Integration Techniques

I. Denition of the Integral as an Anti-derivative

If
d
dx
F(x) = f(x), then the indenite integral of f(x) with respect to x is
_
f(x) =
F(x). For example, since
d
dx
x
2
= 2x, we say that the indenite integral of 2x is x
2
, i.e.,
_
2xdx = x
2
Note:
The indenite integral is not unique as the derivative of, for example, x
2
+ 3 is also 2x,
so x
2
+ 3 is another indenite integral of 2x. This can be expressed by writing
_
2xdx = x
2
+ C
where C is arbitrary constant. The constant C has no specic value but can be given
any value based on the boundary condition of a particular problem.
The inverse relationship between dierentiation and integration means that for every
statement about dierentiation, we can write down a corresponding statement about
integration. For example,
d
dx
sin x = cos x, then we have
_
cos xdx = sin x
When we are given a function to integrate, we have to learn to recognize a given func-
tion as the derivative of another function. In other word, we have to run through all
the standard dierentiation formulae in our mind until we come to one which ts our
problem.
II. Integrating the Power of x
We now look at how to integrate the power of x by looking at the corresponding rule
for dierentiation:
d
dx
(x
n
) = nx
n1
, so
_
nx
n1
dx = x
n
+ A,
where A is an arbitrary constant. Similarly,
d
dx
_
x
n+1
n + 1
_
=
1
n + 1
d
dx
x
n+1
=
1
n + 1
(n + 1)x
n
= x
n
,
1
so that
_
x
n
dx =
x
n+1
n + 1
+ A.
This formula hold for all real numbers of n except n = 1 because the division by zero
does not make sense. When n = 1,
_
x
n
dx becomes
_
x
1
dx =
_
1
x
dx. Since
d
dx
(ln x) =
1
x
, we have
_
1
x
dx = lnx + A.
Please note that the integration such as
_
sin
2
xdx =
sin
3
x
3
+ c ,
_
(2x + 1)
6
dx =
(2x + 1)
7
7
+ c ,
are wrong. You will nd that the dierentiation of the function on right-hand side does
not produce the integrand on the left-hand side. It is a good practice to always check
your result this way during the examination. The table of the integrals of some common
functions are attached in the Appendix.
III. Properties of Denite Integrals
Assume the functions f and g are continuous function in [a, b].
Property 1:
_
b
a
cf(x) dx = c
_
b
a
f(x) dx, for any constant c.
Example:
_
2
1
5xdx = 5
_
2
1
xdx
=
5
2
_
2
1
2xdx
=
5
2
_
x
2
_
2
1
=
5
2
_
(2)
2
(1)
2

=
15
2

Example:
_

3/2
1/2
6

1 t
2
dt = 6
_
arcsin t
_

3/2
1/2
= 6
_

3


6
_
=
2

Example:
_
5
x

x
2
3
dx = 5
_
1
x
_
x
2
(

3)
2
dx
=
5

3
arcsec
_
x

3
_

Property 2:
_
b
a
_
f(x) g(x)

dx =
_
b
a
f(x) dx
_
b
a
g(x) dx
This property says that the integral of a sum (or minus) is the sum (or minus) of the
integrals.
Example:
_
1
0
_
4 + 3x
2

dx =
_
1
0
4 dx +
_
1
0
3x
2
dx
=
_
4x
_
1
0
+
_
x
3
_
1
0
= 4 + 1 = 5

This property can be extended to the case where there are more than two terms in the
sum/dierence.
Property 3:
If a < b < c and if f integrable on [a, b] and [b, c] then f is integrable on [a, c] and
_
c
a
f(x) dx =
_
b
a
f(x) dx +
_
c
b
f(x) dx
Example:
Integrate
_
5
3
|x 2| dx
Solution:
Since
|x 2| =
_
x 2 if x 2
(x 2) if x < 2
3
_
5
3
|x 2| dx =
_
2
3
(x 2) dx +
_
5
2
(x 2) dx
=
_
2
3
(x + 2) dx +
_
5
2
(x 2) dx
=
_

x
2
2
+ 2x
_
2
3
+
_
x
2
2
2x
_
5
2
= (2 + 4) (
9
2
6) + (
25
2
10) (2 4)
= 2 +
21
2
+
5
2
+ 2 = 17

