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RISHIRAJ INSTETUET OF TECHNOLOGY, INDORE

REVTI GRAM, SAWER ROAD, INDORE-453331

MINNOR PROJECT ON
E-WASTE RECYCLING MANAGEMENTS
SESSION 2009-2010

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
2006-2010
RAJIVE GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDYALAYA, BHOPAL

GUIDED BY SUBMITTED BY
H.O.D. S. B. DIGHE NITIN SINGH
LECTURER R. MEHTA
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CONTENT
1.0. ABSTRAC
2.0. INTRODUCTION
3.0. DEFINITION
4.0. DESTINATION OF E-WASTE
5.0. INDIAN SCENARIO
6.0. THE STATUS
7.0. BASEL CONVENTION
8.0. E-TOXICS IN E-WASTE
8.1. E-WASTE AND ITS EFFECT ON HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT
9.0. LIFE CYCLE OF E-WASTE
10.0. MANAGEMENT OF E-WASTES
10.1. INVENTORY MANAGEMENT
10.2. PRODUCTION-PROCESS MODIFICATION
10.3. VOLUME REDUCTION
10.4. RECOVERY AND REUSE
10.5. SUSTAINABLE PRODUCT DESIGN
11.0. WASTE MANAGEMENT CONCEPTS
11.1. RESOURCE RECOVERY
11.2. RECYCLING
11.3. WASTE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
11.3.1. LANDFILL
11.3.2. INCINERATION
11.3.3. COMPOSTING AND ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
11.3.4. MECHANICAL BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT
11.3.5. PYROLYSIS & GASIFICATION

12.0. RECYCLING OF E-WASTE

12.1. RECYCLING/RECOVERY SYSTEM
12.2. BIFURCATION OF ELECTRONIC SCRAP
12.2.1. PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS (PCBS)
12.2.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF PCB SCRAP
12.2.3. DENSITY DIFFERENCES
12.2.4. MAGNETIC AND ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY DIFFERENCES
12.2.5. POLYFORMITY
12.2.6. LIBERATION SIZE
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12.2.7. CHEMICAL REACTIVITY

12.2.8. ELECTROPOSITIVITY

12.3. DISASSEMBLY
12.4. MECHANICAL/PHYSICAL RECYCLING PROCESS
12.5. MECHANICAL APPROACHES OF RECYCLING ELECTRONIC SCRAP
12.6. HYDROMETALLURGICAL APPROACHES
12.7. EXTRACTION OF IC/ OTHER COMPONENTS FROM PCB
12.7.1. RECOVERY OF GOLD
12.7.2. MONITORS
12.7.2.1. Recovery of Glass from CRT
12.7.2.2. Yoke Core, Metallic Core and Copper from Transformers
12.7.2.3. Copper Extraction from Wires
12.7.2.4. Manual drawing of Wires for Copper
12.7.2.5. Plastic Shredding and Graining
12.7.2.6. Dismantling of compressor & segregation of compressor & cooling box

12.8. DISPOSAL
12.9. ADVANTAGES OF RECYCLING E-WASTE
13.0. RESPONSIBILITIES OF GOVERNMENT, INDUSTRIES, AND CITIZEN
13.1. RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE GOVERNMENT
13.2. RESPONSIBILITY AND ROLE OF INDUSTRIES
13.3. RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE CITIZEN
14.0. E-WASTE POLICY FOR INDIA
15.0. CONCLUSION
16.0. REFERENCES
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1.0. ABSTRACT

The production of electric and electronic equipment (EEE) is one of the fastest growing areas.This
development has resulted in an increase of waste electric and electronic equipment (WEEE).In view
of the environmental problems involved in the management of WEEE, many counties and
organizations have drafted national legislation to improve the reuse, recycling and other forms of
recovery of such wastes so as to reduce disposal. Recycling of WEEE is an important subject not
only from the point of waste treatment but also from the recovery of valuable materials.

"E-waste" is a popular, informal name for electronic products nearing the end of their "useful life.
"E-wastes are considered dangerous, as certain components of some electronic products contain
materials that are hazardous, depending on their condition and density. The hazardous content of
these materials pose a threat to human health and environment. Discarded computers, televisions,
VCRs, stereos, copiers, fax machines, electric lamps, cell phones, audio equipment and batteries if
improperly disposed can leach lead and other substances into soil and groundwater. Many of these
products can be reused, refurbished, or recycled in an environmentally sound manner so that they are
less harmful to the ecosystem. This paper highlights the hazards of e-wastes, the need for its
appropriate management and options that can be implemented.
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2.0. INTRODUCTION

Industrial revolution followed by the advances in information technology during the last century has
radically changed people's lifestyle. Although this development has helped the human race,
mismanagement has led to new problems of contamination and pollution. The technical prowess
acquired during the last century has posed a new challenge in the management of wastes. For
example, personal computers (PCs) contain certain components, which are highly toxic, such as
chlorinated and brominated substances, toxic gases, toxic metals, biologically active materials, acids,
plastics and plastic additives. The hazardous content of these materials pose an environmental and
health threat. Thus proper management is necessary while disposing or recycling ewastes.

These days computer has become most common and widely used gadget in all kinds of activities
ranging from schools, residences, offices to manufacturing industries. E-toxic components in
computers could be summarized as circuit boards containing heavy metals like lead & cadmium;
batteries containing cadmium; cathode ray tubes with lead oxide & barium; brominates flame
retardants used on printed circuit boards, cables and plastic casing; poly vinyl chloride (PVC) coated
copper cables and plastic computer casings that release highly toxic dioxins & furans when burnt to
recover valuable metals; mercury switches; mercury in flat screens; poly chlorinated biphenyl's
(PCB's) present in older capacitors; transformers; etc. Basel Action Network (BAN) estimates that
the 500 million computers in the world contain 2.87 billion kg of plastics, 716.7 million kg of lead
and 286,700 kg of mercury. The average 14-inch monitor uses a tube that contains an estimated 2.5
to 4 kg of lead. The lead can seep into the ground water from landfills thereby contaminating it. If
the tube is crushed and burned, it emits toxic fumes into the air.

Long-term exposure to deadly component chemicals and metals like lead, cadmium, chromium,
mercury and polyvinyl chlorides (PVC) can severely damage the nervous systems, kidneys and
bones, and the reproductive and endocrine systems, and some of them are carcinogenic and
neurotoxin. It is a generic term used to describe old, end-of-life electronic appliances such as
computers, laptops, TVs, DVD players, Mobile Phones, MP-3 players, etc., which have been
disposed of by their original users. Though there is no generally accepted definition of E-waste, in
most cases, E-waste comprises of relatively expensive and essentially durable products used for data
processing, tile-communications or entertainment in private house-holds and businesses.
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Public perception of E-waste is often restricted to a narrower sense, comprising mainly of end-of life
information and tile-communication equipment, and consumer electronics. However, technically
speaking, electronic waste is only a sub-set of WEEE (Waste Electrical & Electronic
Equipment). According to the Organization for Economic Cooperation & Development
(OECD), any appliance using an electric power supply that has reached its end-of-life would come
under WEEE. At macro-level, there are two ways to handle the E-Wastes: Disposal or Recycle /
Refurbish.
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3.0.DEFINITION

Electronic waste includes computers, entertainment electronics, mobile phones and Other items that
have been discarded by their original users. While there is no Generally accepted definition of
electronic waste, in most cases electronic waste Consists of electronic products that were used for
data processing, Telecommunications or entertainment in private households and businesses that are
now considered obsolete, broken, or un-repairable. Despite its common classification
as a waste, disposed electronics are a considerable category of secondary resource due to their
significant suitability for direct reuse, refurbishing, and material recycling of its constituent raw
materials. Re-conceptualization of electronic waste as a resource thus preempts its potentially
hazardous qualities.

Definition of electronic waste according to the WEEE directive :

· Large household appliances (ovens, refrigerators etc.)
· Small household appliances (toasters, vacuum cleaners etc.)
· Office & communication (PCs, printers, phones, faxes etc.)
· Entertainment electronics (TVs, HiFis, portable CD players etc.)
· Lighting equipment (mainly fluorescent tubes)
· E-tools (drilling machines, electric lawnmowers etc.)
· Sports & leisure equipment (electronic toys, training machines etc.)
· Medical appliances and instruments
· Surveillance equipment
· Automatic issuing systems (ticket issuing machines etc.)
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4.0. DESTINATION OF E-WASTE:

The waste is imported by over 35 countries, which include India, China, Pakistan, and Malaysia etc.
Fig. 1 shows the global E-waste traffic routes across Asia. The waste generated by the consumers of
electronic goods gets collected by scavengers or garbage collectors, and usually gets deported to
backyard stripping houses etc, where the potentially valuable substances are separated from the
waste and the residue, which may still contain many hazardous (or useful) substances, is dumped or
incinerated.

Fig-1 Asian E-Waste Traffic

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5.0. INDIAN SCENARIO

There is an estimate that the total obsolete computers originating from government offices, business
houses, industries and household is of the order of 2 million nos. Manufactures and assemblers in a
single calendar year, estimated to produce around 1200 tons of electronic scrap. It should be noted
that obsolesce rate of personal computers (PC) is one in every two years. The consumers finds it
convenient to buy a new computer rather than upgrade the old one due to the changing
configuration, technology and the attractive offers of the manufacturers. Due to the lack of
governmental legislations on e-waste, standards for disposal, proper mechanism for handling these
toxic hi-tech products, mostly end up in landfills or partly recycled in a unhygienic conditions and
partly thrown into waste streams. Computer waste is generated from the individual households; the
government, public and private sectors; computer retailers; manufacturers; foreign embassies;
secondary markets of old PCs. Of these, the biggest source of PC scrap are foreign countries that
export huge computer waste in the form of reusable components.

Electronic waste or e-waste is one of the rapidly growing environmental problems of the world. In
India, the electronic waste management assumes greater significance not only due to the generation
of our own waste but also dumping of e-waste particularly computer waste from the developed
countries.

With extensively using computers and electronic equipments and people dumping old electronic
goods for new ones, the amount of E-Waste generated has been steadily increasing. At present
Bangalore alone generates about 8000 tonnes of computer waste annually and in the absence of
proper disposal, they find their way to scrap dealers.

E-Parisaraa, an eco-friendly recycling unit on the outskirts of Bangalore which is located in

Dobaspet industrial area, about 45 Km north of Bangalore, makes full use ofE-Waste. The plant
which is India’s first scientific e-waste recycling unit will reduce pollution, landfill waste and
recover valuable metals, plastics & glass from waste in an eco-friendly manner. E-Parisaraa has
developed a circuit to extend the life of tube lights. The circuit helps to extend the life of fluorescent
tubes by more than 2000 hours. If the circuits are used, tube lights can work on lower voltages. The
initiative is to aim at reducing the accumulation of used and discarded electronic and electrical
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equipments.

India as a developing country needs simpler, low cost technology keeping in view of maximum
resource recovery in an environmental friendly methodologies. E-Parisaraa, deals with practical
aspect ofe-waste processing as mentioned below by hand. Phosphor affects the display resolution
and luminance of the images that is seen in the monitor.

E-Parisaraa’s Director Mr. P. Parthasarathy, an IIT Madras graduate, and a former consultant for a
similar e-waste recycling unit in Singapore, has developed an eco-friendly methodology for reusing,
recycling and recovery of metals, glass & plastics with non-incineration methods . The hazardous
materials are segregated separately and send for secure land fill for ex.: phosphor coating, LED’s,
mercury etc.

We have the technology to recycle most of the e-waste and only less than one per cent of this will be
regarded as waste, which can go into secure landfill planned in the vicinity by the HAWA project.
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6.0. THE STATUS

The first comprehensive study to estimate the annual generation of E-waste in India and answer the
questions above is being undertaken up by the National WEEE Taskforce. The preliminary estimates
suggest that total WEEE generation in India is approximately 1,46,000 tonne per year. The top states
in order of highest contribution to WEEE include Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,Tamil Nadu, Uttar
Pradesh, West Bengal, Delhi, Karnataka, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Punjab. The city-wise
ranking of largest WEEE generators is Mumbai, Delhi, Bangalore, Chennai, Kolkatta, Ahmedabad,
Hyderabad, Pune, Surat and Nagpur. An estimated 30,000 computers become obsolete every year
from the IT industry in Bangalore alone simply due to an extremely high obsolescence rate of 30 per
cent per annum.

