Camelia Bejan Nicoleta Sava

A Workbook in Lexical Semantics

Table of contents
1. Word formation
1.1. Affixation 1
1.2. Compoundin................................................!
1.". #t$er means of %ord formation...11
2. Word meanin.
2.1. Componential anal&sis.....1'
2.2. (&pon&m&1!
". )exical relations
".1. S&non&m&1*
".2. Sources of s&non&m&...2"
".". Anton&m&.2+
".+. ,ol&sem&..2'
".'. (omon&m&2!
".-. ,aron&m&..............................................2*
+. .dioms2*
/lossar&."1
0eferences.."'
1. Word formation
1.1. Affixation
1. State %$ic$ of t$e suffixes belo% are productive. /ive examples of %ords formed %it$ eac$
suffix and use t$em in s$ort sentences of &our o%n.
A1 Noun2formin suffixes3
2ae4 2ant4 2dom4 2ee4 2ence4 2er4 2ese4 2ess4 2$ood4 2ism4
2ist4 2ite4 2ive4 2lin4 2ment4 2or4 2r&4 2s$ip4 2t$4 2tion.
B1 Adjective2formin suffixes3
2ed4 2es5ue4 2fold4 2ful4 2is$4 2li6e4 2l&4 2&.
C1 7erb2formin suffixes3
2ate4 2en4 2f&4 2i8e.
91 Adverb2formin suffixes3
2lon4 2l&4 2%ard4 2%ise.
2. State t$e oriin and explain t$e meanin of t$e suffixes in t$e follo%in %ords3
1
apoloi8e: at$eism: circulation: cloc6%ise: coldness:
craftsmans$ip: drun6ard: fas$ionable: foolis$: for%ard:
lorious: $appiness: $opeful: 6indom: lad&li6e:
manifold: pictures5ue: po%erless: refres$ment: sarcasm:
serious: sp$eroid: troublesome: %aiter: %ooden.
". ,ic6 out %ords %it$ noun2formin suffixes. Comment on t$e oriin and productivit& of t$e
suffixes.
1. Certain traditional solutions are presented to us all in &out$: and t$e s%iftness %it$ %$ic$
%e see t$eir foolis$ness is an almost unerrin test of intellience.
2. .sabel %as often amused at $is explicitness and at t$e small allo%ance $e seemed to ma6e
eit$er for $er o%n experience or for $er imaination.
". As for t$e entleman $imself: $is feelins %ere c$iefl& expressed: not b& embarrassment
or dejection: or b& tr&in to avoid $er: but b& stiffness of manner and resentful silence.
+. . alread& 6ne% t$at . %anted to %rite novels but even so: . could not avoid feelin
some sort of excitement: or en$ancement of interest: %$enever . sa% 0ut$erford %al6in
do%n ;ree Sc$ool )ane.
'. (e sat b& %it$out spea6in: loo6in at t$e entrances and exits: t$e reetins and
c$atterins of <adame=s visitors.
-. And $e $ad one of t$e rare moments of $omesic6ness for t$e Corn%all left t%ent&2five
&ears before.
!. . $ope: Nasie: $e said in $er ear: t$at &ou %ill ive orders not to admit t$at &ounster:
%$ose e&es li$t up li6e live coals %$en $e loo6s at &ou.
*. S$e could not brin $er situation into $armon& %it$ $er feelins: %it$ $er convictions4
..
..

+. Write out t$e %ords %it$ adjective2formin suffixes. Comment on t$e oriin and productivit&
of t$e suffixes3
1. T$e tone of science %as t$e tone of 0ut$erford3 boastful because t$e major discoveries
%ere bein made t$at ver& moment: creativel& confident: enerous: arumentative:
lavis$: and full of $ope.
2. T$e mars$al=s opponent is a &oun captain of t$e staff: belted and curled and li$t2
loved: %$o is in t$e first ran6 of billiard2pla&ers and capable of beatin all t$e mars$als
on eart$4 but $e $as t$e tact to 6eep a respectful distance be$ind $is c$ief. (e is %$at is
called an officer %it$ a future.
". T$e sluis$ procession in %$ic$ t$e& %ere movin led t$em eventuall& to t$e centre of
t$e to%n and t$e soberl& illuminated front of t$e .mperial (otel.
+. <adame ave Ne%man t$e sense of an elaborate education: of $er $avin passed
t$rou$ m&sterious ceremonies and processes of culture in $er &out$: of $er $avin been
fas$ioned and made flexible to certain exalted social needs.
'. (is composition %as a mixture of ood2$umoured manl& force and a modest& t$at at
times %as almost bo&is$.

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2
'. >nderline t$e %ords %it$ suffixes. Comment on t$e meanin and function of t$e suffixes.
<odel3 coldness ? cold @ 2ness4
-ness ? state: 5ualit&: instance of bein4 nominali8in suffix
1. S$e sa% <r. #utrae and )ord <etroland in consultation about t$e Censors$ip Bill Aa
statesmanli6e and muc$ needed measure1 %$ic$ empo%ered a committee of five at$eists
to destro& all boo6s: pictures and films t$e& considered undesirable: %it$out an&
nonsense about defence or appeal.
2. T$e& $ad seen in t$eir o%n $omes t$e dreadful un$appiness and sufferin caused b&
7ictorian inorance.
". (is fraternal tenderness $ad touc$ed $er: and on $is departure s$e $ad burst into tears.
+. 0eall&: t$ou$t Clarissa: if collectin $istorical material is oin to be as tiresome as t$is:
. %is$ . $ad accepted t$e offer of %ritin a travel boo6 on Anola.
'. T$en $e as6ed $imself3 B9o . reall& %ant $erC= Was it a memor&: or a $ope: or mere pi2
$eadedness t$at 6ept $im oin %it$ $er.
-. (er lasses %ere blurred %it$ tears and t$e car s%erved left2%ard to%ards t$e stone2
%all.
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-. .dentif& t$e prefixed %ords from t$e follo%in sentences. .ndicate t$e part of speec$ t$e&
belon to.
1. And %$en )ad& <etroland bean to expostulate: $e s$ut $er up ver& discourteousl&.
2. T$e race %as not due to start until noon: but an& indecision %$ic$ t$e& ma& $ave felt
about t$e next fe% $ours %as settled for t$em b& t$e local police: %$o %ere enaed in
directin all traffic: irrespective of its particular inclinations: on t$e road to t$e course.
". .t %as a spontaneous ex$ibition t$at $ad served its purpose on man& different occasions.
Sir Ddar: $o%ever: disli6ed it even more t$an $is earlier performance.
+. As lon as . 6ept %al6in t$e&=d remained mixed and c$aotic: li6e imperfectl&
recollected boo6s and films4 once . stopped t$e&=d become unbearabl& orani8ed4 if .
%al6ed 5uic6l& . could crane m& mind %it$ t$e speed of m& o%n movement.
'. B& t$e time . entered C$olon . $ad outstripped t$e ne%s3 life %as bus&: normal:
uninterrupted3 nobod& 6ne%.
-. #n t$e lips of a person less advanced in life: and less enli$tened b& experience t$an
<rs. Touc$ett: suc$ a declaration %ould savour of immodest&: even of arroance.
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!. >se neative prefixes to form noun anton&ms.
abilit& accurac& be$aviour combatant conduct content
courae rateful interpret leibilit& li6e literac&
personal precision reular rest trut$
"
*. )oo6 out t$e meanin of t$e prefix be2 in t$e dictionar&. >nderline t$e %ords %it$ t$e prefix in
t$e sentences belo% and comment on t$e meanin of t$e prefix in eac$ case.
1. <ar& <ouse s$ed to% little tears and felt for t$e bro%n: beje%elled $and of t$e
<a$araja$.
2. (e stood be%ildered: not appalled: on t$at dar6 s$ore %$ic$ separates t$e ancient and t$e
modern %orld. (e is po%er: passion: self2%ill personified.
". .f &ou are oin into t$at line:2oin to besiee t$e cit& of /od:2&ou must not onl& be
stron in enines: but prepared %it$ provisions.
+. Dver& point of $is appearance and address bespo6e t$e entleman.
'. E9o &ou 6no% &ou are t$e first lord . $ave ever seenCF s$e said: ver& promptl& to $er
nei$bour. E. suppose &ou t$in6 . am a%full& beni$ted.F
-. T$ere are moments %$en all anxiet& and stated strule are becalmed in t$e infinite
leisure and repose of nature..
!. /erald tried to comfort $imself b& imainin $er on rain2s%ept platforms: t$eir &ello%2
and2purple decorations bedraled and sordid.
*. T$e be%is6ered fello% opposite $im is /eneral Star6e: %$o led a commando in t$e War.
G. T$e explanation of t$e m&ster& %as reeted %it$ a relieved smile. But t$e maistrate
bet$ou$t $im.
1H. . s$ould $ave sailed last ni$t instead of t$e ni$t before: but $appenin to bu& an
evenin paper: . sa% in it an account of t$e a%ful traed& t$at $ad befallen on us.

N#TD3 t$e prefix Bbe2B ma& $ave t$e follo%in meanins3
A1 7 @ be2 I 73 a1 around Ae.. beset1: b1 completel& t$orou$l&: excessivel& Aused as an
intensifier: e.. besmear1: c1 a%a& Aused as a privative: e.. betake1: d1
about Aused as a transitive prefix: e.. bethink14
B1 N @ be2 I 73 a1 ma6e Ae.. bedim1: b1 furnis$ %it$: cover %it$: affect b&: treat as
Ae.. becloud14
C1 ,ast ,art. @ be2 I A 3 covered %it$: furnis$ed %it$: furnis$ed %it$ to excess
Ae.. bemedaled1

G. .n t$e sentences belo%: underline t$e %ords %it$ bot$ a prefix and a suffix. State to %$at part
of speec$ t$e& belon: t$e oriin of t$e affixes and identif& t$e $&brids.
<odel3 unc$aneable J Adj.: /er @ )at: $&brid
1. At ot$er times t$e realit& became an infam& aain and t$e unc$aneable an imposture:
and $e ave $imself up to $is anr& restlessness
2. . tal6ed to $er repeatedl& in t$e most serious manner: representin to $er t$e %ic6edness
of %$at $e $as done: and all t$e un$appiness s$e $ad brou$t on $er famil&.
+
". .n revolvin )ad& Cat$erine=s expressions: $o%ever: s$e could not $elp feelin some
uneasiness as to t$e possible conse5uence of $er persistin in t$is interference.
+. <r. (en $imself came cordiall& for%ard and us$ered me into a little inner room lined
%it$ t$e blac6 carved uncomfortable c$airs &ou find in ever& C$inese anteroom: unused:
un%elcomin.
'. <& aunt and m& uncle %ere unselfis$ and enerous and entle
-. (er left $and %as pressed on $er side: as t$ou$ to still t$e uncon5uerable aitation of
$er $eart.
!. .n spite of m&self . lau$ed immoderatel&.

