1

a) Pure iron means 0% carbon and 100% ferrite structure:

b) As the %carbon increases then 0.2% carbon steel contains less pearlite and more
ferrite structure:













Ferrite
2





















c) As the %carbon increases to 0.5% then carbon steel contains 50% pearlite and 50%
ferrite structure:






















> Ferrite P > Pearlite
0.2%
Carbon
3
d) At 0.8% carbon steel contains 100% pearlite structure:












































pearlite
Pearlite
4
e) At 1.2% carbon steel contains pearlite and cementite grain boundary structure:















1.2% carbon steel











Martensite is a nodular shape structure in which carbon atom trapped within the BCC
structure(ferrite) when transform from FCC (austenite)
















Martensite
Cementite
5
Development of microstructure (Martensite)

1.Austenitize above the A
3
temperature of 770
o
C for 1 h. An appropriate temperature
may be 770 + 55 = 825
o
C.
2.Quench rapidly to room temperature. Since the M
f
is about 250
o
C, martensite will
form.
3.Temper by heating the steel to 440
o
C. Normally, 1 h will be sufficient if the steel is not
too thick.
4.Cool to room temperature.

In water quenching, a completely new phase can appear. In ferrous alloys Martensite
forms. Transformation of austenite to martensite is very rapid. It is a diffusionless, time-
independent process. Martensite has a needle-like structure and it is very hard.























Pearlite
Ferrite
6


For Understanding











































Pearlite
Ferrite
7









1. Atomic structure of metals:




1. Atomic structure of Metals

















....









Crystalline structure, Free electron, Bonding may be strong or weak.




8
2. Atomic structure of ceramics:

















Metallic ion: cation; Non- metallic ion: anion. Brittle nature: weak bonding.



3. Atomic structure of Polymers:




















Crystalline and amorphous structures; Bonding may be strong or weak but obviously
lower than metallic bonding.
9
How Mechanical Properties Differ?













































-As previous result of
critically sized FLAW


- Easier to propagate a
crack than a dislocation
10

































Stress-Strain Curves: No plastic deformation for ceramics but metal has linear elastic
limit at which yields and starts to plastically deform and breaks at certain points after
UTS decreasing stress.










11














































To produce a network of fine cracks in the surface or glaze of.
Polymer has linear elastic limit at which yields and starts to plastically
deform and breaks at certain points after UTS but with increasing stress.
12





















This microstructure shows twinned equiaxed a grains and a complete absence of the
Cu
2
O eutectic characteristic of tough pitch copper.




















(a) Hot rolled Pure copper
(alpha)
13
Cu- Zn alloys form alpha and beta phases during solidification: The alpha alloys can be The alpha alloys can be The alpha alloys can be The alpha alloys can be
differentiated by a differentiated by a differentiated by a differentiated by a gradual change in color gradual change in color gradual change in color gradual change in color, from , from , from , from golden yellow golden yellow golden yellow golden yellow to to to to red red red red. . . .



















(b) Hot rolled 70/30 Alpha Brass

















(c) 60/40 Brass
Alpha
Brass
Twins
Beta
brass
Beta
brass
Alpha
Brass
14
This specimen shows areas of alpha slightly elongated in the direction of working, in a
matrix of beta. The body-centred cubic beta phase does not develop annealing twins.
Twins are, however, present in the alpha and would be revealed by deep etching.
















(d) Hot rolled Normalized 0.5% carbon steel



As %carbon increases then cementite boundary increases for hepereutectoid steels


















Ferrite
Pearlite
(e) Hot rolled 1.5% carbon steel
cementite
pearlite
15







At 1100
0
C it transforms to austenite:


















Upon quenching it forms martensite:



















Martensite
Austenite
16




































Two Examples of thermoplastics









17






















Two Examples of thermosets























18









Two Examples of elastomers
























Two Examples of natural polymers











19

Specific Characteristics of each group polymers (Just draw the relevant
figures and explain)











































Thermoplastics
Elastomer
Rubber
Thermoplastics
Thermosets
20







































Youngs modulus increase with the increased fraction of covalent bond and polymer
structure has been changed from simple hydrocarbon (linear) to 100% crosslink
(diamond)




21








Hardening

>> Heat the steel to the correct temperature for quenching.

>> After the steel is up to temperature, it should be allowed to heat for at least five
minutes per inch of diameter or thickness in preparation for quenching.

>> In other words, if the quenching temperature is 1500
0
F, the furnace should be held at
that temperature and the steel allowed to reach this temperature.

Quenching

>> Steels are made for a definite quenching medium - air, oil or water.

>> In liquid baths, sufficient quenching fluid must be used so that the liquid will
not get too hot and be ineffective.

>> Generally speaking, the tool should be removed from the quench when it is
approximately 150
0
F and then be allowed to cool to room temperature after which
it should be placed in the tempering oven.