Almost 50 per cent of the PCs sold in India are products from the secondary market and are re-
assembled on old components. The remaining market share is covered by multinational
manufacturers (30 per cent) and Indian brands (20 per cent). Three categories of WEEE account for
almost 90 per cent of the generation - Large Household Appliances, (42 per cent), Information &
Communications Technology Equipment, (34 per cent), Consumer Electronics, (14 per cent).

Over 2,000 trucks ferry E-waste in a clandestine manner and dump it in Delhi's scrap yards at
various locations, particularly Turkman Gate, Shastri Park, Loni, Seelampur and Mandoli. This
Ewaste primarily comes from Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, and if Delhi were to protect
itself from such hazardous waste, then it would have to bring an effective legislation to prevent entry
of child labour into its collection, segregation and distribution. More than 6,000 children in the age
group of 10 to 15 years are engaged in various E-waste activities without adequate protection and
safeguards. They operate from various yards and recycling workshops.
Three States that send waste to Delhi generate over 25,000 tonne of E-waste through various
industrial activities. In a discreet arrangement with transporters, they dump around 50 per cent of it
at different places in Delhi. E-waste imported into Mumbai, Chennai, and Bangalore usually makes
its way to Delhi as there is a ready market for glass and plastic in the National Capital Region.
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In fact, waste from Mumbai constitutes a bulk of the 60 to 70 tones discarded electronics that land in
Delhi's scrap yards every day. It has also been estimated that Delhi alone gets 25 per cent of the E-
waste generated in the developed world which comes through cheaper imports. Such is the scale of
the menace that it has now acquired the dimension of an industry that employs nearly 30,000
workers in various scrap-yards and unauthorized recycling units.

The States sending Ewaste to Delhi should develop their own scrap-yards. Noting that the NCR has
over 40,000 industrial and medical units responsible for generating the waste, Delhi Government
should plant around 20 lakh saplings every year. Currently, a mere 5 per cent of E-waste recycled in
the country is recycled by the handful of formal recyclers and the rest is recycled by the informal
recyclers.

The E-waste recycled by the formal recyclers is done under environmentally sound practices which
ensure that damage is minimized to the environment. They also adopt processes so that the
workforce is not exposing to toxic and hazardous substances released during recycling process. But
they cannot match either the reach or the network of the informal recyclers used for sourcing of old
electrical and electronic items from business as well as individual households.

The items are collect, segregated and the informal recyclers further dismantle the ones that cannot be
sold as it is. The final step is recycling which is mainly manual using simple tools like hammer,
screw driver, etc., and by the use of rudimentary techniques like burning of wires in the
open, using acid bath for extraction of precious metals.

Furthermore, these activities are carried out without wearing any protective gear like masks, gloves,
etc. In the absence of suitable processes and protective measures, recycling E-waste results in toxic
emission to the air, water, soil and poses serious environmental and health hazards. Thus, the
challenges are manifold: environmental and health hazards; lack of awareness amongst various
stakeholders including public at large; investment required for setting up of state-of-the-art waste
management facilities; monitoring and reporting of the E-waste generated; and most importantly,
reconciling technological advancement with sustainable development.
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7.0. BASEL CONVENTION

The fundamental aims of the fundamental aims of the Basel Convention are the control and
reduction of trans-boundary movements of hazardous and other wastes including the prevention and
minimization of their generation, the environmentally sound management of such wastes and the
active promotion of the transfer and use of technologies.

A Draft Strategic Plan has been proposed for the implementation of the Basel Convention. The Draft
Strategic Plan takes into account existing regional plans, program or strategies, the decisions of the
Conference of the Parties and its subsidiary bodies, ongoing project activities and process of
international environmental governance and sustainable development. The Draft requires action at
all levels of society: training, information, communication, methodological tools, capacity building
with financial support, transfer of know-how, knowledge and sound, proven cleaner technologies
and processes to assist in the concrete implementation of the Basel Declaration. It also calls for the
effective involvement and coordination by all concerned stakeholders as essential for achieving the
aims of the Basel Declaration within the approach of common but differentiated responsibility.

Are the control and reduction of trans-boundary movements of hazardous and other wastes including
the prevention and minimization of their generation, the environmentally sound management of such
wastes and the active promotion of the transfer and use of technologies?

A set. of interrelated and mutually supportive strategies are proposed to support the concrete
implementation of the activities as indicated is described below:

1. To involve experts in designing communication tools for creating awareness at the highest
level to promote the aims of the Basel Declaration on environmentally sound management
and the ratification and implementation of the Basel Convention, its amendments and
protocol with the emphasis on the short-term activities.
2. To engage and stimulate a group of interested parties to assist the secretariat in exploring
fund raising strategies including the preparation of projects and in making full use of
expertise in non-governmental organizations and other institutions in joint projects.
3. To motivate selective partners among various stakeholders to bring added value to making
progress in the short-term.
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4. To disseminate and make information easily accessible through the internet and other
electronic and printed materials on the transfer of know-how, in particular through Basel
Convention Regional Centers (BCRCs).
5. To undertake periodic review of activities in relation to the agreed indicators;
6. To collaborate with existing institutions and program to promote better use of cleaner
technology and its transfer, methodology, economic instruments or policy to facilitate or
support capacity-building for the environmentally sound management of hazardous and other
wastes.

The Basel Convention brought about a respite to the trans-boundary movement of hazardous waste.
India and other countries have ratified the convention. However United States (US) is not a party to
the ban and is responsible for disposing hazardous waste, such as, e-waste to Asian countries even
today. Developed countries such as US should enforce stricter legislations in their own country for
the prevention of this horrifying act.

In the European Union where the annual quantity of electronic waste is likely to double in the next
12 years, the European Parliament recently passed legislation that will require manufacturers to take
back their electronic products when consumers discard them. This is called Extended Producer
Responsibility. It also mandates a timetable for phasing out most toxic substances in electronic
products.
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8.0. E-TOXICS IN E-WASTE

"Printed Circuit Boards contain heavy metals such as Antimony, Silver, Chromium, Zinc, Lead, Tin
and Copper. According to some estimates there is hardly any other product for which the sum of the
environmental impacts of raw material, extraction, industrial, refining and production, use and
disposal is as extensive as for printed circuit boards."
"In short, the product developers of electronic products are introducing chemicals on a scale which is
totally incompatible with the scant knowledge of their environmental or biological characteristics."

TABLE-1 Material used in a desktop computer and the efficiency of current

recycling processes
Name content (% Recycling Weight of Use/Location
of total Efficiency % material (lb)
weight)
Plastics 22.9907 13.8 20 Includes organics,
oxides other than silica
Lead 6.2988 3.8 5 Metal joining, radiation
shield/CRT, PWB
Aluminu 14.1723 8.5 80 Structural,
m conductivity/housing,
CRT,PWB, connectors
Germani 0.0016 < 0.1 0 Semiconductor/PWB
um
Gallium 0.0013 < 0.1 0 Semiconductor/PWB
Iron 20.4712 12.3 80 Structural, magnetivity/
(steel) housing CRT,
PWB
Tin 1.0078 0.6 70 Metal joining/PWB, CRT
Copper 6.9287 4.2 90 Conductivity/CRT, PWB,
connectors
Barium 0.0315 < 0.1 0 In vacuum tube/CRT
Nickel 0.8503 0.51 80 Structural, magnetivity/
(steel) housing, CRT,
PWB
Zinc 2.2046 1.32 60 Battery, phosphor
emitter/PWB, CRT
Tantalu 0.0157 < 0.1 0 Capacitors/PWB, power
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m supply
Indium 0.0016 < 0.1 60 Transistor,
rectifiers/PWB
Vanadiu 0.0002 < 0.1 0 Red phosphor
m emitter/CRT
Terbium 0 0 0 Green phosphor
activator, dopant /CRT,
PWB
Berylliu 0.0157 < 0.1 Thermal
m conductivity/PWB,
connectors
Gold 0.0016 < 0.1 99 Connectivity,
conductivity/PWB,
connectors
Europiu 0.0002 < 0.1 0 Phosphor
m activator/PWB
Titaniu 0.0157 < 0.1 0 Pigment, alloying
m agent/
(aluminum),housing
Rutheni 0.0016 < 0.1 80 Resistive circuit/PWB
um
Cobalt 0.0157 < 0.1 85 Structural,
magnetivity /(steel)
housing, CRT, PWB
Palladiu 0.0003 < 0.1 95 Connectivity,
m conductivity/PWB,
connectors
Mangan 0.0315 < 0.1 0 Structural, magnetivity/
ese (steel) housing, CRT,
PWB
Silver 0.0189 < 0.1 98 Conductivity/PWB,
connectors
Antinom 0.0094 < 0.1 0 Diodes/housing, PWB,
y CRT
Bismuth 0.0063 < 0.1 0 Wetting agent in thick
film/PWB
Chromiu 0.0063 < 0.1 0 Decorative, hardener/
m (steel) housing
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Cadmiu 0.0094 < 0.1 0 Battery, glu-green

m phosphor
emitter/housing, PWB,
CRT
Seleniu 0.0016 0.00096 70 Rectifiers/PWB
m
Niobium 0.0002 < 0.1 0 welding allow/housing
Yttrium 0.0002 < 0.1 0 Red phosphor
emitter/CRT
Rhodiu 0 50 thick film
m conductor/PWB
Platinu 0 95 Thick film
m conductor/PWB
Mercury 0.0022 < 0.1 0 Batteries,
switches/housing, PWB
Arsenic 0.0013 < 0.1 0 Doping agents in
transistors/PWB
Silica 24.8803 15 0 Glass, solid state
devices/CRT,PWB

8.1. E-waste and its effect on health and the environment

E-waste cannot be considered or treated like any kind of waste, because it contains hazardous and
toxic substances such as lead, mercury, cadmium or others such as dioxins and furans, bromined
flame retardants (produced when e-waste is incinerated). For instance, lead represents 6% of the total
weight of a computer monitor. Another example: nearly 36 chemical elements are
Incorporated in electronic equipment. This data further demonstrates the un-sustainability of
irresponsible electronic equipment disposal, its negative effect on the environment and the need to
implement management regulations which include actions like refurbishment and recycling.
Even though in the last years recycling has become a regular practice almost everywhere in the
world, some e-waste components present difficulties when they are recycled mainly because of their
complexity and the lack of methods. Such is the case of plastics used in electronic equipment which
contain flame retardants that impede the recycling process. In order to amplify the information
submitted in the web page “We Re-cycle” following is a more detailed description of electronic
equipment components effects on human health and the environment.
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Table-2 Products and Health Effects of E-Waste

name of Characteristics Effects on Humans Impacts on the

chemicals Environment
Polychlorinate Can be present in Humans are exposed This chemical
d Biphenyl condensers and through compound could drip
(PCB) transformers of old contaminated food through subsurface
electronic consumption or layers reaching water
equipment because direct contact at and contaminating it
of its properties as their workplace, if buried in landfills.
cooler, lubricant (e.g inadequate Because it is poorly
and its resistance disassembly of soluble, it is very
to high electronic dangerous when it
temperatures. equipment). enters water currents
Exposure to this as it could
compound can cause contaminate the
anemia, damages to chain of production
the skin, liver, of some foods.
stomach and thyroid.
Contamination of
pregnant women is
very risky and
research results
show that it can be
carcinogen
Tetra Bromo TBBA is a flame- It has not been prove Unlike other flame-
Bisphenol-A retardant, which is that it can cause retardants, TBBA
(TBBPA) use in computer mutations or when used as a
motherboards. This carcinogen effects reactive, bounds
compound on human beings. chemically to plastic
represents 50% of Nevertheless, it has or polymers for
all been prove that protection. This
bromined flame- TBBA may interfere impedes its liberation
retardants in the transport and into the environment.
produced metabolism of some It is biodegradable
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worldwide. 96% of hormones. A but one of the

all motherboards technical study has products of this
use this chemical demonstrated that biodegradation is
compound which there is a direct bisphenol, which can
represents 1 to 2% correlation between cause damages to
of their weight TBBA in the blood the endocrine
flow and in the air. system. The fact that
TBBA is toxic to TBBA dissolves
aquatic organisms poorly in water and
tends to adhere to
soil, where it can
reach food, has
created great
concern because
TBBA levels magnify
while passing
through the food
chain from 20 to
3200 times.
Polybrominat Originally, this Exposure to this PBB dissolves poorly
ed Biphenyls substance was add substance can in water but can
(PBB) to plastics of damage kidneys, adhere strongly to
electronic liver and thyroids. soil, through which it
equipment for Fetuses that were could reach food. It
inflammability expose to PBB had keeps magnifying
reduction. endocrinal problems. while passing along
Nevertheless, PBB Likewise it is the food chain.
production in the suspected that PBB
US was stop in is carcinogen
1976 and in the
world in 2000.
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Polybrominat PBDE is another Since it was tested PDBE is easily

