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Kinematics
to solve problems for moving objects in a straight line at a constant acceleration
Equations:

Speed vs Velocity
Distance vs Displacement
Scalar (distance, speed, mass, temperature, time) vs Vector
(displacement,velocity, acceleration)
Average speed/velocity V
av
=d/t
Position Time Graphs:
straight line is a constant velocity (uniform motion) = no acceleration
slope represents the velocity of the object
greater slope is greater velocity
when the line is under 0m, it is going another way; above 0m is
North and below 0m is South
when the straight line in the graph goes back to the 0m where it
started, then it means the thing is back to the starting point
positive (away from start)
negative (towards start)
zero (no velocity)
when the line curves upwards, it shows increasing or changing
velocity
changing velocity = acceleration
to find the instantaneous velocity, draw a straight line through a
point on the graph and find the slope
Velocity Time Graph
straight line going up means uniform acceleration
slope is the acceleration
when graph is a curve then the acceleration is not constant
to find the average acceleration, find the two points and the
slope between them
increasing (pos/neg)
decreasing (pos/neg)
zero
instantaneous velocity (slope of a tangent line)
Displacement = the area under a VT graph
Acceleration
rate of change in an objects velocity
a = v/t = v
f
- v
i
/t
sloper of a VT graph = acceleration
if the velocity is increasing, the acceleration is positive
constant acceleration
positive
negative
zero
changing acceleration
increasing (pos/neg)
decreasing (pos/neg)
zero
instantaneous
Freefall
when an object is acted upon only by gravity ; air resistance is neglected
only variable affecting its flight is gravity
when calculating the time a ball remains in the air when thrown up,
calculate the time for one side first (thrown up to a velocity of zero)
one dimensional questions
g = +9.81 m/s
2
when object is through down
-g when object is thrown up
a = g (acceleration can be substituted for gravity)
dropped and thrown up
ignoring wind resistance is reasonable when it is a big deal or in space
eg. feather dropping [on the moon]

Dynamics
Newtons 3 Laws
1. Inertia
tendency of an object to resist change in velocity
no net force; object will remain at rest or at constant velocity
no net force = forces are balanced = equilibrium = no accel
an object with no net force acting upon it remains at rest or
moves with constant velocity in a straight line
a book moves when a hand pushes it because the force from your
hand is greater than any opposing force (friction). The book slides
in the direction of the net force
Overcoming Inertia at first (starting the pedals of a bicycle) is
harder than overcoming the frictional force
2. Acceleration
of an object is directly proportional to the net force and inversely
proportional to the objects mass in the direction of the net force
a net force will cause a mass to accelerate: F
net
=ma
net force = sum of unbalanced force F
net
= F
a
+ F
g

it is all the forces acting in the axis of motion
F
net
= 1200N up + 800N down or F
net
= (+1200) + (-800)
F
N
= normal force is perpendicular to the surface on which the
object rests and is equal and opposite to F
g

3. Action-Reaction
for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
identify action-reaction pairs:
A applies force on B; B applies a force on A (equal but
opposite force) how the force affects A/B depends on mass
eg. The swimmer pushes the water back and the water pushes the
swimmer forward.
person pull up on suitcase; suitcase pulling down on person
earth pulling down on suitcase; suitcase pulling up on Earth
Do Action-Reacting Forces Cancel? For example kicking a football.
To determine the acceleration of an object, observe only the forces
acting on that object. When you kick a football, isolate the forces
acting on the foot from the forces acting on the football. The foot
applies a force on the ball, causing it to accelerate. The reaction
force is not applied to the ball but to the foot which causes the foot
to decelerate
greater the mass; less the acceleration
Net force causes acceleration inversely proportional to mass
Effects on the earth is negligible
acceleration is too small due to earths large mass to be noticed
F
W
= -F
G

Forces
A force is an external push or pull on an object
measured in Newtons (N)
1 N = 1kg x m/s
2

net force is the vector sum of all the forces acting upon it and allows an
object to accelerate - an unbalanced force

Force of Gravity
Fg=weight=mg
mass is the amount of matter in an object (constant) and weight is
the force of gravity on an object (varies with gravitational field)
the force of attraction is dependent upon the mass of the objects
and the distance between the objects
Newtons Universal Law of Gravitation
F = (Gm
1
m
2
)/d
2