1H. .dentif& t$e $&brids in t$e follo%in sentences and trace t$eir et&molo&3
1. All loo6ed raceful: lovel&: c$armin: as t$e& $ave not loo6ed to me for man& &ears.
2. T$e sentence $o%ever %as more merciful t$an could $ave been expected: per$aps partl&
because t$e criminal $ad not tried to justif& $imself: but $ad rat$er s$o%n a desire to
exaerate $is uilt.
". .t is sinular: $o%ever: $o% lon a time often passes before %ords embod& t$ins4 and
%it$ %$at securit& t%o persons: %$o c$oose to avoid a certain subject: ma& approac$ its
ver& vere: and retire %it$out disturbin it.
+. . am tellin &ou t$e trut$: and &ou $ave no ri$t to disbelieve me4 . $ave 6ept m& %ord to
&ou.
'. . t$ou$t $er: t$en: still more colourless and t$in t$an %$en . $ad seen $er last.
-. (e told $is mot$er countless stories ever& ni$t about $is sc$ool2companions.

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11. <orp$emes are orani8ed in patterned %a&s. Besides t$eir linear order: t$e morp$emes in a
%ord also $ave a la&ered: or $ierarc$ical: structure. T$e se5uence of morp$eme la&erin is built
up from a root. Consider t$e %ord uncontrollably3 its root is control: %$ic$ functions as a stem
for able4 controllable functions as a stem for uncontrollable: and uncontrollable functions as a
stem for uncontrollably. T$is se5uence ma& be represented usin3

a1 derivational rules 7erb @ 2AB)D Adjective controllable
>N2 @ Adjective Adjective uncontrollable
Adjective @ 2)K Adverb uncontrollable
b1 a tree diaram
Adverb
Adjective

Adjective
'

7erb

un control able l&
c1 labeled brac6ets3 L L un L L control 7erbM @ L able M AdjM AdjM l& AdvM
9ra% tree diarams and ive labeled brac6ets for t$ese Dnlis$ %ords3 unlikelihood,
disenchantment, unreasonableness, unshockability, updated, recapitalization, revaccinations,
reassuringly.
12. Consider t$e t%o anal&ses of untruthful iven belo%. /ive aruments for preferrin one
anal&sis over t$e ot$er3
LLL un @ Ltrue AdjM AdjM @ t$ NM @ ful AdjM
L un LLL true AdjM @ t$ NM @ ful AdjM AdjM
1". Consider t$e follo%in %ords3
a1 ;or eac$ %ord listed above: identif& its lexical cateor&.
b1 Dac$ %ord contains more t$an one morp$eme. )ist all t$e morp$emes and indicate
%$et$er t$e& are free or bound.
c1 .ndicate for eac$ affix %$et$er it is derivational or inflectional.
$eard tinier unproductive to&s
boo6s$ops listened reassessment c$ildren=s
fixer2upper fat$erl& improbable improbabilit&
repa&ment unamusin tidiest realinments
calculatin disarms unremar6able fore%arned
untidiness unpretentiousness
1+. Cyber- $as become a popular prefix durin t$e 1GGHs. .t $as been attac$ed principall& to
nouns to form ne% nouns: as in cyberspace. )ist ten %ords t$at use t$e prefix cyber-: identif&in
an& examples of cyber- bein prefixed to a lexical cateor& ot$er t$an a noun.

-
1'. Pre- serves as a prefix to several cateories of %ords. .dentif& t$e cateories of %ords to
%$ic$ pre2 $as been attac$ed3
preplan: precultural: pre%as$: preaffirm: preaffirmation: preallot:
precolleiate: prenatal: presurical: preplacement: preanti5uit&
pre2Copernican.
1-. Affixation ives rise to pairs of %ords t$at are sometimes confused. Dxplain t$e difference in
meanin bet%een t$e follo%in confusables3
c$ildis$ Jc$ildli6e climactic J climatic J climacteric
contiuous J contaious continual J continuous
councillor J counsellor credible J credulous
factitious J fictitious raceful J racious
$omoeneous J $omoenous judicial J judicious
momentar& J momentous practical J practicable
1!.;ill t$e aps %it$ a derived %ord3
1. /oat mil6 is believed to be.. nutriment
2. 9ail& . of classes is desirable: if not compulsor&. attend
". T$e /rand Can&on is a place of .beaut&. scene
+. T$e %ild $orses %ere driven into an enclose
'. T$e ..use of t$at fuel %ill save &our mone&. econom&
-. (e %as ranted permanent .in Canada. resident
!. . am at a loss but . Bll come to m& senses: t$at=s a promise. moment
*. T$eir supreme oal %as t$e .. of monarc$&. abolis$
G. S$e lared at us and left t$e room. contempt
1H. Aof diplomatic relations $as been announced. resume
11. Kou are supposed to ive a account of t$e events. fact
12. T$e poor famil& %ere %ea6 from lac6 of sustain
1". S$e %as full of ..indination after findin out t$e trut$. ri$t
1+. (is la%&er $as demanded a .of t$e $earin. postpone
1'. (is clot$es %ere ..of t$e 1G"Hs. evo6e
1-. T$e of t$e ,rince of Wales too6 place in 1G-G. .nvest
1!. T$e editor=s main is to increase t$e paper=s .. read
1*. T$e %oman=s voice %as .. <araret=s. mista6e
1G. S$e $as a$d t$is scar on $er fore$ead since $er bab&
2H. <an& of $is %ords and expressions are rat$er .. slan
21. T$e& $ave a bri$t .. livin2room do%nstairs. space
1*. T$e suffix er conve&s several meanins At$e pol&sem& of t$e suffix Jer1. <atc$ t$e
deverbal nouns to t$e meanin roups3 Aent: .mpersonal Aent: .nstrument: Dxperiencer:
Action: )ocative3 baker, atomizer, writer, hearer, diner, blotter, mower, printer, feeler, sleeper,
pointer.
1.2. Compounding
!
1. Classif& t$e follo%in compounds accordin to structural criteria3
a1 compounds in juxtaposition3 $eart2disease: tableclot$:
b1 compounds %it$ a lin6in element3 Anlo2Saxon: to%nsfol6:
c1 compounds %it$ form %ords3 point of vie%: bread and bot$er: .
d1 compound derivatives3
n @ n @ er3 %ee62ender: .
adj @ n @ er3 left2$ander: .................................................................................................
vb @ vb @ er3 o2etter: ...................................................................................................
adv @ vb @ er3 ne%2comer: ..............................................................................................
n @ vb @ er3 t$eatre2oer: ................................................................................................
num @ n @ er3 first2ni$ter: ..............................................................................................
adj @ n @ ed3 broad2s$ouldered: .....................................................................................
n @ n @ ed3 doll2faced:
num @ n @ ed3 t%o sided: ................................................................................................
t$e armed forces: bac6round: class2consciousness: t$e da& before &esterda&: deaf2and2
dumb: dress circle: Dducation and Welfare: far2off Acountr&1: first2offender: fur2lined:
$andicraftsman: (i$lander: $orsemans$ip: $orsepo%er: late2comer: li$t2minded:
lipstic6: matter2of2fact: merr&2o2round: mud2built A$ouse1: out2of2si$t: pearl2fis$in:
postcard: sta&2at2$ome: sno%2%$ite A$ead1: stoc6in2%eavers: tableclot$: tic6et2
collector: toot$pic6: t$ree2cornered: treasure2see6ers: up2to2date: E7anit& ;airF: %arm2
$earted: %ater2fall: %ell26no%n: %$irl%ind: %i2ma6er: %orn2out.
2. Classif& t$e italici8ed compound adjectives accordin to t$e part of speec$ to %$ic$ t$eir
components belon3
1. Antonia $as reat tawny-coloured intellient searc$in e&es.
2. .n a more effective simile one mi$t compare $er to t$e water-haunted sunli$t or an
old pavement in 7enice.
". S$e=s not ver& mobile but perfectl& clean and an easy-going person.
+. 9avid said: EBut t$e&=ve al%a&s $ad suc$ a live-and-let-live attitude.F
'. . dreaded t$eir radual discover& t$at . %as tongue-tied or doltis$.
-. A stri6e aainst %$atC We=re looked-out bo&s.
!. Kou=d feel honour-bound to sa& it=s been a reat s$o% of working-class strent$.
*. But t$at doesn=t mean . ta6e a cut-and-dried attitude to t$e issues involved.
". Comment on t$e structure of t$e follo%in compounds. Suppl& ot$er examples of Dnlis$
compounds ex$ibitin t$e same structure.
1. (e lived in a two-roomed s$ac6.
2. )o% do%n in t$e s6& in front of us t$ere %ere strea6s of blac6 and orane cloud: and
above t$em a pale: watery-green expanse
". (e made dilient and pains-taking in5uiries.
+. T$e& stand up: and continue so to do: out of t$e ocean of t$e past: li6e t$e mist-topped
pea6 of Tenerife.
'. .t %ent literall& li6e clockwork.
-. . %as ponderin t$us %$en suddenl& t$at death-still bod& stirred into action.
!. (ere (uc6 is %it$ $is runaway slave: Nim.
*