ed Diphenyl brominates flame- for the first time in liberated into the
Ethers (PBDE) retardant with its 1970, PBDE was environment and,
number of bromine found in numerous like other
atoms varying up samples of human flameretardants,
to 209 times. Three tissue, and with dissolves poorly in
types are sold for increasing water and strongly
commercial use concentrations of adheres to soil,
referred to as pent, factor 100 in the last crossing to
octa and deca, two 30 years. Exposure organisms, animals,
of them used in can occur the and food. This
electronic moment that plastics crossing depends on
equipment: octa, containing this the brominated
used in high impact substance are concentration level;
housings, and deca recycled. Concerns the lower it is, the
used in wire for human health more toxic PDBE gets
insulation. Even arise because PBDE (for example when
though the containing 4 to 6 exposed to UV Light).
production of this brominated This compound is
compound has molecules that can almost omnipresent,
decreased since act as thyroxin, as it is found both in
1999 its presence damaging the sea and fresh water
in the environment endocrine system. organisms,
is increasing, Exposed children mammals, birds and
becoming a global show thyroid water and soil
problem. damages and samples. When PBDE
neurological is incinerated, it
anomalies. produces dioxins and
furans.
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Chlorofluoroc CFC are used in There are no When in contact with

arbons (CFC) aerosol propellants, significant impacts the ozone layer, CFC
cleansing agents, on human health. destroys it. One
foaming agents, Nevertheless there chlorine atom is
and are indirect negative responsible for the
other packaging effects. Fir example, destruction of
materials like the release of CFC 100.000 ozone
solvents attacks levels of the molecules. The ozone
and refrigerants. In atmosphere layer protects earth
1987, a prohibition from radiation which
campaign was causes skin cancer
initiated reaching and blindness in
its living beings
objective in 1996,
an objective that
developing
countries aim to
reach in
2010.
Polyvinyl PVC plastic is used In the amounts This compound is
chloride (PVC) as an insulator in present in the disseminated in the
certain types of environment, there environment because
wiring in electronic is no proof that DEHP of its extended
equipment. Risks causes damage to usage, being soluble
arise from vinyl humans in water if oils or
chloride since this beings but it been grease are present.
compound is toxic proven that it can Bonds easily with soil
and the DEHP used damage to lab but also degrades
to soften PVC animal kidneys. easily in contact with
carries great risks Recent debates oxygen.
to human health about this compound
suggest that it can
cause endocrine and
gender anomalies in
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embryos

Arsenic (As) Arsenic is present Gas is carcinogen Gallium Arsenide is

in small amounts and causes skin and an inorganic
inelectronic lung cancers. The compound with low
equipment in forms most common water solubility. It is
such as Gallium means of exposure is transformed into an
Arsenide Gas, direct contact with organic compound
which dust containing this when bio-
hassemiconductor compound especially accumulated in fish
properties and can by workers of and crustaceans.
befound in semiconductor
electronic manufacturers.
equipment diodes.
Barium (Ba) Barium is generally Barium compounds’ Its impact on the
use in cathode toxicity is link to its environment
ray tubes (CRT) in solubility in water. depends on its
computer monitors. Some of these solubility. Barium
When functioning in compounds compounds that are
the monitor this produced in monitors highly soluble in
metal reacts with are extremely water are very
CO, CO2, N2, O2, soluble. Intake of mobile and tend to
H2O y H2 which these compounds cumulate in aquatic
produces a series can cause organisms
of gastrointestinal
barium compounds disorders and muscle
including oxides, weakness. Higher
hydroxides and doses can cause
carbonates. changes in heart
beat rate, paralysis
and death. Direct
contact with dust
containing barium
 P a g e | 23

can cause eye and

skin irritation.

Beryllium (Be) Beryllium is a metal Beryllium is only This metal doesn’t

that generally dangerous if inhaled, dissolve in water and
forms alloys with as dust or fumes, it remains into soil
copper to increase which could occur
its endurance, when electronic
conductivity and equipment is
elasticity. Initially, disassembled,
Beryllium was used burned or crushed.
in the production of Its inhalation can
motherboards but cause pneumonia,
its major usage is respiratory
in contact circuits, inflammation
relays and in some (chronic illness of
laser printer Beryllium) and can
mechanisms raise the risk of lung
cancer
 P a g e | 24

Cadmium Cadmium is a Cadmium exposure Cadmium enters the

(Cd) heavy metal commonly occurs environment through
included in many through inhalation water and soil that is
electronic and ingestion of food absorbed by plants.
components, such or contaminated Low concentrations
as water. Inhaling large can cause alterations
contact plates, amounts of in the ecology and
switches, or used to Cadmium can cause balance of soil
prevent corrosion. lung damage and nutrients. This metal
Cadmium is death. Exposure to can bio-accumulate
particularly found small amounts over in mushrooms,
in chip resistors, a long period of time oysters, shrimps,
infrared detectors, can cause high mussels and fish.
and pressure and kidney
semiconductors. damage. This metal
Old monitors is arcinogen.
contain around 5 to
10 grams of
Cadmium and some
batteries are made
of Nickel Cadmium.
It is added as a
plastic stabilizer
and pigment to
wiring,
motherboards, pcs,
monitors and
printed circuit
boards.
Chromium VI Chromium VI, i.e. The effect of this Chromium VI is
(Cr+6) chromium ions with compound on hardly found in
a charge of +6, is humans depends on nature. Its presence
chromium’s only the type of exposure. in the environment
toxic form. Its For example, (air) is
 P a g e | 25

presence is small in inhalation can cause attributed to

electronic catarrh, nose industrial plant
equipment where it bleeding, ulcers and emissions, fuel
is used as a plastic sinus perforations. combustion in
hardener and Ingestion of commercial and
protection layer for contaminated water residential zones.
some metal and food can
components. When damage the
electronic stomach, kidneys,
components are liver and cause
burned, 99% of ulcers, convulsions
Chromium VI stays and even death. If
in residuals and there is a direct
ashes, contact with skin it
contaminating soil can cause ulcers.
in a toxic way, This metal is
which could reach carcinogen only
water currents with when inhaled.
significant higher
risk.
Lead (Pb) Lead is found in Humans are exposed The chemical
many electronic to this metal by structure of this
equipment particle inhalation metal is directly
components. For and through affected by its pH but
example, contaminated foods. most lead
in a PC, the largest The first effects and compounds are
amount of this symptoms of lead insoluble in water
metal is found in exposure are and remain in that
the CRT of the anorexia, muscle state. They are
monitor: 0 to 3% in pain, malaise and difficultly
the panel, 70% in headache but an accumulated in
the frit, 24% in the extended exposure plants or transferred
funnel and 30% in can cause a to food. Lead doesn’t
the neck. Lead is decrease in nervous bio-accumulate in
 P a g e | 26

also present in system performance, fish but it does in

weldings (40%), weakness, brain other seafood. If
motherboards, damage and even broken or incinerated
circuits and wiring death. Likewise, it to the environment,
plastic. can affect the particles will be
reproductive system transmitted by air
both in men and and soil.
women and is
considered
carcinogen.
Lithium (Li) Lithium is present Lithium doesn’t Not many studies
in computer cause toxicological about the effects
batteries and problems as lead, oflithium on the
modern electronic cadmium or mercury environment have
equipment. do. But, a great risk beenpublished.
Typically batteries exists for workers These compounds
contain an anode of that have a direct tend to stay
lithium or lithium contact. Lithium is dissolved in water
oxide, a classified as a and they aren’t
magnesium dioxide corrosive alkali that easily absorbed
(magnesium oxide can burn skin, eyes through soil.
and carbon) and, if inhaled,
cathode and lithium lungs. To avoid these
salt dissolved in an risks lithium
organic solvent. batteries must not
This type of be exposed to hot
batteries replaces environments or
alkaline and NiCd broken, factors that
batteries. It is can cause the
environmentally battery to explode.
more sustainable
than its
predecessors.
 P a g e | 27

Mercury (Hg) Mercury is found in All forms of mercury The impact of

three specific represent a risk to mercury on the
places in a human health, but environment has
computer. The mercury in metal been thoroughly
largest form that is not studied. Mercury in
amount is found in combined with other pure form is
LCD screen components and extremely volatile
fluorescent light, organic methyl and mining,
computer or mercury are the incineration and
monitor ones that possess manufacture release
switches, which the greater risk, this compound to the
enable them to especially to the atmosphere. When
shut nervous system. mercury, in any of its
down while idle, Short-term forms, gets in
and finally in exposures to this contact with water or
batteries. Mercury compound cause soil, turns into
is very volatile and lung damage, organic methyl
easily liberated by nausea, vomiting, mercury by bacteria
incineration or diarrhea, high action. In organic
breaking, which pressure, and, skin form mercury is more
could liberate up to and eye irritation. accessible to living
90% of the mercury Long or permanent organisms and food.
contained in the exposure might Many studies have
monitor screen, for cause permanent shown mercury
example. damages to the presence in fish,
brain, kidneys and causing great
fetus development, concern in many
besides neurological regions worldwide.
changes, irritability,
tremors, short-
sightedness,
deafness, memory
problems, delirium,
hallucinations and
 P a g e | 28

suicidal tendencies.

Níckel (Ni) Nickel is present in Nickel causes skin Nickel generally

the batteries of damages and enters the
some electronic asthma symptoms in environment through
equipment (NiCd), about 10 to 20% of air. These particles
which are being the population that are then placed in
gradually replaced has direct contact. water and soil,
with lithium Workers that are especially if they
batteries. Likewise, exposed to dust contain magnesium
nickel containing nickel and steel.
is used in CRT of suffer bronchitis and Nevertheless, this
computer monitors lung damages. There compound does not
is evidence that bio-accumulate in
many nickel living organisms.
compounds such as
nickel hydroxide are
carcinogen
Antimony (Sb) Antimony is present Elevated exposure to Antimony released
in electronic antimony via into the environment
equipment in small electronic equipment is commonly found in
quantities. is unlikely. soil and sediments.
Antimony trioxide is Experiments in Its mobility greatly
 P a g e | 29

added to plastic as animals have depends on soil

a flame-retardant. emonstrated that structure, the form
This compound is short-term exposure which it takes, and
also used in the can cause eye and its pH. This element
CRT glass of skin irritation, hair is better absorbed in
monitors and wire loss, lung and heart soils containing steel,
welding. damages, and magnesium or
fertility problems. aluminum.
Antimony trioxide is
considered as
possibly carcinogen
Zinc Sulfide Zinc Sulfide is This element is Zinc is one of the
(ZnS) mixed with other corrosive to the skin most common
metals and lungs and its minerals in nature.
to create a ingestion can be
phosphor coating, very harmful
which is because it forms a
used in the inside toxic gas (hydrogen
of the monitor sulfide) within the
glass. stomach
Exposure to this
compound happens
when the monitor
breaks.
 P a g e | 30

9.0. Life Cycle of E-waste.

To ensure proper and nearly complete collection of used electronic equipments after they are
rendered useless, it is important to study the processes, which the equipment has undergone. That is
to say, the study of the life cycle of the equipment is equally relevant. The Fig. 5 shows the life span
of electronic equipments, taking into account that it may have switched users during the course of its
operational life. This course will have to be considered for effective collection so that maximum or
all of the E-Waste can be recycled.

For instance, computer hardware would appear to have up to 3 distinct product lives: the original life
or first product life (when it is being used by the primary user) and up to 2 further lives depending on
reuse. Fig. 5 depicts the flow of computer hardware units from point-of-sale to the original purchaser
and on to the reuse phases. The duration of the product’s first life is estimated to be between 2 and 4
 P a g e | 31

years for corporate users and between 2 and 5 years for domestic users. The life cycle of computer
waste is defined as, the period from when it is discarded by the primary user to when it goes for
recycling or is disposed of in a landfill.

Product manufacturer

Material recycling

Primary user second user third/fourth user landfill

Fig-2 Flow of E-waste During Its Life Cycle

10.0. MANAGEMENT OF E-WASTES

It is estimated that 75% of electronic items are stored due to uncertainty of how to manage it. These
electronic junks lie unattended in houses, offices, warehouses etc. and normally mixed with
household wastes, which are finally disposed off at landfills. This necessitates implementable
management measures.

