnitude threshold as the lower respect, an extensive series of studies has revealed that in
limit of that is used to detect the HIF, and is the order to maintain relay stability for external faults (i.e., faults
KIM et al.: HIGH-IMPEDANCE ARCING FAULTS IN TRANSMISSION LINES USING WAVELET TRANSFORM 925
Fig. 7. Variation in the sum value for “a”-earth HIF at 10 km from end P (a)
fault inception angle 90 (b) fault inception angle 0 .
Fig. 6. Variation in the sum value for “a”-earth HIF as a function of fault A. Single-Phase-Earth Fault
distance (a) fault inception angle 90 (b) fault inception angle 0 . Fig. 6 depicts the absolute sum value of d1 associated with the
three-phase currents (measured at end P of the system shown
behind busbar P and beyond busbar Q in Fig. 1) and also in Fig. 1) using the db4 mother wavelet; the graphs shown in
restrain under no-fault conditions, the optimal settings for FC Fig. 6(a) and 6(b) are for an “a”-phase-earth HIF, as a function
926 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 17, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2002
Fig. 9. Variation in the sum value for “a”- “b” earth HIF at 10 km from end P
(a) fault inception angle 90 (b) fault inception angle 0 .
Raj Aggarwal (SM’91) received the B.Sc. and Ph.D degrees in electrical engi- Allan T. Johns (SM’88) received the B.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from the Univer-
neering from the University of Liverpool, U.K., in 1970 and 1973, respectively. sity of Bath, U.K. In 1982, he was awarded the degree of D.Sc. for an original
Currently, he is a Professor and Head of the Power and Energy Systems Group and substantial contribution to knowledge of electrical engineering.
at the University of Bath, U.K. His main areas of research interests are power Currently, he is Emeritus Professor in the Electrical Engineering Department
system modeling and the application of digital techniques and artificial intelli- at the University of Bath, U.K.
gence, protection and control, and power quality issues. Dr. Johns is is a fellow of the IEE U.K.
Dr. Aggarwal is a fellow of the IEE U.K.