+. ;ind out t$e compounds in t$e follo%in sentences and classif& t$em accordin to t$e t&pe of
semantic relations bet%een t$e 9eterminatum A91 and t$e determinant Ad1 Apurpose: partitive:
time or place: comparison: material: instrumental: appositional relations1
<odel3 %$ole$oers %ere li6e t$at.
%$ole$oers ? %$ole Ad1 @ $o A91 @ er: partitive relation
1. Kou could see t$em at t$e races: in t$e music2$alls: at Court: in t$e tea2rooms and $otel2
lobbies.
2. To $is ac5uaintance %it$ a corner of 0ome $e added a fourteen2&ear2old vision of a
civili8ation %$ere no one t$ou$t about an&t$in but caresses.
". 9avid loo6in sa% t$e old man $is &ello% parc$ment: ciar2scented old bod& on t$is
last da& of <a&.
+. (e %as no% in partners$ip it seemed: %it$ a friend %$o %as openin a combined paint
and carpentr& s$op to assist t$e Edo2it2&ourselfF $ouse$older.
'. T$ere %as a clue: per$aps in $er attitude to t$e orilla2li6e man: )eonard.
-. S$e $ad: it %as true: accepted t$em: turned t$em into a 6ind of punc$2drun6 bliss.
!. (enderson remar6ed t$at t$ere must be man& complaints possible about bac6%ard
met$ods or imperfect materials: bottlenec6s or failures of some sort or anot$er.
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N#TD3 T$e 9eterminatum is t$e $ead of a compound: t$e part t$at determines t$e part of speec$
of t$e compound: t$e determinant modifies t$e 9eterminatum: furt$er specif&in it.
'. /ive more examples of compounds in %$ic$3
<odel3 N flood Ad1 @ N li$t A91 ? flood2li$t
a. bot$ d and D are nouns3
flood-light
b. d is a participle and 9 is a noun3
filling station
c. d is and adverb and D a participle3
well built..
d. d is an adjective and D a participle3
pleasant-looking..
e. d is an adverb and D a noun3
background.
-. Classif& t$e italici8ed compounds accordin to t$e s&ntactic relations$ip bet%een t$e
constituents Acoordinative: and subordinative compounds13
<odel3 1. secretary stenographer: actor-manager: bitter-sweet: ueen-bee ?
coordinative compounds J made up of t%o components semanticall& and
structurall& independent and e5ual in importance4
2. stone-death, age-old, wrist-watch ? subordinative compounds based on
domination of one compound over t$e ot$er. T$e second component is t$e
structural centre: t$e rammaticall& dominant part of t$e %ord.
1. As t$e& %ere follo%in t$e hairpin river road: $e cried
G
2. (e told a dr&l& amusin stor& about a set-to bet%een <rs. <asters and Annie ,ratt
". T$e room %asfilled li6e a !unk shop %it$ a jumble of pleasin: valuable anti5ue
furniture and $ideous %ort$less bric-a-brac.
+. (e turned to see <rs. ,aet $erself: pus$in open t$e door %it$ $er rubber-ferruled stic6.
'. After some desultor& ossip and backchat an elderl& man %it$ a %alrus moustac$e
too6 t$e chairman=s place
-. S$e coc6ed $er ciarette up to%ards $er nose in a jaunt& errand-boy sort of %a&
!. (e opened t$e door: t$an6ful and &et sorr& t$at t$e showdown $ad been once more
postponed
*. Nim Cooper and t%o ot$ers %ere indeed arrested: but t$e& said not$in of (erb and $e
bean to feel more cock-a-hoop: protestin before $is fat$er t$at $e=d be$ave $imself in
t$e future

!. Classif& t$e follo%in italici8ed compounds accordin to t$e deree of semantic motivation
Aclearl& motivated: partiall& motivated: non2motivated13
<odel3 foot-step: bottle-opener3 clearl& motivated Anon2idiomatic14
hand bag: hand cuff: flower-bed3 partiall& motivated4
fiddle sticks: dog-eared: slow-coach3 non2motivated Aidiomatic1.
1. <ed pulled $erself up s$arpl& as s$e %as about to li$t one ciarette from anot$er:
replaced t$e fres$ one in t$e mother-of-pearl and ebon& box: crus$ed out t$e used stub.
2. E. suppose it=s because .=m a whole hogger.F
". 9onald came bac6 %it$ a li$t re& over-coat: blac6 $at: umbrella and washleather
loves.
+. T$en one studied up S%edis$ and read t$e diaries and t$e barrels-full of notes
'. (e coverin m& tables %it$ vellum-bound folios
-. We %ere cat"s-paws: t$at=s all.
!. Oit dran6. E;irst time .=ve seen $erF. ET$en it=s a free-for-all: and ma& t$e %orst man
%inCF
*. EKou tal6 more tomfoolery ever& da&: Nean:F $e said mananimousl&.
G. ;or a fe% moments $e drove in silence: t$en $e said: EKou=re a pipe-man: aren=t &ouCF
(e pulled a pouc$ out of a poc6et of $is dar62bro%n t%eed suit and tossed it into Dmer&=s
lap.

*. T$e follo%in italici8ed compounds and p$rases: %$en used out of context: admit t%o possible
of interpretations. .dentif& t$e t%o possibilities and t$en c$oose t$e anal&sis %$ic$ fits t$e
context3
<odel3 .deal (ome Dx$ibition 2 LL.deal (omeM Dx$ibitionM ADx$ibition of ideal $ouses1
2 L.deal L(ome Dx$ibitionMM A.deal ex$ibition of $ouses1
1. (e dresses in t$e American st&le %it$ belts of braces and so on involvin bright silk
handkerchiefs instead of ties.
2. .talians $ave a $orror of ma6in long term contracts.
". S$e rested t$e nape of $er nec6 aainst t$e cool iron bed rail and fell into a reverie.
+. Sall& %as in attendance: standin in front of t$e four &ello%is$2%$ite C$ina $andles %it$
bright brass tips.
1H
'. E.=ll come alon tomorro% eveninF: $e said: and $e leaned do%n for a good-night kiss.
-. W$en . %as six: somebod& pus$ed me into a pool on t$e #unday-school-outing.
!. . $ad black bean soup and a beef ste% %it$ boiled potatoes for fifteen cents.
*. t$e dark green crested plates and t$e little arm& of satin clad footmen suddenl&
appeared from no%$ere.

G. Compoundin is still productive in advertisin sloans. Comment on t$e effects of usin

compounds in t$e follo%in advertisements3
9iscover <ax ;actor=s )ipfinit&P .t ives &ou oreous ultra2lastin colour t$at outlasts
so man& c$allenes3 food2proof: 6iss2proof: part&2prooffor up to 12 $ours.
1.3. Other means of ord!formation
"ack!formation ABac6 derivation1
1. Compare t$e %ords in t$e t%o columns belo%. Comment on t$eir formation pointin out %$ic$
is t$e oriinal %ord and %$ic$ is t$e derived one.
to automate automation
to bab&2sit bab&2sitter
to ent$use ent$usiasm
reed reed&
to $ouse6eep $ouse6eeper
to sleep%al6 sleep2%al6in
to televise television
to t&pe%rite t&pe%riter
to t$ou$t2read t$ou$t2reader
Abbre#iation
2. /ive t$e full form of t$e follo%in abbreviated %ords. .ndicate t$eir pronunciation as %ell.
A.C.: A<: B.A.: BC: c.f.: D.;.).: e..: D.N.).: D.S.).: et al.: i.e.: O.#.: N.B.: <.A.: ,<:
0.,.: >.N.D.S.C.#.: vi8.: &uppie: %oopie: Q., ACode1

". Belo% t$ere is a list of commonl& used abbreviations of t$e .T field. <atc$ t$e abbreviations
%it$ t$e full form3
BAS.C R Basic .nputS#utput S&stemT
B.#S R Compact 9isc 0ead2#nl& <emor&T
C920#< R 9&namic )in6 )ibrar&T
9)) R Beinner=s All2,urpose S&mbolic .ntroduction CodeT
907 R $&per text transfer protocolT
$ttp R local area net%or6T
.B< R .nitialisationT
.N. R .nternational Business <ac$inesT
11
)AN R 9riverT
<SN R <icrosoft 9isc #peratin S&stemT
<S29#S R T$e <icrosoft Net%or6T
,C R 0andom Access <emor&T
0A< R %orld %ide %ebT
%%% R ,ersonal ComputerT
$eflection Amorp$op$onemic alternation: vo%el interc$ane: root derivation1
+. /ive verbsSadjectives correspondin to t$e follo%in nouns and adjectives3
life food
alternate full
bat$ %ide
blood loss
breat$ deep
breac$ son
broad speec$


Con#ersion
'. 0ead t$e follo%in pairs of %ords. /ive t$eir p$onetic transcription.
N 7 N 7
protest to protest record to record
import to import rebel to rebel
insult to insult subject to subject
object to object suspect to suspect
present to present torment to torment
Clipping As$ortenin1
-. .dentif& t$e clippin compounds formed from t$e follo%in stems A%it$ a complete first stem
and a clipped second stem13
air @ telep$one
bab& @ 6idnap
computer @ literac&
bold @ audacious
slan @ lanuae
travel @ cataloue
ad $oc @ aristocrac&
tan6 @ bulldo8er
!. .dentif& t$e stems of t$e follo%in clippin compounds A%it$ a complete first stem and a
clipped second stem13
cableram robocop
c$eeseburer sno%mobile
$eadp$one to&toon
motordome re& mar6et
mil6a$olic videolo
*. .dentif& t$e clippin compounds formed from t$e follo%in stems A%it$ a complete second
stem and a clipped first stem13
boat @ $otel
escalator @ lift
12
parac$ute @ troops
video @ idiot
video @ 6id
$oolian @ van
computer @ accessories
revue @ musical
G. .dentif& t$e stems of t$e follo%in clippin compounds A%it$ a complete second stem and a
clipped first stem13
airbus .nternet
bioas medicare
c&berspace telenovel
e2mone& ecofriendl&
teletourist triat$lete
1H. .dentif& t$e clippin compounds formed from t$e follo%in stems A%it$ a clipped second
stem and a clipped first stem13
fantastic @ fabulous
Duropean @ bureaucrat
lobal @ inflation
multiple @ universit&
smo6e @ $a8e
transmitter @ receiver
biorap$ical @ picture
11. .dentif& t$e stems of t$e follo%in clippin compounds A%it$ a complete second stem and a
clipped first stem13
avionics ComSat
bit simulcast
motel smo
electrocute telecast
12. Trace bac6 t$e oriin of t$e s$ortened %ords italici8ed in t$e sentences belo% and explain
$o% t$e& are formed Aap$aeresis: s&ncope: apocope13
1. Kou %ant to %as$ t$e jam of &our mout$. /ot a hankyC
2. 9oin repairs on t$e outside of a roc6et in mid air is a tic6lis$ job.
". But t$e pants certainl& need it all ri$t.
+. (e tore out t$e ad and let t$e rest of t$e paper o %it$ t$e %ind.
'. . $ave no idea if &ou %ill be able to decip$er t$is as t$e noise in t$e dorm is absolutel&
incredible toni$t and . can $ardl& $ear m&self t$in6.
-. .t %as a lon time: $e said: since $e $ad %al6ed about t$e to%n alone in t$e evenin: or
been into a pub.
!. T$is is m& &oun assistant ma"am: said 9oc Bin$am %it$ a noble esture.
*. T$e phone ran. E(elloF: Dli said.
G. t$e ver& s$oe2roses for Net$erfield %ere ot b& pro$y.
1H. Claire J E. need a smo6e: a sip: and a ood surface. T$an6 &ou.F. Tobias J EComfyCF
Claire J E7er&PF
Note3
a1 %phaeresis or fore2clippin is t$e loss of an Asome1 initial p$onemeAs1 Ae..3 airplane T plane14
1"
b1 #yncope or medial clippin is t$e loss of some p$onemes in medial position Ae..3 mistress T
<iss1
c1 %pocope or bac6 clippin is t$e loss of some p$onemes in final position Ae..3 bic&cle T bi6e1
%eduplication
1". Comment on and classif& t$e follo%in pseudo2compounds accordin to t$e criterion of form
Areduplicative compounds proper: ablaut combinations: r$&me combinations1.
1. .ne=s suar& %ords: $er Scandinavian sing-song flo%ed bac6 t$rou$ $is memories ....
2. (e %anted to sa&: B&iddle-de-dee=: $ad $e not 6no%n t$at /ordon: in less ridiculous
%ords: %ould $ave s$ared Dlse=s feelins.
". .=ve ot a mortal disli6e of crunchings and munchings and all suc$ noise: it=s m& one
little fiddle-faddle.
+. Kou $aven=t $eard boogiewoogie till &ou=ve $eard $im.
'. and t$en t$e& t$emselves passed a close2pac6ed floc6 of clip-clopping s$eep ...
-. B(ere %e are in t$e Worst Dnd= said 9ave: %it$ a lavis$ esture besto%in on $er t$e
West Dnd and all its luxuries J t$ou$ t$e latter turned out to be chop-and-chip and ice2
cream in a small cafU.
!. . can understand &our position. Alt$ou$ of course it=s onl& real shilly-shallying
disuised as intellect: no doubt.