In industries management of e-waste should begin at the point of generation. This can be done by
waste minimization techniques and by sustainable product design. Waste minimization in industries
involves adopting:

• inventory management,
• production-process modification,
• volume reduction,
• recovery and reuse.
 P a g e | 32

10.1.Inventory management

Proper control over the materials used in the manufacturing process is an important way to reduce
waste generation (Freeman, 1989). By reducing both the quantity of hazardous materials used in the
process and the amount of excess raw materials in stock, the quantity of waste generated can be
reduced. This can be done in two ways i.e. establishing material-purchase review and control
procedures and inventory tracking system.

Developing review procedures for all material purchased is the first step in establishing an inventory
management program. Procedures should require that all materials be approved prior to purchase. In
the approval process all production materials are evaluated to examine if they contain hazardous
constituents and whether alternative non-hazardous materials are available.

Another inventory management procedure for waste reduction is to ensure that only the needed
quantity of a material is ordered. This will require the establishment of a strict inventory tracking
system. Purchase procedures must be implemented which ensure that materials are ordered only on
an as-needed basis and that only the amount needed for a specific period of time is ordered.

10.2. Production-process modification

Changes can be made in the production process, which will reduce waste generation. This reduction
can be accomplished by changing the materials used to make the product or by the more efficient use
of input materials in the production process or both. Potential waste minimization techniques can be
broken down into three categories:

i) Improved operating and maintenance procedures,

ii) Material change and

iii)Process-equipment modification.

Improvements in the operation and maintenance of process equipment can result in significant waste
reduction. This can be accomplished by reviewing current operational procedures or lack of
procedures and examination of the production process for ways to improve its efficiency. Instituting
 P a g e | 33

standard operation procedures can optimise the use of raw materials in the production process and
reduce the potential for materials to be lost through leaks and spills. A strict maintenance program,
which stresses corrective maintenance, can reduce waste generation caused by equipment failure. An
employee-training program is a key element of any waste reduction program. Training should
include correct operating and handling procedures, proper equipment use, recommended
maintenance and inspection schedules, correct process control specifications and proper
management of waste materials.

Hazardous materials used in either a product formulation or a production process may be replaced
with a less hazardous or non-hazardous material. This is a very widely used technique and is
applicable to most manufacturing processes. Implementation of this waste reduction technique may
require only some minor process adjustments or it may require extensive new process equipment.
For example, a circuit board manufacturer can replace solvent-based product with water-based flux
and simultaneously replace solventvapor degreaser with detergent parts washer.

Installing more efficient process equipment or modifying existing equipment to take advantage of
better production techniques can significantly reduce waste generation. New or updated equipment
can use process materials more efficiently producing less waste. Additionally such efficiency
reduces the number of rejected or off-specification products, thereby reducing the amount of
material which has to be reworked or disposed of. Modifying existing process equipment can be a
very cost-effective method of reducing waste generation. In many cases the modification can just be
relatively simple changes in the way the materials are handled within the process to ensure that they
are not wasted. For example, in many electronic manufacturing operations, which involve coating a
product, such as electroplating or painting, chemicals are used to strip off coating from rejected
products so that they can be recoated. These chemicals, which can include acids, caustics, cyanides
etc are often a hazardous waste and must be properly managed. By reducing the number of parts that
have to be reworked, the quantity of waste can be significantly reduced.

10.3. Volume reduction

Volume reduction includes those techniques that remove the hazardous portion of a waste from a
non-hazardous portion. These techniques are usually to reduce the volume, and thus the cost of
 P a g e | 34

disposing of a waste material. The techniques that can be used to reduce waste-stream volume can be
divided into 2 general categories: source segregation and waste concentration. Segregation of wastes
is in many cases a simple and economical technique for waste reduction. Wastes containing different
types of metals can be treated separately so that the metal value in the sludge can be recovered.
Concentration of a waste stream may increase the likelihood that the material can be recycled or
reused. Methods include gravity and vacuum filtration, ultra filtration, reverse osmosis, freeze
vaporization etc.

For example, an electronic component manufacturer can use compaction equipments to reduce
volume of waste cathode ray-tube.

10.4. Recovery and reuse

This technique could eliminate waste disposal costs, reduce raw material costs and provide income
from a salable waste. Waste can be recovered on-site, or at an off-site recovery facility, or through
inter industry exchange. A number of physical and chemical techniques are available to reclaim a
waste material such as reverse osmosis, electrolysis, condensation, electrolytic recovery, filtration,
centrifugation etc. For example, a printed-circuit board manufacturer can use electrolytic recovery to
reclaim metals from copper and tin-lead plating bath.

However recycling of hazardous products has little environmental benefit if it simply moves the
hazards into secondary products that eventually have to be disposed of. Unless the goal is to redesign
the product to use nonhazardous materials, such recycling is a false solution.

10.5. Sustainable product design

Minimization of hazardous wastes should be at product design stage itself keeping in mind the
following factors*

• Rethink the product design: Efforts should be made to design a product with fewer amounts
of hazardous materials. For example, the efforts to reduce material use are reflected in some
new computer designs that are flatter, lighter and more integrated. Other companies propose
centralized networks similar to the telephone system.
 P a g e | 35

• Use of renewable materials and energy: Bio-based plastics are plastics made with plant-
based chemicals or plant-produced polymers rather than from petrochemicals. Bio-based
toners, glues and inks are used more frequently. Solar computers also exist but they are
currently very expensive.
• Use of non-renewable materials that are safer: Because many of the materials used are non-
renewable, designers could ensure the product is built for re-use, repair and/or
upgradeability. Some computer manufacturers such as Dell and Gateway lease out their
products thereby ensuring they get them back to further upgrade and lease out again.

11.0. Waste management concepts:

The waste hierarchies there are a number of concepts about waste management, which vary in their
usage between countries or regions. The waste hierarchy:
 reduce

 reuse

 recycle

Classifies waste management strategies according to their desirability. The waste hierarchy has
taken many forms over the past decade, but the basic concept has remained the cornerstone of most
waste minimization strategies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical
benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of waste. Some waste management
experts have recently incorporated a 'fourth R': "Re-think", with the implied meaning that the present
 P a g e | 36

system may have fundamental flaws, and that a thoroughly effective system of waste management
may need an entirely new way of looking at waste.

Some "re-think" solutions may be counter-intuitive, such as cutting fabric patterns with slightly
more "waste material" left -- the now larger scraps are then used for cutting small parts of the
pattern, resulting in a decrease in net waste. This type of solution is by no means limited to the
clothing industry. Source reduction involves efforts to reduce hazardous waste and other materials
by modifying industrial production.

Source reduction methods involve changes in manufacturing technology, raw material inputs, and
product formulation. At times, the term "pollution prevention" may refer to source reduction.
Another method of source reduction is to increase incentives for recycling. Many communities in the
United States are implementing variable rate pricing for waste disposal (also known as Pay as You
Throw - PAYT) which has been effective in reducing the size of the municipal waste stream. Source
reduction is typically measure by efficiencies and cutbacks in waste. Toxics use reduction is a more
controversial approach to source reduction that targets and measures reductions in the upstream use
of toxic materials.

Toxics use reduction emphasizes the more preventive aspects of source reduction but due to its
emphasis on toxic chemical inputs, has been oppose more vigorously by chemical manufacturers.

11.1. Resource recovery

A relatively recent idea in waste management has been to treat the waste material as a resource to be
exploited, instead of simply a challenge to be managed and disposed of. There are a number of
different methods by which resources may be extracted from waste: the materials may be extracted
and recycled, or the calorific content of the waste may be converted to electricity.

The process of extracting resources or value from waste is variously referred to as secondary
resource recovery, recycling, and other terms. The practice of treating waste materials as a resource
is becoming more common, especially in metropolitan areas where space for new landfills is
becoming scarcer.
 P a g e | 37

There is also a growing acknowledgement that simply disposing of waste materials is unsustainable
in the long term, as there is a finite supply of most raw materials. There are a number of methods of
recovering resources from waste materials, with new technologies and methods being developed
continuously.

In some developing nations some resource recovery already takes place by way of manual laborers
who sift through un-segregated waste to salvage material that can be sold in the recycling market.
These unrecognized workers called waste pickers or rag pickers, are part of the informal sector,
but play a significant role in reducing the load on the Municipalities' Solid Waste Management
departments.

There is an increasing trend in recognizing their contribution to the environment and there are efforts
to try and integrate them into the formal waste management systems, which is proven to be both cost
effective and also appears to help in urban poverty alleviation. However, the very high human cost
of these activities including disease, injury and reduced life expectancy through contact with toxic or
infectious materials would not be tolerate in a developed country.

11.2. Recycling
Recycling means to recover of other use a material that would otherwise be consider waste.

The popular meaning of ‘recycling’ in most developed countries has come to refer to the widespread
collection and reuse of various everyday waste materials. They are collected and sorted into common
groups, so that the raw materials from these items can be used again (recycled).

In developed countries, the most common consumer items recycled include aluminum beverage
cans, steel, food and aerosol cans, HDPE and PET plastic bottles, glass bottles and jars, paperboard
cartons, newspapers, magazines, and cardboard. Other types of plastic (PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS) are
also recyclable, although not as A materials recovery facility, where different materials are separated
for recycling commonly collected. These items are usually composed of a single type of material,
making them relatively easy to recycle into new products.
 P a g e | 38

The recycling of obsolete computers and electronic equipment is important, but more costly due to
the separation and extraction problems.

Electronic waste is send to Asia, where recovery of the gold and copper can cause environmental
problems Recycled or used materials have to compete in the marketplace with new (virgin)
materials.

The cost of collecting and sorting the materials often means that they are equally or more expensive
than virgin materials. This is most often the case in developed countries where industries producing
the raw materials are well established. Practices such as trash picking can reduce this value further,
as choice items are removing (such as aluminum cans).

In some countries, recycling programs are subsidized by deposits paid on beverage containers. The
economics of recycling junked automobiles also depends on the scrap metal market except where
recycling is mandated by legislation (as in Germany). However, most economic systems do not
account for the benefits to the environment of recycling these materials, compared with extracting
virgin materials. It usually requires significantly less energy, water and other resources to recycle
materials than to produce new materials. For example, recycling 1000 kg of aluminum cans saves
approximately 5000 kg of bauxite ore being mined (source: ALCOA Australia) and prevents the
generation of 15.17 tones CO2eq greenhouse gases; recycling steel saves about 95% of the energy
used to refine virgin ore (source: U.S. Bureau of Mines).

In many areas, material for recycling is collect separately from general waste, with dedicated bins
and collection vehicles. Other waste management processes recover these materials from general
waste streams. This usually results in greater levels of recovery than separate collections of
consumer-separated beverage containers, but are more complex and expensive.

11.3. Waste management techniques

Managing municipal waste, industrial waste and commercial waste has traditionally consisted of
collection, followed by disposal. Depending upon the type of waste and the area, a level of
 P a g e | 39

processing may follow collection. This processing may be to reduce the hazard of the waste, recover
material for recycling, produce energy from the waste, or reduce it in volume for more efficient
disposal.

11.3.1. Landfill:
Disposing of waste in a landfill is the most traditional method of waste disposal, and it remains a
common practice in most countries. Historically, landfills were often established in disused quarries,
mining voids or borrow pits.

A properly-designed and well-managed landfill can be a hygienic and relatively inexpensive method
of disposing of waste materials in a way that minimizes their impact on the local environment.

Older, poorly-designed or poorly-managed landfills can create a number of adverse environmental

impacts such as
Wind-blown litter,
Attraction of vermin, and
Generation of leach ate which can pollute groundwater and surface water.

Another byproduct of landfills is landfill gas (mostly composed of methane and carbon dioxide),
which is produced as organic waste breaks down an aerobically. This gas can create odor problems,
kill surface vegetation, and is a greenhouse gas.

Design characteristics of a modern landfill are:-

• Include methods to contain leach ate, such as clay or plastic lining material.
• Disposed waste is normally compacted to increase its density and stabiles the new landform,
• covered to prevent attracting vermin (such as mice or rats) and reduce the amount of wind-
blown litter. landfills also landfill compaction vehicles in operation have a landfill gas
extraction system installed after closure to extract the landfill gas generated by the
decomposing waste materials.
• Gas is pumped out of the landfill using perforated pipes and flared off or burnt in a gas
engine to generate electricity.
 P a g e | 40

• Even flaring the gas is a better environmental outcome than allowing it to escape to the
atmosphere, as this consumes the methane, which is a far more potent greenhouse gas than
carbon dioxide.

