Cold Reading: How to Convince Strangers That You Know All About Them

From The Outer dge! Classic "nvestigations o# the $aranormal%

&' RAY HY(A)
*niversit' o# Oregon
+source: S,e-tical "n.uirer! /0112

Over twent' 'ears ago " taught a course at Harvard *niversit' called 3A--lications o#
Social $s'cholog'43 The sort o# a--lications that " covered were the various wa's in
which -eo-le were mani-ulated4 " invited various mani-ulators to demonstrate their
techni.ues55 -itchmen! enc'clo-edia salesmen! h'-notists! advertising e6-erts!
evangelists! con#idence men! and a variet' o# individuals who dealt with -ersonal
-roblems4 The techni.ues which we discussed! es-eciall' those concerned with hel-ing
-eo-le with their -ersonal -roblems! seem to involve the client7s tendenc' to #ind more
meaning in an' situation than is actuall' there4 Students readil' acce-ted this
e6-lanation when it was -ointed out to them4 &ut " did not #eel that the' #ull' reali8ed 9ust
how -ervasive and -ower#ul this human tendenc' to ma,e sense out o# nonsense reall'
is4

Conse.uentl'! in /0:: " wrote a -a-er entitled 3The $s'chological Reading: An "n#allible
Techni.ue For ;inning Admiration and $o-ularit'43 Over the 'ears " have distributed
co-ies o# this -a-er to m' students4 The -a-er begins as #ollows:

So 'ou want to be admired< You want -eo-le to see, 'our com-an'! to tal, about
'ou! to -raise 'our talents4 This manuscri-t tells 'ou how to satis#' that want4 Herein
'ou will #ind a sure5#ire gimmic, #or the achievement o# #ame and -o-ularit'4 =ust #ollow
the advice that " give 'ou! and! even i# 'ou are the most incom-etent social bungler! 'ou
cannot #ail to become the li#e o# the -art'4 ;hat is the secret that underlies this in#allible
s'stem< The secret! m' #riend! is a sim-le and obvious one4 "t has been tried and
-roven b' -ractitioners since the beginnings o# man,ind4 Here is the gist o# the secret:
To be -o-ular with 'our #ellow man! tell him what he wants to hear4 He wants to hear
about himsel#4 So tell him about him sel#4 &ut >do not tell him? what 'ou ,now to he true
about him4
Oh! no< )ever tell him the truth4 Rather! tell him what he would li,e to hear about
himsel#4 And there 'ou have it4 Sim-le and obvious! 'et so -ower#ul4 This manuscri-t
details the wa' in which 'ou can e6-loit this golden rule b' assuming the role o# a
character reader4

" will include essentiall' the same reci-e #or character reading in this -a-er that " give to
m' students4 "n addition " will bring the material u- to date! describe some relevant
research! and indicate some theoretical reasons wh' the techni.ue 3wor,s43 (' -ur-ose
is not to enable 'ou to enhance 'our -ersonal magnetism! nor is it to increase the
number o# character readers4 " give 'ou these rules #or reading character because " want
'ou to e6-erience how the method wor,s4 " want 'ou to see what a -ower#ul techni.ue
the -s'chological reading is! how convincing it is to the -s'chologist and la'man ali,e4

;hen 'ou see how eas' it is to convince a -erson that 'ou can read his character on
sight! 'ou will better a--reciate wh' #ortune tellers and -s'chologists are #re.uentl'
lulled into -lacing credence in techni.ues which have not been validated b' acce-table
scienti#ic methods4 The recent controvers' in The Humanist maga8ine and The @etetic
over the scienti#ic status o# astrolog' -robabl' is irrelevant to the reasons that individuals
believe in astrolog'4 Almost without e6ce-tion4 the de#enders o# astrolog' with whom "
have contact do not re#er to the evidence relating to the underl'ing theor'4 The' are
convinced o# astrolog'7s value because it 3wor,s43 &' this the' mean that it su--lies
them with #eedbac, that 3#eels right355that convinces them that the horosco-e -rovides a
basis #or understanding themselves and ordering their lives4 "t has -ersonal meaning #or
them4

Some -hiloso-hers distinguish between 3-ersuasion3 and 3conviction43 The distinction is
subtle4 &ut #or our -ur-oses we can thin, o# sub9ective e6-eriences that -ersuade us
that something is so and o# logical and scienti#ic -rocedures that convince! or ought to
convince! us that something is or is not so4 Auite #re.uentl' a scientist commits time and
resources toward generating scienti#ic evidence #or a -ro-osition because he has
alread' been -ersuaded! on nonscienti#ic grounds! that the -ro-osition is true4 Such
intuitive -ersuasion -la's an im-ortant motivational role in science as well as in the arts4
$athological science and #alse belie#s come about when such intuitive -ersuasion
overrides or colors the evidence #rom ob9ective -rocedures #or establishing conviction4



The #ield o# -ersonalit' assessment has alwa's been -lagued b' this con#usion between
-ersuasion and conviction4 "n contrast
to intelligence and a-titude tests the scienti#ic validation o# -ersonalit' tests! even under
ideal conditions! rarel' results in
une.uivocal or satis#actor' results4 "n #act some o# the most widel' used -ersonalit'
inventories have re-eatedl' #ailed to -ass
validit' chec,s4 One o# the reasons #or this mess' state o# a##airs is the lac, o# reliable
and ob9ective criteria against which to
chec, the results o# an assessment4

&ut the lac, o# ade.uate validation has not -revented the use o#! and reliance on! such
instruments4 Assessment -s'chologists have alwa's -laced more reliance on their
instruments than is warranted b' the scienti#ic evidence4 &oth -s'chologist and client are
invariabl' -ersuaded b' the results that the assessment 3wor,s43

