General Chemistry Notes on Quantum Mechanics

Structure of the atom.

It was discovered through experimentation that the atom consists of mostly empty space. This was
demonstrated in the Rutherford experiment, in which gold atoms were bombarded with alpha particles.
Only a very small percentage of alpha particles were deected. Alpha particles consist of 2 protons and
2 neutrons. Thus they have a mass number of 4, a charge of +2, and are basically the same thing as a
helium nucleus. They are less penetrating than beta particles. Beta particles can be either
+
or

.
Beta particles occur as a result of radioactive decay. A
+
results from a proton decaying to a neutron
and a positron, which is essentially the mass of an electron but with a positive charge. A

results
from a neutron decaying to a proton and an electron. In both cases, the mass number is maintained,
while the atomic number is not. Keep in mind that in the standard potrayal of an atom
A
Z
Atom, Z is the
atomic number (number of protons) whereas A is the mass number (number of protons and neutrons).
The deection was due to the repulsion between the alpha particles and the positively charged nucleus
of the gold atoms (since unlike charged repel). The fact that only a small number of alpha particles
were deected implies that the positive charge of an atom- and therefore the majority of its mass-
is concentrated in one location. The remainder of the atom consists of the electrons which orbit the
nucleus from various distances. The size of the atom is largely determined by how far the the furthest
electron is from the nucleus.
The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom
These are the basics of the bohr model:
1. Electrons orbit the nucleus in orbits that have a discrete size and energy.
2. The energy of the orbit is correlated with its size. The lowest energy is found in the smallest orbit.
This can be understood if one considers electrical potential energy and the attraction between the
electrons and the nucleus.
3. Radiation (energy) is absorbed or emitted when an electron moves from one orbit to another. If an
electron moves from a lower orbit to a higher orbit (an increase in n) then energy is being absorbed.
If an electron moves from a high orbit to a lower orbit (decrease in n) then energy is being emitted.
As mentioned, energy absorbed or emitted is in the form of radiation, which is light. A particle of light
is called a photon. When an electron absorbs a photon, it can move to a higher orbit. When an electron
moves to a lower orbit, it emits a photon.
The energy of a photon is given by the following equation
E = hf =
hc

(1)
where f is the frequency, is the wavelength, and c is the speed of light. The last part follows if one
remembers that c = f.
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle predicts that it is impossible to determine simultaneously
the exact position and exact momentum of an electron. Bohrs model seems to contradict that by giving
some precise orbits, which was one reason why it was met with criticism.
There are four quantum numbers (and no two electrons in the same atom have the same 4 quantum
numbers).
The n quantum number (priniciple quantum number) denotes the energy and orbit of the electron.
It can take on any positive integer. As n becomes larger, the electron possesses more energy and its
orbital radius (distance from the nucleus) also increases.
The l quantum number (also known as the azimuthal quantum number or angular momentum quan-
tum number) denotes in which shell the electron lies. l is determined by n and can take on all values
from 0 to n 1. The rst four shells are s, p, d, and f.
The m
l
quantum number (also known as the magnetic quantum number) denotes in which orbital the
electron lies. Note that every orbital can only hold 2 electrons. The specic orbital can be difcult to
1
determine. The values of them
l
quantum number are determined by l and can take on any value from
-l to l.
The m
s
quantum number (also known as the magnetic spin quantum number) can be either +
1
2
or
1
2
.
It determines the relative direction in which the electron is moving in the orbital. This follows from
the fact that each orbital holds 2 electrons, and since no two electrons in a single atom can have the
same 4 quantum numbers, the electrons in the same orbital must move in opposite directions.
2