Many local authorities, especially in urban areas, have found it difficult to establish new landfills
due to opposition from owners of adjacent land. Few people want a landfill in their local
neighborhood. As a result, solid waste disposal in these areas has become more expensive as
material must be transported further away for disposal.

This fact, as well as growing concern about the impacts of excessive materials consumption, has
given rise to efforts to minimize the amount of waste sent to landfill in many areas. These efforts
include taxing or levying waste sent to landfill, recycling the materials, converting material to
energy, designing products that use less material, and legislation mandating that manufacturers
become responsible for disposal costs of products or packaging. A related subject is that of industrial
ecology, where the material flows between industries is studied. The by-products of one industry
may be a useful commodity to another, leading to a reduced materials waste stream.

Some futurists have speculated that landfills may one day be mined: as some resources become
scarcer, they will become valuable enough that it would be economical to 'mine' them from landfills
where these materials were previously discarded as valueless. A related idea is the establishment of a
'mono-fill' landfill containing only one waste type (e.g. waste vehicle tyres), as a method of long-
term storage.

11.3.2. Incineration:
Incineration is a waste disposal method that involves the combustion of waste at high temperatures.

Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are described as "thermal
treatment". In effect, incineration of waste materials converts the waste into heat, gaseous emissions,
and residual solid ash.
 P a g e | 41

Other types of thermal treatment include pyrolysis and gasification. A waste-to-energy plant (WtE)
is a modern term for an incinerator that burns wastes in high-efficiency furnace/boilers to produce
steam and/or electricity and incorporates modern air pollution control systems and continuous
emissions monitors.

This type of incinerator is sometimes called an energy-from-waste (EfW) facility. Incineration is

popular in countries as Japan where land is a scarce resource, as they do not consume as such area as
a landfill.

Sweden has been a leader in using the energy generated from incineration over the past 20 years.
Denmark also extensively uses waste-to-energy incineration in localised combined heat and power
facilities supporting district-heating schemes.

Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals, and on a large scale by industry. It is
recognised as a practical method of disposing of certain hazardous waste materials (such as
biological medical waste), though it remains a controversial method of waste disposal in many
places due to issues such as emission of gaseous pollutants.

11.3.3. Composting and anaerobic digestion :

Active compost heap Waste materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material, food scraps,
and paper products, are increasingly being recycled. These materials are put through a composting
and/or digestion system to control the biological process to decompose the organic matter and kill
pathogens.

The resulting stabilized organic material is then recycled as mulch or compost for agricultural or
landscaping purposes. There are a large variety of composting and digestion methods and
technologies, varying in complexity from simple windrow composting of shredded plant material, to
automated enclosed-vessel digestion of mixed domestic waste. These methods of biological
decomposition are differentiated as being aerobic in composting methods or anaerobic in digestion
methods, although hybrids of the two methods also exist.
 P a g e | 42

11.3.4. Mechanical biological treatment;

Mechanical biological treatment (MBT) is a technology category for combinations of mechanical
sorting and biological treatment of the organic fraction of municipal waste.

MBT is also sometimes termed BMT- Biological Mechanical Treatment however; this simply refers
to the order of processing.

The "mechanical" element is usually a bulk handling mechanical sorting stage. This either removes
recyclable elements from a mixed waste stream (such as metals, plastics and glass) or processes it in
a given way to produce a high calorific fuel given the term refuse derived fuel (RDF) that can be
used in cement kilns or power plants. Systems, which are configure to produce RDF, include
Herhofand Ecodeco. It is a common misconception that all MBT processes produce RDF. This is not
the case. Some systems such as Arrow Bio simply recover the recyclable elements of the waste in a
form that can be sending for recycling. Arrow Bio UASB anaerobic digesters, Hiriya, Tel Aviv,
Israel The "biological" element refers to either anaerobic digestion or composting.

Anaerobic digestion breaks down the biodegradable component of the waste to produce biogas and
soil conditioner. The biogas can be use to generate renewable energy. More advanced processes such
as the Arrow-Bio Process enable high rates of gas and green energy production without the
production of RDF. This is facilitate by processing the waste in water. Biological can also refer to a
composting stage.

Here the organic component is treat with aerobic microorganisms. They break down the waste into
carbon dioxide and compost. There is no green energy produced by systems simply employing
composting. MBT is gaining increased recognition in countries with changing waste management
markets where WSN Environmental Solutions has taken a leading role in developing MBT plants.

11.3.5. Pyrolysis & gasification:

Pyrolysis and gasification are two related forms of thermal treatment where waste materials are
heated to high temperatures with limited oxygen availability.
 P a g e | 43

The process typically occurs in a sealed vessel under high pressure. Converting material to energy
this way is more efficient than direct incineration, with more energy able to be recovered and used.

Pyrolysis of solid waste converts the material into solid, liquid and gas products. The liquid oil and
gas can be burn to produce energy or refined into other products.

The solid residue (char) can be further refined into products such as activated carbon.

Gasification is use to convert organic materials directly into a synthetic gas (syn-gas) composed of
carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The gas is then burn to produce electricity and steam. Gasification
is use in biomass power stations to produce renewable energy and heat.

12.0. Recycling of e-waste

The conventional e-waste processing and recycling is basically a five-step process

1. Generation and Stockpiling

Many different “economic actors” purchase, use, and then stockpile or discard electronic waste.
These range from manufacturers such as MNCs to large and small businesses, households,
institutions, and non-profit organizations.

2. Collection
There are wide varieties of possible collection alternatives for this e-waste. Varieties of entities are
providing these services including the electronics industry, private or nonprofit recycling services,
and the public sector through the solid waste management and recycling infrastructure.
 P a g e | 44

3. Handling & Brokering

The next link in the cycle is the handling and brokering services. Here computers, TVs, monitors and
other collected electronics are consolidated and made ready for processing and/or sorted to
determine what equipment can be refurbished or reused as whole units and what equipment must be
disassembled for commodity processing.

4. Processing
After electronic equipment is dismantling, it is then process into either feedstock for new production
or refurbished into new equipment. Outputs from de-manufacturing activities include scrap
commodities such as glass, plastics, and metals the primary elements from which all electronic
hardware is made. For export, and to a lesser extent national processing markets, there are significant
issues associated with the environmental and health practices of current service providers in this part
of the cycle.

5. Production
The final step in this cycle is to turn the processed commodities or refurbished whole electronics
back into new products for sale and consumption by end users. There are many different players and
industries involved in this production process. The recycling fraction is miniscule compared with the
production of product using virgin materials. The substances procured by recycling may be use for
several purposes, even for manufacturing the very same equipments they were derived from.

12.1. Recycling/Recovery System

First of the operations involves dismantling and rapid separation of primary materials. The following
materials are separate for further recycling:

· Material containing copper: Including printer and other motors, wires and cables, CRT yokes,
circuit boards, etc

· Steel: Including internal computer frames, power supply housings, printer parts, washing machines,
refrigerator, etc.
 P a g e | 45

· Plastic: Including housings of computers, printers, faxes, phones, monitors, keyboards, etc.

· Copper: Extracted from transformer and CRT after their dismantling

· Circuit Boards: These come from many applications including computers, phones, disc drives,
printers, monitors, etc. Each of these processes has been described below. Following describes the
conventional way of recycling a personal computer.

12.2. Bifurcation of electronic scrap

11.2.1. Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs)

The printed circuit boards contain heavy metals such as antimony, gold, silver, chromium, zinc, lead,
tin and Copper. According to some estimates, there is hardly any other product for which the sum of
the environmental impacts for raw material, industrial refining and production, use and disposal is as
extensive as for printed circuit boards. The methods of salvaging material from circuit boards are
highly destructive and harmful as they involve heating and open burning for the extraction of metals.
Even after such harmful methods are used, only a few of the materials are recovered. The recycling
of circuit boards, drawn from monitors, CPU, disc and floppy drives, printers, etc. involves a number
of steps.

12.2.2. Characteristics of PCB Scrap

PCB scrap is characterise by significant heterogeneity and relatively high complexity, although with
the levels of complexity being somewhat greater for populated scrap boards. As has been seen in
respect of materials composition, the levels of inorganic in particular are diverse with relatively low
levels of precious metals being present as deposited coatings of various thicknesses in conjunction
with copper, solders, and various alloy compositions, non ferrous and ferrous metals. In spite of the
inherent heterogeneity and complexity, there are too many differences in the intrinsic physical and
chemical properties of the many materials and components present in scrap PCBs, and indeed
electronic scrap as a whole, to permit recycling approaches that separate such into their individual
fractions.
 P a g e | 46

The following characteristics ultimately govern mechanical and hydrometallurgical separation and it
is based upon such that current and potential recycling techniques and infrastructures have been
envisaged, developed and implemented:-

12.2.2.1. Density Differences

Differences in density of the materials contained within scrap PCBs have formed the basis for
separation methods subsequent to their liberation as free constituents. The specific gravity ranges of
typical materials are as shown below:-

Table-3
Materials Specific Gravity Range (g/cm3)
Gold, platinum group, tungsten 19.3 - 21.4
Lead, silver, molybdenum 10.2 - 11.3
Magnesium, aluminium, titanium 1.7 - 4.5
Copper, nickel, iron, zinc 7.0 - 9.0
GRP 1.8 - 2.0

With these densities not being significantly affected by the addition of alloying agents or other
additives, it is predictable that the deployment of various density separation systems available within
the raw materials process industry may be utilized to effect separation of liberated constituents of a
similar size range.

The utilization of density differences for the recovery of metals from PCB scrap has been
investigated on many occasions and air classifiers have been used extensively to separate the non
metallic (GRP) constituents, whilst sink-float and table separation techniques have been utilised to
generate non ferrous metal fractions.

Air techniques that effectively combine the actions of a fluidised bed, a shaking table and an air
classifier, have been successfully implemented in applications involving a diversity of electronic
scrap separations. It is essential, as has been noted, that the feed material must be of a narrow size
range to guarantee effective stratification and separation.
 P a g e | 47

12.2.2.2. Magnetic and Electrical Conductivity Differences

Ferrous materials may be readily separate with the application of low intensity magnetic separators
that have been well developing in the minerals processing industry.

Many non-ferrous materials in respect of their high electrical conductivity may be separated by
means of electrostatic and eddy current separators. Eddy current separation has been developing
within the recycling industry since strong permanent magnets, such as iron boron- neodymium, have
become available.

Rotating belt type eddy current separation is the most extensively used approach for the recovery of
nonferrous metal fractions. In application, the alternating magnetic fields caused by the rapidly
rotating wheel mounted with alternating pole permanent magnets result in the generation of eddy
currents in non-ferrous metal conductors, which in turn, generate a magnetic field that repels the
original magnetic field.
The resultant force, arising from the repulsive force and the gravitational force permits their
separation from non-conducting materials.

12.2.2.3. Polyformity
One of the important aspects of both PCB and electronic scrap is the polyformity of the various
materials and components and the effect this can have on materials liberation. It is essential that any
shredding and separation processes take this into account. In eddy current separation, the shape of
conducting components, in addition to their particle sizes and conductivity/density ratios, has a
significant effect on the generated repulsive forces that ultimately govern the separation efficiency.

For instance, multiple induced current loops may be establishing in conductors with irregular shapes
with the induced magnetic fields counteracting each other and reducing the net repulsive force.

12.2.2.4. Liberation Size

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The degree of liberation of materials upon shredding (to cut or tear into small pieces) and
comminuting (to pulverize) is crucial (trying) to the efficiency and effectiveness of any subsequent
separation process in respect of yield, quality of recovered material and energy consumption of the
process.

This is especially critical in mechanical separation approaches. The comminuting of scrap PCBs has
been shows to generate a high level of material liberation and levels as high as 96% to 99% have
been report for metallic liberation after comminuting to sub 5mm particulates. It must noted,
however, that a continual observation from recyclers is that liberation levels such as these are
atypical (not typical) of actual yields and that a fundamental constraint on mechanical processing is
the loss, particularly of precious metal content, that appears to be inherent due primarily to the nature
of many plastic-metal interfaces.

12.2.2.5. Chemical Reactivity

Hydrometallurgical approaches depend on selective and non-selective dissolution to achieve a
complete solublesation of all the contained metallic fractions within scrap PCBs. Although all
hydrometallurgical approaches clearly benefit from prior comminution this is primarily undertaken
to reduce bulk volume and to expose a greater surface area of contained metals to the etching
(corrosive action of an acid instead of by a burin) chemistry.

Selective dissolution approaches may utilise high capacity etching chemistries based on cupric
chloride or ammonium sulphate for copper removal, nitric acid based chemistries for solder
dissolution and aqua regia for precious metals dissolution, where as non selective dissolution may be
carried out with either aqua regia or chlorine based chemistry.

