Weight Penalty Incurred in Thermoelectric Recovery

of Automobile Exhaust Heat

D.M. ROWE,
1,3,4
J. SMITH,
2
G. THOMAS,
2
and G. MIN
1
1.BABROW Consultants Ltd., South Glamorgan, UK. 2.Calsonic Kansai plc., Llanelli, UK.
3.Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK. 4.e-mail: roweDM1@cardiff.ac.uk
Thermoelectric recovery of automobile waste exhaust heat has been identied
as having potential for reducing fuel consumption and environmentally
unfriendly emissions. Around 35% of combustion energy is discharged as heat
through the exhaust system, at temperatures which depend upon the engines
operation and range from 800C to 900C at the outlet port to less than 50C at
the tail-pipe. Benecial reduction in fuel consumption of 5% to 10% is widely
quoted in the literature. However, comparison between claims is difcult due
to nonuniformity of driving conditions. In this paper the available waste
exhaust heat energy produced by a 1.5 L family car when undergoing the new
European drive cycle was measured and the potential thermoelectric output
estimated. The work required to power the vehicle through the drive cycle was
also determined and used to evaluate key parameters. This enabled an esti-
mate to be made of the engine efciency and additional work required by the
engine to meet the load of a thermoelectric generating system. It is concluded
that incorporating a thermoelectric generator would attract a penalty of
around 12 W/kg. Employing thermoelectric modules fabricated from low-
density material such as magnesium silicide would considerably reduce the
generator weight penalty.
Key words: Waste heat recovery, thermoelectrics, automobile weight penalty
INTRODUCTION
Fossil-fueled vehicles have an efciency level of
approximately 20% to 30%. This results in up to
70% of the fuel energy being lost to the atmosphere
as waste heat. One of the principal routes for these
heat losses occurs through the vehicles exhaust
system. Recovering and reusing some of this heat
would improve the overall efciency of the vehicle
by decreasing fuel consumption with the addi-
tional benet of reducing environmentally harmful
emissions.
Thermoelectric generators (TGs) are able to con-
vert waste heat energy to electrical energy,
17
and
more than 25 years ago the possibility of utilizing
automobile exhaust waste heat was demonstrated.
8
More recently increasing concern over global
warming and environmentally unfriendly emissions
has focused effort to develop this technology further
for wide-scale motor vehicle applications.
916
Esti-
mates of the electrical power that potentially can be
generated by thermoelectrics range from a couple of
hundred of watts electric
17
to more than 3 kW
18
with fuel savings of between 5% and 10%.
However, there is a problem with comparing
efciency improvements: Vehicle performance is
assessed under different driving conditions. In this
paper the available heat from a family-size car is
measured over a recognized standard drive cycle
(new European drive cycle, NEDC), and the poten-
tial for generating electricity employing thermo-
electrics estimated. The work required to power a
small family car through the NEDC drive cycle was
also determined and used to evaluate key parame-
ters, which enabled an estimate to be made of the
additional work required by the engine to meet the
extra load of the thermoelectric generating system.
(Received May 25, 2010; accepted January 27, 2011;
published online March 22, 2011)
Journal of ELECTRONIC MATERIALS, Vol. 40, No. 5, 2011
DOI: 10.1007/s11664-011-1571-7
2011 TMS
784
DRIVE CYCLE
Governments employ standard drive cycles to
establish fuel consumption and CO
2
emissions to set
appropriate taxation levels. By law, this informa-
tion is a prerequisite before a vehicle can be sold.
Evidently a vehicles performance over a drive cycle
would serve as a standard for evaluation of the
energy benet of incorporating a TG. Drive cycle
proles differ in different countries, and Table I
displays drive cycle data for Europe, the USA, and
Japan.
The NEDC prole is displayed in Fig. 1. It com-
prises two cycles: an urban cycle and an extra-urban
cycle. In addition, motorway driving condition is at
a constant 130 km/h.
MEASUREMENTS
The energy available for recovery in the exhaust
gases depends on several factors related to the ef-
ciency of the vehicle, the drive cycle, and the
ambient temperature. Temperature and static
pressure measurements were taken of the exhaust
gases of an average size family car (A Nissan
Quasqai 1600 kg vehicle with a 1.5 L diesel engine)
driven through the NEDC cycle in a climatic wind
tunnel. Temperature measurements were made at
four points: (1) the engine exhaust manifold, (2)
after the catalytic converter, (3) at the silencer box,
and (4) at the exhaust tail. The results are displayed
in Fig. 2.
AVAILABLE HEAT ENERGY
At positions 1 and 2 supplementary tests utilizing
a Venturi meter provided the approximate pressure
of the exhaust gas mass ow under different driving
conditions. The exhaust gas energy estimates for
Table I. Drive cycle data
Europe USA Japan
Description NEDC FTP 75 1015 mode
Cycle time (s) 1180 1874 660
Cycle length (km) 11.007 17.77 4.16
Max. speed (km/h) 120 70
Average speed (km/h) 18.7 34.1 22.7
V
e
h
i
c
l
e