This state o# a##airs! o# course! is even more true when we consider divination s'stems
be'ond those o# the academic and -ro#essional -s'chologist4 ver' s'stem be it based
on the -osition o# the stars! the -attern o# lines in the hand! the sha-e o# the #ace or
s,ull! the #all o# the cards or the dice! the accidents o# nature! or the intuitions o# a
3-s'chic355claims its .uota o# satis#ied customers4 The client invariabl' #eels satis#ied
with the results4 He is convinced that the reader and the s'stem have -enetrated to the
core o# his 3true3 sel#4 Such satis#action on the -art o# the client also #eeds bac, u-on the
reader4 ven i# the reader began his career with little belie# in his method! the inevitable
rein#orcement o# -ersuaded clients increases his con#idence in himsel# and his s'stem4
"n this wa' a 3vicious circle3 is established4 The reader and his clients become more and
more -ersuaded that the' have hold o# a direct -i-eline to the 3truth43

The state o# a##airs in which the evaluation o# an assessment instrument de-ends u-on
the satis#action o# the client is ,nown as 3-ersonal validation43 $ersonal validation is! #or
all -ractical -ur-oses! the ma9or reason #or the -ersistence o# divinator' and assessment
-rocedures4 "# the client is not -ersuaded! then the s'stem will not survive4 $ersonal
validation! o# course! is the basis #or the acce-tance o# more than 9ust assessment
instruments4 The wides-read acce-tance o# m'ths about &ig#oot! the &ermuda Triangle!
ancient astronauts! ghosts! the validit' o# meditation and consciousness5raising
schemes! and a host o# other belie#s are based on -ersuasion through -ersonal
validation rather than scienti#ic conviction4

Cold Reading

3Cold reading3 is a -rocedure b' which a 3reader3 is able to -ersuade a client! whom he
has never be#ore met! that he ,nows all about the client7s -ersonalit' and -roblems4 At
one e6treme this can be accom-lished b' delivering a stoc, s-iel! or 3-s'chological
reading!3 that consists o# highl' general statements that can #it an' individual4 A reader
who relies on -s'chological readings will usuall' have memori8ed a set o# stoc, s-iels4
He then can select a reading to deliver which is relativel' more a--ro-riate in the
general categor' that the client #its5 a 'oung unmarried girl! a senior citi8en! and so on4
Such an attem-t to #it the reading to the client ma,es the -s'chological reading a closer
a--ro6imation to the true cold reading4

The cold reading! at its best! -rovides the client with a character assessment that is
uni.uel' tailored to #it him or her4 The reader begins with the same assum-tions that
guide the -s'chological reader who relies on the stoc, s-iel4 These assum-tions are +/2
that we all are basicall' more ali,e than di##erentB +C2 that our -roblems are generated b'
the same ma9or transitions o# birth! -ubert'! wor,! marriage! children! old age! and deathB
+D2 that! with the e6ce-tion o# curiosit' see,ers and troublema,ers! -eo-le come to a
character reader because the' need someone to listen to their con#licts involving love!
mone'! and health4

The cold reader goes be'ond these common denominators b' gathering as much
additional in#ormation about the client as -ossible4 Sometimes such in#ormation is
obtained in advance o# the reading4 "# the reading is through a--ointment! the reader
can use directories and other sources to gather in#ormation4 ;hen the client enters the
consulting room! an assistant can e6amine the coat le#t behind +and o#ten the -urse as
well2 #or -a-ers! notes! labels! and other such cues about socioeconomic status! and so
on4 (ost cold readers! however do not need such advance in#ormation4

The cold reader basicall' relies on a good memor' and acute observation4 The client is
care#ull' studied4 The clothing5 #or e6am-le! st'le! neatness! cost! age5 -rovides a host
o# cues #or hel-ing the reader ma,e shrewd guesses about socioeconomic level!
conservatism or e6troversion! and other characteristics4 The client7s -h'sical #eatures55
weight! -osture! loo,s! e'es! and hands -rovide #urther cues4 The hands are es-eciall'
revealing to the good reader4 The manner o# s-eech! use o# grammar! gestures! and e'e
contact are also good sources4 To the good reader the huge amount o# in#ormation
coming #rom an initial si8ing5u- o# the client greatl' narrows the -ossible categories into
which he classi#ies clients4 His ,nowledge o# actual and statistical data about various
subcultures in the -o-ulation alread' -rovides him the basis #or ma,ing an uncann' and
stri,ingl' accurate assessment o# the client4

&ut the s,illed reader can go much #urther in -articulari8ing his reading4 He wants to
8ero in as .uic,l' as -ossible on the -recise -roblem that is bothering the client4 On the
basis o# his initial assessment he ma,es some tentative h'-otheses4 He tests these out
b' beginning his assessment in general terms! touching u-on general categories o#
-roblems and watching the reaction o# the client4 "# he is on the wrong trac, the client7s
reactions! e'e movements! -u-illar' dilation! other bodil' mannerismsEwill warn him4
;hen he is on the right trac, other reactions will tell him so4 &' watching the client7s
reactions as he tests out di##erent h'-otheses during his s-iel! the good reader .uic,l'
hits u-on what is bothering the customer and begins to ad9ust the reading to the
situation4 &' this time! the client has usuall' been -ersuaded that the reader! b' some
uncann' means! has gained insights into the client7s innermost thoughts4 His guard is
now down4 O#ten he o-ens u- and actuall' tells the reader! who is also
a good listener! the details o# his situation4 The reader! a#ter a suitable interval! will
usuall' #eed bac, the in#ormation that the client has given him in such a wa' that the
client will be #urther ama8ed at how much the reader 3,nows3 about him4 "nvariabl' the
client leaves the reader without reali8ing that ever'thing he has been told is sim-l' what
he himsel# has unwittingl' revealed to the reader4