Property 4:
We dene the denite integral
_
b
a
f(x) dx by assuming that a < b. If we reverse a and b,
then
_
b
a
f(x) dx =
_
a
b
f(x) dx
Property 5:
If a = b, then
_
a
a
f(x) dx = 0
Exercise:
Evaluate the integral below:
1.
_
2
0
x
2
dx
2.
_

0
cos xdx
3.
_
2
2
(4 x
2
) dx
4.
_
(1 t)(2 t
2
) dt
5.
_ _
u
2
+ 1 +
1
u
2
_
du
6.
_
(2

x)
2
dx
7.
_
(sin + 3 cos ) d
8.
_
sin 2x
sin x
dx
9.
_
sin x
1 sin
2
x
dx
10.
_
x

xdx
11.
_ 3
2
0
| sin x| dx
12.
_
9
0

2t dt
13.
_
x(
3

x +
4

x) dx
14.
_
1 + cos
2

cos
2

d
4
IV. Substitution Method
In the previous chapter we learnt how to dierentiate the composition of two functions
by using the Chain Rule. For example,
d
dx
sin(x
2
+ 1)
by letting u = x
2
+ 1, we have
du
dx
= 2x
then
d
dx
sin(x
2
+ 1) =
du
dx

d
du
sin(u) = 2x cos(u) = 2x cos(x
2
+ 1) .
The inverse relationship between dierentiation and integration means that
_
2xcos(x
2
+ 1) dx = sin(x
2
+ 1) + c .
This tells us if there are product of two functions in the integrand such that one of the
function is the derivative of the composite of another function, then
_
dg(x)
dx
f(g(x)) dx = F(g(x)) + c
where
d
du
F(u) = f(u) F(u) =
_
f(u) du .
Theorem:
If u = g(x) is a dierentiable function whose range is an interval I and f is continuous
on I, then
_
f
_
g(x)
_
g

(x) dx =
_
f(u) du + c
In particular, when g(x) = ax + b where a and b are constant, then
_
f(ax + b) (ax + b)

dx =
_
f(u) du + c
_
f(ax + b) a dx =
_
f(u) du + c
_
f(ax + b) dx =
_
f(u) du
a
+ C
An example of this particular case is illustrated below:
_
cos(2x + 3) dx =
sin(2x + 3)
2
+ c .
5
Here f(ax + b) = cos(2x + 3) so that a = 2, then f(u) = cos(u) and thus
_
f(u) du =
_
cos(u) du = sin(u) = sin(2x + 3).
Example:
Integrate
_
x
2
cos(x
3
+ 3) dx.
Solution:
Since
_
x
2
cos(x
3
+ 3) dx =
_
cos(x
3
+ 3) x
2
dx
Let u = x
3
+ 3 du = 3x
2
dx
1
3
du = x
2
dx, substitute this new variable into the
integrand yields
_
cos(x
3
+ 3) x
2
dx =
_
cos(u)
1
3
du
=
1
3
_
cos(u) du
=
1
3
sin(u) + c
=
1
3
sin(x
3
+ 3) + c

Example:
Integrate
_
(7x + 1)
20
dx
Solution:
Let u = 7x + 1 then du = 7 dx
1
7
du = dx. Substitute these into the integrand yields
_
(7x + 1)
20
dx =
_
(u)
20
1
7
du
=
1
7
_
u
20
du
=
1
7

u
21
21
+ c
=
(7x + 1)
21
147
+ c

Example:
Integrate
_
2xe
x
2
dx
6
Solution:
Let u = x
2
then du = 2xdx, therefore
_
2xe
x
2
dx =
_
e
u
du = e
u
+ c = e
x
2
+ c