12.2.2.6. Electropositivity
Dissolved metals generated via chemical dissolution are present as ionised species within an aqueous
media and may be recovered via high efficiency electrolytic recovery systems.

In the instance of selective dissolution, a single metal is recovered as pure electrolytic grade
material, usually in sheet form; from the spent etching solution with certain etching chemistries
 P a g e | 49

permitting regeneration of the liquors for reuse as etch chemistries. In the instance of selective
dissolution, use may be made of the differing electro-positivity of the contained ionised metallic
species to selective recovery metals at discrete levels of applied voltage.

12.3. Disassembly

Disassembly in practice
In the practice of recycling of waste electric and electronic equipment, selective disassembly
(dismantling) is an indispensable process since:

(1) The reuse of components has first priority,

(2) Dismantling the hazardous components is essential,

(3) It is also common to dismantle highly valuable components and high-grade materials such as
printed circuit boards, cables, and engineering plastics in order to simplify the subsequent recovery
of materials.

Most of the recycle plants utilize manual dismantling. The main obstacles preventing automated
disassembly from becoming a commercially successful activity are:
(1) Too many different types of products,

(2) the amount of products of the same type is small,

(3) General disassembly-unfriendly product design,

(4) General problems in return logistics and

(5) Variations in returned amounts of products to be disassembled. Fortunately, research in

the field of product design for disassembly has gained momentum in the past decade.
 P a g e | 50

One good idea is self-disassembly, which is called active disassembly using smart materials
(ADSM). Chiodo reported the application of shape memory polymer (SMP) technology to the active
disassembly of modern mobile phones. The smart material SMP of polyurethane (PU) composition
was employed in the experiments. This method provides a potential dismantling scenario for the
removal of all components if this material was to be developed for surface mount components.
Research into using ADSM in other small electronics also has been done to handle units such as
telephones, cell phones, PCB/component assemblies, cameras, battery chargers, photocopier
cartridges, CRTs, computer casings, mice, keyboards, game machines nd stereo equipment.

12.4. Mechanical/physical recycling process

1. Screening:
Screening has not been only utilized to prepare a uniformly sized feed to certain mechanical process,
but also to upgrade metals contents. Screening is necessary because the particle size and shape
properties of metals are different from that of plastics and ceramics.

The primary method of screening in metals recovery uses the rotating screen, or trammel, a unit,
which is widely used in both automobile scrap and municipal solid waste processing. This unit has a
high resistance to blinding, which is important with the diverse array of particle shapes and sizes
encountered in waste. Vibratory screening is also commonly used, in particular at non-ferrous
recovery sites, but wire blinding is a marked problem.

2. Shape separation:
Shape separation techniques have been mainly developed to control properties of particles in the
powder industry. The separation methods were classified into four groups by Furuuchi. The
principles underlying this process makes use of the difference:
(1) The particle velocity on a tilted solid wall,
(2) The time the particles take to pass through a mesh aperture,
(3) The particle’s cohesive force to a solid wall, and
(4) The particles settling velocity in a liquid.
 P a g e | 51

Shape separation by tilted plate and sieves is the most basic method that has been used in recycling
industry. An inclined conveyor and inclined vibrating plate were used as a particle shape separator to
recover copper from electric cable waste printed circuit board scrap and waste television and
personal computers.

3. Magnetic separation:
Magnetic separators, in particular, low-intensity drum separators are widely used for the recovery of
ferromagnetic metals from non-ferrous metals and other non-magnetic wastes. Over the past decade,
there have been many advances in the design and operation of high-intensity magnetic separators,
mainly because of the introduction of rare earth alloy permanent magnets capable of providing very
high field strengths and gradients.

In Table 6, we can see that the use of high-intensity separators makes it possible to separate copper
alloys from the waste matrix. An intense field magnetic separation is achievable at least for the
following three alloy groups
• Copper alloys with relatively high mass susceptibility (Al multi-compound bronze);
• Copper alloys with medium mass susceptibility (Mn multi-compound bronze, special
brass);
• Copper alloys with low mass susceptibility and/or diamagnetic material behavior(Sn and Sn
multi-compound bronze, Pb and Pb multi-compound bronze, brass with low Fe content).

4 Electric conductivity-based separation:

Electric conductivity-based separation separates materials of different electric conductivity (or
resistivity) (Tables 5). There are three typical electric conductivity-based separation techniques:

(1) Eddy current separation,

(2) Corona electrostatic separation, and

(3) Triboelectric (electricity generated by friction) separation.

 P a g e | 52

In the past decade, one of the most significant developments in the recycling industry was the
introduction of Eddy current separators whose operability is base on the use of rare earth permanent
magnets. The separator were initially developed to recover non-ferrous metals from shredded
automobile scrap or for treatment of municipal solid waste, but is now widely used for other
purposes including foundry casting sand, polyester polyethylene terephthalate (PET), electronic
scrap, glass cullet, shredder fluff, and spent pot liner.

Currently, Eddy current separators are almost exclusively used for waste reclamation where they are
particularly suited to handling the relatively coarse sized feeds. The rotor-type electrostatic
separator, using corona charging, is utilised to separate raw materials into conductive and non-
conductive fractions. The extreme difference in the electric conductivity or specific electric
resistance between metals and non-metals supplies an excellent condition for the successful
implementation of a corona electrostatic separation in recycling of waste.
To date, electrostatic separation has been mainly utilized for the recovery of copper or aluminum
from chopped electric wires and cables, more specifically the recovery of copper and precious
metals from printed circuit board scrap Triboelectric separation makes it is possible to sort plastics
depending on the difference in their electric properties (Table 4). For the processing of plastics
waste, research has shown many obvious advantages of triboelectric electrostatic separation, such as
independence of particle shape, low energy consumption, and high throughput

TABLE-4 Mechanical separation processes based on electric characteristics of Materials

Processe Separat Principles of Sorting Workab

s ion separation task le
criteria particle
size
ranges
Eddy Electric Repulsive forces Non- >5mm
current conducti exerted in the ferrous
separatio vity electrically conductive metal/non
n and particles due to the metal
density interaction between separatio
 P a g e | 53

the alternative n
magnetic field and the
Eddy currents induces
by the magnetic field
(Lorentz force)

Corona Electric Corona charge and Metal/non 0.1–

electrost conducti differentiated metal 5mm
atic vity discharge lead to separatio (10mm
separatio different charges of n for
n particles and this to laminar
action of different particles
forces (particularly, )
image forces)
Triboelec Dielectri Tribo-charge with Separatio <5 (10)
tric c different charges (+ or n of mm
separatio constant −) of the components Plastics
n cause different force (noncond
directions uctors)

5 Density-based separations:
Several different methods are employed to separate heavier materials from lighter ones. The
difference in density of the components is the basis of separation. Table 4 shows that density-based
separation processes have found widespread application in non-metal/metal separation.

Gravity concentration separates materials of different specific gravity by their relative movement in
response to the force of gravity and one or more other forces, the latter often being the resistance to
motion offered by a fluid, such as water or air. The motion of a particle in a fluid is dependent not
only on the particle’s density, but also on its size and shape, large particles being affected more than
smaller ones. In practice, close size control of feeds to gravity processes is required in order to
reduce the size effect and make the relative motion of the particle specific gravity dependent.
 P a g e | 54

TABLE-5 Density separation processes utilized for non-metal/metal separation

Utilized for following sorting tasks

Density Workabl Plastic Aluminu Lead Cable Electro Light
separation e s m batter scrap nic steel
Process piece waste scrap y scrap scrap
Sizes scrap
(mm)
Sink-float separation
In liquids * * * *
In heavy media
Gravity 5–150 * * * *
separator
Hydro cyclone + <50 *
In aero suspensions
In aero chutes 0.7–3 *
In fluidized bed 0.7–5
Trough
separators
Sorting by jigging
Hydraulic jigs 2–20 *
Pneumatic jigs <3 *
Sorting in chutes and on tables
Aero-chutes 0.6–2 *
Aero-tables <4 *
Up-stream separation
Up-stream 5–150 * * *
hydraulic
Separation
Up-stream <300 *
pneumatic
Separation

12.5. Mechanical Approaches of recycling electronic scrap

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As may be anticipated, all of the work undertaken on mechanical systems has been with the primary
objective of enhancing separation yield of the various fractions, particularly the precious metal
bearing ones.

The basic mechanical techniques deployed in the treatment of scrap PCBs and electronic assemblies
have been adapted or adopted from the raw materials processing sector and refinement has sought to
address both yield constraints and ultimately cost effectiveness either of the approaches, used singly
or in an integrated manner.

The problems associated with yield were apparent from early attempts to produce a model
methodology for handling all types of electronic scrap as instanced by the US Bureau of Mines
(USBM) approach in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The separation route, developed up to a 250 kg
per hour pilot plant, comprised shredding, air separation, and magnetic, eddy current and
electrostatic separation to generate aluminum rich, copper rich (including major precious metal
fraction), light air classified and ferrous fractions.

The yield, however, was such that no commercial uptake of this approach has been instanced. The
relatively poor yields or levels of separation obtained from this approach, were undoubtedly a result
of the use of a standard hammer mill having no provision, or levels of refinement, to cope with clear
comminution (pulverize) of aluminium, the use of a ramp type eddy currentseparator of low capacity
and selectivity and the use of a high tension separator for metals/non metals, which has been since
demonstrated as having low capacity and high susceptibility to humidity.

There was little further meaningful development work on the implementation of mechanical
treatment approaches until the early 1990s when Scandinavian Recycling AB in Sweden
implemented their mechanical concept for electronic scrap handling which did not specifically
address the treatment of scrap PCBs but rather removed PCBs for specialist treatment as part of the
pre sorting stage. Subsequent to this development, work in both Germany and Switzerland has seen
the implementation of mechanically based approaches for the handling and separation of electronic
scrap with the work at FUBA dedicated to scrap PCBs being a notable example of this activity.
 P a g e | 56

In 1996, Noell Abfall and Energietechnik GmbH in Germany implemented a 21,000 tonnes per
annum plant with the capability of handling a wide variety of electronics scrap but specifically
intended for redundant telecommunications scrap. The system again involves PCB scrap and the
inherent precious metal content being subject to prior manual disassembly. The overall methodology
deploys a three stage liberation and sequential separation route with ferromagnetic removal via
overhead permanent magnets and eddy current techniques because of their ability to optimise the
handling of fractions in the 5 to 200 mm particle size range.

Air table techniques were utilised for the separation of particulate fractions in the 5 to 10 mm, 2 to 5
mm and less than 2 mm ranges respectively. Mechanical and physic mechanical approaches to the
treatment of scrap PCBs may be deployed as standalone treatment stages, (i.e. pulverisation,
magnetic separation, or integrated into a complete treatment system with the output being metallic
and non-metallic fractions). The metallic output would be destined for hydrometallurgical
refinement via smelting where as the nonmetallic output would find applications in the secondary
plastics marketplace or be utilised within dedicated developed applications.

As reported, FUBA has developed its total mechanical treatment system, albeit only currently
utilised for nonpopulated board scrap or ancillary laminate waste through this latter route. There are
commercially available turnkey mechanical systems for the treatment of
a wide range of electronic scrap materials including populated and non-populated PCBs. One such is
that developed by hamos GmbH in Germany, which is an automated integrated mechanical system,
comprising the following stages:
• Primary coarse size reduction, accomplished with a shredder having multi-use rotational
knives;
• Coarse ferrous metal separation, accomplished with rare earth magnets sited above an
oscillating conveyor belt feed to allow high efficiency ferrous separation across a range of
particle sizes;
• Pulverisation in which circuit board assemblies are pulverised within a hammer mill
utilising high abrasion resistance hammers and liners and proprietary grates with the action
of the mill inducing a 'spherising' effect on the metallic articulates;
• Classification, utilising self-cleaning sieves;
 P a g e | 57

• Electrostatic separation, allowing virtually complete separation of metallic fractions with

recirculation of mid-range particulate fractions
• Further size reduction, cosisting of secondary pulverisation to effect size reduction on
oversized particulates.

The hamos system can additionally incorporate density separation for aluminium extraction and dust
generation treatment of any such outfall from the hammer mills via secondary electrostatic
separators. The complete conveyor based systems are operated at negative pressures to eliminate any
airborne pollution and are currently available with treatment capabilities up to 4 tonnes per hour of
input feed.