The Stoc, S-iel

The -receding -aragra-hs indicate that the cold reader is a highl' s,illed and talented
individual4 And this is true4 &ut what is ama8ing about this area o# human assessment is
how success#ull' even an uns,illed and incom-etent reader can -ersuade a client that
he has #athomed the client7s true nature4 "t is -robabl' a tribute to the creativeness o#
the human mind that a client can! under the right circumstances! ma,e sense out o#
almost an' reading and manage to #it it to his own uni.ue situation4 All that is necessar'
is that the reader ma,e out a -lausible case #or wh' the reading ought to #it4 The client
will do the rest4

You can achieve a sur-risingl' high degree o# success as a character reader even i# 'ou
merel' use a stoc, s-iel which 'ou give to ever' client4 Sundberg +/0::2! #or e6am-le!
#ound that i# 'ou deliver the #ollowing character s,etch to a college male! he will usuall'
acce-t it as a reasonabl' accurate descri-tion o# himsel#:

3You are a -erson who is ver' normal in his attitudes! behavior and relationshi-s with
-eo-le4 You get along well
without e##ort4 $eo-le naturall' li,e 'ou! and 'ou are not overl' critical o# them or
'oursel#4 You are neither
overl' conventional nor overl' individualistic4 Your -revailing mood is one o# o-timism
and constructive e##ort!
and 'ou are not troubled b' -eriods o# de-ression! -s'chosomatic illness or nervous
s'm-toms43

Sundberg #ound that the college #emale will res-ond with even more -leasure to the
#ollowing s,etch:

3You a--ear to be a cheer#ul! well5balanced -erson4 You ma' have some alternation
o# ha--' and unha--'
moods! but the' are not e6treme now4 You have #ew or no -roblems with 'our health4
You are sociable and mi6
well with others4 You are ada-table to social situations4 You tend to be adventurous4
Your interests are wide4
You are #airl' sel#5con#ident and usuall' thin, clearl'43

Sundberg conducted his stud' over CF 'ears ago4 &ut the s,etches still wor, well toda'4
ither will tend to wor, well with both se6es4 (ore recentl'! several laborator' studies
have had e6cellent success with the #ollowing stoc, s-iel +Sn'der and Shen,el /01:2

Some o# 'our as-irations tend to be -rett' unrealistic4 At times 'ou are e6troverted!
a##able! sociable! while at
other times 'ou are introverted! war' and resented4 You have #ound it unwise to be
too #ran, in revealing
'oursel# to others4 You -ride 'oursel# on being an inde-endent thin,er and do nor
acce-t others7 o-inions without
satis#actor' -roo#4 You -re#er a certain amount o# change and variet' and become
dissatis#ied when hemmed in
b' restrictions and limitations4 At times 'ou have serious doubts as to whether 'ou
have made the right decision
or done the right thing4 Gisci-lined and controlled on the outside! 'ou tend to be
worrisome and insecure on the
inside4

Your se6ual ad9ustment has -resented some -roblems #or 'ou4 ;hile 'ou have some
-ersonalit' wea,nesses!
'ou are generall' able to com-ensate #or them4 You have a great deal o# unused
ca-acit' which 'ou have not
turned to 'our advantage4 You have a tendenc' to be critical o# 'oursel#4 You have a
strong need #or other
-eo-le to li,e 'ou and #or them to admire 'ou4
"nterestingl' enough! the statements in this stoc, s-iel were #irst used in /0HD b'
&ertram Forer +/0HI2 in a classroom demonstration o# -ersonal validation4 He obtained
most o# them #rom a newsstand astrolog' boo,4 Forer7s students! who thought the s,etch
was uni.uel' intended #or them as a result o# a -ersonalit' test! gave the s,etch an
average rating o# H4CJ on a scale o# O +-oor2 to : +-er#ect24 As man' as /J our o# his D0
students +H/ -ercent2 rated it as a -er#ect #it to their -ersonalit'4 Onl' #ive gave it a rating
below H +the worst being a rating o# C! meaning 3average324 Almost DF 'ears later
students give the same s,etch an almost identical rating as a uni.ue descri-tion o#
themselves4

The Techni.ue in Action

The acce-tabilit' o# the stoc, s-iel de-ends u-on the method and circumstances o# its
deliver'4 As we shall later see! laborator' studies have isolated man' o# the #actors that
contribute to -ersuading clients that the s,etch is a uni.ue descri-tion o# themselves4 A
great deal o# the success o# the s-iel de-ends u-on 3setting the stage43 The reader tries
to -ersuade the client that the s,etch is tailored es-eciall' #or him or her4 The reader
also creates the im-ression that it is based on a reliable and -roven assessment
-rocedure4 The wa' the s,etch is delivered and dramati8ed also hel-s4 And man' o# the
rules that " give #or the cold reading also a--l' to the deliver' o# the stoc, s-iel4

The stoc, s-iel! when -ro-erl' delivered! can be .uite e##ective4 "n #act! with the right
combination o# circumstances the stoc, s-iel is o#ten acce-ted as a -er#ect and uni.ue
descri-tion b' the client4 &ut! in general! one can achieve even greater success as a
character anal'st i# one uses the more #le6ible techni.ue o# the cold reader4 "n this
method one -la's a sort o# detective role in which one ta,es on the role o# a Sherloc,
Holmes4 +See the 3Case o# the Cardboard &o63 #or an e6cellent e6am-le o# cold
reading42 One observes the 9ewelr'! -rices the clothing! evaluates the s-eech
mannerisms! and studies the reactions o# the sub9ect4 Then whatever in#ormation these
observations -rovide is -ieced together into a character reading which is aimed more
s-eci#icall' at the -articular client4

A good illustration o# the cold reader in action occurs in a stor' told b' the well5,nown
magician =ohn (ulholland4 The incident too, -lace in the /0DFs4 A 'oung lad' in her late
twenties or earl' thirties visited a character reader4 She was wearing e6-ensive 9ewelr'!
a wedding band! and a blac, dress o# chea- material4 The observant reader noted that
she was wearing shoes which were currentl' being advertised #or -eo-le with #oot
trouble4 +$ause at this -oint and imagine that 'ou are the readerB see what 'ou would
ma,e o# these clues42