Example:
Integrate
_
2x
x
2
+ 5
dx
Solution:
Let u = x
2
+ 5, then du = 2xdx, therefore
_
2x
x
2
+ 5
dx =
_
1
u
du = ln |u| + c = ln |x
2
+ 5| + c

Example:
Integrate
_

2x + 1 dx
Solution:
Let u = 2x + 1, then du = 2 dx dx =
1
2
du, therefore
_

2x + 1 dx =
_

u
1
2
du
=
1
2
_

udu
=
1
2
_
u
1/2
du
=
1
2

u
3/2
3/2
+ c
=
u
3/2
3
+ c
=
(2x + 1)
3/2
3
+ c

Example:
Integrate
_
x
5

1 + x
2
dx
7
Solution:
Let u = 1 + x
2
then du = 2xdx xdx =
1
2
du, and also
u = 1 + x
2
u 1 = x
2
(u 1)
2
= x
4
Substitute x with the variable u in the integrand yields
_
x
5

1 + x
2
dx =
_
x
4

1 + x
2
xdx
=
_
(u 1)
2

u
1
2
du
=
1
2
_
(u 1)
2
(u)
1/2
du
=
1
2
_
(u
2
2u + 1) (u)
1/2
du
=
1
2
_
(u
5/2
2u
3/2
+ u
1/2
) du
=
1
2
_
u
7/2
7/2

2u
5/2
5/2
+
u
3/2
3/2
_
+ c
=
u
7/2
7

2u
5/2
5
+
u
3/2
3
+ c
=
(1 + x
2
)
7/2
7

2(1 + x
2
)
5/2
5
+
(1 + x
2
)
3/2
3
+ c

Example:
Integrate
_
x + 9
x
2
+ 9
dx
Solution:
Let u = x
2
+ 9 then du = 2xdx, therefore
_
x + 9
x
2
+ 9
dx =
_
x
x
2
+ 9
dx +
_
9
x
2
+ 9
dx
=
1
2
_
1
u
du + 9
_
1
x
2
+ 3
2
dx
=
1
2
ln |u| + 9
1
3
arctan
_
x
3
_
+ c
=
1
2
ln |x
2
+ 9| + 3 arctan
_
x
3
_
+ c
8

Exercise:
1.
_
dx
5 3x
2.
_
(ln x)
2
x
dx
3.
_
dx
xln x
4.
_
sec
2
xtan xdx
5.
_
2
1
e
1/x
x
2
dx
6.
_
1
0
x
2
(1 + 2x
3
)
5
dx
7.
_
sec
3
xtan xdx
8.
_
(x
2
+ 1)

2x
3
+ 6xdx
9.
_
dx
1 + 9x
2
10.
_
2xe
3x
2
e
3x
2
+ 2
dx
11.
_
1
3 + x
2
dx
12.
_
x

1 4x
2
dx
13.
_
x
x
2
+ 9
dx
14.
_
tanxdx
15.
_
sec xdx
16.
_
cos

t
dt
V. Trigonometric Integrals
Objective: At the end of this topic you should be able to integrate trigonometry of
higher orders with odd and even powers.
Methods to be used
1. In evaluating the integral of the form
_
sin
m
xcos
n
xdx,
(a) If n (the power of cosine) is odd and m is arbitrary integer,
- save one cosine factor,
- for the remaining cosine factors (which has even power), use the identity
cos
2
x = 1 sin
2
x to express the cosine in terms of sine,
- then substitute u = sin x
(b) If m (the power of sine) is odd and n is arbitrary integer,
9
- save one sine factor,
- for the remaining sine factors (which has even power), use the identity
sin
2
x = 1 cos
2
x to express the sine in terms of cosine,
- then substitute u = cos x
Example:
_
cos
3
xdx =
_
cos
2
x cos xdx
=
_
(1 sin
2
x) cos xdx
Let u = sin x the du = cos xdx, therefore
_
(1 sin
2
x) cos xdx =
_
(1 u
2
) du
= u
u
3
3
+ c
= sin x
sin
3
x
3
+ c