Note3
%blaut c$anes represent c$anes in t$e root vo%el of stron verbs: as a conse5uence of stress
Ae..3 fall T fell4 drin6 J dran6 J drun61
'hyme combinations represent combinations %$ere %it$ t$e s$iftin of a consonant: some special
r$&me is obtained Ae.. teeny-weenie1
1+. .dentif& t$e reason for t$e use of $&p$ens3
- to avoid doublin or triplin of vo%els or consonants
- enitive mar6er
- repetition of %ords Areduplicative compounds1
- anton&mic terms
- numerals
- letters of t$e alp$abet
- colours
- titles: double 5ualities
- units of measurement
- present or past participles as a second element
- ellipsis
- onomatopoeic %ords
- connective vo%els
cat=s cradle: face2to2face: Anlo2Saxon: cause2effect: lon2 and s$ort2term loans: %ord2buildin:
second2rate: 729a&: blue2reen: $and2made: 22$our surveillance: minister2desinated: +2&ear
education: e2commerce: +2&ear universit&: president2elect: ni$t2fl&in: car2and s$ip2o%ners:
puff2puff2puff: .ndo2Duropean
1+
1'. T$e follo%in terms are associated %it$ computer or internet use. ;or eac$ item: identif& its
lexical cateor& and comment upon t$e %ord2formation process Acompoundin: s$ortenin:
acron&m: conversion: etc.1 and provide a brief definition: if possible.
<odel3 c$atroup J noun: compound: Ba roup of people Btal6in= toet$er via t$e .nternet=
c&berent$usiast a flame
info pi6e .nternetter
a lur6er ne%bee or ne%bie
spammin a t%it filter
c&beri8in c&berspace
to flame out info superpi6e
.2%a& neti5uette
a remailer a s&sop
WKS.WK/ ;AV
domain name .<(#
to e2mail to lur6
netter smile&s
a t$read soft%are
source code prorammin lanuae
to do%nload code %riter
<ac bro%ser
mouse to 6e&board
1-. T$e follo%in %ords or p$rases $ave been selected from an article discussin electronic
commerce A(ewsweek: Nul& !: 1GG!: p *H1. Next to eac$ %rite t$e %ord2buildin process used
Acompoundin: affixation: invention: s$ortenin: conversion: derivation: semantic s$ift:
borro%in: blend1
cluelessness
.nformation )ighway
into $&perdrive
t$e diital %orld
t$e %on6& title
a cuttin2ede blueprint
a virtual storefront
t$at %ill rease commerce
8ipless electronic commerce
C9A BCommunications 9ecenc& Act=
1!. Translate t$e follo%in excerpt and comment on t$e t&pes of affixation3
Ca universitar: ,etre Andrei a fost profesorul4 printre profesori a fost socioloul4 printre
socioloi a fost promotorul devenirii neWncetate4 iar printre politicieni a fost susXinYtorul cinstei:
corectitudinii Zi dinamismului social. Cele trei preocupYri vitale ale scurtei sale existenXe
pYm[ntene: profesoratul: socioloia Zi politica au fost fericit Wmplinite de vocaXia sa de soX Zi
pYrinte: aZa cum o dovedesc at[t propriile sale r[nduri: c[t Zi mYrturiile scrise sau orale ale
descendenXilor sYi.
A(oria (ulban: Petre %ndrei *i sociologia educa+iei1
1'
2. Word meaning
2.1. Componential anal&sis
1. 9istribution is a structural basis for t$e identification of t$e various semantic features ma6in
up t$e meanin of a %ord. T$e occurrence or impossibilit& of occurrence of a %ord in a iven
distributional frame is usuall& accompanied b& a c$ane in its meanin: as illustrated b& t$e
examples belo%3
Accepted distributions3 Bi isSare bi ver&S$o% bi: bier
bi1 mountain @ @ @
bi2 sister @ 2 2
bi" fool @ 2 @
bi+ man in to%n @ 2 @
Tr& to find similar distributional frames for t$e %ords heavy: soft: flat: empty: sweet: cold and: on
t$at basis: differentiate bet%een t$eir various meanins: as s$o%n in t$e model above.
2. /iven t$e follo%in contexts: t$e follo%in subcateori8ation of nouns can be arrived at3
11 Noun %as breat$in $ard. A@ Animate1 A2 Animate1
21 Noun often cou$s. A@ (uman1 A2 (uman1
"1 Noun breed 5uic6l&. A@ Animal1 A2 Animal1
+1 Noun %ere s5uealin. A@ 9o1 A2 9o1
'1 Noun &elped painfull&. A@ ,i1 A2 ,i1
-1 Noun %ere me%in. A@ Cat1 A2 Cat1
!1 Noun %ere t%itterin. A@ Bird1 A2 Bird1
*1 Noun %ere spra%lin in t$e li$t.
A@ capable to emit li$t1 A2 capable to emit li$t1
G1 Noon $ave been bloomin all summer. A@ ,lant1 A2 ,lant1
". Dstablis$ t$e selectional restrictions of t$e follo%in roups of verbs in terms of t$eir subject3
11 to sleep: to drin6: to eat
21 to smile: to lau$: to spea6
"1 to beat: to roar: to bello%: to bra&
+1 to barn: to snarl
,- to grunt
1-
-1 to purr
!1 to c$irp: to coo: to croa6
*1 to s$ine: to limmer: to litter: to lare: to flas$: to glow
G1 to bud: to blossom: to fade: to %it$er
Comment on t$e conse5uences of t$e non2observance of suc$ restrictions as evinced in t$e
fiurative usae of lanuae Abe it collo5uial: jocular: poetic14 pa& attention to t$e italici8ed
verbs.
+. /iven t$e follo%in contexts: t$e follo%in subcateori8ation of nouns can be arrived at3
11 T$e& abolis$ed Noun A@ Abstract1 A2Abstract1
21 T$e& cau$t Noun A@Animate1 A2Animate1
"1 T$e& educated Noun A@(uman1 A2(uman1
+1 T$e& mil6ed Noun A@Animal1 A2Animal1
'1 T$e& suc6led Noun A@ Adult1 A2Adult1
-1 T$e& plou$ed Noun A@ Solid1 A2Solid1
!1 T$e& encircled Noun A@ Surface1 A2Surface1
*1 T$e& poured Noon A@ li5uid1 A2li5uid1
#n t$e basis of t$e above classification find t$e selectional restrictions c$aracteri8in t$e
follo%in roup of verbs in terms of t$eir direct object3
11 to elucidate: to enerali8e: to state: to formulate: to solve: to perpetrate
21 to rasp: to s$a6e: to rip: to sei8e: to %as$
"1 to indent: to di
+1 to till: to c$op: to carve: to cut
'1 to drin6: to filter
-1 to c$irp: to coo: to croa6
!1 to enclose: to surround: to cultivate
2.2. '&pon&m&
1. .dentif& t$e $&pon&ms of t$e superordinate terms3
parents3
foot%ear3
c$eese3
paper3
drin6in vessel3
ve$icle3
2. ;ind a superordinate for t$e follo%in $&pon&ms3
<odel3 chair, bench, sofa, settee $&pon&ms of seat
a1 %inelass: martini lass: tumbler
b1 brea6fast: lunc$: dinner: supper: $i$ tea: brunc$
c1 %rist: 6nuc6les: 6nees: an6les
1!
d1 $ouse: barn: c$urc$: factor&: $anar
e1 s5uare: circle: trianle
f1 %al6: run: s%im: fl&
". 9ra% up a $&pon&m $ierarc$& and provide a c$aracteri8ation of t$e meanin of eac$ %ord in
t$e $ierarc$&: in t$e form of its immediate superordinate plus a modif&in p$rase.
<odel3 $ouse J buildin J structure J t$in
t$in superordinate of structure
structure $&pon&m of thing: superordinate of building
buildin $&pon&m of structure: superordinate of house
$ouse $&pon&m of buildin
a1 fres$man: student: person: entit&
b1 fride: 6itc$en utensil: tool: product t$in
c1 car: ve$icle: product: t$in
d1 buc6et: arden tool: tool: product: t$in: entit&:
3. Lexical relations
3.1. S&non&m&
1. ;ind t$e protot&pe in t$e follo%in roups of s&non&ms and ive reasons for &our c$oice3
<odel3 to depart: to 5uit: to leave: to clear out: to retire.
9ominant3 to leave
0easons3 it is t$e eneral %ord: it is neutral bot$ st&listicall& and emotionall& and
it can stand for eac$ of its s&non&ms in most uses.
1. $andsome: lovel&: beautiful: prett&: comel&: ood2loo6in
2. to in5uire: to as6: to 5uestion: to interroate
". odour: scent: smell: bou5uet: frarance: perfume
+. to suspend: to $an: to danle: to slin
'. fri$t: fear: consternation: $orror: dread: panic: alarm
-. courae: braver&: fortitude: valour: allantr&
!. po%erful: forceful: potent: forcible
*. ripe: mature: adult: ro%n2up
2. State %$ic$ %ords in column B correspond to t$e eneric term in column A b& means of a
$&pon&m& relation3
<odel3 bird3 robin: sparro%: oldfinc$
poultr&3 $en: coc6: oose: duc6
A B
c$ina tus6: fan: molar: incisor
linen c$air: cupboard: boo62case: des6
mat$ematics trousers: $at: soc6s: s$irt: froc6
animal cup: saucer: plate: cream2e%er: suar2bo%l: tea2pot
do do: cat: lion: s5uirrel
$orse spaniel: poodle: setter: fox2terrier
clot$es stallion: steed: mare: colt: foal: fill&
furniture arit$metic: eometr&: alebra
toot$ nap6in: s$eets: table2clot$: pillo%2slip
1*
". State %$et$er t$e italicised %ords are protot&pes or super2ordinates3
1. to get: to ac5uire: to obtain: to %in: to earn: to ain4
2. cutler&: tea2pot: coffee2pot: suar2bo%l: silver4
". for6s: 6nives: spoons: cutlery4
+. to pro$ibit: to forbid: to interdict4
'. flower: sno%drop: carnation: rose: daffodil4
-. to reveal: to disclose: to discover: to show4
!. clear: transparent: lucid: limpid4
*. clot$es: dress: attire: apparel: vesture4
+. ;ind in column B t$e %ords %$ic$ are s&non&ms onl& in t$e contexts iven in column A3
<odel3 A B
a %ide \\ S \\ of selectionSrane ?T a %ide selection S rane of
A B
\\\ tal6 to be called: to come: to o
to \\\ a lance belief: 6no%lede: recollection
to pla& somebod& a \\\ tric6 $ole: corner
not to care a \\\ s5uea6: s$ave
to \\\ somebod& a rude to steal: to s$oot: to t$ro%
to $ave \\\ %ords %it$ somebod& idle: empt&
to lau$ in one=s \\\ to sin6: to die
to \\\ a deep si$ nast&: s$abb&: bad
to be in a \\\ pin: stra%: button
t$e best of m& \\\ to o%e: to bear
to \\\ to t$e bar e&elas$es: e&elids: e&ebro%s
m& $eart \\\ to fill: to ans%er
to $an on b& one=s \\\ to dra%: to fetc$: to ive: to si$
to $ave a narro% \\\ sleeve: beard
to \\\ t$e bill $ard: $i$: s$arp: $ot
to \\ S \\ a resemblance bearS$ave
'. >se t$e follo%in s&non&mous %ords in sentences of &our o%n: pa&in attention to t$eir
distributional opposition and state t$e difference in distribution t$at &ou notice.
<odel3 sic6: ill <& brot$er is ill.
S$e paid a visit to t$e sick old man.
AB.ll= is used predicativel&4 Bsick= is used attributivel&1
1. to tell: to sa&
2. $ouse: $ome
". to steal: to rob:
+. bare: na6ed
'. to li6e: to enjo&
-. lonel&: alone
!. island: isle
*. still: &et
-. Arrane t$e follo%in nouns into s&non&mic roups. ,oint out t$e semantic featureAs1 s$ared
b& t$em and indicate %$ic$ of t$e listed s&non&ms ma& be rearded as t$e protot&pe3
<odel3 lack, ghost, affair, absence, scandal, privation, business, spirit, slander, want, defect,
apparition, back-biting, concern, thing, detraction, phantom, matter, phantasm,
calumny
1G
1 2 " +
lac6
absence
privation
%ant
defect
$ost
spirit
apparition
p$antom
p$antasm
affair
business
concern
t$in
scandal
slander
bac62bitin
detraction
calumn&
roup 13 T$e protot&pe is Black=. T$e feature s$ared in common b& t$e s&non&mic roup
is Esomet$in %anted %$at is insufficient or absent.F
roup 23 T$e protot&pe is Bghost=. T$e feature s$ared in common b& t$e s&non&mic roup
is Ea supernatural disembodied bein: imained as appearin in visual form or
$auntin livin persons.F
pain: compassion: vaabond: anuis$: report: concern: mob: strife: recreation: discord: cro%d:
solicitude: amusement: stor&: sorro%: $obo: pit&: ac$e: tramp: commiseration: rief: pan:
diversion: conflict: care: account: dissention: t$ron: anxiet&: spar6: c$ronicle: entertainment:
%oe: varant: condolence: t$roe: dole: s&mpat$&: t%ine: variance: version: %orr&.
1 2 " + ' - ! *
!. Arrane t$e follo%in verbs into s&non&mic roups. ,oint out t$e semantic featureAs1 s$ared
b& t$em and indicate %$ic$ of t$e listed s&non&ms ma& be rearded as t$e protot&pe3
maladroit: civil: dus6&: far: intoxicated: lo&al: suitable: simple: fait$ful: drun6: dar6: remote:
clums&: courteous: meet: true: little: natural: fit: leal: na]ve: %ee: distant: drun6en: obscure:
polite: a%6%ard: inebriate: fara%a&: dim: allant: inept: inenuous: proper: diminutive:
artless: auc$e: c$ivalrous: dus6: tips&: tin&: fittin: ti$t: far2off: mur6&: staunc$: teen&:
courtl&: loom&: %een&.