All products from the system viz mixed plastic, metallic and extracted ferrous and aluminium is
bagged automatically for onward shipment. Considerable work has been undertaken on enhancing
the effectiveness of mechanical treatment systems. For example, the development of newer
pulverizing process technology via the application of multiple pulverising rotors and ceramiccoated
systems has enabled the generation of sub-millimetre particulate comminution. This in turn has
enabled the efficiency of subsequent centrifugal separation techniques to realize 97% copper
recovery yields.

The effectiveness of the pulverising process has been improved by the adoption of dual pulverising
stages: a crushing process and a fine pulverising process. The crushing process combines cutting and
shearing forces and the fine pulverising process combines shearing and impact forces. With such
effective particulate comminution both screen separation and gravity separation have been
investigated and conclusions drawn that the most effective approach was by gravity using a
centrifugal classifier with a high air vortex system.

Researchers at Daimler-Benz in Ulm, Germany, have developed a mechanical treatment approach

that has the capability to increase metal separation efficiencies, even from fine dust residues
generated after particulate comminution in the treatment of scrap PCB assemblies. They considered
a purely mechanical approach to be the most cost effective methodology and a major objective of
 P a g e | 58

their work was to increase the degree of purity of the recovered metals such that minimal pollutant
emissions would be encountered during subsequent smelting.

Their process comprises the initial coarse size reduction to ~2 cm x 2 cm dimensioned fractions
followed by magnetic separation for ferrous elements. A low temperature grinding stage then
follows this. The embrittlement of polymeric components at temperatures less than 70°C was found
to enable enhanced separation from non-ferrous metallic components when subjected to grinding
within a hammer mill. In operation the hammer mill was fed with liquid nitrogen at minus 196°C,
which served to both impart brittleness to the plastic feedstock constituent and to effect process
cooling. Additionally, the grinding of material within such an inert atmosphere eliminated any 17
likelihood of oxidative by product formation from the plastics, such as dioxins and furans.
Subsequent to this enhanced grinding stage the metallic and non metallic fractions were separated
via sieving (an instrument with a meshed or perforated bottom, used for separating course from fine
parts of loose matter, for straining liquids) and electrostatic stages. Cost analyses undertaken by
Daimler-Benz engineers have indicated that such a process may be economically viable even when
dealing with relatively low-grade PCB scrap having little precious metal content.

Ongoing activities are concerned with development of the treatment of separated polymeric fractions
in conjunction with Mitsubishi Heavy Industries that have set up a gasification and methanol (a
colorless, volatile, water-soluble, poisonous liquid, CH4O, obtained by the destructive distillation of
wood or the incomplete oxidation of natural gas, or produced synthetically from carbon monoxide
and hydrogen, used chiefly as a solvent, a fuel, and an automobile antifreeze and in the synthesis of
formaldehyde) sis plant to such effect. Air table separation systems have been researched with a
view to effecting separation of metallic and plastic components from an input feed of screened 7 mm
shredded particulate scrap PCBs post ferromagnetic separation. Recovery rates for copper, gold and
silver of 76%, 83% and 91% respectively were considered to validate the approach, but only for low-
grade PCB scrap or general electronic scrap.

12.6. Hydrometallurgical Approaches

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A number of hydrometallurgical (the technique or process of extracting metals at ordinary

temperatures by leaching ore with liquid solvents)approaches have been developed through to pilot
plant stage with preliminary cost studies indicating the potential recovery of all materials, with the
exception of discrete components, at an operational profit. In the USA, a methodology based on
solvolysis has been developed to enable both the more efficient recovery of metals and the recovery
of plastic materials such as epoxides at high quality and with the additional benefit of having the
capability to extract both halogens and brominated hydrocarbon derivatives. On a relatively small
scale there have been a number of hydrometallurgical approaches traditionally pursued in the
recovery specifically of gold from pins and edge connectors.

Such methodologies have usually been deployed on discrete edge connectors and gold-coated
assemblies that have been manually separated from the scrap board via the use of air knives etc. The
approaches have either liberated gold as metal flake via acidic dissolution of the copper substrates or
dissolution of the gold in cyanide or thiourea based lea chants followed by electro winning or
chemical displacement or precipitation with powdered zinc.

The use of non-selective leachants to dissolve the non precious metal content of scrap PCBs has also
received attention. Various studies have been undertaken into the viability of utilising dilute mineral
acids in conjunction with subsequent metal recovery techniques based on concentration and
separation such as solvent extraction, ion exchange, adsorption and cementation.

In the UK, there have been two potentially significant development projects undertaken on
hydrometallurgical approaches to the recycling of scrap PCBs with both having demonstrated
viability to a pre pilot plant stage.

The first of these approaches is from a Cambridge University led consortium, which deploys a
selective dissolution electrolytic recovery route for discrete metal constituents. The solder recovery
stage employs a solder selective (non copper etching) regenerable leachant based on fluoroboric
acid. This may or may not be deployed prior to mechanical pre treatment, from which the dissolved
solder can be electrolytically recovered in pure metallic form. Subsequent selective leaching of
copper and PMG metals is then carried out. The ability to remove selectively solder prior to
 P a g e | 60

mechanical comminution has specific advantages in enabling disassembly and component integrity
and recovery. Mechanical pre treatment methodologies followed by the Cambridge group have
included shredding, magnetic separation, eddy current separation and classification.

The second development is that of the Imperial College, London (ICL) consortium which has taken
shredded and classified sub 4mm PCB populated PCB scrap through a single leachate route
comprising electro-generated chlorine in an acidic aqueous solution of high chloride ion activity.
This has produced a multi metal leach electrolyte containing all of the available metal content at
generally mass transport controlled rates with respect to dissolved chlorine. The viability of
subsequent metal recovery via electrolytic membrane cells with discrete metal separation has also
been demonstrated. To summarize the above discussions:
• Hydrometallurgical approaches offer a viable methodology in maximising the recovery of
intrinsic metal value, particularly precious metals, and should be further developed through
pilot plant stages to commercialisation.
• No single treatment approach will be appropriate for the handling of all scrap PCBs because
of their diversity and varying intrinsic worth. Rather, an integrated hierarchy of approaches
that encompasses disassembly and mechanical and hydrometallurgical methodologies will be
needed to generate either materials or components for direct reuse or downstream application
or a non-toxic feedstock for pyrolytic refining.

PWB Waste

Crushing process

Pulverising process
 P a g e | 61

Fine pulverising

Gravity Separation

Copper Rich Powder Glass Fiber & Resin

Recycling of copper filler in construction materials

Fig-3 97% recovery of Copper from PWBs

12.7. Extraction of IC/ other components from PCB

IC/other components from PCBs are manually extracted as shown in figure This process is common
for PC, TV and cell-phone. The E-waste stream from cell-phone joins the E-waste stream of PC and
TV.

Fig-4 Extraction of IC/ other components from PCB

12.7.1. Recovery of Gold

 P a g e | 62

Gold pins are recovered from PCB manually as shown in Figure 5. First, there is manual removal of
gold-plated pins. The core of each motherboard has a flat laminated gold plate. These laminated
parts cut down and sold to gold-smiths for gold recovery.

Fig-5 Gold Recovery

Preheating of PCB and extraction of components The

preheating process is applied to remove resalable
components like ICs, condensers, bearings (pulleys)
from floppy drive and hard drive. Pre-heating means
simply putting the motherboard on a burning stove
as shown in. Low heat is maintained to loosen only
the chemical bond between solder and plastic. Then
resalable chips, condensers, etc, are plucked out from
these pre-heated plates. After that, the pre-heated circuit boards are taken by other dealers for
recovery of solder (which consists of lead and mercury). The method of solder recovery is very
rudimentary. The lead extracted due to heat application goes into a water tub – it floats due to low
density.

12.7.2. Monitors
Monitors are much sought after by scrap dealers as they contain good quantity of copper yoke,
besides circuit board and picture tube. The different recovery processes observed in MMR are given
below. Dissembling of CRT and Extraction of Components The first step in monitor recycling
involves physical removal of plastic casing, picture tube (cathode ray tube), copper yoke and plates.
The intact and functional CRT is used for the manufacture of colour and black & white televisions
 P a g e | 63

for local brands. Re-gunning is possible only for those monitors whose terminal pin (diode pin) of
electron gun has not broken in the process of removing yoke from gun.

12.7.2.1. Recovery of Glass from CRT

Defective CRT is broken down to recover iron frames from the glass funnel as shown in Figure 6,7.
The iron frames are found only in color CRTs and not in black & white monitors. The glasses and
iron frames from picture tubes are given to waste traders. Yoke Core,

12.7.2.2. Yoke Core, Metallic Core and Copper from Transformers

The copper and yoke core recovered from yoke coils found around the picture tube end is sold to
copper smelters and re-winders as shown in Figure 8 and Figure 9. Apart from the yoke, copper and
metallic core is also recovered from transformers mounted on the circuit board of the computer. The
circuit tray also contains a number of condensers of different sizes. Depending upon their condition
and demand they again enter into the secondary market for reuse. If they are defective, they are sold
along with the motherboard. Rare Earth Core of Transformer and Copper These small transistors and
rare earth transformers are boiled in water with small amount of caustic soda, which results in
loosing of joint between the core resulting in core and copper extraction as shown in Figure 11.

12.7.2.3. Copper Extraction from Wires

Two kinds of processes are being followed under this category as listed below:

1. Manual drawing of wires for copper

2. Extraction of copper by burning the wire

Plastic casing of ether ABS or
high Separated for sale
 P a g e | 64

Opening the plastic case CRT with PWB and other

casing

CRT of breakage separation of PWB York and CRT

York for core and copper extraction separated PWB

Fig-6 Dissembling of CRT and Extraction of Components

Fig-7.a Glass Recovery by CRT Breaking

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York with component

York core cutting of copper form core is shown

Copper

Fig-7.b Extraction of Yoke Core and Copper

Metallic transformer cutting of cooper with nail and

hammer

Metallic core copper

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Fig-8 Extraction of Metallic Core of Transformer and Copper

Rear earth transformer boiling of transformer rear

earth core

Copper

Fig-9 Extraction of Rare Earth Core of Transformer and Copper

12.7.2.4. Manual drawing of Wires for Copper

Under this process with the use of knife the edge of wire is cut and then with the help of pliers the
copper is extracted from PVC as shown in Figure 10. The process is as shown below copper goes for
sale to copper smelters and PVC is used for plastic graining.

copper

Computer wire cutting the wire edge and pull the copper

PVC
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Fig-10 Computer Cable

12.7.2.5. Plastic Shredding and Graining

The plastic casings of monitors are made either of PVC (polyvinyl chloride) or ABS (acrylonitrile-
butadiene styrene). PVC was used more commonly in the early models of computers. Now
computer-manufacturing companies have shifted to ABS plastic in the production of monitors.
Though both types of plastics are currently being recycled as shown in Figure 11, the PVC one
cannot be recycled. This is due to the high percentage of silicate being added for making it fire
retardant. The silicate plastic often ends up at kilns as an alternate source of energy. The plastic
casing is recycled into EBS or High Impact Plastic. These kinds of plastics are frequently used in
manufacturing toys.

12.7.2.6. Dismantling of compressor & segregation of compressor & cooling box

Refrigerator is dismantled for metal recovery, plastic recovery, insulating material
and compressor as shown in Figure 11.

In 02: manual labor Ou 01: separated cooling box

In 01 end life of refrigerator P 01: manual breaking using hammer and punches

Ou 02: segregation of insulating material

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Ou 03: separated compressor

Fig-11 Dismantling of Refrigerator and Segregation of Compressor and

Cooling Box

12.8. Disposal
It has been observed in many parts of the world that the most common practice of disposing e-waste
is simply throwing it away with domestic waste, which eventually ends up in landfills or gets
incinerated. However, this may result in several environmental hazards and hence, the waste must be
disposed off in a proper manner.

Fig-12 Plastic Shredding

12.9. Advantages of Recycling e-waste:

· It will give way to Perfect Management of E-Waste.
· As there will be virtually no landfilling or incineration, the hazards to the environment will be
avoided.
· Waste disposal costs will be reduced for organizations handling their own EWaste.
· It will generate good quantity of raw materials for various other industries. Moreover, the cost of
this raw material will be much less than that obtained from its original source.
· Widely used metals like copper, platinum have to be dug out from their ores. Acquiring them this
way will not only be a cheaper, less time consuming mean, but will also result in reduction of waste,
and its hazards by reuse.
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· Plastics can be reused relatively many times. So recycling them from E-Waste makes use of this
advantage of plastics.
· It will have better and safer working conditions relative to backyard stripping corporations. This
means protected means of dismantling and recycling of EWaste.
· It will generate many employment opportunities for people from many disciplines.