Example:
_
sin
5
xcos
2
xdx =
_
sin
4
x sin x cos
2
xdx
=
_
(sin
2
x)
2
sin x cos
2
xdx
=
_
(1 cos
2
x)
2
sin x cos
2
xdx
Let u = cos x then du = sin xdx, therefore
_
(1 cos
2
x)
2
sin x cos
2
xdx
=
_
(1 u
2
)
2
u
2
(du)
=
_
(1 2u
2
+ u
4
)u
2
du
=
_
(u
2
2u
4
+ u
6
) du
=
_
u
3
3

2u
5
5
+
u
7
7
_
+ c
=
cos
3
x
3
+
2 cos
5
x
5

cos
7
x
7
+ c

10
(c) If m and n are both even, then use half angle identities
sin
2
x =
1
2
(1 cos 2x)
cos
2
x =
1
2
(1 + cos 2x)
sin xcos x =
1
2
sin 2x
In general,
sin
2
nx =
1
2
(1 cos 2nx)
cos
2
nx =
1
2
(1 + cos 2nx)
sin nxcos nx =
1
2
sin 2nx
For example,
sin
2
2x =
1
2
(1 cos 4x)
cos
2
3x =
1
2
(1 + cos 6x)
sin 4xcos 4x =
1
2
sin 8x
Example:
_
sin
4
xdx =
_
(sin
2
x)
2
dx
=
_ _
1 cos 2x
2
_
2
dx
=
_
1
4
(1 2 cos 2x + cos
2
2x) dx
=
1
4
_ _
1 2 cos 2x +
1
2
(1 + cos 4x)
_
dx
=
1
4
_
3
2
x
2 sin2x
2
+
sin 4x
2.4
_
+ c
=
3
8
x
sin 2x
4
+
sin 4x
32
+ c

2. In evaluating
_
tan
m
xsec
n
xdx
(a) If n is even and m is arbitrary integer,
- save a factor of sec
2
x
- substitute sec
2
x = 1 + tan
2
x
- then substitute u = tan x
(b) If m is odd and n is arbitrary integer,
11
- save the factor of sec xtan x
- substitute tan
2
x = sec
2
x 1
- then substitute u = sec x
Example:
_
tan
3
xdx =
_
tan
2
xtanxdx
=
_
(sec
2
x 1) tanxdx
=
_ _
sec
2
xtanx
sin x
cos x
_
dx
For the rst term, let u = tan x then du = sec
2
xdx; for the second term, let
v = cos x then dv = sin x. Therefore,
_
sec
2
xtan xdx
_
sin x
cos x
dx =
_
u du +
_
dv
v
=
u
2
2
+ ln |v| + c
=
tan
2
x
2
+ ln | cos x| + c

Example:
_
sec
4
xtan
3
xdx =
_
sec
3
xtan
2
x(sec xtan x) dx
=
_
sec
3
x(sec
2
x 1)(sec xtanx) dx
Let u = sec x, then du = sec xtan xdx, therefore
_
sec
3
x(sec
2
x 1)(sec xtan x) dx
=
_
u
3
(u
2
1) du
=
_
(u
5
u
3
) du
=
u
6
6

u
4
4
+ c
=
sec
6
x
6

sec
4
x
4
+ c

3. To evaluate the integrals

12
a)
_
sin mxcos nxdx
b)
_
sin mxsin nxdx
c)
_
cos mxcos nxdx
we use the identity
(i) sin Acos B =
1
2
[sin(AB) + sin(A + B)]
(ii) sin Asin B =
1
2
[cos(AB) cos(A + B)]
(iii) cos Acos B =
1
2
[cos(AB) + cos(A + B)]
Example:
_
sin 4xcos 5xx =
1
2
_
[sin(x) + sin 9x] dx
=
1
2
_
[sin(x) + sin 9x] dx
=
1
2
_
cos x
1
9
cos 9x
_
+ c