1 2 " + ' - ! * G
2H
*. Arrane t$e follo%in verbs into s&non&mic roups. ,oint out t$e semantic featureAs1 s$ared
b& t$em and indicate %$ic$ of t$e listed s&non&ms ma& be rearded as t$e protot&pe3
c$arm: flame: c$astise: pine: disc$are: rule: decide: beat: ban: stare: in$ibit: loat:
overcome: cas$ier: lo%: be%itc$: correct: &earn: c$asten: t$irst for: lare: defeat: settle:
fire: interdict: captivate: bla8e: $an6er: van5uis$: punis$: peer: forbid: sac6: determine:
con5uer: flare: fascinate: pro$ibit: lon: castiate: subjuate: a8e: bounce: subdue:
resolve: dismiss: drop: ape: enjoin: attract: $uner for: allure: discipline: enc$ant.
1 2 " + ' - ! * G
G. Arrane t$e follo%in adverbs into s&non&mic roups3
activel&: serenel&: directl&: near: accuratel&: obviousl&: ladl&: irritabl&: soon:
operativel&: close: calml&: peevis$l&: $appil&: evidentl&: correctl&: snappis$l&: dead:
d&namicall&: tran5uill&: immediatel&: at once: exactl&: betimes: manifestl&: %aspis$l&:
c$eerfull&: strai$t%a&: petulantl&: livel&: li$t2$eartedl&: peacefull&: distinctl&: instantl&:
ni$: placidl&: precisel&: ri$t a%a&: jo&full&: pettis$l&: instantaneousl&: near2b&:
for%ard: apparentl&: jo&ousl&: 5uerulousl&: plainl&.
1 2 " + ' - ! * G
1H. ;ill in t$e blan6s %it$ t$e correspondin s&non&ms3
a( alien) foreigner) stranger
1. >ncertain: %$et$er t$e impression t$at ,rosper ,rofond %as danerous s$ould be traced
to t$e fact t$at $e %as a .: or as it %as no% called.
21
2. T$e c$ild of t$e old 6in=s onl& dau$ter b& a secret marriae %it$ one muc$ beneat$ $er
in station J a .. some said.
b( place) seat) spot
1. T$e& sa& t$is is a terribl& difficult to %or6 in.
2. . 6no% it %as t$e most famous .. in (onolulu and . entered it %it$ livel& curiosit&.
". (e %as a jude at t$e #ld Baile& and it %as t$rou$ $im t$at . %as able to et s
privileed in court %$en t$ere %as an interestin trial.
11. ;ill in t$e blan6s %it$ t$e correspondin s&non&ms3
b( big) great) huge) large) tremendous
1. . s$ouldn=t $ave t$ou$t a missionar& suc$ a bu t$at $e couldn=t afford to put
on frills.
2. .t is li6e t$e %ea6ness in t$e c$aracter of a .. man %$ic$ ma& ma6e $im less
admirable but certainl& ma6es $im more interestin.
". (e %as born in (onolulu and $is fat$er $ad a .. store %$ic$ sold $osier& and all suc$
oods.
+. (is e&es $ad a t%in6le in t$em and $is .. $orn spectacles ave $im a demureness
%$ic$ %as not a little divertin.
'. (e $esitated and loo6ed at me %it$ t%in6lin e&es t$rou$ $is round spectacles.
c( bare) barren
1. .t %as strane t$at s$e s$ould $ave c$osen to bac6 and test t$e full effect of t$is s$apeless
. uliness upon $erself.
2. S$e $ad a %$ite froc6: ver& simple and %ell made4 $er arms %ere : and $er $air
$ad a %$ite rose in it.
12. ;ill in t$e blan6s %it$ t$e correspondin s&non&ms3
b( to chat) to chatter) to discuss) to talk
1. T$e &oun man b& $is side . volubl& in an Dnlis$ t$at $ad somet$in in it of t$e
intonation of a forein tonue.
2. <& bearers . ail& as t$e& truded alon in t$e bri$t mornin.
". A roup of businessmen stood toet$er at t$e bar: affairs: and in a corner t%o
6ana6as %ere drin6in.
+. T$e neroes to eac$ ot$er: and bean to 5uarrel over a strin of bri$t
beads.
c( to earn) to gain) to in
1. #$: .=m onl& doin t$at for t$e present: and .=m . a reat deal of valuable
experience.
2. (e $ad to .. mone& at once and /.B.: an old friend of $is famil&: $ad offered to ta6e
$im into $is o%n business.
". We 6no% t$at it %ill profit a man little if $e .. t$e %$ole %orld and lose $is soul. .
6no% . $ave .. mine.
1". ;ind contexts in %$ic$ pail and bucket cannot be used to replace eac$ ot$er despite t$eir
closeness of meanin and contexts in %$ic$ torch and flash-light are not true s&non&ms.
1+. ;ill in t$e blan6s %it$ t$e correspondin s&non&ms3
a( barel&) hardl&) scarcel&
22
1. But $e $ad .. appeared %$en Dd%ard: loo6in up: cau$t si$t of $im: and
ave a jo&ful cr& of surprise.
2. (e .. 6ne% $o% t$e inspiration $ad come to $im: but suddenl& $e clasped
$er in $is arms.
". T$e %omen made %a& for t$em: but .. sufficient: as if rudin to &ield
round.
+.
b( actuall&) reall&
1. S$e said %e %ere . t$e onl& people on t$e s$ip t$e& cared to 6no%.
2. But %$en $e is .. alive J t$e onl& possible course is silence.
1'. ,lace t$e follo%in %ords %it$ related meanins on a scale from formal to informal3 mean,
parsimonious, stingy, tight-arsed, ungenerous
;#0<A) 2222222222222222222222222ND>T0A)222222222222222222222222222 .N;#0<A)
1-. Complete t$e similes %it$ t$e correct %ord3 blind: bold: deaf: drun6: : $ard: mad: : %$ite:
stron: dr&.
a. as as a $atter: b. as as a lord: c. as as a post: d. as as a s$eet:e. as brass:
f. as as iron: . as as an ox: $. asas bone: i. as a bat
1!. Aree %it$ t$e follo%in statements b& usin a simile3 sober - !udge, red - beetroot, good -
gold, light - feather, uiet - mouse.
<odel3 Nane %as ver& tanned after $er $olida&. Kes: s$e %as as bro%n as a berr&.
1. T$e c$ildren be$aved ver& %ell &esterda&. Kes: t$e&
2. im never $as too muc$ to drin6. Kes: $e
". 9idn=t $e bluis$ %$en s$e smiled at $imC Kes: $e
+. Bill never sa&s a %ord: does $eC No: $e
'. . couldn=t believe $o% little s$e %ei$s. Kes: s$e
3.2. *nriching the #ocabular& of *nglish
3.2.1. Loanords
3.2.1.1. Loanords from *uropean languages.
;or eac$ lanuae matc$ t$e roups of %ords to t$e semantic fields3
+rench
$i$ culture %ar S militar& ;renc$
Canadian
)ouisiana ;renc$
ACajun1
#t$ers
2 bastion: briade: battalion: cavalr&: renade: infantr&: pallisade: rebuff: ba&onet: 2 biot:
c$assis: cli5ue: denim: arae: rotes5ue: jeanAs1: nic$e: s$oc6
2 ballet: cabernet: cac$et: c$aise lonue: c$ampane: c$ic: conac: corsae: faux
pas: nom de plume: 5uic$e: roue: roulet: sac$et: salon: saloon: san froid
2 c$o%der
2 jambala&a
Spanish
2"
%ar animals ot$er
armada: adobe: alliator: alpaca: barricade: cannibal: can&on: co&ote: desperado:
embaro: enc$ilada: uitar: marijuana: mesa: mos5uito: mustan: ranc$: taco: tornado:
tortilla
,talian
arc$itecture music literature food ot$er
alto: arsenal: balcon&: broccoli: casino: cupola: duo: fresco: fuue: a8ette Avia ;renc$1:
$etto: ondola: macaroni: madrial: motto: piano: opera: pantaloons: prima donna:
reatta: soprano: opera: stan8a: studio: tempo: torso: umbrella: viola: violin
from .talian American immirants 2 cappuccino: espresso: mafioso: pasta: pi88a: ravioli:
spa$etti: spumante: 8ucc$ini
$utch) +lemish
s$ippin clot$ industr& art %ar foodSdrin6 ot$er
a B C d e ;
boom: bo%: bo%sprit: buo&: commodore: cruise: doc6: frei$t: 6eel: 6eel$aul: lea6:
pump: reef: scoop: scour: s6ipper: sloop: smule: splice: tac6le: &a%l: &ac$t
bale: cambric: duc6 Afabric1: fuller^s eart$: mart: nap Aof clot$1: selvae: spool: stripe
easel: etc$in: landscape: s6etc$
beleauer: $olster: freebooter: furlou$: onslau$t
boo8e: brand&A%ine1: colesla%: coo6ie: cranberr&: crullers: in: $ops: stoc6fis$: %affle
buer Aori. ;renc$1: crap: curl: dollar: scum: split Aori. nautical term1: uproar
-erman
food clot$es %ar ot$ers
5uart8: laer: 6nac6%urst: liver%urst: loafer: noodle: pret8el: pumpernic6el: sauer6raut:
sc$nit8el: leder$osen: dirndl
A2Ht$ c. /erman loan%ords1 2 blit86rie: 8eppelin: >2boat: delicatessen: $amburer:
fran6furter: %iener: $ausfrau: 6inderarten: #6toberfest: %under6ind: sprit8 Acoo6ies1:
Aapple1 strudel
2. Dxplain t$e meanin of t$e follo%in %ords from3 Kiddis$: Scandinavian and 0ussian.