s
p
e
e
d

k
m
/
h
Time (min)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0.00 2.00 4.00 6.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 16.00 18.00 20.00
Urban cycle
Time = 1180s
Extra - urban cycle
Time = 400s
Ambient temp. = 20~30
o
C
Av. speed = 12 km/h
1 cycle
Av. speed = 39 km/h
Urban cycle
Time = 1180s
Extra - urban cycle
Time = 400s
Ambient temp. = 20~30
o
C
Av. speed = 12 km/h
1 cycle
Fig. 1. New European standard drive cycle.
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

C
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Ambient temperature = 20
o
C
Time (min)
Fig. 2. Temperatures recorded at points 14 (reading plots from top to bottom).
Weight Penalty Incurred in Thermoelectric Recovery of Automobile Exhaust Heat 785
this vehicles engine obtained from mass ow and
temperature during the NEDC are shown in Fig. 3.
During the urban drive the thermal heat energy
averages at 1.5 kW thermal (t). This increases to
7 kW(t) over the extra-urban cycle. For motorway
driving (130 km/h) the exhaust heat energy is
around 30 kW(t).
POTENTIAL FOR THERMOELECTRIC
GENERATION
Within the urban drive cycle there is an average
of 1500 W(t) available. Assuming an exhaust gas
heat exchanger efciency of 60% (the upper limit of
current technology), this would equate to an aver-
age heat energy recovery of 900 W(t) available for
thermoelectric recover. The TEG efciency depends
upon the exhaust gas temperature, which varies
with driving conditions. A nominal value of 5% was
assumed for all three driving conditions, which
equates to 45 W(e) of generated electricity.
This increases to 210 W(e) and 315 W(e) under
extra-urban and motorway driving, respectively.
Figure 4 displays the generated output as a function
of drive conditions. The results are broadly in
keeping with published data. Researchers at BMW
obtained 200 W(e) from a TG comprising 24 Bi
2
Te
3
modules in a 3 L engine driven at 130 km/h.
17
General motors report achieving 350 W(e) and
600 W(e) when driving a Chevy Suburban under
city and highway conditions, respectively, although
an average of 15 kW(t) of heat energy was available
over the drive cycle.
19
WORK DONE IN MOVING THROUGH THE
DRIVE CYCLE AND WEIGHT PENALTY
A vehicle driven through any of the drive cycles
must provide sufcient energy to move the vehicle
W
a
t
t
s