Exercise:
Evaluate the integrals
1.
_
cos
2
xtan
3
xdx
2.
_
sin 5xsin 2xdx
3.
_
/4
0
sin
4
xcos
2
xdx
4.
_

0
sin
4
(3t) dt
VI. Integration by Parts
Recall from the previous lecture that the Product Rule is applied when we dieren-
tiate the product of some functions, i.e.,
(u(x) w(x))

= u

(x) w(x) + u(x) w

(x) ,
where

denotes the derivative with respect to x. Now, if we integrate both sides of the
equation above over x gives
u(x) w(x) =
_
_
u

(x) w(x) + u(x) w

(x)

dx
=
_
u

(x) w(x) dx +
_
u(x) w

(x) dx
13
Let v(x) = w

(x) so that w(x) =

_
v(x) dx, the above equation becomes
u(x)
_
v(x) dx =
_
u

(x)
_
_
v(x) dx
_
dx +
_
u(x) v(x) dx
Thus, rearranging terms
_
u(x) v(x) dx = u(x)
_
v(x) dx
_
u

(x)
_
_
v(x) dx
_
dx
This formula helps us to transform the integral of products of functions into other (ideally
simpler) integrals. If an interval with endpoints a and b are given,
_
b
a
u(x)v(x) dx =
_
u(x)
_
v(x) dx
_
b
a

_
b
a
u

(x)
_
_
v(x) dx
_
dx
Given a single function to integrate, the typical strategy is to carefully separate it into
a product of two functions u(x)v(x) such that the integral produced by the integration
by parts formula is easier to evaluate than the original one. The best strategy to take is
either choosing u(x) as a function that simplies when dierentiated, or choosing v(x)
as a function that simplies when integrated.
Example:
Given
_
xsin xdx.
since the derivative of x is 1, we make this part as u(x) and let v = sin x, then
_
xsin xdx = x
_
sin xdx
_
(x)

_
_
sin xdx
_
dx
= x(cos x)
_
(1)(cos x) dx
= xcos x +
_
cos xdx
= xcos x + sin x + c
Note that if we choose u(x) = sin x and v(x) = x, this will lead to more complicated
integral and we are unable to evaluate the integration any further, i.e.,
_
xsin xdx = sin x
_
xdx
_
(sin x)

_
_
xdx
_
dx
=
x
2
2
sin x
1
2
_
x
2
cos xdx.
It is very important to choose the u(x) and v(x) in such a way that a much simpler
integral will be obtained.
14
Example:
Integrate
_
lnxdx.
Solution:
Let u(x) = ln x and v(x) = 1, therefore
_
ln xdx = ln x
_
(1) dx
_
(ln x)

_
_
(1)dx
_
dx
= xln x
_
1
x
xdx
= xln x
_
(1)dx
= xln x x + c

Example:
Integrate
_
t
2
e
t
dt.
Solution:
Let u = t
2
and v = e
t
, then
_
t
2
e
t
dt = t
2
e
t

_
2t e
t
dt
= t
2
e
t
2
_
te
t
dt
For the second term on the right,
_
te
t
dt, we apply the integration by parts again by
letting u = t and v = e
t
, then
_
te
t
dt = te
t