&' means o# 9ust these observations the reader -roceeded to ama8e his client with his
insights4 He assumed that this client came to see him! as did most o# his #emale
customers! because o# a love or #inancial -roblem4 The blac, dress and the wedding
band led him to reason that her husband had died recentl'4 The e6-ensive 9ewelr'
suggested that she had been #inanciall' com#ortable during marriage! but the chea-
dress indicated that her husband7s death had le#t her -enniless4 The thera-eutic shoes
signi#ied that she was now standing on her #eet more than she was used to! im-l'ing that
she was wor,ing to su--ort hersel# since her husband7s death4

The reader7s shrewdness led him to the #ollowing conclusion! which turned out to be
correct: The lad' had met a man who had -ro-osed to her4 She wanted to marr' the
man to end her economic hardshi-4 &ut she #elt guilt' about marr'ing so soon a#ter her
husband7s death4 The reader told her what she had come to hear55 that it was all right to
marr' without #urther dela'4

The Rules o# the Kame

;hether 'ou -re#er to use the #ormula reading or to em-lo' the more #le6ible techni.ue
o# the cold reader! the #ollowing bits o# advice will hel- to contribute to 'our success as a
character reader4

/4 Remember that the ,e' ingredient o# a success#ul character reading is con#idence4 "#
'ou loo, and act as i# 'ou believe in what 'ou are doing! 'ou will be able to sell even a
bad reading to most o# 'our sub9ects4

The laborator' studies su--ort this rule4 (an' readings are acce-ted as accurate
because the statements do #it most -eo-le4 &ut even readings that would ordinaril' be
re9ected as inaccurate will be acce-ted i# the reader is viewed as a -erson with -restige
or as someone who ,nows what he is doing4


One danger o# -la'ing the role o# reader is that 'ou will -ersuade 'oursel# that 'ou reall'
are divining true character4 This ha--ened to me4 " starred reading -alms when " was in
m' teens as a wa' to su--lement m' income #rom doing magic and mental shows4
;hen " started " did nor believe in -almistr'4 &ut " ,new that to 3sell3 it " had to act as i# "
did4 A#ter a #ew 'ears " became a #irm believer in -almistr'4 One da' the late Gr4 Stanle'
Sa,s! who was a -ro#essional mentalist and a man " res-ected! tact#ull' suggested that it
would ma,e an interesting e6-eriment i# " deliberatel' gave readings o--osite to what
the lines indicated4 " tried this out with a #ew clients4 To m' sur-rise and horror m'
readings were 9ust as success#ul as ever4 ver since then " have been interested in the
-ower#ul #orces that convince us! reader and client ali,e! that something is so when it
reall' isn7t4

C4 (a,e creative use o# the latest statistical abstracts! -olls! and surve's4 This can
-rovide 'ou with a wealth o# material about what various subclasses o# our societ'
believe! do! want! worr' about! and so on4 For e6am-le! i# 'ou can ascertain about a
client such things as the -art o# the countr' he comes #rom! the si8e o# the cit' he was
brought u- in! his -arents7 religion and vocations! his educational level and age! 'ou
alread' are in -ossession o# in#ormation that should enable 'ou to -redict with high
-robabilit' his voting -re#erences! his belie#s on man' issues! and other traits4

D4 Set the stage #or 'our reading4 $ro#ess a modest' about 'our talents4 (a,e no
e6cessive claims4 This catches 'our
sub9ect o## guard4 You are not challenging him to a battle o# wits4 You can read his
characterB whether he cares to believe 'ou or not is his concern4

H4 Kain his coo-eration in advance4 m-hasi8e that the success o# the reading de-ends
as much u-on his sincere
coo-eration as u-on 'our e##orts4 +A#ter all! 'ou im-l'! 'ou alread' have a success#ul
career at reading characters4 You are not on trial55 he is42 State that due to di##iculties o#
language and communication! 'ou ma' not alwa's conve' the e6act meaning which 'ou
intend4 "n these cases he is to strive to reinter-ret the message in terms o# his own
vocabular' and li#e4

You accom-lish two invaluable ends with this dodge4 You have an alibi in case the
reading doesn7t clic,B it7s his #ault not 'ours< And 'our sub9ect will strive to #it 'our
generalities to his s-eci#ic li#e occurrences4 Later! when he recalls the reading he will
recall it in terms o# s-eci#icsB thus 'ou gain credit #or much more than 'ou actuall' said4

O# all the -ieces o# advice this is the most crucial4 To the e6tent that the client is made an
active -artici-ant in the reading the reading will succeed4 The good reader! deliberatel'
or unwittingl'! is the one who #orces the client to activel' search his memor' to ma,e
sense o# the reader7s statements4

:4 *se a gimmic, such as a cr'stal ball! tarot cards! or -alm reading4 The use o#
-almistr'! sa'! serves two use#ul
-ur-oses4 "t lends an air o# novelt' to the reading: but! more im-ortant! it serves as a
cover #or 'ou to stall and to #ormulate 'our ne6t statement4 ;hile 'ou are tr'ing to thin,
o# something to sa' ne6t! 'ou are a--arentl' care#ull' stud'ing a new wrin,le or line in
the hand4 Holding hands! in addition to an' emotional thrills 'ou ma' give or receive
thereb'! is another good wa' o# detecting the reactions o# the sub9ect to what 'ou are
sa'ing +the -rinci-le is the same as 3muscle reading324

"t hel-s! in the case o# -almistr' or other gimmic,s! to stud' some manuals so that 'ou
,now roughl' what the various diagnostic signs are su--osed to mean4 A clever wa' o#
using such gimmic,s to -in down a client7s -roblem is to use a variant o# 3Twent'
Auestions!3 somewhat li,e this:

Tell the client 'ou have onl' a limited amount o# time #or the reading4 You could #ocus
on the heart line! which
deals with emotional entanglementsB on the #ate line! which deals with vocational
-ursuits and mone' mattersB
the head line! which deals with -ersonal -roblemsB the health line! and so on4 As, him
or her which one to #ocus
on #irst4 This .uic,l' -ins down the ma9or categor' o# -roblem on the client7s mind4

J4 Have a list o# stoc, -hrases at the ti- o# 'our tongue4 ven i# 'ou are doing a cold
reading! the liberal s-rin,ling o# stoc, -hrases amidst 'our regular reading will add bod'
to the reading and will #ill in time as 'ou tr' to #ormulate more -recise characteri8ations4
You can use the statements in the -receding stoc, s-iels as a start4 (emori8e a #ew o#
them be#ore underta,ing 'our initial ventures into character reading4 $almistr'! tarot! and
other #ortune telling manuals also are rich sources #or good -hrases4



14 Kee- 'our e'es o-en4 Also use 'our other senses4 ;e have seen how to si8e u- the
client on the basis o# clothing!
9ewelr'! mannerisms! and s-eech44 ven a crude classi#ication on such a basis can
-rovide su##icient in#ormation #or a good reading4 ;atch the im-act o# 'our statements
u-on the sub9ect4 Mer' .uic,l' 'ou will learn when 'ou are 3hitting home3 and when 'ou
are 3missing the boat43

I4 *se the techni.ue o#7 3#ishing43 This is sim-l' a device #or getting the sub9ect to tell
'ou about himsel#4 Then 'ou re-hrase what he has told 'ou into a coherent s,etch and
#eed it bac, to him4 One version o# #ishing is to -hrase each statement in the #orm o# a
.uestion4 Then wait #or the sub9ect to re-l' +or react24 "# the reaction is -ositive! then the
reader turns the statement into a -ositive assertion4 O#ten the sub9ect will res-ond b'
answering the im-lied .uestion and then some4 Later he will tend to #orget that he was
the source o# 'our in#ormation4 &' ma,ing 'our statements into .uestions 'ou also #orce
the sub9ect to search through his memor' to retrieve s-eci#ic instances to #it 'our general
statement4

04 Learn to be a good listener4 Guring the course o# a reading 'our client will be bursting
to tal, about incidents that are brought u-4 The good reader allows the client to tal, at
will4 On one occasion " observed a tea5lea# reader4 The client actuall' s-ent 1: -ercent
o# the total time tal,ing4 A#terward when " .uestioned the client about the reading she
vehementl' insisted that she had not uttered a single word during the course o# the
reading4 The client -raised the reader #or having so astutel' told her what in #act she
hersel# had s-o,en4

Another value o# listening is that these clients who see, the services o# a reader actuall'
want someone to listen to their -roblems4 "n addition man' clients have alread' made u-
their minds about what choices the' are going to ma,e4 The' merel' want su--ort to
carr' out their decision4

/F4 Gramati8e 'our reading4 Kive bac, what little in#ormation 'ou do have or -ic, u- a
little bit at a time4 (a,e it seem more than it is4 &uild word -ictures around each
divulgence4 Gon7t be a#raid o# hamming it u-4

//4 Alwa's give the im-ression that 'ou ,now more than 'ou are sa'ing4 The success#ul
reader! li,e the #amil' doctor! alwa's acts as i# he ,nows much more4 Once 'ou
-ersuade the client that 'ou ,now one item o# in#ormation about him that 'ou could not
-ossibl' have obtained through normal channels! the client will automaticall' assume
'ou ,now all4 At this -oint he will t'-icall' o-en u- and con#ide in 'ou4

/C4 Gon7t be a a#raid to #latter 'our sub9ect ever' chance 'ou get4 An occasional sub9ect
will -rotest such #latter'! but will still cherish it4 "n such cases 'ou can #urther #latter him
b' sa'ing! 3You are alwa's sus-ect o# -eo-le who #latter 'ou4 You 9ust can7t believe that
someone will sa' good o# 'ou unless he is tr'ing to achieve some ulterior goal43

/D4 Finall' remember the golden rule: Tell the client what he wants to hear4 Sigmund
Freud once made an astute
observation4 He had a client who had been to a #ortune teller man' 'ears -reviousl'4 The
#ortune teller had -redicted that she would have twins4 Actuall' she never had children4
Yet! des-ite the #act that the reader had been wrong! the client still s-o,e o# her in
glowing terms4 Freud tried to #igure out wh' this was so4 He #inall' concluded that at the
time o# the original reading the client wanted des-eratel' to have children The #ortune
teller sensed this and told her what she wanted to hear4 From this Freud in#erred that the
success#ul #ortune teller is one who -redicts what the client secretl' wishes to ha--en
rather than what actuall' will ha--en +Freud! /0DD24