F = force of attraction between 2 objects (N)
G = Gravitational constant 6.67 x 10
-11
N m
2
/kg
2
r = distance between the centres of the 2 objects (m)
Inverse Square Law
F proportional (1/d
2
)
Friction
static friction acts on an object that is stationary eg rolling wheels
Kinetic friction opposes motion for an object that is sliding eg
bicycle skidding
Friction force is affected by the smoothness of the surfaces
(coefficient of friction) = nature of the two surfaces
greatest friction is highest coefficient value
angle of incline does not affect
The coefficient of static friction is greater than the coefficient of kinetic
friction because it takes more force to move a stationary object than to
keep an object moving
greater = greater friction
doesnt matter the mass
F
f
=F
N
= 2 surfaces F
N
=F
g

Elastic Force
restoring force
Hookes Law: F
s
= -kx
F
s
+ F
g
= ma
negative because it is the opposite direction of the displacement
negative because direction of restoring force
K is opposite of F
a

F
applied
is opposite F
s

F
s
=Force on a spring (N)
greater the spring constant = stiffer the spring = more force
required
to stretch spring
k=spring constant (N/m) (slope of a Force vs Spring Extension
graph)
x=change in length (m)

Momentum
define, examples, calculate: p=mv
p = momentum (kg m/s)
m = mass (kg)
v = velocity (m/s)
Momentum and Newtons Laws
1. Inertia - objects stay in place
If no net force acts on a body, its velocity is constant
if an objects mass and velocity do not change then its momentum is
constant
2. Acceleration - F=ma and Ft=mv (impulse given to an object to change
its momentum
Impulse- Momentum Theory
when an unbalanced force acts on an object for a period of time,
change in momentum is produced = impulse
impulse is the product of a net force and the time during which it is
applied
J = Ft so J = mv
impulse = momentum
J = symbol for impulse
N s is the unit
equivalent to kg m/s
different direction (north vs south) = different momentum
you bend your legs when jumping off a table because it extends the
time in which the force is being applied. smaller force over long
period of time
increase the momentum by applying the greatest force possible for
as long as possible eg. for a tennis serve, you want to follow
through the serve with the longest period of time
impulse required to stop an object is determined by the force
exerted for a time interview
extended time reduces the force applied eg. baseball catcher
impulses are greater when objects bounce because the change in
momentum is greater
eg. arrows that bounce off the target vs arrows that stick
The arrows that bounce have a greater velocity change thus
a greater momentum/impulse
When a pitcher throws a fastball to a catcher at a consistent speed
pitcher and catcher exerts the same impulse because the
speed of the ball doesnt change p=mv
the pitcher exerts the larger force on the ball because
p = Ft p=100
Catcher: 100=(10N)(10s) small force, long time
Pitcher : 100=(50N)(2s) large force, short time
the pitcher he throw the ball in a shorter amount of time
When a dish falls on hard floor vs carpet
Ft = mv
the mass of the dish and the velocity it falls down at is the
same (mv) so Ft is the same number
on hard floor: less time, more force so the dish breaks
on carpet: carpet exerts force over a longer time so less
force
Ft Ft
Force - Time Graph area is impulse / change in momentum
3. Action - Reaction
F
A
= -F
B

mv = mv (t
A
+ t
B
)
Conservation of Momentum
the ttoal momentum of the system is constant before and after an
interaction
p
before
= p
after

p
A
= P
B

mv
A
= mv
B

P
A
+ P
B
= P
A
+ P
B

P
Total
= P
Total

(P
total
= mv + mv)
During an interaction:
Collisions that bounce (elastic collision)
-----> <-----
m = 1.0kg m = 1.5kg
v = 3.0m/s v = -5.0m/s

*smack*

<----- ?<---------->?
v = -2.5m/s v = ??????

P
A
+ P
B
= P
A
+ P
B

mv
A
+ mv
B
= mv
A
+ mv
B

(1kg)(3m/s) + (1.5kg)(-5.om/s) = (1kg)(-2.5m/s) + (1.5kg)(v)
-4.5 - (-2.5) = 1.5v
-2 = 1.5v
v = -1.3 m/s
v = 1.3m/s left
Collisions that stick together (inelastic collision)
-----> <-----
m = 1100kg m = 1300kg
v = 7m/s east v = -4.0m/s west

*stick*

??<---------->??
v = ??????

mv
A
+ mv
B
= (m
A
+ m
B
)v
(1100)(7.0) + (1300)(-4.0) = (1100+1300)v
v = 1.0m/s east
Explosion
<----- ----->
m = 0.50kg m=28kg
v
i
= 0m/s v
i
= 0m/s
v
f
= -27m/s v
f
= ????