_
(1)e
t
dt = te
t
e
t
Thus,
_
t
2
e
t
dt = t
2
e
t
2(te
t
e
t
) + c

Exercise:
Evaluate the integrals
1.
_
x
4
(ln x)
2
dx
2.
_

0
t sin 3t dt
3.
_
2
1
ln x
x
2
dx
15
4.
_
xcos 5xdx
5.
_
cos(ln x) dx
6.
_
e
2
sin 3 d
VII. Integration of Rational Functions Using Partial Fraction
Objective: In this topic, we introduce how partial fraction expansion provides an
approach to integrating a general rational function.
If P(x) and Q(x) are two polynomials in x, then the ratio of these two polynomials
P(x)
Q(x)
where Q(x) = 0
is called a rational function. If the degree of the numerator of the rational function is less
than that of the denominator, the rational function is called a proper rational function.
Any proper rational function can be expressed as sum of Partial fraction.
Example:
Convert the proper rational function
x + 5
x
2
+ x 2
in term of partial fraction.
Solution:
We rst factorize the denominator as
x + 5
x
2
+ x 2
=
x + 5
(x 1)(x + 2)
.
Let
x + 5
(x 1)(x + 2)
=
A
x 1
+
B
x + 2
=
A(x + 2) + B(x 1)
(x 1)(x + 2)
By equating the numerator part, we have
x + 5 = A(x + 2) + B(x 1)
There are two methods to solve for the constant A and B.
1. Using substitution of x value:
Let x = 1, then
6 = A(3) + B(0)
A = 2
16
Let x = 2, then
3 = A(0) + B(3)
B = 1
2. Comparing the coecients:
x + 5 = A(x + 2) + B(x 1)
= (A + B)x + 2AB
Compare the term with x:
1 = A + B (1)
Compare the term with constant:
5 = 2AB (2)
From Eq. (1), A = 1 B and substitute this into Eq. (2) gives
5 = 2(1 B) B
B = 1
So that
A = 1 B = 2
The result is
x + 5
x
2
+ x 2
=
2
x 1

1
x + 2

From this result, the integral of the rational function can be evaluate as
_
x + 5
x
2
+ x 2
dx =
_ _
2
x 1

1
x + 2
_
dx
= 2 ln|x 1| ln |x + 2| + c
If the degree of the numerator is equal or greater than the degree of the denominator
in a rational fraction, then the rational function is called improper rational function.
The improper rational function can be written as the sum of a polynomial function and
a nite number of proper rational fractions and this proper rational fractions can be
resolved into partial fractions. For instance,
4x
3
3x + 5
x
2
2x
= 4x + 8 +
13x + 5
x
2
2x
= 4x + 8
5
2x
+
31
2(x 2)
17
and thus, the integral of the rational function can be evaluated as
_
4x
3
3x + 5
x
2
2x
dx =
_ _
4x + 8
5
2x
+
31
2(x 2)
_
dx
= 2x
2
+ 8x
5
2
ln |x| +
31
2
ln |x 2| + c
The following table indicates the partial fractions associated to proper rational functions.
Form of the rational function Form of the partial fraction
1.
px + q
(x a)(x b)
, a = b
A
x a
+
B
x b
2.
px + q
(x a)
2
A
x a
+
B
(x a)
2
3.
px
2
+ qx + r
(x a)(x b)(x c)
, a = b = c
A
x a
+
B
x b
+
C
x c
4.
px
2
+ qx + r
(x a)
2
(x b)
, a = b
A
x a
+
B
(x a)
2
+
C
x b
5.
px
2
+ qx + r
(x a)
3
(x b)
, a = b
A
x a
+
B
(x a)
2
+
C
(x a)
3
+
D
x b
6.
px
2
+ qx + r
(x a)(x
2
+ bx + c)
A
x a
+
Bx + C
x
2
+ bx + c
,
where x
2
+ bx + c cannot be factorized further.
Example:
Evaluate the integral
_
4x
(x 1)
2
(x + 1)
dx
Solution:
Let
4x
(x 1)
2
(x + 1)
=
A
x 1
+
B
(x 1)
2
+
C
x + 1
=
A(x 1)(x + 1) + B(x + 1) + C(x 1)
2
(x 1)
2
(x + 1)
By equating the numerator part, we have
4x = A(x 1)(x + 1) + B(x + 1) + C(x 1)
2
Let x = 1,
4 = B(2) , B = 2
Let x = 1,
4 = C(4) , C = 1
18
Let x = 0,
0 = A(1)(1) + 2(1) 1(1)
2
, A = 1
Thus, the integral becomes
_
4x
(x 1)
2
(x + 1)
dx
=
_ _
1
x 1
+
2
(x 1)
2

