86 CHAPTER 3.

PRESSURE
Figure 3.3: Because of the increase in pressure with depth, which can cause the bends, sport
diving is done no deeper than 130 feet. The hydrostatic relation tells us the pressure is nearly
5 atm at this depth. [Photograph courtesy of Barbara Wilcox]
The hydrostatic relation tells us that the pressure at 130 feet in the ocean is 72.8 psi (note
that the density of seawater is 2.0 slugs/ft
3
). This high a pressure is sufficient to cause nitrogen
to dissolve in a divers bloodstream, leading to impaired judgment and a painful condition
known as the bends if the diver returns to the surface too rapidly. Impaired judgment is very
noticeable at a depth of 130 feet, which is the established maximum depth for sport diving.
Using no breathing equipment, divers have exceeded this depth and risen to the surface rapidly
with no ill effects. However, their pulse rates have gone so low at these great depths as to be
in a state close to deaththis practice is not recommended!
3.3 Atmospheric Pressure Variation
The pressure in the Earths atmosphere varies in a more complicated manner than the simple
linear relation in Equation (3.17). The reason for this is the following. Atmospheric air
behaves like a perfect gas so that its density is given by
=
p
RT
(3.18)
Hence, Equation (3.16) assumes the following form.
dp
dz
=
g
RT
p (3.19)
If we knew the variation of temperature T with altitude, integration of Equation (3.19)
would be straightforward. There is a simple model for the atmosphere over the United States
known as the U. S. Standard Atmosphere [U. S. Government Printing Office (1974)]. This
model represents average conditions in the United States at 40
o
N latitude (e.g., New York
City). In the U. S. Standard Atmosphere, the region from the Earths surface (z = 0) up
to z = 11.0 km (6.84 miles) is called the troposphere and the temperature decreases linearly
with altitude according to
T = T
0
z for 0 z 11.0 km (3.20)
3.3. ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE VARIATION 87
z (km)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
200 220 240 260 280 300
T (K)
T = T
1
T = T
0
troposphere
stratosphere
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
................................................ .. .. .. .
..........
............................................. .... .. .. . .
..........
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................................................................................................................
Figure 3.4: Temperature in the U. S. Standard Atmosphere.
where the coefficient is the lapse rate, and T
0
is the average surface temperature. The
region from z = 11.0 km (6.84 mi) to z = 20.1 km (12.5 miles) is called the stratosphere.
The temperature in this idealized model is constant in the stratosphere, and denoted by T
1
.
Figure 3.4 shows the temperature variation in the U. S. Standard Atmosphere, with the tropo-
sphere and stratosphere clearly indicated. Above the stratosphere, temperature increases in a
nontrivial manner. Table 3.1 lists values of , T
0
and T
1
in SI and USCS units.
Table 3.1: Properties of the U. S. Standard Atmosphere
Property SI Units USCS Units
6.50 K/km 18.85
o
R/mi
T
0
288 K (15
o
C) 518.4
o
R (59
o
F)
T
1
218 K (55
o
C) 392.4
o
R (67
o
F)
Tropospheric Pressure Variation. Focusing first on the troposphere, combining Equa-
tions (3.19) and (3.20) yields
dp
p
=
g dz
R(T
0
z)
(3.21)
Integrating, we find that the pressure varies according to
p = p
0

1
z
T
0

g/(R)
for 0 z 11.0 km (3.22)
where p
0
= 101 kPa (14.7 psi) is the pressure at sea level. The exponent g/(R) in Equa-
tion (3.22) is approximately 5.26. Note that the pressure falls to 22.5 kPa (3.28 psi) at the
upper boundary of the troposphere, which is the approximate altitude at which modern airliners
fly.
88 CHAPTER 3. PRESSURE
Stratospheric Pressure Variation. The integration is even easier in the stratosphere since
temperature is constant. The pressure varies as follows.
p = p
1
exp

g(z z
1
)
RT
1

for 11.0 km z 20.1 km (3.23)

The pressure p
1
= 22.5 kPa (3.28 psi) follows from insisting that Equations (3.22) and (3.23)
yield the same pressure at the interface between the troposphere and stratosphere. Thus, the
pressure (and density) fall off exponentially in the stratosphere, and we sometimes refer to this
as an exponential atmosphere.
Example 3.2 The cabin pressure in a modern airliner at cruise altitude is typically about 12 psi.
As the airplane descends to land, low pressure air is trapped inside your ears. This is what causes
the popping sensation you experience when you yawn and allow the pressure to equilibrate.
Estimate the altitude in the atmosphere at which this pressure prevails.
Solution. We can use Equation (3.22) to compute the altitude in the U. S. Standard Atmosphere.
Solving for z, we find
z =
T0

p
p0

R/g

=
518.4
o
R
18.85
o
R/mi

12.0 psi
14.7 psi

1/5.26

= 1.04 mi
Inversion
z
z
1
T
1
T
0 T
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............................................................................................................
....................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.........................................
... .... .. .. .. .. . .. .
............................................................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 3.5: Temperature variation over Los Angeles.
The atmospheric temperature variation near Los Angeles (and many other large cities)
deviates from the U. S. Standard Atmosphere in a significant manner. Specifically, there is
a region in the troposphere, typically at an altitude of about 0.5 km (0.3 mi), known as
the inversion layer, in which temperature increases with increasing altitude. This layer is
present because the Los Angeles area is almost completely enclosed by high mountains. As
air descends from the mountains, the sun heats it and creates a warm layer that rises above
cooler air blowing in from the Pacific Ocean. This is the primary mechanism that creates the
temperature inversion as in Figure 3.5, with the heavier cool air trapped near the surface. The
inversion layer puts a lid on the area that traps surface emissions responsible for smog. The
prevailing winds in the Los Angeles area are unable to relieve the pollution problem because
of this lid. Rather, they merely move the smoggy air from one part of the region to another.