Solid Solution Hardenin Solid Solution Hardenin Solid Solution Hardenin Solid Solution Hardening and Precipitation g and Precipitation g and Precipitation g and Precipitation Hardening: Hardening: Hardening: Hardening:
Aluminium Alloys Aluminium Alloys Aluminium Alloys Aluminium Alloys

A number of methods are available by which metals may be strengthened; work
hardening has already been considered.
solid solution strengthening,
age hardening and
the precipitation hardening

22
Solid Solutions strengthening Solid Solutions strengthening Solid Solutions strengthening Solid Solutions strengthening

>> Some metals dissolve in all ratios one into the other. They display complete
substitutional solid solubility.
>> For example, silver atoms may substitute for gold atoms, retaining the face-centred-
cubic structure of gold and vice-versa.

Several factors are known that control ranges of solubility in alloy systems.

i) Crystal-structure factor - as indicated above complete solid solubility of two elements
is never attained unless the elements have the same type of crystal lattice
structure. X.

ii) Relative size factor - the size factor is favourable for solid solution formation when the
difference in atomic size is less than about 15%.

(iii) Chemical-affinity factor - the greater the chemical affinity of two elements, the
more restricted is their solid solubility. Generally, the further apart the elements
are in the periodic table, the greater is their chemical affinity.


>> An interstitial solid solution is formed when atoms of small atomic size fit into the
spaces of the lattice structure of the larger atom elements.

>> The best known and most important to engineers is the interstitial solution of carbon
in iron.

>> The more carbon atoms present the stronger the alloy, due to the distortion, which
occurs interfering with the movement of dislocations on the slip planes of the
alloy.















(a) Substitutional Solid Solution (b) Interstitial Solid Solution
(SSS) (ISS)


Types of Solid Solution
23

























During plastic deformation ceramics failed at yield point (no plastic deformation) but
metal can sustain during plastic deformation.





After age hardened the measure the hardness (Rockwell A) of the set of specimens of
Aluminium Alloy 2011 (4.0 % Cu) . All specimens have been solution treated at 525C
and subsequently aged at 180C for various times up to 240 minutes. Then plot them
the hardness values as a function of ageing time using the graph paper provided (as in
lab 5).






24

Curve with explanation: Just draw one curve


Age Hardening Curves
The most quoted age
hardening curve is that for
Al-Cu alloys performed in the
late 40s. Keep in mind that
age hardening was known
empirically (Alfred Wilm) as
a technologically useful
treatment from the early
days of aluminum alloys.
Higher Cu contents result in
higher maximum hardnesses
because larger volume
fractions of precipitate are
possible.










25



Sketches of samples, equipment:





































26

Typical plot:




















Typical plot for Plain carbon steel and Alloy steel: Just draw the arrow marked
curves.

Figure 12.23 The

hardenability curves
for several steels.
Alloy steel
Plain carbon steel
27















JUST OPINED AS MUCH AS AUTHENTIC. MOST
WELCOME FOR ANY NEW IDEA OR ADVENTURE.











Ans. (E)

Reasons:

Hardest materials have higher Young modulus and fracture strength but very much low
tensile strength and yield strength like Diamond.







28






Ans. (D)

Reasons:

Strongest materials have higher, yield, fracture and tensile strength with comparatively
lower Young modulus but low elongation like steel.







Ans. (B)

Reasons:

Ductile materials have higher elongation at fracture but comparatively lower Young
modulus, yield, fracture and tensile strength like aluminium, polymer.









Ans. (D)

Reasons:

Toughest materials: yield strength somewhat less than the fracture strength, which is the
stress at which it breaks. On the other hand, energy absorb is higher (plotting from yield
strength, fracture and tensile strength) like steels.





29





































Ans. (C)

Reasons:

Stiffest materials: Stiffness is the resistance of an elastic body to deflection by an applied
force i.e. higher Young modulus. They have higher fracture strength with comparatively
yield and tensile strength.


Strain

Stress
Area
30




Ans. (D)

Reasons:

Hardened means quenching and tempering for steel or solid solution hardening of non-
ferrous metals like AL, Cu. Then yield, fracture and tensile strength increase and
elongation decreases.








Ans. (E)

Reasons:

Ceramic materials have higher Young modulus and fracture strength but no elongation
and yield strength like Diamond.







Ans. (E)

Reasons:
Ceramic armor plates used as the outer layer of lightweight composite armor (armour).
Due to the high hardness of the alumina and silicon carbide ceramic plates, they can
break up the armor-piercing bullet, and the woven backing (fiberglass, Kevlar or
Spectra) catches the fragment. The assembly is approximately half the weight of steel
and it does the same job. This armor is used as protection for police, defense and military
personnel. Ceramic can prolong under high compressive stress.