1
x + 1
_
dx
= ln |x 1| ln |x + 1| + 2
_
1
(x 1)
2
dx
For the integral in the last term, let u = x 1, then du = dx, so that
_
1
(x 1)
2
dx =
_
1
u
2
du
= u
1
=
1
u
=
1
x 1
The result is
_
4x
(x 1)
2
(x + 1)
dx = ln |x 1| ln |x + 1|
2
x 1
+ c

Example:
Evaluate the integral
_
x + 4
x
2
+ 2x + 5
dx
Solution:
Since the denominator of integrand cannot be factorized further, this rational function
cannot be converted into the partial fraction as before. Now, let
u = x
2
+ 2x + 5
du = (2x + 2) dx
= 2(x + 1) dx
du
2
= (x + 1) dx
Then
_
x + 4
x
2
+ 2x + 5
dx =
_
(x + 1)
x
2
+ 2x + 5
dx +
_
3
x
2
+ 2x + 5
dx
19
For the rst term on the right hand side, by the substitution in above
_
(x + 1) dx
x
2
+ 2x + 5
=
1
2
_
du
u
=
1
2
ln |u|
=
1
2
ln |x
2
+ 2x + 5|
For the second term on the right hand side,
_
3
x
2
+ 2x + 5
dx = 3
_
1
(x + 1)
2
1 + 5
dx
= 3
_
1
(x + 1)
2
2
2
dx
=
3
2
arctan
_
x + 1
2
_
The result is
_
x + 4
x
2
+ 2x + 5
dx =
1
2
ln |x
2
+ 2x + 5| +
3
2
arctan
_
x + 1
2
_
+ c

Example:
Evaluate the integral
_
x
3
+ x
x 1
dx
Solution:
Since the polynomial in the numerator has a degree higher than the denominator, we
cannot use the integration by partial fraction directly. In this case, we perform long
division
x
2
+ x + 2
x 1
_
x
3
+ x
x
3
+ x
2
x
2
+ x
x
2
+ x
2x
2x + 2
2
Thus,
_
x
3
+ x
x 1
dx =
_
_
x
2
+ x + 2 +
2
x 1
dx
_
=
x
3
3
+
x
2
2
+ 2x + 2 ln |x 1| + c
20

Exercise:
Evaluate the integrals
1.
_
1
(x + 5)
2
(x 1)
dx
2.
_
x
3
+ 2x 1
2x
3
+ 3x
2
2x
dx
VIII. Trigonometric Substitution
If you have an integral of the form
_
a
2
x
2
dx where a > 0, this integral can be
solved by using the trigonometric substitution. Steps involved are:
Let x = a sin , then

a
2
x
2
=
_
a
2
a
2
sin
2

=
_
a
2
(1 sin
2
)
Using the identity cos
2
+ sin
2
= 1, the equation becomes
_
a
2
(1 sin
2
) =

a
2
cos
2
= a| cos |
Table of Trigonometric Substitution
Expression Substitution Identity
1.

a
2
x
2
x = a sin cos
2
= 1 sin
2

2


2
2.

a
2
+ x
2
x = a tan sec
2
= 1 + tan
2

2


2
3.

x
2
a
2
x = a sec
0

2
sec
2
= 1 + tan
2

3
2
tan
2
= sec
2
1
Example:
Evaluate the integral
_

9 x
2
x
2
dx
Solution:
Let x = 3 sin where

2


2
, then dx = 3 cos d. Therefore
_

9 x
2
x
2
dx =
_
_
9 9 sin
2

3 sin
2

3 cos d
=
_
cos

9 cos
2

sin
2

d
=
_
cos | cos |
sin
2

dx
21
Since cos 0 in the interval

2


2
, therefore | cos | = cos .
_

9 x
2
x
2
dx =
_
cos
2

sin
2

dx
=
_
cot
2
d
=
_
_
csc
2
1
_
d
= cot + c
We must return the variable to the original variable x. From earlier x = 3 sin means
that sin =
x
3
, thus = arcsin(
x
3
). Now, how can we express cot in terms of x? This
can be either with the aid of the diagram or by analytic method. Let us introduce the
rst method. The diagram below shows is interpreted as an angle of a right triangle:

9 x
2
x
3

Since sin =
x
3
, so that x is labeled in the opposite side of and 3 is the length of
diagonal. Then by Pythagorean Theorem, the length of the base is

3
2
x
2
=

9 x
2
.
The value of cot can be constructed from the diagram as
cot =

9 x
2
x
. (3)
Now we show how the analytical method will also produce the same result. We use the
identity cos
2
+ sin
2
= 1, then cos =
_
1 sin
2
=
_
1 (
x
3
)
2
, so that
cot =
cos
sin
=
_
1 (
x
3
)
2
x
3
=

3
2
x
2
3

3
x
=

9 x
2
x
.
22
And so
_

9 x
2
x
2
dx = cot + c
=

9 x
2
x
arcsin(
x
3
) + c

Exercise:
Evaluate the integrals
1.
_
1
x
2

x
2
+ 4
dx
2.
_
dx

x
2
a
2
, where a > 0.
3.
_
3

3/2
0
x
3
(4x
2
+ 9)
3/2
dx
4.
_
x

1 x
4
dx
5.
_
x
x
2
7
dx
6.
_
dx

x
2
+ 16
7.
_
1
(x
2
+ 2x + 2)
2
dx
23
Appendix: The Integrals of some common functions
1.
_
e
x
dx = e
x
+ c
2.
_
a
x
dx =
a
x
ln a
+ c
3.
_
1
x
dx = ln |x| + c
4.
_
ln(x) dx = xln(x) x + c
5.
_
cos xdx = sin x + c
6.
_
sin xdx = cos x + c
7.
_
tan xdx = ln | cos x| + c
8.
_
cot xdx = ln | sin x| + c
9.
_
sec xdx = ln | sec x + tan x| + c
10.
_
csc xdx = ln| csc x + cot x| + c
11.
_
sec
2
xdx = tan x + c
12.
_
csc
2
xdx = cot x + c
13.
_
sec xtan xdx = sec x + c
14.
_
csc xcot xdx = csc x + c
15.
_
coshxdx = sinhx + c
16.
_
sinh xdx = coshx + c
17.
_
tanh xdx = ln(cosh x) + c
18.
_
cothxdx = ln | sinh x| + c
19.
_
sechxdx = arctan(sinh x) + c
20.
_
cschxdx = ln

tanh
_
x
2
_

+ c
21.
_
sech
2
xdx = tanh x + c
22.
_
csch
2
xdx = cothx + c
23.
_
sechxtanh xdx = sechx + c
24.
_
cschxcoth xdx = cschx + c
25.
_
1

a
2
x
2
dx = arcsin
_
x
a
_
+ c
26.
_
1

a
2
x
2
dx = arccos
_
x
a
_
+ c
27.
_
1
a
2
+ x
2
dx =
1
a
arctan
_
x
a
_
+ c
28.
_
1
x

x
2
a
2
dx =
1
a
arccsc
_
x
a
_
+ c
29.
_
1
x

x
2
a
2
dx =
1
a
arcsec
_
x
a
_
+ c
30.
_
1
a
2
+ x
2
dx =
1
a
arccot
_
x
a
_
+ c
31.
_
1

x
2
+ a
2
dx = arcsinh
_
x
a
_
+ c
32.
_
1

x
2
a
2
dx = arccosh
_
x
a
_
+ c
33.
_
1
a
2
x
2
dx =
1
a
arctanh
_
x
a
_
+ c
34.
_
1
x

x
2
+ a
2
dx =
1
a
arccsch
_
x
a
_
+ c
35.
_
1
x

a
2
x
2
dx =
1
a
arcsech
_
x
a
_
+ c
36.
_
1
a
2
x
2
dx =
1
a
arccoth
_
x
a
_
+ c
24