0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
14000
16000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Urban cycle
Ex Urban cycle
Average gas
energy ~ 1.5kW
Average gas
energy ~ 7kW
Ambient = 20
o
C
Time (min)
Fig. 3. Available waste exhaust heat when operating under the NEDC.
Fig. 4. Output (W) as a function of drive conditions and TEG efciency.
Rowe, Smith, Thomas, and Min 786
to meet the required speed/time prole. These forces
and the distances moved by the vehicle determine the
work done by the vehicle through the cycle, mea-
sured in Joules (J). The forces generated in the cycle
can be calculated, and the overall amount of work per
kilogramcan be established for each cycle. Hence, for
a given mass of a TEG system, the additional load
imposed upon the engine to complete the drive cycle
can be estimated. A vehicle efciency of 29% was
obtained from the fuel consumption over the drive
cycle. This efciency represents the ability of the
vehicle system to convert fuel energy to useful work
of motion. The work done by the engine in moving
1 kg through the NEDC cycle was 12.08 W/kg.
Figure 5 shows the same calculations performed on
17 different diesel vehicles. The average work done
for the 17 vehicles is 13.8 kJ/kg (12 W/kg). Assuming
that the generator weight is 13 kg, then 156 W(e)
needs to be generated to meet its weight penalty.
CHOICE OF MATERIALS
Evidently, the power-to-weight ratio and in par-
ticular the specic gure of merit
20
given by ZT/
density, is a crucial parameter in transport appli-
cations. Commercially available thermoelectric
modules are based on bismuth telluride technology
which limits the temperature of operation to around
250C. Figure 6 displays the gure of merit of
semiconductor materials suitable for exhaust heat
recovery at higher temperatures. Evidently, mag-
nesium silicide with a ZT of around unity is a good
candidate and has the additional attraction of hav-
ing a very low density. For example, HI-Z 20 mod-
ules operate at a power-to-weight ratio of around
200 W/kg. Assuming that the same value of ther-
moelectric gure of merit is obtained in Mg
2
Si-based
systems, the power-to-weight ratio could be very
substantially increased.
CONCLUSIONS
Evaluation and reporting of vehicle exhaust
thermoelectric recovery systems under standard
drive conditions would allow real performance
comparisons to be made. The results indicate that,
in the small family-size 1.5 L car under test,
315 W(e) was recovered from the exhaust energy
using thermoelectrics under motorway driving
(130 km/h), and for a 3 L engine this would increase
to around 600 W(e).
The weight of the thermoelectric generating sys-
tem imposes a weight penalty, and on average
11.93 W/kg must be generated from the recovery
device to achieve a breakeven value for the vehicle.
Assuming the TG plus pumping support require-
ments weigh around 13 kg, a weight penalty of
around 150 W(e) would be incurred. Employing a
low-density material such as magnesium silicide in
the module technology would reduce the generator
weight penalty considerably.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge Calsonic Kansai plc.,
Llanelli for nancially supporting the project and
Fig. 5. kJ/kg versus vehicle mass through the NEDC.
Fig. 6. Figure of merit of magnesium silicide compounds.
21
Weight Penalty Incurred in Thermoelectric Recovery of Automobile Exhaust Heat 787
providing engine test facilities and the technical
staff for NEDC performance evaluation.
REFERENCES
1. D.M. Rowe and C.M. Bhandari, Modern Thermoelectrics
(Holt, Rinehart, and Winston Ltd., 1983), ISBN 0-03-91443-8.
2. K. Matsuura, D.M. Rowe, A. Tsuyoshi, and G. Min, Pro-
ceedings of the Xth ITC, ed. D.M. Rowe (Cardiff University,
1991), ISBN 0-95129286-0-0, p. 233.
3. D.M. Rowe, Proceedings of the Mediterranean Petroleum
Conference (Tripoli, Libya, 1992), p. 556.
4. D.M. Rowe, Proceedings of the World Energy Congress
(University of Reading, 1992), p. 2614.
5. D.M. Rowe, K. Matsuura, K. Koumoto, G. Min, and H.
Tsuyosi, Proceedings of the XIth ITC (University of Texas at
Arlington, 1992), p. 10.
6. D.M. Rowe, Mar. Technol. Soc. J. 27, 43 (1994).
7. D.M. Rowe, Proceedings of the AIESP Symposium (Madeira,
2006), p. 1.
8. U. Birkholz, U. Stohrer, E. Grob, and K. Voss, Proceedings of
the 7th ICT Conference (University of Texas at Arlington,
1988), p. 124.
9. J.C. Bass, R.J. Campana, and N.B. Elsner, Proceedings of
the 10th ICT Conference, ed. D.M. Rowe (Cardiff University,
1991), p. 127.
10. E. Takanose and H. Tamakoshi, Proceedings of the 12th ICT
Conference, Yokohama, Japan, ed. K. Matsuura (Institute of
Electrical Engineers of Japan, 1993), p. 467.
11. J.C. Bass, N.B. Elsner, and F.A. Leavitt, Proceedings of the
13th ICT Conference, Kansas City, MO, ed. B. Mathiprakisam
(IEEE, 1995), p. 295.
12. B.L. Embry and J.R. Tudor, Proceedings of the 3rd IECEC
(University of Colorado, 1998), p. 996.
13. K. Ikoma, M. Munkiyo, K. Furuiya, M. Koyayashi, H.
Komatsu, and K.J. Shinohara, Jpn. Inst. Met. 63, 1475
(1999).
14. K. Matsubara, Proceedings of the 15th ICT Conference,
Long Beach, CA, ed. T. Caillat (IEEE, 2002), p. 418.
15. K. Matsubara and M. Matsuura, Chapter 52, Thermoelec-
tric Handbook, Macro to Nano (New York: CRC Press,
2005).
16. J. Fairbanks, Paper 1, Proceedings of the 4th ECT
Conference (Cardiff University, 2006), ISBN 0-9519286-
3-5.
17. A. Eder and J. Liebi, Proceedings of the Thermoelectrik Eine
Chance fur die Automobillindustrie (Berlin, 2009), ISBN
978-3-8169-2877-5, p. 45.
18. G. Griepentrog, S. Huttinger, and G. Vidella, Thermoelek-
trik Eine Chance fur die Automobillindustrie (Berlin, 2009),
ISBN 978-3-8169-2877-5, p. 267.
19. J. Yang, Proceedings of the Thermoelectric Applications
Workshop (Coronado, CA, 2009).
20. A term coined by D.J. Jarvis, European Space Agency
Meeting, Noordwijk, Netherlands (2010).
21. M.I. Fedorov, V.K. Zaitsev, E.A. Gurieva, I.S. Eremin, P.P.
Konstantinov, A.Yu. Samunun, and M.V. Vederikov, Phys.
Rev. B, 74 (4), 045207 (2006).
Rowe, Smith, Thomas, and Min 788