bael: C$anu66a$ A(anu66a$1: c$ut8pa$: dreidel: 6ibbit8er: 6os$er: pastrami Aori. from
0omanian1: sc$lep: spiel: sc$lima8el: efilte fis$: o&: 6lut8: mat8o$: sc$muc6.
fjord: maelstrom: ombudsman: s6i: slalom: smorasbord
apparatc$i6: c8arStsar: lasnost: icon: perestroi6a: vod6a
3.2.1.2. Words from non!*uropean languages
1. A reat number of %ords %ere borro%ed from American Indian languages as a result of t$e
contact bet%een t$e American .ndian communities and t$e spea6ers of American Dnlis$. <atc$
t$e %ord to t$e follo%in meanin roups3
2+
animals clot$es food #t$ers
a b c d
avocado: cacao: cannibal: canoe: c$ipmun6: c$ocolate: c$ili: $ammoc6: $urricane: mai8e:
moccasin: moose: pecan: possum: potato: s6un6: s5uas$: teepee: terrapin: tobacco: toboan:
toma$a%6: tomato: %i%am: %oodc$uc6
2. ;e% %ords from lanuaes ot$er t$an Duropean entered t$e vocabular& of t$e Dnlis$
lanuae. <atc$ t$e %ord roups to t$e lanuaes and c$ec6 %$et$er t$eir meanin is 6no%n to
&ou3
Sans6rit (indi 9ravidian ,ersian
A;arsi1
Arabic African
)anuae
s
C$inese Napanes
e
,acific
.slands
Australia
A b c d e f $ i N
avatar: 6arma: ma$atma: s%asti6a: &oa
bandanna: banle: bunalo%: c$int8: cot: dunaree: juernaut: junle: loot: ma$araja:
nabob: pajamas: punc$ At$e drin61: s$ampoo.
curr&: mano: tea6: paria$
c$ec6: c$ec6mate: c$ess
bedouin: emir: a8elle: iraffe: $arem: $as$is$: lute: minaret: mos5ue: m&rr$: salaam:
sirocco: sultan: vi8ier: ba8aar: caravan
banana Avia ,ortuuese1: banjo: booie2%ooie: orilla: umbo: ja88: jitterbu: jitters:
ju6eAbox1: voodoo: 8ebra: 8ombie
6etc$up: tea: insen: 6o%to%.
eis$a: $ara 6iri: judo: jujitsu: 6ami6a8e: 6arao6e: 6imono: samurai: sumo: sus$i: tsunami
bamboo: rattan: taboo: tattoo: u6ulele.
boomeran: buderiar: 6anaroo.
3.3. Anton&m&
1. State %$ic$ of t$e follo%in anton&mous %ords are strict bi2polar oppositions and %$ic$ are
oppositions admittin radations3
male 2 female married 2 sinle
clean 2 dirt& alive 2 dead
&oun 2 old bi 2 small
c$eap 2 dear jo& 2 sorro%
correct 2 incorrect to bu& 2 to sell
2. State %$ic$ of t$e follo%in anton&mic pairs $ave different roots and %$ic$ are derived from
t$e same root3
2'
uilt& J innocent4 sout$ J nort$4 victor& J defeat4 %ide J narro%4 $i$ J lo%4 bi J little4
lon J s$ort4 earl& J late4 ric$ J poor: li6e J disli6e4 li6eable J disli6eable4 li6ins J
disli6in.
". State %$ic$ of t$e follo%in %ords in column A are anton&ms proper and %$ic$ are onl&
reversible pairs of t$ose in column B3
<odel3 A B
brot$er to refuse
$usband %ife
brot$er sister
$usband 2 %ife3 reversible pair Aone of t$e elements implies t$e existence of t$e ot$er1
brot$er 2 sister 3 anton&ms proper At$e& ma& exist independentl& of eac$ ot$er1
to offer 2 to accept 3 reversible pair
to accept 2 to refuse3 anton&ms proper
A B
upstairs addition
to bu& to ta6e
$i$ emplo&er
ood dau$ter
to ive to lend
to reject to close: to s$ut
benefactor to sell
emplo&ee bride
true da&
$orrible lon
to borro% uilt&
to %in in$ospitable: booris$
subtraction bad
to open overclot$es
ni$t to accept: to select
$ospitable do%nstairs
underclot$es lo%
son false
brideroom to lose
innocent fascinatin
s$ort malefactor
+. .dioms ma& also occur in an anton&mic lexical relation. /ive t$e meanin of t$e follo%in
anton&mic idioms and state %$et$er t$e& $ave a similar or a different structureSpattern3
be in $armon& %it$ somet$in J be out of $armon& %it$ somet$in.
be at odds %it$ somet$in J be in tune %it$ somet$in.
be at someone=s bac6 and call J put somebod& in a ba
6eep a firm Aor ti$t1 $and on somebod& J be under somebod&=s t$umb
5. The following idiom has two meanings, each with its antonymic series:
Be (down) on the back (sau lie on ones back):
1) a fi pus pe tua, a fi neputincios;
2) a se m!oln"#i, a c"dea la pat.
2-
a. win a victory $a n#inge, a o!%ine o #ictorie (asupra cui#a sau asupra ce#a)&;
gain a victory $a o!%ine o #ictorie (asupra cui#a)&;
win in a canter $a c'tiga (ce#a) cu uurin%"&.
!. (dioms: be safe and sound $!ine i s"n"tos&;
be sound in wind and lamb $complet s"n"tos, ntr)o stare fi*ic" !un"&;
be (as) sound as a bell $a fi s"n"tos tun&;
be hole and hearty $a fi plin de #ia%" i s"n"tos&;
be alive and kicking $#iu i s"n"tos&;
be as right as rain (the nail) $a fi complet s"n"tos&;
be (as) fit as a fiddle $a a#ea s"n"tate !un"&;
be (as) fit as a flea $a fi s"n"tos deplin&
3... /ol&sem&
1. Build up sentences of &our o%n usin t$e different meanins of t$e pol&semantic %ords iven
belo%. Dxplain $o% context $elps to distinuis$ t$eir actual meanins3
blind: code: fiure: ame: round: line: term: %ave.