mv
A
+ mv
B
= mv
A
+ mv
B

0 + 0 = (28)(v) + (0.5) (-27)
v = 0.48m/s recoil right

bullet leaving the gun and the gun recoiling have the same
magnitude/momentum but opposite directions
Work
process of moving an object by applying a force on it
transferring energy from one object to another
done to overcome an opposing force such as gravity or friction on an
object or to accelerate it
only a force parallel to the motion of an object can do work on it
eg. if youre holding up a book and walking forward = no work
if youre holding up a book and walking up = work
measured in Joules (measure of energy)
1 J = 1 N m
W = Fd
F= force in the direction of displacement/ force applied parallel to the
object in the direction of motion (N)
d = displacement object travels (m)
must have displacement; no displacement = no work
vector Force x vector displacement= work is scalar
Earths gravity pulls inward so it does not do any work on a satellite that
orbits Earth in a circular orbit
when force is at an angle, only the component of the force that is in the
direction of the displacement is used. Use Trig.
Area under a Force vs Displacement graph = work
work done against gravity
W=Fd
W=mgh
Power
the rate at which work is done or the speed at which energy is transferred
in Watts or J/s
1 joule of energy transferred in 1 second is 1 watt
P = W/t
Power = power (W)
W = work (J) W=FD
T = time (s)
P=E/t
P=Fv
possible to do the same amount of work but have different power outputs
if the time is different
eg. 2 people with the same mass climb the same stairs so they have the
same work. However if one person climbs faster than they produce more
power
Energy
ability or capacity to do work (change or change) on an object
eg. crumbled ball would have potential energy stored
Equations:

Energy Transformation
can be transformed from one form to another
can be transformed from one form to another eg windmill transfers wind -
mechanical energy to electrical energy
can be transferred from one object to another by doing work eg kicking a
football - mechanical to gravitational - kinetic to potential
eg. you pick up their backpack off the floor and put it on your shoulder -
mechanic to gravitational - kinetic to potential
Oven - input electrical output thermal
Battery - input chemical output electrical
Potential Energy - energy due to the position of an object (stored energy)
gravitational, chemical (battery) elastic (tennis racquet strings) nuclear
(atoms) electrical (electrons)
Kinetic Energy - energy due to the motion of an object
(sound, thermal, electrical, light, mechanical)
an object has kinetic energy if it has the ability or capacity to move another
object
more velocity/mass -> more kinetic energy -> able to move more
eg. crashing a car into an object at 100m/s vs 50m/s
is equal to the work required to bring it to speed
dependent on mass of the object
dependent on the speed of the object
more mass means more kinetic energy and able to move more
more speed means more kinetic energy and able to do more work
E
k
= mv
2

E
k
= Kinetic energy (J)
M=mass(kg)
V=velocity (m/s)
when the speed is doubled, the kinetic energy is quadrupled
it takes 4 times the work to double the speed of an object
eg. A car travelling at 40m/s will have 4 times the E
k
than if it were
travelling 20m/s.
W=E
E
p
=mgh (if it is the same height/ moving horizontally then it has no work)
E
k
= () mv
2

E = change in energy
If W = Fd then E = Fd
units for energy is in Joule
1 J = 1 N m
How much work must be done on a car to slow it from 100m/s to 50m/s
E
K
= E
final
+ E
inital