13.0. Responsibilities of government, industries, and citizen.

Considering the severity of the problem, it is imperative that certain management options be adopted
to handle the bulk e-wastes. Following are some of the management options suggested for the
government, industries and the public.

13.1. Responsibilities of the Government

(i) Governments should set up regulatory agencies in each district, which are vested with the
responsibility of co-coordinating and consolidating the regulatory functions of the various
government authorities regarding hazardous substances.
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(ii) Governments should be responsible for providing an adequate system of laws, controls and
administrative procedures for hazardous waste management (Third World Network. 1991). Existing
laws concerning e-waste disposal be reviewed and revamped. A comprehensive law that provides e-
waste regulation and management and proper disposal of hazardous wastes is required. Such a law
should empower the agency to control, supervise and regulate the relevant activities of government
departments.

Under this law, the agency concerned should

Collect basic information on the materials from manufacturers, processors and importers
and to maintain an inventory of these materials. The information should include toxicity
and potential harmful effects.

Identify potentially harmful substances and require the industry to test them for adverse
health and environmental effects.

Control risks from manufacture, processing, distribution, use and disposal of electronic
wastes.

Encourage beneficial reuse of "e-waste" and encouraging business activities that use
waste". Set up programs so as to promote recycling among citizens and businesses.

Educate e-waste generators on reuse/recycling options

(iii) Governments must encourage research into the development and standard of hazardous waste
management, environmental monitoring and the regulation of hazardous waste-disposal.

(iv) Governments should enforce strict regulations against dumping e-waste in the country by
outsiders. Where the laws are flouted, stringent penalties must be imposed. In particular, custodial
sentences should be preferred to paltry fines, which these outsiders / foreign nationals can pay.

(v) Governments should enforce strict regulations and heavy fines levied on industries, which do not
practice waste prevention and recovery in the production facilities.
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(vi) Polluter pays principle and extended producer responsibility should be adopted.

(vii) Governments should encourage and support NGOs and other organizations to involve actively
in solving the nation's e-waste problems.

(viii) Uncontrolled dumping is an unsatisfactory method for disposal of hazardous waste and should
be phased out.

(viii) Governments should explore opportunities to partner with manufacturers and retailers to
provide recycling services.

13.2. Responsibility and Role of industries

1. Generators of wastes should take responsibility to determine the output characteristics of

wastes and if hazardous, should provide management options.

2. All personnel involved in handling e-waste in industries including those at the policy,
management, control and operational levels, should be properly qualified and trained.
Companies can adopt their own policies while handling
e-wastes. Some are given below:

 Use label materials to assist in recycling (particularly plastics).

 Standardize components for easy disassembly.
 Re-evaluate 'cheap products' use, make product cycle 'cheap' and so that it
has no inherent value that would encourage a recycling infrastructure.
 Create computer components and peripherals of biodegradable materials.
 Utilize technology sharing particularly for manufacturing and de
manufacturing.
 Encourage / promote / require green procurement for corporate buyers.
 Look at green packaging options.

3. Companies can and should adopt waste minimization techniques, which will make a
significant reduction in the quantity of e-waste generated and thereby lessening the impact on
the environment. It is a "reverse production" system that designs infrastructure to recover and
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reuse every material contained within e-wastes metals such as lead, copper, aluminum and
gold, and various plastics, glass and wire. Such a "closed loop" manufacturing and recovery
system offers a win-win situation for everyone, less of the Earth will be mined for raw
materials, and groundwater will be protected, researchers explain.

4. Manufacturers, distributors, and retailers should undertake the responsibility of

recycling/disposal of their own products.

5. Manufacturers of computer monitors, television sets and other electronic devices

containing hazardous materials must be responsible for educating consumers and the general
public regarding the potential threat to public health and the environment posed by their
products. At minimum, all computer monitors, television sets and other electronic devices
containing hazardous materials must be clearly labeled to identify environmental hazards and
proper materials management.

13.3. Responsibilities of the Citizen

Waste prevention is perhaps more preferred to any other waste management option including
recycling. Donating electronics for reuse extends the lives of valuable products and keeps them out
of the waste management system for a longer time. But care should be taken while donating such
items i.e. the items should be in working condition.

Reuse, in addition to being an environmentally preferable alternative, also benefits society. By

donating used electronics, schools, non-profit organizations, and lower-income families can afford to
use equipment that they otherwise could not afford.

E-wastes should never be disposed with garbage and other household wastes. This should be
segregated at the site and sold or donated to various organizations.

While buying electronic products opt for those that:

o are made with fewer toxic constituents

o use recycled content
o are energy efficient
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o are designed for easy upgrading or disassembly

o utilize minimal packaging
o offer leasing or take back options
o have been certified by regulatory authorities. Customers should
opt for upgrading their computers or other electronic items to the
latest versions rather than buying new equipments.

NGOs should adopt a participatory approach in management of e-wastes.

14.0. E-Waste Policy for India

Under the aegis of ASSOCHAM Expert Committee on Environment a Seminar on “E-Waste Policy
for India” was held in New Delhi on May 26, 2006. Designed with the aim of spreading awareness
on the hazards of E-waste in the country, discussing E-waste management & disposal options and
inviting inputs for framing an E-Waste policy for the country, this well-attended Seminar had
discussants representing industry, research and development institutions, environmental
organizations and consultants, legal practitioners, and E-waste recyclers.
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The Keynote Speaker in the Seminar was Dr. R.S. Mahawar, Additional Director Central Pollution
Control Board.
Eminent speakers, such as Mr. P. Ravindranath, Director, Government and Public Affairs, Hewlett-
Packard India,
Mr. Amit Jain, Management Director – India Operations, IRG SSA,
Dr. T.K. Joshi, Director, Centre for Occupational and Environmental Health, Government of NCT of
Delhi,
Mr. Gaurang Baxi, Manager, Corporate HSE, Kodak India,
Mr. Rahul Sharma, Director, TRI International Limited,
Dr. S.K. Pachauri, Former Director General, National Productivity Council and Ex-Secretary to the
Government of India,
Mr. M.S. Nagar, Ex CMD, Indian Rare Earths Ltd. and former Consultant, Ministry of Environment
and Forests, Government of India,
Dr. Usha Dar, President, Council of Industrial Environmental Relations in Delhi, shared their views
and experiences in this Seminar.

In the backdrop of resurgent growth of the Indian economy and greater reliance on electronic
hardware for household, industrial and office automation, commitment to eco-responsibility was
seen as a sine qua non for the society, economy and the environment.

There was unanimity that electronic waste containing substances like lead, cadmium, mercury,
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) has immense potential to cause enormous harm to human health and
environment, if not disposed properly since the extant prescriptions for its disposal and safeguard
were inadequate. Thus, the imperative need for early formulation of a holistic E-waste legislation
which will eventually lead to enabling policy. It was consensually agreed that such a policy must
appropriately reflect the concerns of various stakeholders besides views of practitioners in the field,
both in the organized and the unorganized sector.

The deliberations in the Seminar highlighted the likely enormity in the magnitude of E-waste to be
generated every year (approx 1,50,000 tonnes). Issues relating to poor sensitisation about this sector,
low organized recycling, cross-border flow of waste equipment into India, limited reach out and
awareness regarding disposal, after determining end of useful life, and lack of coordination between
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various authorities responsible for E-waste management and disposal including the non-involvement
of municipalities in E-waste management were discussed threadbare. The emerging global trend of
producer responsibility for disposal after useful life becoming the governing principle globally by
the year 2008 and lack of steps in India in this regard were cited prominently during the
deliberations.

Conscious of the prevalent uncertainties regarding “when, where, and how” to dispose hazardous,
harmful E-waste, the role of informal sector in the process and the necessity of introducing a
comprehensive framework early, ASSOCHAM affirms its commitment to assist the Government in
carving out an inclusive E-waste management policy, as for meeting the need for finding an “India
Unique Solution”, that strikes a visionary balance between precepts and praxis for sustainable
management of E-waste, such a policy alone can bring the desired paradigm shift.

ASSOCHAM, in recognition of this urgent necessity of proper management of E-waste in the

country therefore recommends for consideration of the Government the following :

1. Promulgate an all-embracing national E-waste Management law, and an all-

encompassing policy thereunder, for substituting the existing Hazardous Waste (Management
and Handling) Rules 2003, as the latter are not comprehensive enough to attain the aforesaid
objectives.

2. Initiate the process for complete national level assessment, covering all the cities and all
the sectors. Such base line study must envelope inventories, existing technical and policy
measures required for emergence of national E-waste policy/strategy and action plan for eco-
friendly, economic E-waste management. The study should also culminate in identifying
potentially harmful substances and testing them for adverse health and environmental effects
for suggesting precautionary measures.

3. Create a public-private participatory forum of decision making, problem resolution in E-

waste management. This could be a Working Group comprising Regulatory Agencies,
NGOs, Industry Associations, experts etc. to keep pace with the temporal and spatial changes
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in structure and content of E-waste. This Working Group can be the feedback providing
mechanism to the National Nodal Authority in the Government that will periodically review
the existing rules, plans and strategies for E-waste management.

4. ASSOCHAM as a Knowledge Chamber advocates creation of knowledge data base on

end of useful life determination, anticipating the risks, ways of preventing and protecting
from likely damage and safe and timely disposal of E-waste. It accordingly urges the
Government to promote Information, Education and Communication (IEC) activities in
schools, colleges, industry etc. to enhance the knowledge base on E-waste management using
the PPP mode.

5. Creation of data base on best global practices and failure analyses for development and
deployment of efficacious E-waste management and disposal practices within the country.

6. Device ways and means to encourage beneficial reuse/recycling of E-waste, catalyzing

business activities that use E-waste.

7. Formulate and regulate occupational health safety norms for the E-waste recycling, now
mainly confined to the informal sector.

8. Review the trade policy and exim classification codes to plug the loopholes often being
misused for cross-border dumping of E-waste into India.

9. Insist on stringent enforcement against wanton infringement of Basel convention and E-

waste dumping by preferring incarceration over monetary penalties for demonstrating
deterrent impact.

10. Foster partnership with manufacturers and retailers for recycling services by creating an
enabling environment so as dispose E-waste scientifically at economic costs.
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11. Mandate sustained capacity building for industrial E-waste handling for policy makers,
managers, controllers and operators. Enhance consumer awareness regarding the potential
threat to public health and environment by electronic products, if not disposed properly.

12. Enforce labeling of all computer monitors, television sets and other household/industrial
electronic devices for declaration of hazardous material contents with a view to identifying
environmental hazards and ensuring proper material management and E-waste disposal.

13. Announce incentives for growth of E-waste disposal agencies so that remediation of
environmental damage, threats of irreversible loss and lack of scientific knowledge do not
anymore pose hazards to human health and environment. Simultaneously, as a proactive
step, municipal bodies must be involved in the disposal of e-waste lest it becomes too late for
their intervention, should large handling volumes necessitate it.

14. Consider gradual introduction of enhanced producer responsibility into Indian process,
practices and procedures so that preventive accountability gains preponderance over polluter
immunity.

15.0. CONCLUSION

The requirement and usage of electronic equipments is increasing day by day, as new, cheaper and
better technologies replace the old ones. This renders the old equipments useless, and leaving huge
amounts of electronic waste behind. However, this waste still has valuable metals and substances
that can be used. Consequently, the dismantling and reuse of E-waste components has become quite
a lucrative industry. But a only a fraction of the total amount of E-Waste is found to be recycled, and
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the rest discarded along with domestic waste. By discarding the rest of the waste, not only is the
environment being contaminated with hazardous substances, but also many reusable valuable
materials get are wasted.

The materials recovered from E-Waste are often in richer quantity than their original sources. In
addition to that, their recovery is much cheaper as well. Hence E-Waste can be considered to be a
rich yet cheap source of many valuable substances like plastics, gold, copper etc. This implies that
with better collection and processing techniques, an E-Waste recycling industry, set up with
contributions from the government and the consumers, can generate remarkable revenue, at the same
time providing a sustainable E-Waste management technique

16.0. REFERENCES

HTTP://WWW.IIMM.ORG/NATIONAL_EXECUTIVE.HTM
HTTP://WWW.GOOGLE.CO.IN
HTTP://WWW.SCRIBD.COM
HTTP://WGBIS.CES.IISC.ERNET.IN/ENERGY/PAPER/RESEARCHPAPER.HTML
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