The Fallac' o# $ersonal Malidation

As we have seen! clients will readil' acce-t stoc, s-iels such as those " have -resented
as uni.ue descri-tions o# themselves4 (an' laborator' e6-eriments have demonstrated
this e##ect4 Forer +/0HI2 called the tendenc' to acce-t as valid a -ersonalit' s,etch on
the basis o# the client7s willingness to acce-t it 7the #allac' o# -ersonal validation43 The
earl' studies on -ersonal validation were sim-l' demonstrations to show that students!
-ersonnel directors! and others can readil' be -ersuaded to acce-t a #a,e s,etch as a
valid descri-tion o# themselves4 A #ew studies tried to go be'ond the demonstration and
tease out #actors that in#luence the acce-tabilit' o# the #a,e s,etch4 Sundberg +/0::2! #or
e6am-le! gave the (innesota (ulti-hasic $ersonalit' "nventor' +,nown as the (($"2 to
HH students4 The (($" is the most care#ull' standardi8ed -ersonalit' inventor' in the
-s'chologist7s tool ,it4 Two -s'chologists! highl' e6-erienced in inter-reting the outcome
o# the (($"! wrote a -ersonalit' s,etch #or each student on the basis o# his or her test
results4 ach student then received two -ersonalit' s,etches55 the one actuall' written
#or him or her55 and a #a,e s,etch4 ;hen as,ed to -ic, which s,etch described him or
her better! CJ o# the HH students +:0 -ercent2 -ic,ed the #a,e s,etch<
Sundberg7s stud' highlights one o# the di##iculties in this area4 A #a,e! universal s,etch
can be seen as a better descri-tion o# onesel# than can a uni.uel' tailored descri-tion b'
trained -s'chologists based u-on one o# the best assessment devices we have4 This
ma,es -ersonal validation a com-letel' useless -rocedure4 &ut it ma,es the li#e o# the
character reader and the -seudo -s'chologist all the easier4 His general and universal
statements have more -ersuasive a--eal than do the best and most a--ro-riate
descri-tions that the trained -s'chologist can come u- with4

Some e6-eriments that m' students and " conducted during the /0:Fs also su--lied
some more in#ormation about the acce-tabilit' o# such s,etches4 "n one e6-eriment we
gave some students a #a,e s,etch +the third stoc, s-iel -reviousl' discussed2 and told
hal# o# them that it was the result o# an astrological reading and the other hal# that it was
the result o# a new test! the Harvard &asic $ersonalit' $ro#ile4 "n those da's! unli,e
toda'! students had a low o-inion o# astrolog'4 All the students rated each o# the
individual statements as generall' true o# themselves4 The grou-s did not di##er in their
ratings o# the acce-tabilit' o# the individual statements4 &ut when as,ed to rate the
s,etch as a whole! the grou- that thought it came #rom an acce-ted -ersonalit' test
rated the acce-tabilit' signi#icantl' higher than did the grou- that thought it came #rom
an astrologer4 From tal,ing to individual students it was clear that those who were in the
-ersonalit' test grou- believed that the' had received a highl' accurate and uni.ue
characteri8ation o# themselves4 Those in the astrolog' grou- admitted that the individual
statements were a--licable to themselves but dismissed the a--arent success o# the
astrolog' as due to the #act that the statements were so general that the' would #it
an'one4 "n other words! b' changing the conte6t in which the' got the statements
we were able to mani-ulate the sub9ects7 -erce-tions as to whether the statements were
generalities that a--lied to ever'one or were s-eci#ic characteri8ations o# themselves4

"n a #urther e6-eriment we obtained a -ool o# items that IF -ercent or more o# Harvard
students endorsed as true o#
themselves4 ;e then had another grou- o# Harvard students rate these items as
3desirable3 or 3undesirable3 and as 3general3 or 7-articular3 +true o# onl' a #ew students24
Thus we had a set o# items that we ,new almost all our sub9ects would endorse as true
o# themselves! but which varied on desirabilit' and on -erceived generalit'4 ;e were
then able to com-ose #a,e s,etches which varied in their -ro-ortion o# desirable and
s-eci#ic items4 ;e #ound that the best reci-e #or creating acce-table stoc, s-iels was to
include about 1: -ercent desirable items! but ones which were seen as s-eci#ic! and
about C: -ercent undesirable items! but ones which were seen as general4 The
undesirable items had the a--arent e##ect o# ma,ing the s-iel -lausible4 The #act that the
items were seen as being generall' true o# other students made them more acce-table4

The most e6tensive -rogram o# research to stud' the #actors ma,ing #or acce-tabilit' o#
#a,e s,etches is that b' C4 R Sn'der and his associates at the *niversit' o# Kansas4 A
brie# summar' o# man' o# his #indings was given in an article in $s'cholog' Toda'
+Sn'der and Shen,el /01:24 "n most o# his studies Sn'der uses a control condition in
which the sub9ect is given the #a,e s,etch and told that this s,etch is generall' true #or all
-eo-le4 On a rating scale #rom / to : +/! ver' -oorB C! -oorB D! averageBH! goodB :!
e6cellent2 the sub9ect rates how well the inter-retation #its his -ersonalit'4 A t'-ical result
#or this control condition is a rating o# around D to H! or between average and good4 &ut
when the s,etch is -resented to the sub9ect as one which was written 3#or 'ou!
-ersonall'3 the acce-tabilit' tends to go u- to around H4:! or between good and
e6cellent4

"n a related e6-eriment the sub9ects were given the #a,e s,etch under the -retense that
it was based on an astrological reading4 The control grou-! given the s,etch as
3generall' true #or all -eo-le!3 rated it about D4C! or 9ust about average4 A second grou-
was as,ed to su--l' the astrologer with in#ormation on the 'ear and month o# their birth4
;hen the' received their s,etches the' rated them on the average at D41J! or 9ust below
good4 A third grou- su--lied the m'thical astrologer with in#ormation on 'ear! month! and
da' o# birth4 These sub9ects gave a mean rating o# H40I4

From e6-eriments such as those we have learned the #ollowing4 The acce-tabilit' o# a
general s,etch is enhanced when +/2 the reader or source is believed to ,now what he is
doing4 +C2 the instrument or assessment device is -lausible! +D2 a lot o# mumbo 9umbo is
associated with the -rocedure +such as giving month! da'! hour! and minute o# birth
along with a lot o# com-licated calculations2! and +H2 the client is led to believe that the
s,etch has been tailored to his -ersonalit'4 ;hen these conditions are met! the client!
and -ossibl' the reader as well! have a strong 3illusion o# uni.ueness!3 that is! the client
is -ersuaded that the s,etch describes himsel# or hersel# and no one else4