Gravitational Potential Energy
when work is done against gravity, this work is stored in the form of
gravitational potential energy
depends on
the force acting on the object (against gravity)
the displacement of the object (in vertical direction)
W= E
E = Fd = mgh
E
P
= change in potential energy(J)
energy can also be stored in the bending or stretching of an object
always relative to some reference point
A car on a cliff can have 0 E
p
relative to the top of the cliff or have
say 100m E
p
relative to the bottom of the cliff
Thermal Energy
explore the internal energy of objects due to the motion of atoms and
molecules comprising the object
explores the transfer of energy from object to object (heat)
hot objects have more kinetic and potential energy (thermal energy) than
similar colder ones
The sum of the internal potential energy (particles in a sold held together
by electromagnetic forces) and the kinetic energy (particles are vibrating)
of all the particles that make an object is the thermal energy
Temperature
the temperature of an object is proportional to the average kinetic
energy of the particles. it is the average energy of particles that is
higher in a hot object than in a cold one
a pool has more thermal energy than a pot of boiling water because
the sum of the kinetic energy of all the particles in the pool is
greater (since it has mass and more particles). The pot of water has
more temperature but less particles so less thermal energy
2 objects with the same temperature may not have the same
thermal energy. eg a cup of tea and pot of tea - the pot of tea has
more particles therefore more thermal energy
T
K
= T
C
+ 273.15
Heat
the transfer of thermal energy from one object to another due to a
difference in temperature
heat always flows from warmer objects to cooler objects; particles
collide, transferring their momentum to the cooler object until
equilibrium occurs
particle collision = rate of transfer is equal = 2 objects in
equilibrium
heat flows into or out of an object, the temperature depends
on:
mass of material
materials capacity to gain/lose heat
eg. spoon in hot bowl of soup
eg. taking your temperature with a thermometer
Heat transfer occurs by particle collision (conduction)
when heat flows into or out of an object, the amount of temperature
change depends on the material
The amount of heat required to change 1 kilogram of a material by
one degree Celsius is known as the materials Specific Heat
[capacity]
Specific Heat Capacity (c) is the amount of heat that unit mass of a
substance can gain or lose in order to change its temperature by
one degree
unit is in J/kg C
eg. sand has a large heat capacity because in the day time it is
HOT, and at night when the waves come in, it is COLD
E
H
= mcT
E
H
= heat
positive value of E
H
representing heat flowing into an object
negative values of E
H
representing heat flowing out of an
object
used to determine the amount of energy transferred to an
object to change its temperature of a given mass
Oven at 200C vs Sparkler at 1200C
temperature is proportional to energy per particle
how much energy depends on how many particles
in an oven: you make contact with many particles and the
transfer of heat energy is painful
for a sparkler: the energy per particle is much greater but
you make contact with only a few therefore energy transfer is
less
mixture of 2 different temperature and mass of liquids

m
1
= 0.457kg m
2
= 0.325kg
T
i
= 15C T
i
= 80C

E
h1
+ E
h2
= E
h1
+ E
h2

m
1
cT
i
+ m
2
cT
i
= (m
1
+ m
2
) c
liquid
T
f

cancel c on both sides of the equation
T
f
= 41.4C

Conservation of Energy
energy cannot be created or destroyed; it can be changed from one form
to another
decrease in E
P
is accompanied by an increase in E
K

sum of the potential and kinetic energy is constant
E
K
+ E
P
= E
K
+ E
P

(1/2mv
2
) + (mgh) = (1/2mv
2
) + (mgh)
total energy before is equal to the total energy after
E
Total
= E
Total

Ek + Ep = 0
If E
H
is included then it must be included in the equation
gravitational potential energy changes to kinetic energy as the ball drops
to the ground. kinetic energy changes to elastic potential energy as the
ball is bounced on the floor. elastic potential energy changes to kinetic
energy as the ball leaves the floor. kinetic energy changes to gravitational
potential energy as the ball bounces up in the air.
when you accelerate an object along a frictionless surface, the work done
is kinetic energy because you are increasing the velocity. it is not potential
energy because no work is done against gravity
Efficiency
wasted forms of energy are those that do not aid in the function of the
device or are not in a useable form
eg. sound and heat
eg. Gas fireplace
input Energy is Chemical
output energy is heat, [light, sound, chemical] < wasted
Efficiency = (Useful Energy or Power Output) / (Energy or Power Input) x
100%
Relativity
Classical relativity explains velocities at everyday speed
Special relativity explains velocities close to the speed of light
First postulate: there is no preferred frame of references so there can never be
agreement on the simultaneity of events: all laws of nature are the same in all
uniformly moving frames of references (same whether moving uniformly or at
rest)
Second postulate: speed of light is the same in all frames of references
An observer on a train moving at constant velocity flashes a flashlight. He
would observer light to be moving at c. A stationary observer watching the
event would also see light moving at c. (Not the speed of the train + c).
Speed of light is the same in all frames of references.
Time will move slower for objects moving at high speeds close to the speed of
light
when you remain in one place in space, you are still travelling through time
light travels through space but not time
As relative speed increases, contraction in the direction of motion increases.
Length in the perpendicular direction do not change
the contraction of speeding objects is the contraction of space itself
space only contracts in the direction of motion
eg. baseball width contracts but not the length
moving objects at the speed of light relative to an observer would see the
object contract half as long as normal along the direction of the motion
people on spaceships moving at the speed of light do not notice another
unusual about the lengths in their own reference frame
no speed difference the people on the ship and the objects on the ship
the effects of relativity are always attributed to the other guy
eg. if you were moving in a spaceship at a high speed relative to
the earth, there would be no relativistic speed between you and
your pulse so it wouldnt be noticed
there would be relativistic effects between you and the people on
earth
you would find their pulse rate slower than normal and vice versa

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