.
2. )oo6 up t$e entries of t$e follo%in pol&semous adjectives in several dictionaries and discuss
t$e sense distinctions3
unbalanced
idle
canonical
particular
deep
floatin
marinal
remote
3.0. 'omon&m&
1. C$oose t$e correct %ord from t$e $omop$ones iven in brac6ets and use t$em in t$e follo%in
sentences3
a1 T$ere is also a 6ind of birds called birds of Apra&: pre&1.
2!
b1 (e al%a&s does ever&t$in on Aprincipal: principle1.
c1 T$e %oman complained of terrible Apanes: pains1 in $er stomac$.
d1 (e %as so upset t$at $e ave Arain: rein: rein1 to $is aner.
e1 T$e si$t of t$e corpse made $er A$are: $air1 stand on end.
f1 )oose $is beard and $oar& A$air: $are1:
Streamed li6e a meteor to t$e troubled Aair: $eir1
1 A doubtful t$rone is ice on summer Aseas: sei8e1.
$1 (ence: in a season of calm A%eat$er: %$et$er: %et$er1
T$rou$ inland far %e be:
#ur Asouls: soles1 $ave Asi$t: site1 of t$e immortal Asea: see1
W$ic$ brou$t us $it$er.
2. ;ind perfect $omop$ones for t$e %ords iven belo% and use t$em is appropriate contexts3
aisle allo%ed ba&ed bou$ bra6e bridal
buss cent corps cote counsel are
fart$er floe fur $ale $art $ire
illicit lade lent mane muscle o^er
plait poll rite rode se% tied
tier vale %ave %$it %on
". Consider t$e follo%in Dnlis$ %ords and decide %$et$er t$e& are best t$ou$t in terms of
$omon&m& or pol&sem&: and %$&. Tr& translatin t$em into 0omanian. Are t$ere several
possible translation e5uivalents or %ill one %ord do for t$e different meanins t$e Dnlis$ %ord
$asC
cap face ro% club
%a& bed matc$ plot
+. .dentif& t$e $omop$ones of t$e follo%in %ords3
air flo%er
aisle floor
bu& for
cent $air
e&e $our
6e& ni$t
maid peace
'. .dentif& t$e different meanins and indicate t$e pronunciation of t$e follo%in $omorap$s3
so% tear
bo% %ind
lead %ound
-. C$oose t$e correct %ord from t$e $omon&ms in brac6ets3
2*
a. (is car bro6e do%n se $e called for a .truc6 Atoe: to%1
b. . %ant to . Kou for &our delicious meal Acomplement: compliment1
c. (e constantl& about t$e expense of t$ose dinners A%ind: %$ine: %ined1
d. 9o &ou %ant to o C A$i$er: $ire1
e. T$e c$aracter in t$e pla& is a middle2aed %ido% Aprinciple: principal1
f. T$e soldier a flo%er on $is uniform.A%ore: %ar1
. All t$ose opposed s$ould sa& Ana&: nei$1
$. A favorite orane is a Anaval: navel1
i. S$e %as t$e prima ballerina in t$e de ballet. Acore: corps1
j. A famous brand of containers in >S is called Tupper A%ear: %are: %$ere1
6. T$e tables %ere . T$e& %ere nailed to t$e floor. Astationar&: stationer&1
l. T$ere is a ric$ of comed& in $is pla&s Avain: vein: vane1
m. William made a . t$at $is brot$er %ould some da& become an all2star pitc$er.
Aprop$ec&: prop$es&1
n. A tier in $is is more danerous t$an t$ree tiers in t$e open. Alair: la&er1.
o. ;abric ta6es a lot of s6ill. Ad&in: d&ein1
p. T$e tourist used a traveller=s to pa& for $is souvenirs. Ac$ec6: c$e5ue1
5. S$e %as overcome b& a fit of Apea6: pee6: pi5ue1
r. A t&pe of tender c$ic6en is called a Afriar: fr&er1
s. T$e teac$er sta&ed after sc$ool to t$e student Acouncil: counsel: consul1

Aselected from %ctivities for /nglish as a #econd 0anguage 1/#0- #tudents: $ttp3SSa+esl.orS 1
!. T$e follo%in poems: of un6no%n oriin: are examples of t$e use of capiton&ms3
1ob2s 1ob
.n Auust: an auust patriarc$
Was readin an ad in 0eadin: <ass.
)on2sufferin Nob secured a job
To polis$ piles of ,olis$ brass.
'erb2s 'erbs
An $erb store o%ner: name of (erb:
<oved to a rainier <ount 0ainier.
.t %ould $ave been so nice in Nice:
And even tanier in Tanier. Afrom $ttp3SSen.%i6ipedia.orS%i6iSCapiton&m1
3.3. /aron&m&.
1. /ive t$e meanins of t$e follo%in paron&ms and provide a context for eac$ of t$em3
affect effect
alive live
alone lonel&
centenar& centennial
c$ildis$ c$ildli6e
classic classical
comic comical
compre$ensive compre$ensible
2G
content contents
corporal corporeal
economic economical
exterior external
%omanl& %omanis$
1. S$e $ad a plump.fiure.
2. T$e acrobat $ad lo% .round s$oulders.
". Corporal punis$ment $as been banned in state sc$ools in Britain.
+. (e is more interested in t$e spiritual %orld t$an in t$e ..existence.
'. T$is s&stem is ver& because it runs on $alf2price electricit&.
-. T$at %as t$e lonest period of ..and industrial crisis.
-lossar& of terms
abbre#iation a s$ortened form of a %ord or p$rase. .t consists of a letter or roup of letters
ta6en from t$e %ord or p$rase: e.. t$e %ord abbreviation can itself be
represented b& t$e abbreviation abbr. or abbrev.
affix a morp$eme t$at is attac$ed to a base morp$eme suc$ as a root or to a
stem: to form a %ord. Affixes ma& be derivational: li6e Dnlis$ -ness and
pre-: or inflectional: li6e Dnlis$ plural -s and past tense -ed
acron&m a %ord formed b& ta6in letters from a p$rase t$at is too lon to use
comfortabl& Ae.3 0aser is an acron&m of Li$t Amplification b& Stimulated
*mission of %adiation1. .f t$e letters do not ma6e a %ord: but are pronounced
individuall&: as in t$e C.A or t$e BBC: it can be called an initialism.
Acron&ms are rearded as a subroup of abbreviations.
anton&m a %ord %$ic$ is opposite in meanin to anot$er %ord. 2ale and female are called
unradable anton&ms Aor complementaries1: big and small are called radable
anton&ms Aor radable pair1
back formation a %ord formation process b& means of %$ic$ a %ord is made b& t$e removal of
an affix from an existin %ord Ae.. t$e verb to televise %as formed from t$e
noun television1
binar& features semantic features t$at come in pairs: e..3 L<A)DM L;D<A)DM:
LA9>)TM LK#>N/M
blending anot$er term for portmanteau %ord
borroing a %ord or a p$rase %$ic$ $as been ta6en from one lanuae and used in anot$er
Ae.. Dnlis$ $as ta6en moccasin B a t&pe of s$oe= from an American .ndian
)anuae1. W$en a borro%in is a sinle %ord it is called a loan ord
collocation an& rammatical %ell2formed se5uence of %ords. T$e term refers to t$e
restrictions on $o% %ords can be used toet$er: for example %$ic$ prepositions
are used %it$ particular verbs: or %$ic$ verbs and nouns are used toet$er. e..
"H
do collocates %it$ damage, duty and wrong: but not %it$ trouble, noise: and
e$cuse3
do a lot of damage do one"s duty do wrong
make trouble make a lot of noise make an e$cuse
componential anal&sis an approac$ to t$e stud& of meanin %$ic$ anal&ses a %ord into a set of
meanin components or semantic features. Ae.. t$e meanin of t$e %ord boy
ma& be anal&8ed as3 L@$umanML@maleML2adultM
compound ord a combination of t%o or more lexemes Aor %ords1 %$ic$ functions as a sinle
%ord. Compunds are %ritten in a sinle %ord Ae.. headache1: as $&p$enated
%ords Ae.. self-government1: or as t%o %ords Ae.. police station1
connotation t$e additional meanin t$at a %ord or a p$rase $as be&ond its central meanin.
T$ese meanins s$o% people=s emotions and attitudes to%ards %$at t$e %ord or
p$rase refers to Ae.. child is defined as Ba &oun $uman bein=: but people
associate it %it$ man& ot$er c$aracteristics3 affectionate, amusing, lovable,
sweet, noisy, irritating, grubby.
con#ersion a %ord formation process b& %$ic$ a %ord is moved from one %ord class to
anot$er. T$e %ord down: for example: is normall& a preposition ABdo%n t$e
road=1 or an adverb AB. fell do%n=1. (o%ever: it can occasionall& be used as a
verb A)e downed the drink in one gulp1.
corpus Apl. corpora1 or text corpus is a lare and structured set of texts Ano% usuall&
electronicall& stored and processed1 used to do statistical anal&sis and $&pot$esis
testin: c$ec6in occurrences of %ords or %ord fre5uencies. A corpus ma&
contain texts in a sinle lanuae Amonolingual corpus1 or text data in multiple
lanuaes Amultilingual corpus1.
denotation t$e literal meanin or _dictionar& definition_ of a term: devoid of emotion:
attitude: and color
deri#ation t$e formation of ne% %ords b& addin affixes to ot$er %ords or morp$emes
At$e noun insanity is derived from t$e adjective sane b& t$e addition of t$e
neative prefix in- and t$e noun2formin suffix Jity.1
deri#ational affix
diminuti#e affix an affix %it$ t$e meanin of Blittle= or Bsmall= Ae.. let as in booklet, starlet1
et&mon t$e oriinal meanin or form of a %ord
et&molog& n. 4 et&mological adj.
t$e stud& of t$e oriin of %ords: and of t$eir $istor& and t$e c$anes. ;or
example t$e et&molo& of t$e modern Dnlis$ noun fish can be traced bac6 to
#ld Dnlis$ fisc. .n t$e case of t$e %ord meat: t$ere is a c$ane in meanin. T$e
%ord comes from t$e #ld Dnlis$ %ord mete %$ic$ meant Bfood in eneral=.
euphemism a pleasant replacement of an objectionable %ord t$at $as pejorative
connotations Ae.. to pass on for Bto die=1
"1
headord t$e main %ord or lead entr& in a dictionar&
homographs %ords %$ic$ are %ritten in t$e same %a& but %$ic$ are pronounced
differentl&and $ave different meanins Ae.. t$e verb lead and t$e noun lead
Bmetal=1
homon&ms %ords %$ic$ are %ritten in t$e same %a& and sound ali6e but %$ic$ $ave
different meanins Ae.. to lie Bto be in a $ori8ontal position= and to lie Bnot to tell
t$e trut$=1
homophones %ords %$ic$ sound ali6e but are %ritten differentl& and often $ave different
meanins Ae.. t$e %ords no and know1
h&pern&m5 a %ord %$ose meanin encompasses t$e meanin of anot$er %ord of4 a
%ord t$at is more eneric or broad t$an anot$er iven %ord. ;or example:
vehicle is a a $&pern&m of eac$ of t$e %ords3 train, chariot, dogsled,
airplane: and automobile. A $&pern&m is t$e opposite of a $&pon&m. ;or
example: plant is $&pern&mic to flo%er %$ereas tulip is $&pon&mic to
flo%er.
h&pern&m& t$e semantic relation in %$ic$ one %ord is t$e $&pern&m of anot$er.
(&pern&m&: t$e relation %ords stand in %$en t$eir extensions stand in t$e
relation of class to subclass: s$ould not be confused %it$ $olon&m& %$ic$
is t$e relation %ords stand in %$en t$e t$ins t$at t$e& denote stand in t$e
relation of %$ole to part. A similar %arnin applies to $&pon&m& and
meron&m&.
h&pon&m& a relations$ip bet%een t%o %ords: in %$ic$ t$e meanin of one of t$e %ords
includes t$e meanin of t$e ot$er %ord. Ae.. lorry and vehicle are related in suc$
a %a& t$at lorry refers to a t&pe of vehicle: and vehicle is t$e eneral term t$at
includes lorr& and ot$er t&pes of ve$icles. T$e specific term lorry is called a
h&pon&m: and t$e eneral term vehicle is called a superordinate4 h&pern&m.
idiom an expression Ai.e. term or p$rase1 %$ose meanin cannot be deduced
from t$e literal definition and t$e arranement of its parts: but refers
instead to a fiurative meanin t$at is 6no%n onl& t$rou$ conventional
use. .n t$e Dnlis$ expression to kick the bucket: a listener 6no%in onl&
t$e meanin of kick and bucket %ould be unable to deduce t$e expression^s
actual meanin: %$ic$ is to die.
6argon t$e lanuae used b& people %$o %or6 in a particular area or %$o $ave a
common interest3 la%&ers: computer prorammers: criminals: etc. All $ave
specialised terms and expressions t$at t$e& use: man& of %$ic$ ma& not be
compre$ensible to t$e outsider.
lemma Aalso citation form( in morp$olo&: it is t$e canonical form of a lexeme. 0e$eme refers to
t$e set of all t$e forms t$at $ave t$e same meanin: and lemma refers to t$e
particular form t$at is c$osen b& convention to represent t$e lexeme. )emmas are
"2
used in dictionaries as t$e $ead%ords: and ot$er forms of a lexeme are often listed
later in t$e entr& if t$e& are unusual in some %a&.
lexeme L`le6si3mM Aalso lexical item1 t$e smallest unit in t$e meanin s&stem of a lanuae t$at
can be distinuis$ed from ot$er similar units. .t is an abstract unit %$ic$ occurs
in man& different forms in actual spo6en or %ritten sentences. Ae.. all inflected
forms suc$ as sings, singing, sang, sung %ould belon to t$e one lexeme sing1.
Similarl&: suc$ expressions as bury the hatchet, give up, school boy %ould eac$
be considered a sinle lexeme. .n a dictionar&: eac$ lexeme $as a separate entr&
or sub2entr&.
lexical field Aalso semantic field1 t$e orani8ation of related %ords and expressions into a
s&stem %$ic$ s$o%s t$eir relations$ip to one anot$er.
T$e absence of a %ord in a particular place in a lexical field of a lanuae is
called a lexical gap.Ae.. t$ere is no sinular noun t$at covers bot$ cow and bull
as horse covers stallion and mare.
lexicolog& n.4 lexicological adj. 4 lexicologist n.
t$e stud& of t$e vocabular& items Alexemes1 of a lanuae: includin t$eir
meanins and relations Alexical fields1: and c$anes in t$eir form and meanin
t$rou$ time. T$e researc$ results of lexicoloists ma& be of use to
lexicorap$ers.
lexicograph& n.4 lexicological adj.4 lexicographer n.
field of linuistics t$at focuses on t$e desin: compilation: use and
evaluation of eneral dictionaries: i.e. dictionaries t$at provide a
description of t$e lanuae in eneral use.
lexicon all t$e %ords and idioms of a lanuae. <ore formall&: it is a lanuae^s
inventor& of lexemes.
loan ord Aor borro%in1 a %ord t$at $as come into Dnlis$ from anot$er lanuae
meron&m denotes a constituent part of: or a member of somet$in. ;or example:
finger is a meron&m of hand because a finer is part of a $and. Similarl&
wheel is a meron&m of auto.
meron&m& t$e relations$ip of meanin bet%een part and %$ole: as bet%een arm and
body: sole and shoe.
neologism Lni`oladji8mM a ne% %ord or expression %$ic$ $as come into t$e lanuae. #ften
neolo.isms are t$e result of t$e openin up of ne% areas of art: science or
tec$nolo&
paraphrase3 a statement or remar6 explained in ot$er %ords or anot$er %a&: so as to simplif&
or clarif& its meanin.
pol&sem& t$e capacit& for a sin Ae.. a %ord: p$rase: etc.1 or sins to $ave multiple
meanins Asememes: i.e. a lare semantic field1.
""
portmanteau ord is formed out of parts of ot$er %ords Ae.. brunch is formed from
breakfast and lunch1.
root Aalso base form1 a morp$eme %$ic$ is t$e basic part of a %ord and %$ic$ ma&
occur on its o%n Ae.. man, keep, hot1. 0oots ma& be adjoined to ot$er roots
Afireman1: or ta6e affixes Akeeper1.
semantic feature also semantic component) semantic properties t$e basic unit of meanin in a
%ord: e.. L@$umanM: L@maleM. T$e meanins of %ords ma& be described as a
combination of semantic features.
semantics a branc$ of linuistics t$at studies t$e meanin of %ords
sememe a unit of meanin. A sememe can be t$e meanin expressed b& a morp$eme:
suc$ as t$e Dnlis$ plurali8in morp$eme -s: %$ic$ carries t$e sememic feature
L@ pluralM. Alternatel&: a sinle sememe Afor example LoM or LmoveM1 can be
conceived as t$e abstract representation of suc$ verbs as skate, roll, !ump, slide,
turn, or boogie. A seme is t$e smallest unit of meanin reconi8ed in semantics:
referrin to a sinle c$aracteristic of a sememe.
slang informal lanuae: usin expressions t$at man& %ould consider to be
rammaticall& imperfect and sometimes rude. .t often used %it$in small social
roups %$ere it can $elp dra% and 6eep t$e roup toet$er. .t c$anes ver&
5uic6l& in Dnlis$.
stem Aalso base form1 t$at part of a %ord to %$ic$ an affix can be added to produce anot$er
%ord. T$e stem of a %ord ma& consist of 3 a1 one morp$eme Aroot1 Awork1: b1 a
root plus a derivational affix Awork 3 -er 4 worker1: c1 t%o or more roots Awork
3 shop4 workshop1
superordinate a eneral term t$at includes various different %ords representin narro%er
cateories: called $&pon&ms.
S&llable a unit of orani8ation for a se5uence of speec$ sounds. .t is t&picall& made
up of a s&llable nucleus Amost often a vo%el1 %it$ optional initial and final
marins At&picall&: consonants1. S&llables are often considered t$e
p$onoloical _buildin bloc6s_ of %ords.
s&non&m n.4 s&non&mous adj.4 s&non&m& n. a %ord %$ic$ $as t$e same : or nearl& t$e same:
meanin as anot$er %ord.
taboo %ords considered unacceptable in Bpolite societ&=
7technical( term a lexical unit consistin of one or more %ords %$ic$ represents a
concept inside a domain.