;h' Goes it ;or,N

&ut wh' does it wor,N And wh' does it wor, so wellN "t does not hel- to sa' that -eo-le
are gullible or suggestible4 )or can we dismiss it b' im-l'ing that some individuals are
9ust not su##icientl' discriminating or lac, su##icient intelligence to see through it4 "ndeed
one can argue that it re.uires a certain degree o# intelligence on the -art o# a client #or
the reading to wor, well4 Once the client is activel' engaged in tr'ing to ma,e sense o#
the series o# sometimes contradictor' statements issuing #rom the reader! he becomes a
creative -roblem5solver tr'ing to #ind coherence and meaning in the total set o#
statements4 The tas, is not unli,e that o# tr'ing to ma,e sense o# a wor, o# art! a -oem!
or! #or that matter! a sentence4 The wor, o# art! the -oem! or the sentence serve as a
blue-rint or -lan #rom which we can construct a meaning#ul e6-erience b' bringing to
bear our own -ast e6-eriences and memories4

"n other words the reading succeeds 9ust because it calls u-on the normal -rocesses o#
com-rehension that we ordinaril' bring to bear in ma,ing sense our o# an' #orm o#
communication4 The raw in#ormation in a communication is rarel'! i# ever! su##icient in
itsel# #or com-rehension4 A shared conte6t and bac,ground is assumed4 (uch has to be
#illed in b' in#erence4 The good reader! li,e an'one who mani-ulates our -erce-tions! is
merel' e6-loiting the normal -rocesses b' which we ma,e sense out o# the disorderl'
arra' o# in-uts that constantl' bombard us4

A variet' o# e6am-les and e6-eriments could be drawn u-on to illustrate this -oint4 Let
us loo, at a cou-le o# instructive cases4 Gr4 =ose-h ;ei8enbaum! o# (4"4T4! develo-ed a
com-uter -rogram that would enable a human to a--arentl' carr' on a conversation with
a com-uter4 One version o# his -rogram is called 3Goctor3 The -rogram is designed to
3tal,3 li,e a Rogerian -s'chothera-ist4 Such a thera-ist is relativel' eas' to imitate
because the basis o# Rogers7 techni.ue is sim-l' to #eed the -atient7s statements bac, to
him in a -ara-hrased #orm4 The human! -la'ing the role o# the -atient! t'-es in .uestions
and answers on a telet'-e machine4 The com-uter! under control o# the -rogram! t'-es
re-lies and .uestions on the same telet'-e -a-er4 A t'-ical e6am-le +;ei8enbaum!
/01J2 o# a conversation between a 'oung lad' and Goctor #ollows4 +The lad' s-ea,s
#irst4 The com-uter7s res-onses are -rinted in italics42

(en are all ali,e4

"n what wa'N

The'7re alwa's bugging us about something or other4

Can 'ou thin, o# a s-eci#ic e6am-leN

;ell! m' bo'#riend made me come here4

Your bo'#riend made 'ou come hereN

He sa's "7m de-ressed much o# the time4

" am sorr' to hear 'ou are de-ressed4

"t7s true4 " am unha--'4

Go 'ou thin, coming here will hel- 'ou not to be unha--'N

" need some hel-! that much seems certain4

;hat would it mean to 'ou i# 'ou got some hel-N

$erha-s " could learn to get along with m' mother4

Tell me more about 'our #amil'4

(' mother ta,es care o# me4

;ho else in 'our #amil' ta,es care o# 'ouN

(' #ather4

Your #atherN

You are li,e m' #ather in some wa's4

;hat resemblance do 'ou seeN

You are not ver' aggressive! but " thin, 'ou don7t want me to notice that4

;hat ma,es 'ou thin, " am not ver' aggressiveN

You don7t argue with me4

;h' do 'ou thin, " don7t argue with 'ouN

You are a#raid o# me4

Goes it -lease 'ou to believe " am a#raid o# 'ouN

(' #ather is a#raid o# ever'bod'

;hat else comes to mind when 'ou thin, o# 'our #atherN

&ullies4

Goes that have an'thing to do with the #act that 'our bo'#riend made 'ou come hereN

Goctor is a .uite -rimitive -rogram as natural5language -rograms go4 "t em-lo's a lot o#
tric,s and stoc, -hrases4 "t has no mechanisms #or actuall' understanding sentences4
"nstead it see,s out ,e'words that are t'-ed and does some sim-le s'ntactical
trans#ormations4 For e6am-le! i# the -rogram sees a sentence o# the #orm 3Go 'ou O<3 it
automaticall' -rints out the res-onse 3;hat ma,es 'ou thin, " O73 ;hen Goctor cannot
match the s'nta6 o# a given sentence it can cover u- in two wa's4 "t can sa' something
noncommittal! such as 3$lease go on3 or 3;hat does that suggest to 'ouN3 Or it can
recall an earlier match and re#er bac, to it! as #or e6am-le! 3How does this relate to 'our
de-ressionN3 where de-ression was an earlier to-ic o# conversation4

"n essence Goctor is a -rimitive cold reader4 "t uses stoc, -hrases to cover u- when it
cannot deal with a given .uestion or in-ut4 And it uses the -atient7s own in-ut to #eed
bac, in#ormation and create the illusion that it understands and even s'm-athi8es with
the -atient4 This illusion is so -ower#ul that -atients! even when told the' are dealing
with a relativel' sim-le5minded -rogram! become emotionall' involved in the interaction4
(an' re#use to believe that the' are dealing with a -rogram and insist that a s'm-athetic
human must be at the control at the other end o# the telet'-e4