terminolog& is primaril& interested in term formation and terminoloical variation.
thesaurus Apl. thesauruses( a %ord boo6 in %$ic$ %ords are arraned t$ematicall& to $elp
"+
t$e user in selectin t$e ri$t %ord for a specific purpose.
Words are orani8ed b& cateories and concepts: so s&non&ms and near2
s&non&ms are rouped toet$er Ae.. t$e concept Bamusement= roups t$e
follo%in %ords3 fun, frolic, merriment, !ollity, !oviality, laughter1
ord t$e smallest linuistic unit %$ic$ can occur on its o%n in speec$ or %ritin
ord class Aalso part of speech1 a small set of rammatical cateories to %$ic$ %ords can
be allocated: for example3 t$e %ord class of nouns: t$e %ord class of verbs: etc
ord formation t$e creation of ne% %ords
ord fre8uenc& t$e fre5uenc& %it$ %$ic$ a %ord is used in a text or corpus
9ero!deri#ation Aalso con#ersion1 is a %ord formation process4 specificall&: it is t$e
creation of a %ord from an existin %ord %it$out an& c$ane in form.
Conversion is more productive in some lanuaes t$an in ot$ers4 in
Dnlis$ it is a fairl& productive process.
%eferences
Baurie: )aurie: 1G*": /nglish 5ord-&ormation. Cambride3 C>,.
C$ilarescu <: C. ,aidos: 2HH*: (ew Proficiency in /nglish: .asi3 ,olirom.
C$iXoran 9umitru: 1G!": /lements of /nglish #tructural #emantics: BucureZti3 D9,.
Co%ie9ictionar& of .diomatic..
Cruse: 9.A.: 1G*-: 0e$ical #emantics: Cambride Textboo6s in )inuistics. Cambride3 C>,.
(ulban (oria: 2HH1: #ynthesis in /nglish 0e$icology and #emantics: Dditura Spanda: .aZi.
/eeraerts: 9ir6: 2H1H: 6heories of 0e$ical #emantics: #xford >niversit& ,ress.
(eaton: N.B.:Noble: T.W.:1G!*: 7sing idioms. % 0earner"s guide. ,rentice (all.
Oatamba: ;rancis: 1GG+: /nglish 5ords: )ondon3 0outlede.
Oempson: 0ut$: 1G!!: #emantic 6heory: Cambride Textboo6s in )inuistics: Cambride.
)evitc$i: )eon 1G!H: 0imba englez8 contemporan8. 0e$icologie: BucureZti3 D9,.
<ec6en (.). 2HHH: 6he %merican 0anguage. %n .nuiry into the Development of /nglish in the
7nited #tates. Bartleb&.
<acCart$& <.: ;. #=9ell:2HH1: 6est 9our /nglish :ocabulary in 7se: upper2intermediate: C>,
Seel&: No$n: 2HH2: 5ords: #xford >niversit& ,ress.
$ictionaries of linguistic terms
Bussmann: (.: 1GG-: 'outledge Dictionary of 0anguage and 0inguistics: 0outlede.
Cruse: A.: 2HH-: % ;lossary of #emantics and Pragmatics: Ddinbur$ >niversit& ,ress.
0ic$ards: N. C. N. ,latt: (. ,latt: 1GG": Dictionary of 0anguage 6eaching < %pplied 0inguistics:
)onman.
Tras6 0.).: 1GG2: % Dictionary of ;rammatical 6erms in 0inguistics: 0outlede.
On!line resources
Affixes: the building blocks of English) a#ailable at5 http544.affixes.org4e4!eer.html
Vuinion: <ic$ael. 2HH*. %ffi$es= the building blocks of /nglish.
AAvailable at3 $ttp3SS%%%.affixes.orSindex.$tm1 Based on Vuinion: <ic$ael. 2HH2. >logies and
.sms= word beginnings and endings. #xford3 #xford >niversit& ,ress.
"'
Word:et is an open2source electronic lexical data base of Dnlis$: developed at ,rinceton
>niversit&. AAvailable at3 $ttp3SS%ordnet.princeton.eduSperlS%eb%n2.1
+rame:et3 T$e Ber6ele& ;rameNet ,roject is creatin an on2line lexical resource for Dnlis$:
based on frame semantics and supported b& corpus evidence. .t documents t$e rane of semantic
and s&ntactic combinator& possibilities Avalences1 of eac$ %ord in eac$ of its senses: t$rou$
computer2assisted annotation of example sentences and automatic tabulation and displa& of t$e
annotation results. AAvailable at3 $ttp3SSframenet.icsi.ber6ele&.eduS
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