Sociologist Harold Kar#in,el has su--lied another instructive e6am-le4 He conducted
the #ollowing e6-eriment4 The sub9ects were told that the Ge-artment o# $s'chiatr' was
e6-loring alternative means to thera-' 3as a wa' o# giving -ersons advice about their
-ersonal -roblems43 ach sub9ect was then as,ed to discuss the bac,ground o# some
serious -roblem on which he would li,e advice4 A#ter having done this the sub9ect was to
address some .uestions which could be answered 3'es or 3no3 to the 3counselor3
+actuall' an e6-erimenter24 The e6-erimenter5counselor heard the .uestions #rom an
ad9oining room and su--lied a 3'es3 or 3no answer to each .uestion a#ter a suitable
-ause4 *n,nown to the sub9ect! the series o# 'es5no answers had been -re5-rogrammed
according to a table o# random numbers and was not related to his .uestions4 Yet the
t'-ical sub9ect was sure that the counselor #ull' understood the sub9ect7s -roblem and
was giving him sound and hel-#ul advice4

Let me em-hasi8e again that statements as such have no meaning4 The' conve'
meaning onl' in conte6t and onl' when the listener or reader can bring to bear his large
store o# worldl' ,nowledge4 Clients are not necessaril' acting irrationall' when the' #ind
meaning in the stoc, s-iels or cold reading4 (eaning is an interaction o# e6-ectations!
conte6t! memor'! and given statements4

An e6-eriment b' the Kestalt -s'chologist Solomon Asch +/0HI2 will hel- ma,e this
-oint4 Sub9ects were given the #ollowing -assage and as,ed to thin, about it: 3" hold it
that a little rebellion! now and then! is a good thing! and as necessar' in the -olitical
world as storms are in the -h'sical43 One grou- o# sub9ects was told that the author o#
the -assage was Thomas =e##erson +which ha--ens to be true24 The sub9ects were
as,ed i# the' agreed with the -assage and what it meant to them4 These sub9ects
generall' a--roved o# it and inter-reted the word rebellion to mean minor agitation4 &ur
when sub9ects were given the same -assage and told that its author was Lenin! the'
disagreed with it and inter-reted rebellion to mean a violent revolution4

According to some social -s'chologists the di##erent reactions show the irrationalit' o#
-re9udice4 &ut Asch -oints out that the sub9ects could be acting .uite rationall'4 Kiven
what the' ,now about Thomas =e##erson and Lenin! or what the' believe about them! it
ma,es sense to attribute di##erent meanings to the same words s-o,en b' each o# them
i# one thin,s that =e##erson believed in orderl' government and -eace#ul -rocesses! then
it would not ma,e sense to inter-ret his statement to actuall' mean a blood' or -h'sical
revolution4 "# one thin,s that Lenin #avors war and bloodshed! then it ma,es sense! when
the statement is attributed to him! to inter-ret rebellion in its more e6treme term4

Some recent research that m' colleagues and " conducted might also be relevant here4
Our sub9ects were given the tas, o# #orming an im-ression o# a h'-othetical individual on
the basis o# a brie# -ersonalit' s,etch4 "n one condition the sub9ects were given a s,etch
that generall' led to an im-ression o# a nice! -ersonable! #riendl' sort o# #ellow4 "n a
second condition the sub9ects were given a s,etch that created an im-ression o# a
withdrawn! niggardl' >meaning miserl' or sting'? individual4 &oth grou-s o# sub9ects were
then given a new s,etch that su--osedl' contained more in#ormation about the
h'-othetical individual4 "n both cases the sub9ects were given an identical s,etch4 This
s,etch contained some descri-tors that were consistent with the #riendl' image and
some that were consistent with the niggardl' image4 The sub9ects were later tested to
see how well the' recogni8ed the actual ad9ectives that were used in the second s,etch4
One o# the ad9ectives! #or e6am-le! was charitable4 The test contained #oils #or each
ad9ective4 For e6am-le! the word generous also a--eared on the test but did not a--ear
in the s,etch4 Yet sub9ects who had been given the #riendl' im-ression chec,ed
generous 9ust as #re.uentl' as the' chec,ed charitable4 &ut sub9ects in the other
condition did not con#use charitable with generous4 ;h'N &ecause! we theori8e! the two
di##erent conte6ts into which charitable had to be integrated -roduced .uite di##erent
meanings4 ;hen sub9ects who have alread' built u- an im-ression o# a 3#riendl'3
individual encounter the additional descri-tor charitable! it is treated as merel' #urther
con#irmation o# their general im-ression4 "n that conte6t charitable is sim-l' #urther
con#irmation o# the nice5gu' image4 Conse.uentl' when these sub9ects are as,ed to
remember what was actuall' said the' can remember onl' that the individual was #urther
described in some wa' to enhance the good5gu' image! and generous is 9ust as good a
candidate #or the descri-tion as is charitable in that conte6t4

&ut when the sub9ects who have an image o# the -erson as a withdrawn! niggardl'
individual encounter charitable! the last thing that comes to mind is generosit'4 "nstead!
the' -robabl' inter-ret charitable as im-l'ing that he donates mone' to charities as a
wa' o# gaining ta6 deductions4 "n this latter condition the sub9ects have no subse.uent
tendenc' to con#use charitable with generous4

The cold reading wor,s so well! then! because it ta-s a #undamental and necessar'
human -rocess4 ;e have to bring our ,nowledge and e6-ectations to bear in order to
com-rehend an'thing in our world4 "n most ordinar' situations this use o# conte6t and
memor' enables us to correctl' inter-ret statements and su--l' the necessar' in#erence
to do this4 &ut this -ower#ul mechanism can go astra' in situations where there is no
actual message being conve'ed4 "nstead o# -ic,ing u- random noise we still manage to
#ind meaning in the situation4 So the same s'stem that enables us to creativel' #ind
meanings and ma,e new discoveries also ma,es us e6tremel' vulnerable to e6-loitation
b' all sorts o# mani-ulators4 "n the case o# the cold reading the mani-ulator ma' be
conscious o# his dece-tionB but o#ten he! too! is a victim o# -ersonal validation4